wild beasts (our Old Stone Age). Later they became less rude, learned to
obtain fire by friction, and built themselves habitations of wood and
foliage (our New Stone Age).

Of strictly historic times the most characteristic feature is the
general use of letters, most fruitful of human inventions, since by its
means everything worth preserving was perpetuated, and all useful
knowledge thus tended to become accumulative. Writing systems, as we
understand them, were not suddenly introduced, but gradually evolved
from pictures representing things and ideas to conventional signs or
symbols which first represent words, as in the Chinese script and our
ciphers, and then articulate sounds, as in our alphabet. Between the two
extremes--the pictograph and the letter--there are various intermediate
forms, such as the rebus and the full syllable, and these transitional
forms are largely preserved both in the Egyptian and Babylonian systems,
which thus help to show how the pure phonetic symbols were finally
reached. That was probably six thousand years ago, since we find various
ancient scripts widely diffused over the Greek Archipelago (Crete,
Cyprus, Asia Minor) in very early times. The hieroglyphic and cuneiform
systems whence they originated were very much older, since the rock
inscriptions of Upper Egypt are prior to all historic records, while the
Mesopotamian city of Nippur already possessed half-pictorial,
half-phonetic documents some six thousand years before the New Era.

[Illustration: This is an inscription in hieroglyphic writing found at
Meidum, Egypt. It records the life events of King Rahotep and his Queen
Nefert.]

[Illustration: Here is an Egyptian pictograph representing the Nubians
bearing gifts to the King of Egypt.]

=DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN RACE THROUGH THE AGES=

This chart falls within the =Cenozoic= (_sē´no-zō´ik_), or “Recent
life,” Period of the Earth and should be compared with it. Estimated Age
of the Cenozoic Period, 3,000,000 years.

