TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.

  Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
  placed at the end of the chapter.

  A superscript is denoted by ^x or ^{xx}, for example und^r or 36^{th}.

  Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.

                      _A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON_

                            COACH-BUILDING

                      HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE

                              CONTAINING

              FULL INFORMATION OF THE VARIOUS TRADES AND
                PROCESSES INVOLVED, WITH HINTS ON THE
                   PROPER KEEPING OF CARRIAGES, &c.

                   _WITH FIFTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS_

                         BY JAMES W. BURGESS

                     [Illustration: Capio Lumen]

                                LONDON
                       CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND CO.
               7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
                                 1881

                       [_All rights reserved_]

                               LONDON:

              PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED,
                              CITY ROAD.

                              PREFACE.

It is singular that such an important industry as coach-building
should have received such slight attention from writers either at
home or abroad; yet such is the case, the last book dealing in any
way exhaustively with the trade having been published some fifty
years ago. The manufacturers themselves have doubtless very copious
notes, which, if printed, would make several large volumes; but they
do not publish the result of their experience to the world, and
consequently the general public, and more particularly apprentices
and others whose occupations or amusements may be in any way
connected with the trade, have no means of gaining an insight into
this branch of industrial art.

It is hoped that this book will supply, to some extent at least,
this deficiency. Its object is general utility rather than technical
instructions on minor details. The principles on which carriages
ought to be constructed, rather than the arbitrary proportions of
parts, are what the author has sought to make clear.

From an antiquarian point of view the history of carriages is very
interesting. In the first chapter the gradual development of vehicles
and their parts from the first rude forms of raft and sledge, down to
the shapes with which we are now familiar, has been carefully dealt
with, and all matters of interest in connection therewith have been
added.

In dealing with the practical part of the business, the preliminary
operations of the carriage designer and draughtsman are first
considered, and directions given how to make the drawing of a
proposed vehicle; from whence the reader is taken into the workshop,
where he is introduced to the points which usually have to be
considered before commencing the construction of a vehicle, and
instructions given as to the preparation of the full-sized working
draughts or drawings. The component parts of body and carriage
are then particularised, and notes added to assist in their being
properly understood. A glance is given at the various materials
used, and then the most important parts of the vehicle are dealt
with separately, as wheels, axles, springs, &c., both the theory
and manufacture of each part being given, in order to make clear
the work it has to perform in operation, and the means of obviating
difficulties.

In the chapter devoted to the painting department a slight sketch has
been given of the theory of colour, in order that the unscientific
reader may understand the harmonies and contrasts of colour, which
are so important to the successful conduct of this branch. The
materials and implements that the painter uses are described, and the
vehicle followed through the successive stages of priming, painting,
colouring, and varnishing. In addition to this a chapter is given on
“Ornamental Painting” _i.e._ painting monograms, crests, and coats of
arms on the carriage panels.

In the chapter “General Observations on the Trade” several
interesting facts and statistics have been dealt with; such as the
present position of carriage artisans; application of machinery; the
coach trade in America and in India; also the theory of lengthening
or shortening the carriage parts.

A chapter on “Invention” has been added, which it is trusted may
prove of value. As a concluding chapter, some hints on the proper
treatment of carriages by their private owners have been given, which
will no doubt be useful to the coach-builder.

What few authorities there are on the subject have been carefully
consulted by the author, with a view to making the book as accurate
and reliable as possible.

If any member of the trade desires to make suggestions as to
improvement in any of the processes given, his communication,
addressed to the author (care of the publishers), will be carefully
considered in connection with subsequent editions of the work.

                                                              J. W. B.

  LONDON, _April_, 1881.

                              CONTENTS.

                                                                  PAGE

  CHAPTER I.—GENERAL HISTORY                                         1

  CHAPTER II.—PREPARATION OF THE DESIGN AND SETTING
      OUT THE FULL-SIZED DRAUGHT                                    22

  CHAPTER III.—VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-BUILDING             29

  CHAPTER IV.—POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE COMMENCING
      THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS
      OF THE BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE                               35

  CHAPTER V.—PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.—FRAMING
      THEM TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES                   48

  CHAPTER VI.—WHEELS                                                54

  CHAPTER VII.—AXLES                                                70

  CHAPTER VIII.—SPRINGS                                             82

  CHAPTER IX.—WHEEL-PLATES AND FORE-CARRIAGES                       90

  CHAPTER X.—IRON AND METAL-WORK GENERALLY.—LAMPS.—PRINCIPLES
      OF COMBUSTION                                                 96

  CHAPTER XI.—PAINTING                                             102

  CHAPTER XII.—ORNAMENTAL PAINTING                                 123

  CHAPTER XIII.—LINING AND TRIMMING                                132

  CHAPTER XIV.—GENERAL REMARKS ON THE COACH-BUILDING
      TRADE                                                        142

  CHAPTER XV.—INVENTION                                            168

  CHAPTER XVI.—REMARKS ON KEEPING CARRIAGES                        178

                         A PRACTICAL TREATISE

                                  ON

                           COACH-BUILDING.

                             CHAPTER I.

  GENERAL HISTORY.

The origin of the word coach has not yet been accurately determined.
Menage says it is taken from the Latin _vehiculum_, which most
people will take the liberty of doubting; Wachten, from the German
_kutten_, to cover; Lye, from the Belgic _koetsen_, to lie along,
or, as it really means, a couch or chair; it has also been tried to
prove that the word is of Hungarian origin, and that it took its
name from _Kotsee_, the old name of the province of Wiesellung,
where various kinds of carriages were made; and in Beckmann’s
“History of Inventions” it is mentioned that “when the Archbishop
received certain intelligence that the Turks had entered Hungary,
not contented with informing the king by letter, he speedily got
into one of those light carriages of the place they call _kotcze_,
and hastened to his majesty.” This, in addition to the fact that
some years previously the King of Hungary presented to the Queen of
Bohemia a vehicle that excited great wonder and admiration, by reason
of its trembling (_branlant_), showing clearly that it must have been
suspended, is strongly in favour of the Hungarian coachmakers; but
we must leave it to the philologists to determine the exact truth,
for what with the _caroche_ of France, the _caroce_ of Italy, the
_carri-coche_ of Spain, and our own coach, the head gets somewhat
bewildered, and is fain to take refuge in the simple _carruca_ of
ancient Rome, from which these appellations most probably had their
rise. In any case the honour must be a divided one, as the _caretta_,
_chare_, car, _charat_, &c., must have been the earliest forms of
the derivation, as such were the names given to the first vehicles;
later, we have the Hungarian _kotcze_, the German _kutsche_, &c., and
adding both form and name to what had gone before, produced a mixed
vehicle with a mixed appellation. Dr. Johnson defines coach as a
“little carriage.” The _large_ carriage that he had in his mind’s eye
at the time must have been a marvellous vehicle.

The progress of the art of coach-making, like the progress of
most inventions and discoveries, has been rather slow, we may say
remarkably slow; sometimes it made a sudden start, but a reaction
in the other direction generally settled it before much advance had
been made; but seeing that the early portions of the Old Testament
contain references to wheel carriages, it does seem rather strange
that perfection should take so long to arrive at. This may be partly
accounted for by the fact that the nations of the earth were always
at war with one another, and consequently had no time to foster
inventive power. And this has unfortunately been the case until
comparatively recent times.

The first land carriages were doubtless very primitive contrivances.
Though the “chariot” and the “waggon” are mentioned in Genesis, no
description is given of their construction. Joseph rode in the second
chariot of Pharaoh as a mark of great honour and dignity. “Waggons”
were dispatched from the court of Egypt to convey thither the wives
and little ones of the family of Jacob. From this, as well as the
fact of the brethren of Joseph bearing their corn away on asses, we
may infer that wheel carriages, even of the most simple construction,
were not in general use at this time. It is very probable that the
common vehicle of the period was an embryo sledge, drawn by man or
beast along the ground.

The Bible and the hieroglyphics on the various ruins of ancient Egypt
furnish us with the earliest authentic records. In the case of Egypt
this is particularly valuable to us, because of the great degree of
culture arrived at in the civilised arts. In fact it is the chief
country of which we have any record of the progress of these arts,
and though not actually established, it is extremely probable that to
the Egyptians we owe the invention, or at least the introduction of
the wheel. These people were early engaged in the erection of large
buildings and monuments, of which the pyramids and sphinxes are such
striking examples; and in order to convey the enormous blocks of
stone and granite to their ultimate destination, the roller would be
the first thing to suggest itself as a means of facilitating transit.
The next step would be the formation of a truck, to which these
rollers could be attached, and on which could be placed the materials
to be moved. Progression with a contrivance of this kind would
necessarily be rather slow, but it would soon become apparent that if
a larger roller were used the motion could be accelerated. The next
improvement would be an endeavour to lighten the rollers by sawing
them into thick slices, and connecting them by a horizontal roller
of smaller dimensions, giving a rude representation of a wheel and
axle. The agricultural carts used by the peasantry of Chili, in South
America, were made in this fashion until very recently. The further
lightening of these cars would follow almost as a matter of course,
by cutting the slices of the trunk to form the wheel, thinner, and
further by cutting away portions of this slice, forming spokes. The
wheel having arrived at this stage of perfection, the axle would
call for a little attention. Up till the present, they would be fixed
firmly to the wheels and revolve with them. This arrangement would
cause great inconvenience in turning, for one wheel would revolve
more rapidly than the other, by reason of the circle described by one
wheel in turning round being greater than that of the other, and the
vehicle would be liable to overturn. The next step was to arrange
that the wheels could revolve independently of the axle. This being
done, we have the wheel, in its principles, the same as at present.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Egyptian Chariot. Fig. 2.—Egyptian Chariot.]

The paintings and sculptures upon the walls of the temples and tombs
of Egypt show that wheeled carriages were in use in that country
at an early period (Figs. 1 and 2). In the Bible they are usually
translated “chariot.” They are of great interest to us, as they
formed the chief means of conveying man for 2,000 years before
Christ, and were more or less the type of all the other vehicles of
the ancient world. We find certain words used in describing them,
both by Homer, who lived 1,000 years B.C., and by Moses, who lived at
least 500 years earlier; and these words are the technical terms in
use at the present day, such as axles, wheels, naves, tyres, spokes,
&c. It is reasonable to infer from this, that the art to which these
terms apply must have existed prior to the writers’ description; so
that any doubt as to the correctness of the Egyptian sculptures must
be dispelled by the references of the above authors. In the fifth
book of the Iliad “The awful Juno led out the golden-bitted horses,
whilst Hebe fitted the whirling wheels on the iron axle of the swift
chariot. The wheels had each eight brazen spokes, the felloes were of
gold, secured with brazen tyres all round, admirable to the sight.
The seat was of gold hung by silver cords, the beam or pole was of
silver, at the end of which were hung the golden yoke and the golden
reins.”

[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Roman Chariot.]

The car was greatly used by the Romans, being adopted from the one
used by the Etrurians (Fig. 3), a neighbouring country on the Italian
peninsula. These latter people were traditionally the first to place
a hood or awning over the open two-wheeled car, and they showed great
taste in decorating their vehicles in the manner familiar to us by
the remains of their pottery. A very fine copy of one of the Roman
cars is in the museum at South Kensington, cast from the original in
the Vatican.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Scythian Chariot.]

Herodotus (450 B.C.) mentions that the Scythians used a vehicle which
consisted of a rough platform upon wheels, on which was placed a
covering like a beehive, composed of basket work and covered with
skins. When they pitched anywhere these huts were taken off, and
served them as dwellings in lieu of tents. Fig. 4 shows one of their
chariots.

The war chariots used by the Persians were much larger than those
used by contemporary nations. The idea seems to have been to form a
sort of turret on the car to protect the warriors in action. These
vehicles were provided with curved blades, like scythes, which
projected from the axletrees, for the purpose of maiming the enemy as
they drove through them.

At the period of the invasion of this country by the Romans, a car
or chariot seems to have been in use which they had not met with
before. It was larger than the Roman car, and possessed a seat, from
which feature it was called _essedum_. It was doubtless an improved
vehicle of its kind, for Cicero, writing to a friend in Britain, says
“that there appeared little worth bringing away from Britain except
the chariots, of which he wished his friend to bring him one as a
pattern.”

Sir William Gell, in his work on Pompeii, which was destroyed A.D.
79, mentions that three wheels had been dug out of the ruins in
his day, very much like our modern wheels—a little dished, and 4
feet 3 inches high, with ten spokes rather thicker at each end
than in the middle. He also gives an illustration of a cart used
for the conveyance of wine in a large skin or leather bag; it is a
four-wheeled cart, with an arch in the centre for the front wheel to
turn under. The pole appears to end in a fork, and to be attached to
the axle bed.