  +---------------------+------------------------------------+------------+
  | =Geological Epochs  |    =Successive Upward Stages in     |=Estimated |
  |   of the Earth=     |  the Development of Civilized Man=  |Time and   |
  |                     |                                     |Duration of|
  |                     |                                     |Periods=   |
  +----------+----------+----------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |=Quater-  |=Recent=  |=Historic |=Age of Letters= or       |800 B.C. to|
  |nary=     |or        |Period.=  |Pictorial Writing         |Present    |
  |(_Kwä-ter´|Alluvial  |--Rise of |This period offers an un- |Time.      |
  |na-rĭ_) or|Epoch;    |Civiliza- |broken record of events   |           |
  |“Fourth”  |called by |tion      |from the first dated monu-|           |
  |Sedimen-  |Geologists|through   |ments and documents down  |           |
  |tary      |=Holocene=|the       |to the present day. With  |           |
  |System of |(_ho´lo-  |gradual   |the discoveries of archæ- |           |
  |the Earth.|sen_)     |organiza- |ologists in Babylonia,    |           |
  |Age of    |          |tion of   |Egypt, Southern Arabia,   |           |
  |Man.      |          |mankind   |and the Ægean lands, the  |           |
  |          |          |into so-  |beginnings of historic    |           |
  |          |          |cial      |times are constantly re-  |           |
  |          |          |groups and|ceding farther into the   |           |
  |          |          |nations,  |background, and to the    |           |
  |          |          |for the   |Mesopotamian city of      |           |
  |          |          |protection|Nippur is already ascribed|           |
  |          |          |of life,  |an antiquity of about     |           |
  |          |          |liberty   |eight thousand years.     |           |
  |          |          |and prop- +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |erty and  |=Late Iron Age=           |In Europe, |
  |          |          |the ad-   |In this age man begins to |500 B.C. to|
  |          |          |vancement |bestir himself towards    |Roman      |
  |          |          |of the    |discovery and invention.  |times.     |
  |          |          |arts,     |He organizes into tribes, |           |
  |          |          |sciences  |makes laws, records obser-|           |
  |          |          |and       |vations--in fact, develops|           |
  |          |          |religion. |into nations such as mani-|           |
  |          |          |          |fest themselves on the    |           |
  |          |          |          |earliest monuments of     |           |
  |          |          |          |Egypt and Babylonia. In   |           |
  |          |          |          |Europe it is characterized|           |
  |          |          |          |by forms of implements,   |           |
  |          |          |          |weapons, personal orna-   |           |
  |          |          |          |ments, and pottery, and   |           |
  |          |          |          |also by systems of decora-|           |
  |          |          |          |tive design, which are    |           |
  |          |          |          |altogether different from |           |
  |          |          |          |those of the Bronze Age.  |           |
  |          |          |          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |          |=Early Iron Age=, or Hall-|In Europe, |
  |          |          |          |statt Period The earliest |1000 to 500|
  |          |          |          |evidence of this age was  |B.C.       |
  |          |          |          |found near Hallstatt, in  |In Orient  |
  |          |          |          |Upper Austria, in a famous|1800 to    |
  |          |          |          |Celtic burial-ground. The |1000 B.C.  |
  |          |          |          |excavations here yielded  |           |
  |          |          |          |swords, daggers, javelins,|           |
  |          |          |          |spears, helmets, axes,    |           |
  |          |          |          |shields, and various forms|           |
  |          |          |          |of jewelry, also amber and|           |
  |          |          |          |glass beads; silver was   |           |
  |          |          |          |apparently not known. Most|           |
  |          |          |          |of the weapons were of    |           |
  |          |          |          |iron, only a few being of |           |
  |          |          |          |bronze.                   |           |
  |          |          |          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |          |=Bronze Age=              |In Europe, |
  |          |          |          |Here flint is cast aside, |2000 to    |
  |          |          |          |and gold as an ornament   |1000 B.C.  |
  |          |          |          |begins to attract him.    |In Orient  |
  |          |          |          |This was the stage reached|4000 to    |
  |          |          |          |by the Aztecs and the     |1800 B.C.  |
  |          |          |          |aborigines of Peru when   |           |
  |          |          |          |discovered by Europeans in|           |
  |          |          |          |the early sixteenth cen-  |           |
  |          |          |          |tury. The implements and  |           |
  |          |          |          |weapons include knives,   |           |
  |          |          |          |saws, sickles, awls,      |           |
  |          |          |          |gouges, hammers, anvils,  |           |
  |          |          |          |axes, swords, daggers,    |           |
  |          |          |          |spears, arrows, shields.  |           |
  |          |          |          |The forms of each class   |           |
  |          |          |          |differ in different areas,|           |
  |          |          |          |and vary with advancing   |           |
  |          |          |          |time. The workmanship is  |           |
  |          |          |          |always of a very high     |           |
  |          |          |          |order, the shapes grace-  |           |
  |          |          |          |ful, and the finish fine. |           |
  |          +----------+          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |=Pleisto- |          |=New Stone Age= or Neo-   |In Europe, |
  |          |cene=     |          |lithic (Gr., _neos_, new; |about      |
  |          |(_plis´to-|          |_lithos_, stone)          |12,000 to  |
  |          |sēn_) or  |          |The Neolithic implements  |3000 B.C.  |
  |          |Glacial   |          |occur in river-terraces,  |=Cro-      |
  |          |Epoch     |          |alluvial deposits, lake   |Magnon, and|
  |          |          |          |dwellings and caves. The  |Grimaldi   |
  |          |          |          |weapons and tools were    |Races=     |
  |          |          |          |made of highly polished   |(about     |
  |          |          |          |stone. With the relics of |10,000     |
  |          |          |          |Neolithic man are found   |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |          |remains of the Irish elk, |           |
  |          |          |          |the reindeer, beaver,     |           |
  |          |          |          |brown bear, etc. Besides  |           |
  |          |          |          |these were the remains of |           |
  |          |          |          |domesticated forms such as|           |
  |          |          |          |the cat, horse, sheep,    |           |
  |          |          |          |dog, and goat. The tribes |           |
  |          |          |          |were acquainted with agri-|           |
  |          |          |          |culture, and were advanced|           |
  |          |          |          |in the arts of weaving and|           |
  |          |          |          |pottery-making.           |           |
  |          |          +----------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |=Pre-his- |=Old Stone Age= or Paleo- |In Europe, |
  |          |          |toric Pe- |lithic (Gr., _palaios_,   |about      |
  |          |          |riod.=--  |ancient; _lithos_, stone) |125,000 to |
  |          |          |Dawn of   |The men of this age were  |12,000 B.C.|
  |          |          |mind, in- |hunters, and the remains  |=Neander-  |
  |          |          |dustry and|of successive hunting     |thal Man=  |
  |          |          |art. This |races have been found in  |(about     |
  |          |          |period    |the deposits of caves,    |25,000     |
  |          |          |merged im-|river gravels, and other  |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |percepti- |sediments. They used rude |=Piltdown  |
  |          |          |bly into  |hatchets and other imple- |Man= (about|
  |          |          |the more  |ments of rough, unpolished|110,000    |
  |          |          |strictly  |stone which occur in asso-|B.C.)      |
  |          |          |historic  |ciation with relics of    |           |
  |          |          |period    |northern (mammoth, rein-  |           |
  |          |          |when let- |deer, cave-bear) and      |           |
  |          |          |ters were |southern mammalia (lion,  |           |
  |          |          |intro-    |leopard, hippopotamus).   |           |
  |          |          |duced.    |The walls of their caves  |           |
  |          |          |          |are covered with rough    |           |
  |          |          |          |sketches of animals be-   |           |
  |          |          |          |longing to that period.   |           |
  |          |          |          |The men who inhabited the |           |
  |          |          |          |caves of Europe in Paleo- |           |
  |          |          |          |lithic time were very si- |           |
  |          |          |          |milar to the modern       |           |
  |          |          |          |Eskimo.                   |           |
  |          |          |          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |          |=Dawn Stone Age=, or      |About      |
  |          |          |          |Eolithic                  |525,000 to |
  |          |          |          |Primitive man existed even|125,000    |
  |          |          |          |earlier than paleolithic  |B.C.       |
  |          |          |          |man. It is certain that,  |=Heidelberg|
  |          |          |          |in order that man possess |Man= (about|
  |          |          |          |the necessary skill ex-   |250,000    |
  |          |          |          |hibited in the flint      |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |          |implements, he must have  |=Pithecan- |
  |          |          |          |passed through a previous |thropus=   |
  |          |          |          |and necessarily less      |(about     |
  |          |          |          |skillful stage. Evidences |475,000    |
  |          |          |          |of this period have been  |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |          |claimed to exist in the   |           |
  |          |          |          |Plateau-gravels of Kent,  |           |
  |          |          |          |Belgium and Egypt.        |           |
  +----------+----------+----------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |=Tertiary=|=Pliocene=|Period of the probable appearance of |...        |
  |(_ter-shi-|(_plī´ō-  |the Human Races.                     |           |
  |a-ri_), or|sēn_), or |                                     |           |
  |“third.”  |“more     |                                     |           |
  |Age of    |recent.”  |                                     |           |
  |mammals.  +----------+-------------------------------------+-----------+
  |          |=Miocene= |Gradual formation of man-like types. |...        |
  |          |(_mī´ō-   |                                     |           |
  |          |sēn_), or |                                     |           |
  |          |“less     |                                     |           |
  |          |recent.”  |                                     |           |
  +----------+----------+-------------------------------------+-----------+