On the decline of the Roman power, many of the arts of civilisation
which they had been instrumental in forwarding fell into disuse. The
skilled artisans died and left no successors, there being no demand
for them. This will account for no mention being made of carriages or
chariots for some centuries. Of course there were various primitive
contrivances in use to which the name of cart was given, but the
great and wealthy moved about the cities or travelled on horseback,
or if they were incapable of this, they used litters carried by men
or horses. The great bar to the general adoption of wheeled carriages
was undoubtedly the very bad state of the roads.

An evident improvement in construction was made by the Saxons. In the
Cotton Library there is a valuable illuminated manuscript, supposed
to be the work of Elfricus, Abbot of Malmesbury. The subject is a
commentary on the Books of Genesis and Exodus, with accompanying
illustrations. In one of these is represented the first approach to a
slung carriage; and it may be interesting to the lovers of historical
coincidence that it is given in an illustration of the meeting of
Joseph and Jacob, and in that part of the Bible which first makes
mention of vehicular conveyance. The chariot in which Joseph is
seated is a kind of hammock (most probably made of leather, which
was much used by the Anglo-Saxons), suspended by iron hooks from
a framework of wood. It moves upon four wheels, the construction
of which is not clear, owing to the decorative license taken with
them by the artist. The father of Joseph is placed in a cart, which
we doubt not, from its extreme simplicity, is a faithful type of
those of the time. This proves the illuminator to have been true to
his subject and the custom of the period in which he lived, as the
chariot was monopolised by the great men, while the people rode in
carts.

With the Normans came the horse litter, a native originally of
Bithynia, and from thence introduced into Rome, where it is still
used by the Pope on state occasions, and also among the mountain
passes of Sicily, as well as in Spain and Portugal. Malmesbury
records that the dead body of Rufus was placed upon a _rheda
caballaria_, a kind of horse litter. King John, in his last illness,
was conveyed from the Abbey of Swinstead _in lectica equestre_. These
were for several succeeding reigns the only carriages in use for
persons of distinction. Froissart writes of Isabel, the second wife
of Richard II., as “La june Royne d’Angleterre en une litieré moult
riche qui etoit ordonèe pour elle.” These litters were seldom used
except on state occasions. When Margaret, daughter of Henry II., went
into Scotland, she is described as journeying on a “faire palfrey,”
but after her was conveyed by two footmen “one very riche litere,
borne by two faire coursers vary nobly drest; in which litere the
sayd queene was borne in the intryng of the good towns or otherwise
to her good playsher.”

Carriages proper were first introduced on the continent. Italy,
France, Spain, and Germany contend with each other for the honour
of the first introduction. The earliest record we have is on the
authority of Beckmann, who says that, when at the close of the
thirteenth century Charles of Anjou entered Naples, his queen rode
in a _caretta_, the outside and inside of which were covered with
sky-blue velvet interspersed with golden lilies.

The English were not long before they adopted this new innovation. In
an early English poem called the “Squyr of Low Degree,” supposed to
be before the time of Chaucer, the father of the Princess of Hungary
thus makes promise:—

      “To-morrow ye shall on hunting fare,
       And ride my daughter in a _chare_.
       It shall be covered with velvet red,
       And cloths of fine gold all about your head,
       With damask white and azure blue,
       Well diapered with lilies new:
       Your pomelles shall be ended with gold,
       Your chains enamelled many a fold.”

The pomelles were doubtless the handles to the rods affixed towards
the roof of the “chariette,” and were for the purpose of holding by
when deep ruts or obstacles in the roads caused an unusual jerk in
the vehicle.

On the continent, there seems to have been a great deal of opposition
to the use of carriages. In 1294, Philip, King of France, issued an
ordinance prohibiting the citizens’ wives the use of cars or chars;
and later on, Pope Pius IV. exhorted his cardinals and bishops not to
ride in coaches, according to the fashion of the time, but to leave
such things to women; and it really was thought _infra dig._ for a
man to travel other than on horseback. Even his Holiness the Pope
rode upon a grey horse; though to indemnify him for the exertion, his
horse was led, and his stirrup held by kings and emperors.

These exhortations had about the same effect as James I.’s
“Counterblast to Tobacco;” they created an increased demand, and the
people showed their sense in preferring the ease that does no injury
to the self-denial that does no good, in spite of the opposition of
their superiors.

The first coach made in England was for the Earl of Rutland, in 1555,
and Walter Rippon was the builder. He afterwards made one for Queen
Mary. Stow’s “Summerie of the English Chronicle” is the authority
upon which this statement is made.

In a postscript to the life of Thomas Parr, written by Taylor, the
Water Poet (and a mortal enemy to land carriages), we find the
following note: “He (Parr) was eighty-one years old before there was
any coach in England (Parr was born in Edward IV.’s reign in 1483);
for the first ever seen here was brought out of the Netherlands by
one William Boonen, a Dutchman, who gave a coach to Queen Elizabeth,
for she had been seven years a queen before she had any coach; since
when they have increased with a mischief, and ruined all the best
housekeeping, to the undoing of the watermen, by the multitudes
of Hackney coaches. But they never swarmed so much to pester the
streets as they do now till the year 1605; and then was the
gunpowder treason hatched, and at that time did the coaches breed and
multiply.” Taylor is to be thanked, not only for his information,
but for his capital though unconscious burlesque upon those fancied
philosophers who talk of cause and effect, where events, because
they happen in sequence, are made to depend one on the other, when
the fact of their being two things apart makes them independent
existences.

We have not space to dwell upon these old specimens at length. Queen
Elizabeth’s coach is called by an old author “a moving temple.” It
had doors all round, so that when the people desired, and the virgin
queen was agreeable, they might feast their eyes on the beauty of its
trimming or linings.

The following entry in Sir William Dugdale’s diary may be
interesting: “1681. Payd to Mr. Meares, a coachmaker in St. Martin’s
Lane, for a little chariot w^{ch} I then sent into the country, £23
13s. 0d., and for a cover of canvas £01 00s. 00d.: also for harness
for two horses £04 00s. 00d.”

The opposition on the part of the watermen to the introduction of
coaches assumed rather serious proportions, more especially as the
populace sided with them; to such a height did the antagonism run
that a movement was made to introduce a Bill into Parliament to
prevent the increase of coaches; the apology for its introduction
being, that in war time it would be a matter of great difficulty
to mount the troops if so many horses were monopolised for these
coaches. Luckily, however, it came to nothing, and the antipathy
gradually died out.

Coaches and vehicles of all descriptions now became general, and
in 1635 a patent was granted to Sir Saunders Duncombe for the
introduction of sedans; their purpose being “to interfere with the
too frequent use of coaches, to the hindrance of the carts and
carriages employed in the necessary provision of the city and
suburbs.” A rivalry now sprung up between coach and sedan, and gave
rise to a humorous tract, in which they hold a colloquy as to which
should take precedence, a brewer’s cart being appointed umpire.

The coaches at this period were fearfully and wonderfully made. There
are several examples of them scattered about in the various museums.
The people who used them at this time had no great ideas of them, for
so formidable an affair was the undertaking of a journey reckoned,
that even from Birmingham to London a departure was the signal for
making a will, followed by a solemn farewell of wife, children, and
household!

Towards the end of the seventeenth century improvements began to
take place. In Wood’s diary mention is made of a machine called the
“Flying Coach,” which performed the journey between Oxford and London
in thirteen hours! This was express rate for that age, especially as
there was some talk of making a law to limit the ground covered by a
coach to thirty miles a day in summer, and twenty-five miles a day
in winter. Oh, those good old times! The outcry lessened, and the
imperfect vehicles and bad roads were left to passengers unmolested.
What the latter were may be imagined from the fact that, when Charles
III. of Spain visited England, and Prince George of Denmark went out
to meet him, both princes were so impeded by the badness of the roads
that their carriages were obliged to be borne on the shoulders of the
peasantry, and they were six hours in performing the last nine miles
of their journey.

In the eighteenth century improvements were made in the construction
of coaches, but they were still heavy lumbering contrivances, so that
little or no progress was made in the rate at which they travelled.
Even so late as 1760 a journey from Edinburgh to London occupied
eighteen days, a part of the roads being only accessible by pack
horses. There is a very good specimen of the vehicle of the early
part of the eighteenth century in the South Kensington Museum,
belonging to the Earl of Darnley’s family, and is well worthy of
study as being one of the lightest examples known of this period.

In the Museum of South Kensington is also an excellent example of the
fully developed coach of 1790. It is a very massive-looking affair,
and belonged to the Lord Chancellor of Ireland; it looks very much
like a faded edition of the City state coach now, though when new it
doubtless had a very good appearance. It consists of a very large
body, suspended from upright or whip springs by means of leather
braces; the standing pillars slope outwards, making the sides longer
at the roof than at the elbow line. The wheels are of good height,
and the carriage part is very massively constructed, the upper part
being finished off with scroll ironwork, and on this in the front
the coachman’s hammercloth is raised. The panels are painted with
landscapes, &c., by Hamilton, R.A., and no doubt altogether it cost a
deal of money.

Vehicles now began to assume that variety of shape and form of which
we have in our own time so many specimens. There were Landaus,
introduced from a town of that name in Germany; these were, like
the coaches, only made to open in the centre of the roof just as
they do now, but instead of the covering falling into a horizontal
line it only fell back to an angle of 45 degrees, and this pattern
was maintained for a number of years. Landaulets were chariots made
to open. Generally speaking, the difference between a coach and a
chariot was that the former had two seats for the accommodation
of passengers, and the latter but one, and in appearance was like
a coach cut in half. Then came phaetons, barouches, sociables,
curricles, gigs, and whiskies, which, in their general form and
attributes, were similar to the vehicles of the present day which
bear these names. In those days fast driving was all the “go,” and
young men vied with each other in driving the loftiest and most
dangerous gigs and phaetons. Contemporary literature teemed with
romantic tales of spills and hairbreadth ’scapes from these vehicles,
and yet dilated on the fearful pleasure there was in driving them.

The larger wheeled vehicles were hung upon framed carriages, with
whip springs behind and elbow springs in front, like the gentlemen’s
cabriolets of the present day. When drawn by two horses they were
called curricles, or by one horse, chaises. There was a little
variation in the shape of the body, viz. the full curricle pattern
and the half curricle, with or without a boot, similar to a Tilbury
or a gig body. The wheels were 4 feet 3 inches to 5 feet in height.
Lancewood was then used for shafts.

It is at the beginning of the nineteenth century that real progress
is to be found in coaches and other carriages. In 1804, Mr. Obadiah
Elliott, a coachmaker of Lambeth, patented a plan for hanging
vehicles upon elliptic springs, thus doing away with the heavy perch,
as the longitudinal timber or iron connecting the hind-carriage
with the fore carriage is called. Perches are still used, but are
chiefly confined to coaches proper, or those hung upon C springs.
Elliott also considerably lightened the carriage part of the vehicles
he turned out. This was the first step to a grand revolution in
the manufacture of carriages, which was to affect every variety of
vehicle, great or small. Elliott’s enterprise was rewarded by the
gold medal of the Society of Arts, and by his business becoming a
very prosperous one, for the public were not slow in discovering the
advantages arising from great lightness in vehicles.

A print, published in 1816, shows a landaulet hung on elliptic
springs, four in number, with a square boot framed to the body, and
the driving seat supported on ironwork high above the boot. Behind
there is a footboard supported on the pump-handles. The distance
between the axletrees is very short, only 6 feet 6 inches from centre
to centre. The body is rather small, and the wheels are 3 feet 8
inches and 4 feet 8 inches high respectively, and the bottom of the
body is 3 feet 6 inches above the ground. The span or opening of the
springs is 10 inches.

In 1814 there were 23,400 four-wheeled vehicles paying duty to
Government, 27,300 two-wheeled, and 18,500 tax-carts in Great
Britain, showing a total of 69,200 vehicles. The later returns will
show how much a reduction in the duties and the use of elliptic
springs have promoted the increase of vehicles of all kinds.

A vehicle much in fashion at this period was the curricle, which
had been in use for some time in Italy, where it was suspended from
leather braces. Springs were added by the French, and, on its being
introduced here, the English altered the shape, giving the back a
graceful ogee curve, improved the hood, and added a spring bar across
the horses’ backs. It was a vehicle of easy draught, and could be
driven at great speed. Unfortunately it was rather dangerous if the
horse shied or stumbled, and this tended to reduce the demand for
it, and it was gradually superseded by the cabriolet, though Charles
Dickens used one as soon as he could afford it, and Count D’Orsay had
one made as late as 1836.

The vehicle called the briska, or britchka, was introduced about 1818
from Austria. It was hung both upon C springs and elliptic springs,
and was made in various sizes for different requirements. It was
nearly straight along the bottom. The hind panel was ogee shaped, and
the front terminated in a square boot. There was a rumble behind, and
the back seat was fitted with a hood which could be raised or lowered
at pleasure, and the knees were covered by a folding knee flap. This
was an inconvenient vehicle for our climate, as only half the number
could be sheltered in wet weather that could be accommodated in dry.
It was very fashionable for a time, but died out about 1840.

[Illustration: Fig. 5.—Stanhope.]

The “Stanhope” takes its name from being first built to the order and
under the superintendence of the Hon. Fitzroy Stanhope, by Tilbury,
the builder of the vehicle bearing that name. It was shaped like
the old ribbed gig, but was hung upon four springs, two of which
were bolted between the shaft and axle, and the other two crossways,
parallel to the axle at either end of the body, and shackled to the
side springs. Stanhopes are an easy kind of vehicle, and do not rock
so much as other gigs behind a rough-trotting horse. At the same time
they are rather heavy, owing to the large amount of iron plating used
to strengthen the shafts, &c.

[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Tilbury.]

The “Tilbury” was very much like the Stanhope, but had no boot,
and like it was heavily plated with iron. It was hung by two elbow
springs in front, with leather braces to the shafts or front cross
bar, and behind by two elbow springs passing from beneath the seat
to a cross spring raised to the level of the back rail of the body
by three straight irons from the hind part of the cross bar. Later,
two more springs were added between the axletree and the shafts,
by scroll irons. The Tilbury was a very good-looking and durable
vehicle, but its weight took away the public favour, and it went out
of fashion about 1850. It was, however, adopted with great success by
Italy and other continental countries, where the roads are bad, and
solidity of construction is the first consideration.

Dog-carts and Tandem-carts are too well known to need description.
The former were so called from their being used for the conveyance
of sporting dogs, such as greyhounds or pointers, and the slats or
louvre arrangement of the sides was for the purpose of admitting air
to the animals; though scarcely ever used for this purpose now, the
original plan has been pretty closely adhered to, except that the
boot is considerably reduced and made to harmonise more with the
other parts.

Some of the greatest improvements in the shape and style of various
vehicles were effected by a celebrated maker named Samuel Hobson,
who remodelled and improved pretty nearly every vehicle which came
under his hands. He particularly directed his attention to the true
proportion of parts, and artistic form of carriages. He lowered the
bodies, and lengthened the under or “carriage” part. The curves and
sweeps also received due attention. In fact, he carefully studied
those “trifles” (as Michael Angelo’s friend would have termed them)
on which depended the success of the production as a work of art.
Imitation being the sincerest form of flattery, the other coachmakers
soon showed their sense by copying his best ideas, though, to give
these other coachmakers their due, they greatly assisted Mr. Hobson
with suggestions for improvements, and as a reward availed themselves
of his superior talent for working on these ideas.

As our interior trade and manufactures increased, the custom arose of
sending commercial travellers throughout England to call attention
to the various goods, and it was found very convenient to send these
travellers in light vehicles which could convey samples of the
various articles. This led to a very great increase in the number of
gigs; and about 1830 one coach factory of London supplied several
hundreds of these vehicles to travellers at annual rentals. And
though on the introduction of the railway system long journeys by
road were unnecessary, these gigs were found of great use in town and
suburban journeys, and in London they may be seen by hundreds daily,
and they are scarcely used by any one else but commercial travellers.
They are too familiar to need detailed description.

In 1810 a duty was levied by Government upon vehicles for sale. It
was repealed in 1825, but the returns give the number of vehicles
built for private use in 1814 as 3,636, and in 1824 as 5,143,
whilst the number of carriages in use in 1824 had grown to 25,000
four-wheeled, and 36,000 two-wheeled, besides 15,000 tax-carts; an
increase since 1814 of 20,000 vehicles.

In 1824 there was built for George IV. a low phaeton, called a pony
phaeton, which has since become very common, and has undergone but
very little change from the original. It was a cab shape, half-caned,
with a skeleton bottom side hung upon four elliptical springs, with
crane ironwork back and front. It was drawn by two ponies; the wheels
were only 21 and 33 inches high.

A carriage had been introduced from Germany, called a droitska or
droskey—an open carriage with a hood, on a perch, and suspended from
C springs. The peculiarity was, that the body was hung very near the
perch, so that the seat was only 12 inches above the hind axletree,
and the place for the legs was on either side of the perch. The chief
merits of this vehicle consisted in its lightness as compared with
barouches and briskas, and its shortness.

The cab phaeton was invented by Mr. Davies, of Albany Street, about
1835; it consisted of a cab body with a hood, hung upon four elliptic
springs, and a low driving seat and dasher, for one horse. It met
with great success and was soon in general use. It was introduced on
the continent, where it became known under the name of “Milord,” and
became the common hack carriage, after which it went out of fashion
with the upper circles. It has, however, been recently revived under
the name of “Victoria.” The Prince of Wales and Baron Rothschild set
the fashion by using Victorias about 1869, and it really is a very
elegant and useful vehicle.

In 1839 the first Brougham was built by Mr. Robinson, of Mount
Street, for Lord Brougham, since when this has become the most
common and the most fashionable vehicle in use. The size of the
first brougham was in its chief dimensions similar to those now
manufactured; it was hung on elliptic springs in front, and five
springs behind. Coachmakers seemed to have lavished the greatest care
and attention on these vehicles, in order to turn out the lightest,
and at the same time the most artistic contrivance, and great success
has attended their efforts.

The foregoing is a brief history of vehicular conveyances from the
earliest times to the present. During the last ten or fifteen years
many further improvements have been added, tending to produce more
perfect vehicles in every respect; but these improvements have been
more in matters of detail than those at the commencement of the
century, and hence are more likely to escape ordinary observation;
but the critical eye will soon discover these changes, and marvel at
the short space of time in which the _real_ work has been done.

A glance at public carriages may not be out of place. Hackney coaches
were first used in England in 1605. These were similar to the coaches
used by fashionable people, but they did not ply for hire in the
streets, but remained at the hiring yards until they were wanted.
Their number soon increased, owing to there being a greater number
of persons who wished to hire than could afford to keep a conveyance
of their own. In 1635 the number was limited to fifty, but in spite
of the opposition of the King they continued to increase in number,
and in 1640 there were 300 in London. In Paris they were introduced
by Nicholas Sauvage, who lived in a street at the sign of St. Fiacre,
and from this circumstance hackney carriages are called “fiacres” in
France. In 1772 the hire of a fiacre in Paris was one shilling for
the first hour and tenpence for the second. There were 400 hackney
coaches in London in 1662, and the Government then levied a yearly
duty of £5 each upon them. In spite of this their number had in 1694
increased to 700, a substantial proof of their usefulness.

In 1703 a stage coach performed the journey from London to
Portsmouth, when the roads were good, in fourteen hours. From this
time there was a gradual increase in the number and destinations of
stage coaches.

In 1755 stage coaches are described as being covered with dull black
leather, studded with broad-headed nails by way of ornament, and oval
windows in the quarters, with the frames painted red. On the panels
the destination of the coach was displayed in bold characters. The
roof rose in a high curve with a rail round it. The coachman and
guard sat in front upon a high narrow boot, sometimes garnished with
a hammercloth ornamented with a deep fringe. Behind was an immense
basket supported by iron bars, in which passengers were carried at
a cheaper rate than in other parts of the vehicle. The wheels were
painted red. The coach was usually drawn by three horses, on the
first of which a postillion rode, dressed in green and gold, and with
a cocked hat. This machine groaned and creaked as it went along, with
every tug the horses gave, though the ordinary speed was somewhere
about four miles an hour.

One hundred years ago news and letters travelled very slowly, the
post-boys to whom the letter bags were intrusted progressing at the
rate of three and a half miles an hour! In 1784 a proposal was laid
before Government by Mr. John Palmer, the originator of mail coaches,
to run quicker vehicles, though at much dearer rates of postage.
This scheme was at first opposed by Parliament, but after a struggle
of some two years, Palmer’s coaches were adopted for the conveyance
of the mails, though the rate at which these travelled was only six
miles an hour for a long time after their introduction.

A great impetus was given to the production of better forms of stage
coaches by gentlemen taking to drive them as an amusement, and two
clubs were soon formed of noblemen and gentlemen who took an interest
in four-in-hand driving and in vehicles in general. Several clubs of
this kind are now flourishing to encourage manly sport, and with the
capacity to promote improvements in the form of the “drag,” as it is
now called.

It is to an architect that we owe the invention of the Hansom cab.
The safety consisted in the arrangement of the framework at the
nearest part to the ground, so as to prevent an upset if the cab
tilted up or down. The inventor was Mr. Hansom, the architect of the
Birmingham Town Hall. Numberless improvements have been made on this
idea, but the leading principles are the same.

In 1829 the first omnibus was started in London by Mr. Shillibeer,
who some time previously had been a coachmaker in Paris. It was drawn
by three horses, and carried twenty-two passengers, all inside.
The fare was a shilling from the “Yorkshire Stingo,” in Marylebone
Road, to the Bank. This vehicle was found too large for the streets
of London, so a smaller one was started, drawn by two horses and
carrying twelve passengers inside. In 1849 an outside seat was added
along the centre of the roof, and by 1857 the omnibus had become
pretty nearly the same form as we now know it. Our present omnibus is
probably the lightest vehicle of its kind for carrying such a large
number of passengers. Its average weight is about 25 cwt. The London
General Omnibus Company have, on an average, 626 omnibuses running
on week-days, and 6,935 horses to work them. They build their own
vehicles, and each runs about sixty miles a day, at a speed of about
six miles an hour, and nearly all are supplied with brake retarders,
worked by the foot, which effect a great saving in the strain put
upon the horses in stopping.

                             CHAPTER II.

  PREPARATION OF THE DESIGN AND SETTING OUT THE FULL-SIZED DRAUGHT.

In coach-building, as in building construction, the first thing to
be done is to prepare a design of the vehicle proposed to be built
according to the requirements of the customer. A scale of one inch to
a foot is a very good one for the purpose, though the scale drawings
are more often made to a scale of one and a half or two inches to a
foot. These drawings (or draughts as they are technically termed),
are prepared by specially trained draughtsmen, and it requires no
mean skill to produce, on a small scale, a pictorial representation
of the future vehicle, truly proportioned in all its parts, and a
delicacy of touch in order that the parts may not look coarse. These
drawings, if well made (and they generally are), give a very accurate
picture of the carriage, and a purchaser is generally able from this
to say what peculiar feature he requires, or where he thinks it
should be altered; if he can do this it saves a great deal of trouble
in the future, whilst the coach is being built.

For this work the draughtsman requires a drawing-board and T
square, and two set squares; as he never has to prepare very large
drawings, a board of imperial size will be amply sufficient, and
the T square to have a corresponding length of blade. T squares are
made of a variety of woods, but the most serviceable is one made
of mahogany, with an ebony edge; the most important consideration
being that the edge should be truly “shot” from end to end. The set
squares should either be vulcanite or skeleton mahogany with ebony
edges; the latter are preferable, as they work more cleanly than
the vulcanite, which, unless kept very clean, are apt to make black
smears across the drawing. In order to fasten the paper down to the
drawing board, drawing pins will be required; they are simple pins
of iron or steel, with a large flat brass head; four is the number
required for each sheet of paper, one at each corner. A very much
better way to fix the paper down is to “strain” it to the board. It
is done in the following way:—The sheet of paper to be fastened down
is thoroughly well wetted, by means of a sponge or large flat brush,
on one side (which, it does not matter, but see that your board is
perfectly clean before starting); it should then be left for five or
ten minutes for the water to well soak into the pores of the paper;
when this is done, the paper will be quite limp. Now take a perfectly
clean straight edge, or the back edge of the T square, and turn up
one of the edges of the paper ¼ or ½ an inch against it; along this
edge run a brush charged with glue from the glue pot, or a piece of
ordinary glue dipped into boiling water and rubbed along the edge
will do just as well, and when you think there is enough sticky
matter to promote adhesion between the paper and the board, turn the
edge of the paper back on the board (without removing the straight
edge or T square), and quickly rub it with the tips of the fingers
until it goes down flat all along without any air bubbles: do this to
all four edges of the paper, and place in a perfectly flat position
to dry; and if the operation has been carefully conducted the paper
will be beautifully flat to draw upon, and there can be no fear of
its shifting. When the drawing is finished, all that has to be done
is to cut round the edges of the paper just inside the glued edge,
and take it off. A little hot water will take off the glued strip,
and take care to wash all the glue off at the same time, otherwise
a smaller piece of paper might stick in some important part, and the
drawing spoilt in order to detach it.

The draughtsman will do well to have a few French curves, for drawing
the “sweeps” or curved lines of the carriage bodies, and scales of
various sizes, which are slips of boxwood or ivory, on which are
marked at the edges various scales, from ¹⁄₁₆th of an inch to a foot
up to 3 inches to a foot; and last, though not by any means least,
a good box of compasses or mathematical instruments. We shall not
discuss the merits of the various kinds of instruments here, but any
one wishing to go into the matter may do so by reading “Mathematical
Instruments” in Weale’s Series. But we should strongly advise the
draughtsman to go to some good maker, as bad drawing instruments only
lead to bad drawing.