From the pictorial and plastic remains recovered from these two earliest
seats of the higher cultures it is now placed beyond doubt that all the
great divisions of the human family had at that time already been fully
developed. Even in the New Stone Age, the present European type had been
thoroughly established, as shown by the remains of the “Cro-Magnon
Race,” so called from the cave of that name in Perigord, France, where
the first specimens were discovered. In Egypt, where a well-developed
social and political organization may be traced back to the seventh
century B. C., Professor Petrie discovered in 1897 the portrait statue
of a prince of the fifth dynasty (3700 B. C.) showing regular Caucasic
features. Still older is the portrait of the Babylonian King Sargon
(3800 B. C.), also with handsome features which might be either Semitic
or even Aryan. Thus the Caucasic, that is, the highest human type, had
already been not only evolved but spread over a wide area (Europe,
Egypt, Mesopotamia) some thousands of years before the New Era. The
other chief types (Mongol, Negro, and even Negrito) are also clearly
portrayed on early Egyptian monuments, so that all the primary groups
had already reached maturity probably before the close of the Old Stone
Age.

[Illustration: Early picture writing of the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians.]

But these primary groups did not remain stationary in their several
original homes; on the contrary they have been subject to great and
continual fluctuations throughout historic times. Armed with a general
knowledge of letters and other cultural appliances, the higher races
soon took a foremost place in the general progress of mankind, and
gradually acquired a marked ascendency, not only over the less cultured
peoples, but to a great extent over the forces of nature herself. With
the development of navigation, and improved methods of locomotion,
inland seas, barren wastes, and mountain ranges ceased to present
insurmountable obstacles to their movements, which have never been
completely arrested, and are still going on.

HOW THE RACES ARE CLASSIFIED

On the basis of bodily characteristics, including form, color and
features, modern ethnologists have divided mankind into four primary
groups, or families: the Caucasian, Mongolian (or Tartar), Negro and
American; or, according to color, the _white_, _yellow_, _black_ and
_red_ races. It must not be supposed that these types were sharply
marked off from one another; indeed, there must have been a great range
of varieties then, as now, due to the conditions under which man lived,
as well as to actual race mixtures.