The drawing paper used should be of a kind having a slight gloss
on the surface, like “hot-pressed” paper, but without its granular
texture. This kind of paper is usually called a “board,” as Bristol
board, and kept in various sizes, and sold by all colour dealers.
Various names are given to it, but it is all pretty nearly alike.

[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Coach.]

The paper being fastened, the drawing is commenced by drawing the
ground line A (Fig. 7); from that set off the height that the body
is to be from the ground, indicated by the dotted line B, and draw
the line C, which is the depth of the rocker. This latter is the real
bottom of the vehicle, and from it is measured the height of the
seat, about 12 inches, shown by the dotted lines on the body. Then
from the seat measure 42 inches, the length of the roof D. Lay off 23
inches for the width of the door, and draw E and F. From F measure
28 inches, the depth of the back quarter G, and from E measure 25
inches, which will give the front quarter H. Now the curves or
sweeps of the body can be put in by means of French curves. From the
hinge pillar measure 26 inches, shown by dotted line I, and this is
the centre of the hind wheel, which is 4 feet 3 inches high. The
spring is 1¼ inches thick, and consists of 5 plates 42 inches long.
The opening between the springs is 12½ inches, the lower one being
clipped beneath the axle. Measure 12½ inches from the underside of
the axle, which will give the underside of the top spring. 1¼ inches
must also be allowed for the back bar J, and the pump-handle K will
be ½ an inch thick. Then draw the boot L in such a position that
the front wheels will lock or turn under it freely. This may be
found by drawing a plan of the wheel as shown, and with the centre
of the lock bolt produced to N, strike the lines M, and it will be
seen that the wheels will just clear the body, which is all that is
necessary. From this it will be noticed that the centre on which
the fore carriage turns is not in the same plane as the axle. This
is more particularly discussed in the chapter on wheel-plates. The
front wheel is 42 inches high, the springs the same size as the back
springs. The draught may be now completed from Fig. 7, after having
settled on the various heights and sizes, and can be inked in with
Indian ink. The dotted lines, being merely constructional, are rubbed
out when the drawing is inked in. To complete the drawing, the spokes
of the wheels must be shown. These should be neither too many nor too
few, but there is no rule which regulates their number, except that
there should be two to each felloe. Having inked the parts in and
cleaned the pencil lines off, the drawing is ready to be coloured.
The colours applied to the drawing are the same as will be used for
painting the carriage, so we shall not detail them here.

From this drawing is constructed the full-size draught, which is
prepared before a tool is touched. On the walls of the body-making
shop are large black-boards, 10 or 12 feet square, and on these the
draughts are prepared just in the same way as described for the scale
drawing, except that all the heights are marked up a vertical line
which runs through the centre of the doorway, and from this the
various widths are also set off. This and the ground line are the
first two lines drawn, and it is imperative that they should make
a perfect right angle with each other, otherwise the draught will
not be true, and the material worked from it will be wasted. This
full-sized draught requires the greatest care in preparation, as all
the patterns to which the materials are cut or shaped are taken from
it, even to the smallest parts.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Brougham with Cant-Board. S, Standing pillar
(developed). B, Bottom bar. R, Rocker. L, Seat.]

The full-size draught also differs from the scale draught, inasmuch
as all the details of the construction of the vehicle are shown as
in the accompanying cut (Fig. 8), which shows the construction of a
small doctor’s brougham, and Fig. 9, which shows the construction
of a landau. This latter is a representation of the working draught
for the vehicle, and, in fact, is a reduced copy of what would be
drawn upon the black-board in the shop, except that some of the minor
details are omitted to avoid confusion.

[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Landau.]

                            CHAPTER III.

  VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-BUILDING.

The materials employed in coach-building number a great many: various
kinds of wood—ash, beech, elm, oak, mahogany, cedar, deal, pine, &c.;
hides, skins, hair, wool, silk, glue, whalebone, ivory, &c.; iron,
steel, copper, brass, lead, tin, glass, &c.

The timber principally used in the construction of carriages is the
ash. This is not an elastic, but rather a tough and fibrous wood,
capable of altering its form by the application of pressure, and
therefore when not in large masses requires iron plates to secure it.
By boiling it becomes very pliable, and may be formed into almost
any shape, provided that it is not too thick. For this purpose it
is better to use steam than boiling water, as the latter is likely
to dissolve and carry off the gluten which unites the fibres, thus
rendering the timber useless. Some ash timber is white at heart, and
some red; the white is usually the strongest and best. Some trees
which have been grown on hillsides much exposed to constant winds
present a remarkably wrinkled appearance through their whole length,
and it is scarcely possible to plane their timber smooth; this is the
toughest of all ash timber. Parts of ash-trees are sometimes found of
a yellowish-brown colour, accompanied by a fetid acid smell. This is
sometimes attributed to the effect of lightning, but more probably
it is a putrid fermentation of the sap, owing to imperfect drying.
All other circumstances being equal, the timber is best which is cut
down when the circulation of the sap is slowest, as the pores are
then open. In the process of drying or seasoning the bulk diminishes
considerably. One of the qualities which render ash peculiarly
fit for carriage construction is the absence of elasticity, and
consequent indisposition to alter its form by warping or twisting.
It is not well adapted for boards or planks in which much width
is required, as in drying it cracks a great deal. The diameter of
ash-trees used by carriage-builders varies from 1 foot to 3 feet 6
inches. It should be borne in mind in cutting ash, that the interior
and the outer casing under the bark are rather softer and less
durable than the parts between them.

Beech is sometimes used by carriage-builders and by wheelwrights,
on account of its cheapness; but it is very liable to warp and rot,
and consequently unworthy of the attention of the conscientious
manufacturer.

Elm is largely used for planking where strength is required. The
grain is wavy, hard to work, brittle, and apt to split without care.
It is not a good surface to paint on, as the grain shows through
several coats of colour. It is also used for the naves or stocks of
wheels.

Oak is used for the spokes of wheels. The best kinds are made from
the timbers of saplings, which are not sawn but _cleft_, in order
that the grain may be not cut across and render the spoke unfit to
resist the strains it will be subject to. Spokes are also made from
the limbs of large trees.

Mahogany is largely used for panels, as when painted it shows a very
even surface. There are two kinds, the “Spanish” and the “Honduras.”
The former is unfit for the purposes of the carriage-builder. It is
heavy and very difficult to work, requiring special tools for this
purpose, as the edges of ordinary tools are rapidly destroyed by it.
The Honduras is very much lighter and cheaper than Spanish, and the
grain and colour more even. It takes the sweeps and curves required
for body-work very easily. It can be procured up to 4 feet in width,
straight-grained, and free from knots and blemishes.

A coarse-grained species of cedar is brought from the same district
as Honduras mahogany, and is sometimes used for panels which have to
be covered with leather, &c. Its extreme porosity renders it unfit
for the application of paint.

Deal is largely used for the flooring of carriages, and for covered
panels, and for any rough work that is not exposed to great wear and
tear.

The wide American pine is chiefly used in very thin boards to form
the covered panels and roofing of carriages.

Lancewood is a straight-grained, elastic wood, but very brittle when
its limit of elasticity is reached. It comes from the West Indies
in taper poles about 20 feet long and 6 or 8 inches diameter at the
largest end. It was formerly much used for shafts, but since curved
forms have been fashionable it has fallen into disuse. It can be
bent by boiling, but is a very unsafe material to trust to such an
important office as the shafts.

American birch is a very valuable wood for flat boarding, as it can
be procured up to 3 feet in width. It is of a perfectly homogeneous
substance, free from rents, and with scarcely a perceptible pore. It
works easily with the plane and yields a very smooth surface, and
the grain does not show through the most delicate coat of paint. Its
chief disadvantage is its brittleness, which will not permit of its
being used for any but plane surfaces, and some care is required in
nailing and screwing it.

Hides are used chiefly for coverings, but also in some parts strips
are used for the purposes of suspension. The hides are those of
horses and neat cattle. For covering they are converted into leather
by the action of oak and other bark. They are afterwards smoothed
and levelled by the currier, and sometimes split into two equal
thicknesses by machinery. They are then rendered pliable by the
action of oil and tallow, and finished to a clear black or brown
colour as may be required. This is called dressed leather. For some
purposes the hides are merely levelled, put on wet to the object
they are intended to cover, and left to shrink and dry. Others are
covered with a coat of elastic japan, which gives them a highly
glazed surface, impermeable to water; in this state they are called
patent leather. In a more perfectly elastic mode of japanning,
which will permit folding without cracking the surface, they are
called enamelled leather. They are generally black, but any colour
desired may be given to them. All this japanned leather has the japan
annealed, somewhat in the same mode as glass. The hides are laid
between blankets, and are subjected to the heat of an oven raised to
the proper temperature during several hours.

The skins used are those of the sheep and goat. The former are
converted into leather by the action of oak bark. In one form
of dressing them they are known as basil leather, which is of a
light brown colour and very soft. Sometimes they are blacked, and
occasionally japanned like the hides. In all these forms sheep skins
are only used for inferior purposes, as mere coverings, where no
strength is required.

Goat skins are used in the preparation of the leather known as
“Spanish” and “Morocco.” They are not tanned in oak bark like other
leather, but very slightly in the bark of the sumach-tree. They
pass through many processes previous to that of dyeing, for which
purpose they are sewn up with the grain outwards and blown out like
a bladder. This is to prevent the dye from getting access to the
flesh side. This beautiful leather was originally manufactured by the
Moors, who afterwards introduced the process into Spain, by which
means it came to be known under two names. The English have greatly
improved on the manufacture, so much so that few others can vie with
it. These skins are used for the inside linings of carriages.

Hair is used as an article of stuffing. To give it the peculiar curl
which renders it elastic, it is forcibly twisted up in small locks,
and in that state baked in an oven to fix it. Horse-hair is the best,
being the strongest and longest; but various other kinds are used.
Sometimes it is adulterated with fibres of whalebone. Doe-hair is
also much used as an article for stuffing, but as it is very short it
cannot be curled, and there is not much elasticity in it.

Wool in its natural state is not used for carriage purposes. In the
form of “flocks,” which are the short combings and fibres produced
in the process of manufacturing it, it is very largely used for
stuffing. In its manufactured state wool is used in great quantities,
as cloth, lace, fringe, carpeting, &c.

The iron used is that known as wrought iron. To judge of its quality
break a piece over the anvil; if it breaks off brittle it is of no
use for the purposes it is required for. If it is good wrought iron
the fracture will present a bluish, fibrous, silky texture, without
any crystalline portions. Inferior iron will either appear bright and
glistening (when it partakes of the properties of cast iron) or dull
and greyish in tone at the fracture.

It may also be tested by bringing it to a red heat and bending it,
when any flaws, &c., will at once become apparent.

Cast iron is also used in the shape of axle-boxes.

Great quantities of wrought iron are used in the construction of
modern carriages. One of the best qualities is that known as the
“King and Queen,” so called from its brand. This iron is manufactured
from pieces of old iron, called scrap iron, which are placed in
furnaces and welded under a heavy tilt-hammer, after which it is
passed between rollers and converted into bars.

Steel also enters largely into carriage construction in the shape
of springs, &c. Axles are made of Bessemer steel, and are found to
wear very well. Steel consists of iron in which is combined a large
proportion of carbon; the more carbon the higher the elasticity of
the steel. If steel is over-heated, it gives up a portion of its
carbon and approaches once again its original form of iron.

                             CHAPTER IV.

  POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE COMMENCING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
  CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS OF THE BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE.

As previously remarked the vehicle is divided into two parts—the
carriage and the body. After the drawing or draught is carefully
worked out to full-size on the black-board in the shop, with all
the curves and sweeps developed, and shown in elevation and plan,
patterns or templates are made from the draught, and from these the
construction of the body proceeds.

In commencing the construction of a vehicle there are several things
to be borne in mind; such as the purpose to which the vehicle is to
be applied, the size of horses to draw it, and other considerations
arising from these two. It is popularly believed that the shorter the
carriage the lighter it will run; in ascending an incline this may be
true, but on ordinary level ground a long carriage and short one must
be alike in friction, provided the total amount of weight and other
circumstances be equally balanced.

Another consideration is the height of the wheels. On level ground,
draught is easiest when the centre of the wheel is a little lower
than the point of draught, viz. the point where the traces are
affixed to the collar; but this in practice would be found rather
inconvenient, as very high wheels would be required, and consequently
the height of the whole vehicle would have to be increased, causing
great trouble and annoyance in getting in and out of the vehicle,
and the driver’s seat would have to be raised to a corresponding
height. Under equal circumstances a high wheel is more efficient
than a low one, and requires less power to draw it; though it may be
mentioned that a low wheel on a good and level road will do its work
far better than a very much higher wheel on a rougher road. The sizes
of the wheels of two-wheeled vehicles vary from 3 feet to 4 feet 6
inches.