It is probable, however, that all these primary groups had reached
definite characteristics before the close of the Stone Age.

The term Caucasian is taken from the mountain-range between the Black
and Caspian seas, near which region the finest physical specimens of man
have always been found. Mongolian is derived from the wandering races
that inhabited the plateaus of central Asia. Negro is the Spanish word
for “black.” American is applied to the red, or copper-colored, race
found in this continent when it was discovered.

The sub-joined table brings into parallel columns the chief
distinguishing characteristics of the races:

=PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRIMARY HUMAN GROUPS=

  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |  =Points | =Caucasian=, | =Mongolian=, |   =Negro=,   |  =American=, |
  |    of    |   or White   |  or Yellow   |   or Black   |    or Red    |
  | Contrast=|              |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Hair=    |Rather long,  |Coarse, lank, |Short, jet    |Very long,    |
  |          |straight, wavy|dull black,   |black, wooly, |coarse, black,|
  |          |and curly,    |round in      |flat in trans-|lank, nearly  |
  |          |black, all    |transverse    |verse section.|round in      |
  |          |shades of     |section.      |              |section.      |
  |          |brown, red,   |              |              |              |
  |          |flaxen.       |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Skin=    |White, florid,|Dirty yellow- |Very dark     |Coppery,      |
  |          |pale, swarthy,|ish and brown |brown or      |yellowish,    |
  |          |brown and even|(Malays.)     |blackish.     |various shades|
  |          |blackish; al- |              |              |of brown.     |
  |          |together very |              |              |              |
  |          |variable.     |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Skull=   |Two distinct  |Short; index  |Long; index   |Very variable;|
  |          |types; long,  |84 to 90.     |72.           |ranging from  |
  |          |74, and short,|              |              |70 to over 90.|
  |          |80 to 90.     |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Cheek-   |Small, incon- |High prominent|Small, some-  |Moderately    |
  |bone=     |spicuous but  |laterally.    |what          |prominent.    |
  |          |high in some  |              |retreating.   |              |
  |          |places.       |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Nose=    |Large,        |Very small,   |Flat, small,  |Large, arched,|
  |          |straight or   |snub, but     |very broad at |rather narrow.|
  |          |arched        |variable.     |base.         |              |
  |          |(hooked, aqui-|              |              |              |
  |          |line), narrow.|              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Eyes=    |Blue, gray,   |Small, black, |Large, round, |Small, round, |
  |          |black, brown, |oblique; ver- |black,        |straight,     |
  |          |moderately    |tical fold of |prominent,    |black sunken. |
  |          |large, and    |skin over     |yellowish     |              |
  |          |always        |inner canthus.|cornea.       |              |
  |          |straight.     |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Stature= |Variable; 5   |Undersized; 5 |Above the     |Above the     |
  |          |ft. 4 in. to 6|ft. 4 in., but|mean; 5 ft. 10|mean; 5 ft. 8 |
  |          |ft.           |very variable.|in; Negrito   |in. to over 6 |
  |          |              |              |often under 4 |ft., but      |
  |          |              |              |ft.           |variable.     |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Speech=  |Mainly in-    |Agglutinating,|Agglutinating;|Polysynthetic |
  |          |flecting; in  |with post-    |of various and|almost ex-    |
  |          |the Caucasus  |fixes; iso-   |postfix types.|clusively.    |
  |          |agglutinating.|lating, with  |              |              |
  |          |              |tones.        |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Tempera- |Serious,      |Sluggish,     |Sensuous, in- |Moody, taci-  |
  |ment=     |steadfast,    |somewhat      |dolent, im-   |turn, wary,   |
  |          |solid in the  |sullen with   |provident,    |impassive in  |
  |          |north; fiery, |little initia-|fitful,       |presence of   |
  |          |impulsive,    |tive but great|passing easily|strangers;    |
  |          |south; active,|endurance,    |from comedy to|science and   |
  |          |enterprising, |generally     |tragedy,      |letters       |
  |          |imaginative   |frugal and    |little sense  |slightly, art |
  |          |everywhere;   |thrifty; moral|of dignity,   |moderately    |
  |          |science, art, |standard low; |hence easily  |developed.    |
  |          |nd letters    |little        |enslaved;     |              |
  |          |highly        |science; art  |slight mental |              |
  |          |developed.    |and letters   |development   |              |
  |          |              |moderately    |after puberty.|              |
  |          |              |developed.    |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF MANKIND

DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAUCASIAN OR WHITE DIVISION OF MANKIND

ORIGINAL HOME.--North Africa between Sahara and the Mediterranean.