It would be a very good thing if four-wheeled vehicles were to have
the wheels of equal size, in order that the friction and power might
be equal. But with the present mode of construction this is an
impossibility, as we have only one mode of making the lock or turn.
Therefore the height of the fore wheels must be regulated by the
height at which the body hangs, so that the wheels may pass beneath
it without striking, when the springs play. In practice this height
varies from 2 feet to 3 feet 8 inches, according to the kind of
carriage the wheels are intended for. The hind wheels vary from 3
feet to 4 feet 8 inches.

The next point is the dishing of the wheel, which is necessary for
strength to take the strain off the nuts, to throw off the mud and
prevent it clogging either the wheel or the body, and to give greater
room for the body between the wheels without increasing the track on
the ground. Whatever be the amount of dishing or coning, which varies
from 1½ to 2½ inches, one rule should always be observed, viz. so to
form the wheel that when running the lower spokes should maintain
a true vertical position both in the fore and hind wheels. This is
mainly accomplished by the dip of the axle, but if the fore and hind
wheels have the same dish, they will take the same track along the
ground. The dish of a wheel will be understood by referring to Fig.
10, in which it will be seen that the extremities of the spokes are
not in the same plane, thus forming a dish or hollow in the surface
of the wheel.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.]

Some ingenious persons have deduced from the foregoing that a wheel
runs best on an axle having a conical arm (the arm is the extremity
of the axle which fits into an axle-box in the nave or stock of the
wheel), in which case the axle would not dip, but the wheel would be
put on to a perfectly horizontal axle. The motion of a wheel thus
placed would be anything but artistic, though there would not be
so much friction on an arm of this sort as on an arm of the dipped
axle. Dipping the axle is shown at Fig. 10. It merely consists in
bending it so far out of the horizontal as to give the lower spokes
a vertical position. But in practice this theory of the conical arm
will not answer, inasmuch as curving the arm will reduce the front
bearing surface so much that the oil would be squeezed out, and it
would run dry, and the total amount of friction would be greatly
increased. Long practice has shown that a cylindrical or slightly
conical arm is the best that can be used.

We have now to settle the form, combination, and proportion of the
springs. Springs which are laid on the axle at right angles have
to carry the whole of the weight of the carriage, save only the
wheels and axles. Where other springs are used in addition it is
not necessary that the axle-springs should have much play. It will
be sufficient to give them just so much play as will intercept
the concussion caused by moving over a road. The strength of the
springs must of course be adjusted to the weight they have to carry,
for it is evident that if they be made sufficiently elastic to
carry the weight of six persons, they will be found hard if only
three enter the carriage. This is a disadvantage all carriages must
labour under, for it is ridiculous to suppose that if a carriage is
constructed to hold six that number will always want to use it at
the same time. There would seem to be room for some improvement in
the way of introducing springs adjustable to any weight, though, to
give spring-makers their due, they do turn out really a first-class
article in this respect; this is more noticeable because it is so
recent. Light carriages are never so easy to ride as heavy ones,
even when the springs are well adjusted, because on meeting with an
obstacle there is not a sufficient resistance to the bound or jerk
upwards of the spring, which makes riding in a light carriage over a
rough road rather unpleasant.

The position of the front wheels next demands attention. As these
have to turn under the body it requires some skill to fix them, and
the play of the springs, the height of the axletree, and the height
of the arch (the portion of the body under which they turn) have
all to be considered. This will be more particularly described when
dealing with wheel-plates.

The rule for the height of the splinter-bar, to which the traces or
shafts are fixed, is that it should fall on a line drawn from the
horse’s shoulder to the centre of the hind wheel. This, however,
is not always convenient in practice, as the fore wheels regulate
the height of the framing of the under carriage, to which the
splinter-bar is fixed. The distance of the splinter-bar from the
central pin, on which the wheel-plate and fore carriage turn, is
regulated by the size of the wheels and the projection of the driving
seat footboard.

All the above particulars are considered when setting out the
full-sized draught, and all points capable of delineation are put on
the board in some convenient part. In Fig. 9 the outline is simply
given, as to show everything would only confuse the reader. Such
other details as are required are filled in after the draught has
reached the stage shown in the figure.

It is most necessary for the safe conduct of a coach and carriage
builder’s business that there should be a goodly stack of
well-seasoned timber of the various kinds required, otherwise great
trouble and vexation will arise in the course of business from a good
piece of timber being perhaps spoilt in working, and there not being
another piece in the factory to replace it.

Where there is sufficient accommodation it is usual for makers
to season their own timber in specially constructed sheds, which
are kept from bad weather, but at the same time thoroughly well
ventilated. In these the timber is stacked, with small fillets
between each plank or board, to insure a free current of air
circulating all round. One year should be allowed for seasoning for
every inch of thickness in the timber, and none should be used in
which this rule has not been observed.

Thin portions of timber, such as panel stuff and the like, should be
treated in the same way, and in addition the ends should be secured
to prevent splitting. The panel stuff undergoes another process
of seasoning after it is planed up; in fact, all the thin timber
required for roofs, sides, &c., does. And about the first thing done
in commencing to build a carriage is for the body-maker to get his
thin stuff ready, as far as planing it up goes, and then to put it
aside in some moderately dry place, with slips of wood between each
board to allow a circulation of air round them. The other stuff that
is likely to be required should also be selected and put aside. If
all these things be strictly attended to, there is not likely to
be much trouble about bad joints; and it will be to the employer’s
interest to look after such workmen who have not enough scientific
knowledge to see the reason of things themselves, and put them in the
right direction. But an intelligent workman will soon appreciate the
advantage of getting his stuff ready at the commencement, instead of
waiting till he wants to use it.

The parts composing the body may be thus enumerated:—

  The frame or case.

  The doors.

  The glasses, which are fixed in thin frames of wainscot,
  covered with cloth or velvet. It is a very good thing to have
  india-rubber for these to fall on, and little india-rubber buffers
  would prevent them from rattling.

  The blinds, which are sometimes panel, but more generally
  Venetian, so adjusted with springs that the bars may stand
  open at any required angle.

  The curtains, of silk, which slide up and down on spring
  rollers.

  The lining and cushions, of cloth, silk, or morocco, as the
  case may be, ornamented with lace, &c. The cushions are
  sometimes made elastic with small spiral springs.

  The steps, which are made to fold up and fit into recesses
  in the doors, or in the bottom, when they are not in use.

  The lamps, which are fixed to the fore part of the body by
  means of iron stays.

  The boot, on which is carried the coachman’s seat.

In carriages suspended from C springs we have in addition:—

  The check-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces
  from the spring heads, to prevent the body from swinging
  too much backwards and forwards.

  The collar-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces
  from the perch, to prevent the body swinging too much upwards
  or sideways.

The curve or rounding given to the side of the body from end to end
is called the _side-cant_, and the rounding from the top to the
bottom the _turn-under_. Some makers arrive at this curve by framing
the skeleton of the body together with square timber, and then round
these off to the required curve _after_ they are put together. It
must be evident to any one that this proceeding will greatly strain
the joints, and under any circumstances will never give thorough
satisfaction or good results, and the waste of time and material must
be very considerable.

The proper way is to set the curve out beforehand on a board called
the “cant” board, and the method of doing this is as follows:—

Take a clean pine board, plane it up to a smooth surface. Shoot one
edge perfectly true with a trying-plane. This straight edge may be
taken to represent the side of the carriage if it were a straight
line. Apply this edge to the full-sized draught, and mark along it
the various parts of the body (see Fig. 8, in which the numbered
points are those required to form the side-cant). By means of these
points the required sweep can be set up or drawn, as shown by the
dotted line C in the figure. Now, if you choose, you can cut away the
portion between A and B, and a template will be formed to which the
constructional timbers can be cut; and it possesses the advantage
of being easily applied to the carriage as it proceeds, to see that
the curve is true and uniform. As this template forms the pattern to
which the timber, &c., is cut, great care is requisite in forming it,
so that it shall be perfectly true.

In order to get the turn-under, the same process is gone through
on another board. This gives what is called the “standing” pillar
pattern, the standing pillar being the upright timber to which the
door is hinged.

There is no rule in particular for determining the amount of
side-cant or turn-under to be given to a vehicle, 2½ or 3 inches on
each side making the outside width of the body; 5 or 6 inches less at
the bottom than at the elbow line is a usual allowance, but this is
entirely dependent on the will or taste of the workman.

The cant-board described above is one having a “concave” surface; but
it quite as often has a convex surface, and it is just as well to
have one of each, and use the convex for cutting the timbers to, and
the concave for trying them when in place, though, if this be done,
it is imperative that the curves on the two boards should be one and
the same. The same remarks apply to the standing pillar pattern.

The body is a species of box, fitted with doors and windows, and
lined and wadded for the purpose of comfort. As the greatest amount
of strain is put upon the bottom part, and the forces acting on the
other parts are transmitted to the bottom, it is necessary that it
should be very strongly put together. The two side bottom timbers
are bonded, or tied together, by two cross timbers called bottom
bars, which are firmly framed into them. To give depth to the floor,
without destroying the symmetry of the side, deep pieces of elm plank
are fixed to the inside of the side bottom pieces, and to these the
flooring-boards are nailed, being additionally secured by iron strap
plates, nailed or screwed beneath them. In the central portion of the
bottom sides are framed the door-posts, called standing pillars. At
the angles of the bottom framework are scarfed the corner pillars.
The cross framing pieces, which connect the pillars, are called
rails. Two of these rails stretch across the body inside, on which
the seats are formed; these are called seat rails. The doors are
framed double, to contain a hollow space for the glasses and blinds,
and they are fastened by means of a wedge lock, forced into a groove
by a lever handle. There is a window in each door and one in front
of an ordinary carriage, say a brougham. The doors are hinged with
secret or flush hinges.

Before cutting the timber to the various sizes required, patterns or
templates of all the parts are made in thin wood from the full-sized
draught; also of the various curves likely to be given to the
different parts of the body.

Before a workman could be trusted with the making of a body, he must
of course have considerably advanced in the knowledge of his craft
beyond the mere use of his tools, because the success of a carriage
depends very largely upon the individual skill of the workman, more
so than perhaps in any other trade.

The stuff is marked out from the thin patterns before mentioned
by means of chalk, and in doing so care should be taken to lay
the patterns on the timber so that the grain may run as nearly
as possible in a line with it, and thus obtaining the greatest
possible strength in the wood, which lies in the direction of the
grain. Thus if the pattern be straight, lay it down on a piece of
straight-grained timber; if the pattern sweep round, then get a piece
of timber the grain of which will follow, or nearly follow, the line
of pattern.

The strongest timber that can be obtained is necessary for the
construction of the hind and front bottom sides; for the weight is
directly transmitted to these, more particularly the hind bottom
sides, where the pump-handles are fixed.

The body-maker, having marked and cut out the various pieces of
timber he will require, planes a flat side to each of them, from
which all the other sides, whether plain or curved, are formed and
finished. They are then framed and scarfed together, after which
the various grooves are formed for the panels and rebates, for the
floor-boards to fit on to. Then, if there is to be any carved or
beaded work, it is performed by the carver. Previous to being fitted
in, some of the panels have strong canvas glued firmly on their
backs, and when fitted in blocks are glued round the internal angles
to give greater security to the joints, and to fix the panels firmly
in their places. Before the upper panels are put in, the roof is
nailed on, and all the joints stuck over with glued blocks inside.
The upper panels are then put on, united at the corners, and blocked
inside.

If the foreman who superintends all this be a thoroughly skilful
artisan, and the men under him possess equal intelligence and skill,
the work might be distributed amongst almost as many men as there are
parts in the framework of the body. These parts will be worked up,
the mortises and tenons, the rabbets and tongues, being all cut to
specified gauges; and when they are all ready it will be found that
they go together like a Chinese puzzle.

The woodwork being completed, the currier now takes the body in
hand, and a hide of undressed leather, specially prepared for it, is
strained over the roof, the back, and the top quarters of the body
whilst in a soft pulpy state, and carefully sleeked or flattened down
till it is perfectly flat. This sleeking down is a rather tedious
process, and takes a long time and a great amount of care to bring it
to a successful issue; when it is flattened down satisfactorily, it
is nailed round the edges and left to dry, which will take several
days.

Such panels as require bending may be brought to the required sweep
by wetting one side and subjecting the other to heat, as of a small
furnace.

The doors are now made and hinged, and the hollow spaces intended
to hold the glasses and blinds are covered in with thin boards, to
prevent any foreign matter from getting down into the space, and
being a source of trouble to dislodge.

In constructing the body the aid of the smith is called in. His
services are required to strengthen the parts subjected to great
strain, more particularly the timbers forming the construction of the
lower portion. All along each side of the body should be plated with
iron; this should be of the best brand and toughest quality. It is
several inches wide, and varies from ¼ to ¾ of an inch in thickness.
This is called the “edge plate,” and is really the backbone of the
body, for everything depends on its stability. It should run from
one extremity to the other, commencing at the hind bottom bar, on
to which it should be cranked, and ending at the front part of the
front boot, bottom side. This plate should take a perfectly flat
bearing at every point. Great care must be taken in fitting it, for
although the plate may be of the requisite strength the absence of
this perfect fitting will render it comparatively weak, the result
of which will be found, when the carriage is completed and mounted
on the wheels, by the springing of the sides, which will cause the
pillars of the body to press on the doors, and it will be a matter of
great difficulty to open them.

In the application of smith’s work to coach-building, it is often
necessary to fit the iron to intricate parts while it is red hot, and
if due precaution be not taken the wood becomes charred and useless,
and in cases where there are glued joints it may cause the loosening
or breaking of these joints and other material defects. It is an
easy matter to have the means at hand to get over the difficulty.
All that is necessary is to have handy some heat neutraliser. One of
the commonest things that can be used is chalk, and no smith’s shop
should ever be without it. If chalk is rubbed over the surface to
which the hot iron is to be applied it will not char or burn. Plaster
of Paris is a still more powerful heat neutraliser, and it is freer
from grit. A small quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and
worked up to the proper consistency, will be ready for use in about
two hours. Many smiths will say that they never have any accidents in
applying heated iron, but on inquiry the reason is apparent, for it
will generally be found that such men use chalk, in order to see that
the iron plate takes its proper bearings, thus inadvertently using
a proper heat neutraliser. If it were more generally known that the
difficulty could be met by such simple means, there would be less
material spoilt in the smith’s shop.

It has been very common of late years for body-makers to use glue
instead of screws and nails for panel work, &c.; but it requires
a great deal of experience for a man to use glue with successful
results. It is useless for the tyro to try it; he will only spoil the
work. So, unless the artisan be well experienced in the treatment
and application of glue, he had better leave it alone. To render the
operation successful two considerations must be taken into account.
_First_: To do good gluing requires that the timber should be well
seasoned and the work well fitted. _Second_: In preparing for gluing
use a scratch plane or rasp to form a rough surface of the pieces
to be joined together, for the same purpose that a plasterer scores
over his first coat of plaster-work, in order to give a key or hold.
The shop in which the gluing is done should be at a pretty good
temperature, and so should the material, so that the glue may flow
freely. Having the glue properly prepared, spread it upon the parts,
so as to fill up the pores and grain of the wood, and put the pieces
together; then keep the joints tight by means of iron cramps where
it is possible, and if this cannot be done the joints must be pushed
tightly up, and held till the glue is a little set and there is no
fear of its giving way. All superfluous glue will be forced out by
this pressure and can be cleaned off.

A great cause of bad gluing is using inferior glue and laying it on
too thick. Before using a new quality of glue, the body-maker should
always test it by taking, say a piece of poplar and a piece of ash,
and glue them together, and if when dry the joints give way under
leverage caused by the insertion of the chisel, the glue is not fit
for the purposes of carriage-building and should be rejected. With
good glue, like good cement, the material should rather give way than
the substance promoting adhesion. This is a very severe test, but in
putting it into practice you will be repaid by the stability of your
work.

_Waterproof Glue._

It is often found that joints glued together will allow water to
dissolve the glue, and thereby destroy its adhesive power. It may
have been well painted and every care taken to make it impervious to
water, but owing to its exposed position water has managed to get in.
Often where screws are put in the glue around them will be dissolved,
caused by the screws sweating; and it is very often found, where the
screws are inserted in a panel, that the glue loses its strength
and allows the joint to open, and there is little or no appearance
of glue on the wood, which shows that it has been absorbed by the
moisture.

To render ordinary glue insoluble, the water with which it is mixed
should have a little bichromate of potash dissolved in it. Chromic
acid has the property of rendering glue or gelatine insoluble. And,
as the operation of heating the glue pot is conducted in the light,
no special exposure of the pieces joined is necessary.

Glue prepared in this manner is preferable in gluing the panels on
bodies, which are liable to the action of water or damp. The strength
of the glue is not affected by the addition of the potash.

In plugging screw holes glue the edge of the plug; put no glue into
the hole. By this means the surplus glue is left on the surface, and
if the plug does not hit the screw it will seldom show.

Where brads are used the heads should be well set in; then pass a
sponge well saturated with hot water over them, filling the holes
with water. This brings the wood more to its natural position, and it
closes by degrees over the brad heads. The brad must have a chance
to expand, when exposed to the heat of the sun, without hitting the
putty stopping; if it does it will force the putty out so as to show,
by disturbing the surface, after the work is finished.

                             CHAPTER V.

  PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.—FRAMING THEM
  TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES.

We have now to consider the construction of the lower framework, or
_carriage_.

The following is a list of the chief parts of a _coach_, as generally
known:—

  Wheels.

  Axles.

  Springs.

  Beds, or cross framing timbers, which are technically
  termed the fore axle bed, the hind axle bed, fore
  spring bed or transom, hind spring bed, and horn
  bar.

  Perch, or central longitudinal timber connecting the
  axletrees.

  Wings, which are spreading sides, hooped to the perch
  and framed to the hind beds.

  Nunters, or small framing pieces, which help to bind
  the hind beds together.

  Hooping-piece. A piece of timber scarped and hooped
  to the fore end of the perch to secure it to the

  Wheel plate, which is the circular iron beneath which
  the fore carriage turns.

The fore carriage consists of the fore axle beds, into which are
framed the

  Futchells (French, _fourchil_, a fork), which are the longitudinal
  timbers supporting the

  Splinter-bar and the

  Pole, to which the horses are attached.

The hinder ends of the futchells support the

  Sway-bar—a circular piece of timber working beneath
  the wheel-plate.

A circular piece of timber of smaller size, supported on the fore
part of the futchells for a similar purpose, is called the

  Felloe-piece (often made of iron).

On the splinter-bar are fixed the

  Roller bolts, for fastening the traces.

On the pole is fixed the

  Pole hook, to secure the harness.

The perch and beds are strengthened with iron plates, where
necessary, and the other ironwork consists of

  Splinter-bar stays, to resist the action of the draught.
  Formerly these were affixed to the ends of the
  axles and called “wheel-irons.”

  Tread-steps, for the coachman to mount by.

  Footman’s step.

  Spring-stays.

On the beds are placed

  Blocks, to support the

  =C= springs; to which are attached

  Jacks, or small windlasses, and

  Leathern suspension braces.

These parts fitted together would form what is generally known as a
coach, or a vehicle, the body of which is large, and suspended by
leathern braces from the ends of =C= springs. They enter into the
formation of all vehicles more or less, but for the other kinds some
part or parts are omitted, as in a brougham hung on elliptic springs,
the =C= springs, perch, leather braces, &c., would be omitted, and,
of course, elliptic springs and a pump-handle would be added. All the
woodwork is lightened as much as possible by the introduction of
beading, carving, chamfering, &c.

In starting the carriage part the workman first takes the perch and
planes a flat side to it, and then works it taper from front to
back. The top and bottom curves are then worked up, or at least some
portion of them, and then the front and hind spring beds are framed
on. A pair of spreading wings are then fitted to the sides of the
perch; these are simply circular iron stays, swelled and moulded to
take off their plainness. A pair is fitted at each end of the perch.
The hind axletree bed is then scarfed upon the top of the perch and
wings, and is connected with the hind spring bed by two small framing
pieces called nunters. At the front end of the perch a cross bed
called a horn-bar is scarfed on the perch, at the same distance from
the fore spring bed as the hind axle bed is from the hind spring bed,
viz. the length of the bearing of the spring, or about 15 inches.
The horn-bar is connected with the fore spring bed by the two spring
blocks, which are either framed into them or scarfed down on them,
and also by the hooping-piece, which is scarfed on the top of the
perch. The perch is then planed up to the curve it is to have when
finished, and it is then taken to the smith, who fits and rivets
on the side plates, which have ears at the ends for the purpose of
bolting them to the beds. The carver then does his work by beading
the perch and beds, having due regard to the finish of the parts,
rounds and curves all the ends. On the under side of the perch is
riveted an iron plate, and on this plate is an iron hook for hanging
the drag shoe and chain (if such be used). The hind framing is now
put together, all connections being by means of mortises and tenons
secured by screw-bolts. The wings used to be, and sometimes still
are, of wood, in which case they are hooped to the perch by iron
hoops, and are rebated to receive the perch plates. The hooping-piece
is then hooped in a similar way to the fore end of the perch, and
the transom firmly bolted. The carriage is then turned bottom
upwards, and the smith fits to the fore part the wheel plate or
turning iron, across which runs a broad plate the width and length of
the fore spring bed. A similar plate runs across the hind spring bed.
The hind axle is then fitted to the wings and perch, and let into
its bed at the ends, where screw clips secure it, the bolts passing
through the perch.

The carriage is then turned up into its old position; the wheel-plate
is cased on the top with carved wood, and a plate is riveted to the
side of the horn-bar. The springs are now fitted to their blocks and
bolted firmly down. Iron stays are bolted to the springs beneath the
beds to render them still firmer. The footman’s step, and the steps
for the coachman to mount to his box by, and other ironwork that may
be required in the shape of stays, &c., are then fixed in their place.

The under portion of the fore carriage is framed to the fore axletree
bed, which is a very stout piece of timber. Through this are framed
the two futchells which receive the pole. The upper part of the
axletree bed is covered with a strong plate to match the wheel-plate.
A circular piece of timber, called a sway-bar, is bolted behind the
axletree bed, and this is also plated beneath for security. In front
is a smaller piece of the same kind, and they both serve for the
circumference of the wheel to rest on. The splinter-bar is bolted on
to the fore end of the futchells and secured by branching stays, one
at either end connecting it with the axletree bed. As an additional
security, iron stays are fitted to the bottoms of the futchells
passing over the axle, which, in addition to bolts, is secured by
screw clips at the ends, the same as the hind one.

The carriage above described is one suspended only on =C= springs.
Sometimes elliptic springs are used in conjunction with =C= springs,
and the former are then termed under-springs. In the latter case,
of the double combination of springs, the constructional timbers
may be of a less size or scantling, owing to some of the strain and
concussion being removed. In this case the axles are clipped to the
under-springs; but the general mode of construction is the same.

In first-class work a wrought-iron perch is used instead of the
before described wooden one. This generally follows the contour of
the underside of the body, and is called a swan neck. It enables
the perch to be constructed of a much lighter appearance, and being
really light, and to a certain extent elastic, all the beds and
iron stays may be proportionately reduced in weight. The wheels and
axles also, having less to carry, may also be made lighter. The
system was introduced by Messrs. Hooper about 1846, and at first was
only applied to broughams and sociables, but it has gradually been
applied to the largest carriages, especially barouches and landaus.
These perches are supported on horizontal under-springs, and are not
now made so light as at first, for it is found that unless the hind
wheels follow steadily, not only is the carriage heavier behind the
horse, but the perch itself is frequently bent against very small
obstructions; a stronger and stiffer perch is therefore now used, and
it is found easier both to the horse and to the passengers.

When the body is suspended from =C= springs by leather braces, great
care should be used in the selection of the material for these
latter, and for this purpose the best and strongest leather is
required.

The use of brake retarders to the hind wheels has now for some
years superseded the old-fashioned drag shoes. It is evident that
the action on two wheels must be better than on one only. The brake
can be applied or removed without stopping the carriage, which
is necessary if a drag shoe be used. This is rather an important
consideration in undulating country, for it would be a great
inconvenience to have to get down and put on the drag shoe when
descending a hill, and when at the bottom to stop and get down
again to remove it, in order to proceed along level ground or up the
next hill, and so keep on like this all day. The lever brake was
the original form, as still seen on drags, &c., but in many parts
it is superseded by the foot or treadle brake, more especially in
Scotland. This kind of brake is also the one used by the London
Omnibus Company. The blocks which press upon the wheels have been
made of various substances—cast iron, wrought iron, brass, wood,
india-rubber, and leather. The wood is the best for the hold on the
iron tyre and absence of noise and smell, but it wears out fast.
India-rubber, especially for light carriages, seems to be the most
satisfactory.

We have given, generally, the operation of framing together the
under or carriage parts of the vehicle. But as some very important
considerations regulate the shape, construction, and formation of
most of these parts, they must be discussed separately. For this
purpose they will be considered under the following headings:—

  Wheels.
  Axles.
  Springs.
  Wheel-plates and fore-carriages.
  Ironwork generally.

                             CHAPTER VI.

  WHEELS.

A wheel for a locomotive vehicle is a circular roller, either
cylindrical or conical, the width or thickness of which is
considerably less than its diameter. It may be either solid or
constructed of various pieces, in which latter case it is called a
framed wheel. It may also be made of wood or metal, or a combination
of both.

Wheels which were made before the introduction of iron were of course
very clumsy in their construction, in order to obtain the requisite
strength. Specimens may still be seen in the broad wheels of waggons,
technically termed rollers. The naves of these wheels are of enormous
size. But when the naves of wheels were reduced for the purposes
of elegance, a thin hoop of iron was applied both to the front and
back, to prevent them from bursting by the strain on the spokes. When
the felloes of wheels were reduced in size, straps of iron, called
strakes or streaks, were applied to their convex surfaces covering
the joints. But the last improvement was the most important of all,
namely, the application of a “hoop-tire” instead of what was called
the “strake-tire.” Mr. Felton, in his treatise on coach-building,
1709, says, “Many persons prefer the common sort of wheel on account
of their being more easily repaired than the hoop-tyre wheel; but
though repairing the latter is more difficult, they are much less
subject to need it.”

The earliest form of wheel was no doubt a slice of the trunk of a
tree; portions of this being cut out for the purpose of lightening it
would be the forerunner of spokes, or we should think the pieces left
running from the nave to the felloe would be. The only improvement
then effected for a very long period was making them of different
pieces of timber instead of all from one piece, though of course the
proportions of the parts would be considerably improved, if only for
the sake of appearance.

At the end of the seventeenth century, among the wealthier classes,
decoration was applied to coaches generally, and wheels in
particular, to an extent which would surprise us nowadays. These
latter were again ornamented as in the times of the old Roman Empire;
the spokes were shaped and carved, the rim moulded, and the naves
highly embossed; though, as may be imagined, there was a great want
of taste in the application of all this ornament.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the extreme height of
wheels extended to 5 feet 8 inches, which had but 14 spokes; wheels
5 feet 4 inches high had 12 spokes; wheels 4 feet 6 inches had 10
spokes; and the lowest wheels, 3 feet 2 inches high, had 8 spokes.
The naves were of elm, the spokes of oak, and the rims or felloes
of ash or beech. The rims of the higher wheels were often of bent
timber, in two or more pieces, and were bolted to the tires by one
bolt between each pair of spokes. The tire was put on in pieces,
until the hoop-tire came into general use, when it superseded the old
ones entirely. In consequence of the great height of the wheels it
was necessary to make the carriages very long, and the distance from
the front to the hind axletree was 9 feet 2 inches in a chariot, and
9 feet 8 inches in a coach, or about 8 inches longer than we should
consider necessary now.

These extreme sizes are now very seldom used, except in the case of
large dress or state carriages and coaches.

The form of wheel now generally preferred in practice is of the
dished or conical kind, and the axle-arm on which it revolves is
sloped or bent so far out of the horizontal that the lower spokes
are in a vertical position. Undoubtedly the friction is increased
by this arrangement, because a wheel on a horizontal axle runs
easiest and smoothest; and when the axle-arm is slanted downwards
towards the point the wheel has a tendency to bind harder against the
shoulder which butts against the nave of the wheel, and the friction
between the two is greater than would be the case if the axle-arm
were perfectly horizontal. This, however, is a very small objection,
inasmuch as this collar is firm and strong, and well fitted to
bear any strain that may be thrown on it by the wheel; whereas, if
the force acted in the other direction, or against the nuts and
linch-pins, there are very few that would last out a day’s journey.
The advantage of throwing the strain on the firm and strong shoulder,
which is well able to withstand it, is evident; and in this case, in
the event of the nuts or linch-pins falling off or giving way, there
is not so much danger of the wheel coming off at the moment the nuts
go, as its tendency when on a level road is to run upwards towards
the shoulder. Besides this, as the lower spokes are in a vertical
position, the upper ones spread considerably outwards, and thus
afford a greater space for the body between the wheels without the
track on the ground being increased; and another advantage is that
the mud collected by these conical wheels is thrown off away from the
carriage.

The hind wheels of an ordinary carriage vary from 4 feet 3 inches to
4 feet 8 inches; the fore wheels are from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 8
inches. The number of felloes in each circumference varies according
to the number of spokes, two spokes being driven into each felloe;
14 to 20 spokes are a usual number for a hind wheel, 12 to 18 for a
fore wheel; however, there is no rule to guide one in the matter,
experience being the only teacher.

The wheels should be made with a due regard to the offices they have
to fulfil; but we are inclined to think that this branch of the trade
has not received that careful study which it deserves. Coachmakers
seem in such a hurry to produce a perfect vehicle all at once,
instead of beginning by improving the parts and then applying these
improvements to the whole.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.]

The mode of constructing a wheel is as follows:—

The timbers that are to be used should be well and carefully
selected. The nave or stock, which is sliced from the limb of a tree,
should be as nearly as possible the size required in its natural
growth, so that it will require little reduction beyond what it
receives in the lathe in bringing it up to the true circular form.
The reason of this is that the annual rings which mark the grain of
the timber should be as little disturbed as possible, as they are not
all of equal strength and durability, the outer rings being pretty
strong, but as they get nearer to the centre the wood is much softer.
If, then, this outer hard casing is cut away, even only in part, it
is signing the death-warrant of the poor nave, for the interior parts
of the timber are not nearly so capable of resisting the destructive
influences around, and in a very short time they will become
completely soft and rotten.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.]

As already remarked, the spokes should be cleft, not cut. The felloes
which form the outer periphery of the wheel should also be cut as
closely following the grain as possible.

When the wheelwright has carefully selected his timbers, he commences
work by turning the stock in the lathe to the size required. Then
he marks with a gauge of the same width as the spokes 4 circles as
shown at _a_ _a_ _a_ _a_, Fig. 13. The first and third of these mark
the position of the front or face spoke, and the second and fourth
mark the position of the back spoke. Two holes are then bored in each
mortise in succession, after which they are squared out with proper
chisels. Truth of eye and skill of hand are the workmen’s only guide
in this operation, though it is evident that it is the most important
operation of the whole, as upon it depend the accuracy and solidity
of the wheel when finished. The tenons of the spokes are then cut to
fit the mortises, parallel in their thickness, but in width they are
cut slightly taper-wise, _i.e._ the extremity of the tenon is made
about the same size as the mortise, but at the shoulder it is about
one sixteenth of an inch larger, so as to make sure of the tenon
filling the mortise when driven home.

[Illustration: Fig. 13.]

Before cutting the mortises the stock should be fixed at some
convenient angle, regulated by the amount of dish it is intended to
give the wheel. This is particularly necessary, or when the felloes
come to be fitted, if the mortise-cutting has been done in a slovenly
way, the dish will not exist at all, or if it does it will be in the
wrong direction.

Each alternate spoke is now driven in by the blows of a mallet to a
perfectly close bearing of the shoulder of the tenon, the workman
guiding it as best he can. But it is evident that the position that
the spokes will take is by no means certain. Owing to the wedge-like
form given to the tenon, the spokes are driven home very tight, and
wood not being of a homogeneous texture will yield more in one part
than in another; and the mortise, cut in the way that it is, must be
to some extent uncertain. Every alternate spoke being driven, or
those in the same plane, the remainder are driven in between them in
the same manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.]

In Fig. 13, _b_, _b_, _b_, are the mortises for the face spoke, and
_c_, _c_, _c_, the mortises for the back spoke. Fig. 14 shows a
section of an ordinary spoke, the hatched part showing the form of
the greater part of its length, and the plain lines completing the
rectangle show the extent of the swelling at the shoulder of the
tenon at the nave.

[Illustration: Fig. 15.]

Fig. 15 shows a very handy adjunct to the wheelwright’s shop; it is
called the “centring square.” It is found extremely useful in marking
and setting out the mortises for the spokes. Its construction is very
simple, being but a T square, whose stock is the segment of a circle.
A is the blade, B the circular stock, the extremities of which should
be protected by steel or brass, or, better still, have a steel edge
round the whole of the inner surface of the stock, so that it will
always keep true; for if it wears at all, of course its true circular
form will be destroyed, and it will be rendered useless. And another
important thing should be borne in mind, and that is to make the
upper edge, C, of the blade in a line with the centre of the curve
from which the circular head is struck; the reason of this will be
apparent to the most obtuse, for unless the lines radiate from the
given centre it is useless for the wheelwright’s purpose.

After the spokes have been driven in they are shaved off by the
spokeshave to their proper form, Fig. 14; and the lengths being
measured from the nave, the outer tenons are cut, sometimes square,
sometimes cylindrical, but leaving the back shoulder square to abut
on the felloe with greater firmness. In the manner of tonguing there
is a great deal of difference of opinion amongst wheelwrights;
that the tongues in size should be slightly in excess of the hole
or mortise to receive them, is a generally received idea, but a
difference of opinion exists as to the length. But certainly it seems
more reasonable to cut the tongues a little _shorter_ than the length
of the hole in the felloe to receive them, because when the tyre is
put on it shrinks in cooling and draws up all the joints. Now suppose
the tongues are a little longer than the holes, the shrinking of the
tire causes it to press on these; and as they are firmly fixed at the
nave, there is no escape for them, and the result is that the spoke
is seriously crippled. It is fair to say that there are many good
practical men who work in this latter way, and with to all appearance
good results, but it is evident that the principle is not a good one.

One of the difficulties in making light carriage wheels is to get the
spoke tightly into the felloe without splitting it, and the manner
of accomplishing this is more successfully done, not by making the
tongue on the spoke so large that it will fill the hole in the felloe
of itself, but by making the tongue rather smaller and slitting the
edges after it has been driven in, and then wedging up with small
wedges, just in the same manner that a joiner would wedge up the
mortises and tenons of a door.

When the wheel is so far progressed with it is laid on the ground,
and the felloes are ranged round it in the order they are to be
fitted. It is of the greatest importance that the holes should be
bored in the felloe in an exact radial line from the nave; if this is
not done, the spoke will have to be strained out of the straight line
in order to get it into the hole; this will put an undue pressure
upon it, and it is very likely that before the wheel has been long in
use the spoke will break off short at the felloe. The exact position
of all the mortises and joints should, therefore, be worked out on a
full-sized drawing, and this being accurately done, there will not
be much danger of going wrong. As the construction of a wheel is
somewhat analogous to the arch, it is considered that by giving the
felloes a number of joints the strength of the wheel is very much
increased. Whether this be so or not must be left to the theorists
to determine, as we have no trustworthy results from the various
experiments under this heading.

The number of felloes in a wheel is decided by its size and number
of spokes, two spokes being driven into each felloe. For an
ordinary-sized brougham the felloes should be seven in number for the
hind wheels, and six for the front wheels, or fourteen and twelve
spokes respectively. For the purpose of connecting the felloes, a
dowel or pin is cut on the end of one of them, and a corresponding
hole bored on another, and they are fitted together; in common work
holes are bored in each felloe, and an independent pin of hard wood
or iron fitted into them. There is less time and labour consumed in
this latter method; but the felloes constructed on this plan are not
very reliable, and their weakness is soon shown by what is known as
“dropping,” which is simply caused by the wear and tear to which
wheels are subject working the dowels in the holes and enlarging them
(the holes), and destroying the truth of the joint, which loss is
soon discovered by the play or freedom given to the felloes allowing
them to slip out of their place. But it must be borne in mind that
this defect is just as liable to take place in felloes put together
in the other way if the holes are not truly bored, and the joints are
not well fitted.

The following directions as to putting on the tires are given in the
“Coachmaker’s Handbook,” an American work:—

“First examine the wheels and see what condition they are in for the
tire, so that we can determine what draught to give them. See if the
felloes are drawn snug on the shoulder of the spokes, and how much
open there is in the rim; for instance, one set we will suppose to
be 1½-inch felloe, open ³⁄₁₆ of an inch, give a good ¼-inch draught;
1⅜-inch felloe, ³⁄₁₆ open, just ¼-inch draught; 1¼-inch felloe, ³⁄₁₆
open, ³⁄₁₆-draught, and so on.

“Now in determining what draught to give the above wheels, we
supposed them all to be good, sound, hard, hickory felloes; if the
felloes are of soft timber just give them a trifle more draught. If
the wheels should be above ¼-inch dish, the felloes would want only
one-half the opening, but give them the same draught as the above. In
running the tire, lay all the above tire in sets on the floor, roll
the wheels on them, and allow 1 inch for taking up in bending; then
mark the end of the nave with chalk, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., and the tire
with a sharp cold chisel mark I., II., III., IV., &c. Then straighten
on a block set up endwise about 2 feet high, a little concave or
hollow in the centre, letting the helper strike while the smith
manages the tires until the kinks are all taken out of them. Then
bend one end a little, so that it can be got into the machine, and
take pains to get them as round as possible.

“In running the wheels with a ‘traveller,’ a wedge must be driven in
one of the joints of the felloe for the purpose of tightening the
other joints in the rim. Then get the length of the felloe, and in
running the tire cut it ⅛ inch shorter than the rim measures. In this
explanation we are supposed to have steel tire, and we have a kind
of steel tire now that is very high and difficult to weld, and there
are many smiths that will profit by this lesson if they attend to the
precaution we give. This tire steel will not stand as heavy heat as
even cast steel, and if it is over-heated in the least it will crack
or break in two while hot.

“There is one peculiar fact connected with it that we find in no
other kind of steel, and that is this: it is apt to slip, however
good the heat, and to obviate this, after scaffing the ends down
to a sharp edge, make a rather sharp lap, and while hot take a
sharp-pointed punch and punch a hole nearly through both laps, and
drive in a sharp pin made of ³⁄₁₆-inch steel wire and ½ inch long.
This will not show on the outside of the tire when on the wheel,
neither does it weaken the tire like a rivet. We have often seen
tires broken where the rivet went through.

“In welding, first have your fire perfectly clean, the coal pretty
well charred, and the fire hot, but rather small, for the smaller the
fire, if hot, the less it will waste your tire each side of the weld;
have the borax charred; put a little on the weld while hot, pull the
fire open with the poker and place the lap in the hottest part; roll
a few pieces of coked coal on the weld, blow steadily, carrying your
tire back and forward through the fire, or stop the blast a moment
until the lap is heated alike all through; take it out and weld with
hammer and sledge. With this precaution you will never fail getting
a good welding heat, and need not upset your tire before welding. If
your tire is upset before welding it makes the lap so much thicker
that before it can be heated through alike there is a liability to
over-heat, and waste away the tire on each side of the weld.

“In laying the tires down the heaviest should be laid at the bottom,
and levelled with brick, so that the tire will rest permanently on
every brick or bearing, and the rest laid on top the way they will
fit best, to prevent warping the tire in the fire. A level stone
should be used to lay the wheel on when the tire is put on. If the
tires do not get warped in the fire do not hammer them at all,
without there are some kinks left in the tires in fitting them; avoid
hammering if possible, for it marks the tire; cool off, gradually
pouring the water on out of the spout of a tea-kettle until it
shrinks enough so it can be taken up; then roll it in soap-water
to prevent it from hardening, until it is so cool that it will not
burn the felloes, truing up while the helper is rolling it in the
water with a mallet covered with thick leather at both ends; let
the third person take the wheel and finish truing the tire with a
leather-covered mallet; while it is so hot that you cannot bear your
hand on it the felloes move easily under the tire, and it should not
be moved after it has cooled off if it can be otherwise avoided,
for this reason, when the tire gets cold all its roughness and
imperfections become embedded in the felloe.”

“The tire once moved will move the easier next time. After the tires
are all on examine the wheels, and see if there are any crooked spots
in the tire that do not set down to the rim; should there be any,
heat a short piece of iron and lay on the tire, it will soon heat
it enough to burn the felloe, but take it off before that time, and
rap it down with a hammer. It is a bad practice to heat the tires on
a forge as some do, for in truing them in fitting we have to bend
them cold, and if heated on the forge and one place red hot, you
will often find there a short crook edgewise. If some of the wheels
are dished more than the others, put them on the off-side of the
carriage. Never take a tire off if it can be avoided, without it is
so loose or tight as to spoil the wheel when run.”

When the tire has got sufficiently cold it is riveted to the felloe
by countersunk rivets, one on each side of the felloe joints.

The strength or weakness of wheels plays an important part in the
durability of the vehicle, for in whatever manner the various forces
are mechanically met they at last concentrate themselves on the
wheel; it is highly necessary, therefore, that great pains should
be taken in constructing them. The stock is not necessarily the
foundation on which to build a wheel, and, further, there are many
objections to its being so constituted. In the first place, when
its centre is all scooped out for the reception of the axle-box,
and its sides are mortised out to receive the ends of the spokes,
it is nothing but a mere shell. Every mortise hole is more or less
a receptacle for water, which the best workmanship cannot wholly
exclude; and as one part of the stock is always more porous than
another, that is the part that will soonest absorb wet and begin
to decay. If, therefore, the stock could be dispensed with greater
durability would be insured.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.]

[Illustration: Fig. 17.]

A thoughtful inventor, turning over these things in his mind, has,
during the last few years, produced a wheel of novel construction,
which is found practically to be superior to the one in common use.
All the spokes, instead of being shouldered down to enter the stock,
are made wedge-shaped at the end, and instead of the wheel being
constructed from the centre to the felloe, it is constructed from the
felloe to the centre. Every felloe is made and fitted with its two
spokes, which, as they converge towards the centre, press upon each
other in such a manner that when the whole periphery is put together
a solid centre is produced by the spokes themselves, as shown in
Figs. 16 and 17; so that instead of being dependent on wooden stocks
the spokes are dependent upon each other, and by being tightly wedged
together create a mutual support and resistance. The whole are
secured by two metal flanges, one at the back and one at the front of
the centre of the wheel, which are tightly screwed up, by which means
the greatest amount of solidity is obtained for the entire structure
of the wheel.

This invention is due to the Messrs. McNeile Brothers, of the
Patent Steam Wheel and Axle Company, and it is a significant fact
that wheels similarly constructed have for a considerable time been
adopted by the Royal Artillery; moreover, they have been extensively
used on street cabs, heavy carts, more particularly the latter,
and have invariably maintained their character for superiority.
For ourselves, we can see that a wheel so constructed must possess
peculiar advantages. There is no stock to rot, and the wheel cannot
in any sense be spoke-bound, as is frequently the case with wheels
of ordinary construction, by the mortise in the stock and the bore
in the felloe not ranging in a true line with the spoke. In the
growing desire to produce wheels of light construction, great efforts
have been made to reduce the size of the centre, and the inventors
of these wheels have been very successful in obtaining this object.
At the centre their wheels are exceedingly light and ornamental in
appearance, and to render them still more uniform they have shortened
the arm of their axles, and consequently curtailed the length of
the axle-box, so that there is the smallest possible projection at
the centre of the wheel. At the same time all the advantages and
peculiarities of Collinge’s principle are retained. In the ordinary
Collinge axle the bearing is not upon the whole length of the arm,
and practically speaking Messrs. McNeile have in their axles cut out
all that part which is useless in this respect, so that although
their axle-arm is considerably shorter, the bearing is the same as in
the Collinge axle of ordinary construction.

One of the greatest disadvantages in the manufacture of wheels is the
want of uniformity between one another. Scarcely any two wheels are
alike. Scarcely any spokes in a wheel radiate alike; some are as much
as an inch apart more than others at the felloe; and as the shrinking
of the tire varies, some wheels, as a consequence, get more dish
than others, the spokes either compressing in the nave mortises, or
yielding by elasticity in the direction of their length. To get them
at all accurate, it is necessary to employ very skilful workmen, and
as skilful workmen are not so numerous as they might be, the cost of
wheels is very much increased. Another disadvantage attends them: a
workman may put his work badly together, and there is no means of
detecting it till the wheel is in actual use. A badly framed wheel
will show as well to the eye as a good one, and until it breaks down,
no one, whether maker or customer, can detect the inaccuracy. Unless
the master watches every wheel while the spokes are driving he can
only depend on the good faith of his workmen.

There is no remedy for this evil except substituting machines for
men’s hands. The machine, if it cuts true once, will cut true always.
Every piece of wood in a wheel ought to be shaped by machinery. The
felloes should be sawn to their exact size, curve, and length by
machine saws; they should be bored by machine augurs, and rounded by
machine shavers. The spokes should be tenoned by machine saws, and
shaped by machine lathes. The naves should be cut by a machine lathe,
and the mortises in the same cut by a machine chisel. The spokes
should not be driven in by the irregular strokes of a mallet, but
be forced into their places by the regular pressure of a machine.
And when the tire is put on the wheel should be fixed in a frame,
in order to preserve an exact size and shape. When all these things
are done, we may hope to procure wooden wheels alike in form and
quality, and moreover, accurately circular, which very often they
are not at present. All the machines should be worked by a steam
engine. There is scarcely any article of manufacture for which there
is so large a demand, and there is no great variation in their mode
of construction. Coachmakers generally seem to cling to the old
traditions of their craft with great tenacity; possibly they think
it savours of sacrilege to let progress enter their workshops too
rapidly.

The above remarks may be qualified by stating that some of the
largest manufacturers have introduced machinery, generally, into
the departments in which it is applicable, and more particularly
in the wheelwrights’ department. Some years since Messrs. Holmes,
of Derby, had mechanical appliances worked by steam power for the
following purposes:—Cutting tenons on the spokes, squaring the ends
of the felloes, also regulating their length according to the size
of wheel required; a narrow upright saw for cutting curved timber;
machine for cutting felloes of the required size and curve; machine
for boring felloes for the ends of spokes, and many other appliances
for lightening hand-labour and insuring greater accuracy in the
manufacture. But workshops filled up in this way are not yet the
rule, though their number is increasing, and so are the inventions
for application of mechanical power to the various processes.

It seems rather paradoxical to state that the dished or conical wheel
is the strongest. But the fact is, its strength arises from the
solid hoop-tyre; with a strake tyre the upright wheel would be the
strongest. When running, the great lateral strain on the wheel is
from the outside. Consequently, if the wheel be dished in an opposite
direction, the thrust will be in the direction of the greatest
resistance. The spokes cannot yield, because in yielding they would
increase the area of the circle, and this the tyre will not permit.
Upon the same principle in carpentry, which constitutes the curved or
cambered beam the strongest, the dished wheel is stronger than the
straight one.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.]

[Illustration: Fig. 19.]

Here is one very important item which must not be overlooked in the
wheelwright department, and that is, the size of the axle-box. The
axle-box is a lining of cast iron, on which the axle-arm takes its
bearing. Two forms of these are given in Figs. 18 and 19.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.]

Fig. 20 shows an improved form of stock. It will be seen it is to
be applied to straight wheels, and requires no further description
beyond noting that the stock is not weakened so much as in the
ordinary way by mortising, an iron band, A, circumscribing the nave
and forming a hold for the spokes.

Wheels should be made with a sufficient number of spokes to properly
divide the space at the felloes, and afford sufficient support to
prevent sinking in between the spokes, and at the same time avoid too
many to weaken the stock. The less the number of spokes, the stronger
the hub and the weaker the felloe. Judgment should be used in
dividing the difference, so as to make each part of the wheel strong
in proportion.

                            CHAPTER VII.

  AXLES.

An axle, or an axletree, for a locomotive wheel vehicle, is that
portion of wood or metal, or both combined, which serves as the axis
or centre for the wheels to turn round on.

The name axle-_tree_ at once indicates the substance originally
employed for it, viz. wood. Axletrees are of two kinds; those which
are fixed firmly in the wheels and revolve in gudgeons beneath the
wheels, and those in which the wheel moves independently of the axle.
The former, as being the rudest, was probably the first kind used.
The earliest fixed axletrees were simply pieces of hard timber,
with the ends rounded down into a conical form, that form being the
easiest to fit to the wheel. Subsequently they were plated with iron
to resist wear.

In the earliest iron axles the conical form was still preserved, for
the obvious reason of easy adjustment to the wheel. These iron axles
were not made in a solid piece, but were merely short ends bedded in
and bolted to a wooden centre. Examples of these axles may still be
seen in heavy carts and waggons.

The next improvement was to make the axles of a single bar of iron,
and this practice has now become common. An axle is technically
divided into three parts—the two _arms_, or extremities, on which
the wheel revolves, and the _bed_, or that portion which connects
the two arms together. The commonest axles, which are manufactured
for the sake of greater cheapness, are formed of a square bar simply
rolled to shape between mill rollers. This iron is uncertain in its
quality, as it is liable to have sand cracks, blisters, and other
imperfections, which cause axletrees when made from it to break down
under strong concussion. To guard against this, the best axletrees
are formed of several flat bars or rods of iron welded together in a
mass; this is technically called “faggoting.” If you wish to discover
whether an axle has been made in this way heat it to a red heat,
and if it has been faggoted the grain or lines of the rods of iron
running in different directions will be plainly discerned. The size
is regulated by the weight it is intended to carry.

For a very heavy coach from 2 to 2¼ inches in diameter and 10 to 11
inches long in the arm is a fair size. For light carriages, both
four and two-wheeled, 1½ inches in diameter and 8 inches length in
the arm is a common size. Occasionally some are made as small as 1¼
inches in diameter. It should be remarked that a less size of axle
would perform the work required of it if it were stationary, as in
mill-work; but for locomotive vehicles it is necessary to provide
against the greatest concussion they can meet with in ordinary
application.

When iron axles were first used it was customary to drive an iron
ring or hoop, 2 or 3 inches broad, into either end of the nave, to
prevent too rapid wear. This plan is still used occasionally in
heavy carts, but otherwise axles are always fitted with iron boxes,
adjusted to the arms with more or less accuracy, according to the