EARLY EXPANSION.--To Europe, the Eurasian Steppes between the
Carpathians and the Pamir, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, Arabia,
Mesopotamia, Iran, or Persia, India, Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia,
Malaysia, Polynesia.

LATER EXPANSIONS.--The Caucasian race has now spread, through
colonization, over the whole world, but its proper region is Europe,
western Asia, and the northern strip of Africa Nine-tenths of the people
of Europe belong to the Caucasian family, the other tenth consisting of
the Turks, the Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns, the Laplanders, and the
tribe called Samoieds in the extreme northeast of European Russia. In
Asia, the Caucasians include the Arabs, the Persians, the Afghans, and
the Hindus. In Africa, the Caucasians are spread over the whole north,
from the Mediterranean to the south of the Sahara Desert, and to the
farthest border of Abyssinia as well as to the greater portion of South
Africa. In North and South America three-fourths of the people are now
Caucasian. In Australia and New Zealand the Caucasian colonists have
almost extinguished the native races.

RELIGION.--The Caucasian race now supports various forms of Christianity
in Europe, America, and their Colonies; Buddhism in India; Mohammedanism
in Central Asia, Siberia, Turkey, Arabia, North Africa, Irania, India,
Malaysia. Originally nature-worship was more pronounced than the cult of
ancestor-worship. The Egyptians did not worship but embalmed the dead.
The chief gods of the Semites were those of the sun and moon; and those
of the Aryans were Dyaus, Indra, Zeus, Jupiter, Apollo, Saturn, etc.,
all personified elements of the upper regions which later became the
basis of extensive systems of mythology. Later these forces were
symbolized in wood or stone, which led to idolatry--that is, the worship
of the image itself, which still persists among the uneducated in some
parts of Christendom. The belief in magic, demons, witchcraft, omens,
ghosts and allied superstitions was also very prevalent.

Out of the general polytheism were slowly evolved various shades of
monotheism, whence arose the historical religions of the West, such as
Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedanism, while crass polytheism
persisted in the East--Brahmanism in India, degraded forms of Buddhism
in Ceylon and elsewhere. Intermediate between monotheism and polytheism
was the Persian religion, which refers light and all good to Ormuzd and
his host of angels, night and all evil to Ahriman and his host of
demons. Although already denounced by Isaiah, whose Jehovah is the one
source of all things, this twofold principle no doubt found its way into
the early Christian teachings.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE MONGOLIC OR YELLOW DIVISION

ORIGINAL DOMAIN.--Probably the Tibetan tableland.

EARLY EXPANSION.--Mongolia, Siberia, China, Indo-China, Malaysia,
Mesopotamia (?). The earlier Mongolians were extremely migratory, but
the more settled tribes developed into the later Japanese, Chinese.
Burmese, Siamese, and other peoples in the southeast and east of Asia;
and the native tribes of the Siberian plains. The wandering tribes
developed into the Turks, Magyars (Hungarians), Finns, Laplanders, and
Samoeids, of Europe, and the Esquimaux of America.

RELIGION.--Animism in the widest sense is the dominant note of Mongolian
religions. The worship of spirits extended both to the disembodied human
soul (ancestor-worship, which is now perhaps the most prevalent form)
and to the innumerable spirits, bad and good, which people earth, air,
water, the celestial and underground regions. Although nominal
Buddhists, the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Mongols live in terror of
malevolent spirits, and the Annamese scrupulously observe “Roast-pig
Day,” as they call their All-Souls Day, by littering the graves of the
dead with scraps of victuals. Among the Siberians this spirit-cult takes
the form of Shamanism, in which the Shaman (wizard or medicine man) is
the “paid medium” of communication between his dupes and the invisible
good or evil genii. In Tibet demonology still survives beneath the
official Lamaism; the Eastern Siberians are Bear-worshipers; and the
Polynesians have deified both the living and dead members of their
dynasties.

The historical religions are largely a question of race, the Mongols
proper, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetans
being at least nominal Buddhists. The Turks, Tartars, and most Malays
are Mohammedans; and the Finns, Lapps, and Magyars now Christians. Other
so-called state religions--Confucianism and Taoism in China, Shintoism
and Bushidoism in Japan are other ethical codes fostered and upheld for
political purposes.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEGRO, OR BLACK RACE

ORIGINAL DOMAIN.--The Eastern, or Oceanic, Section had its home in
Malaysia, Andamans, Philippines, New Guinea, Melanesia, Australia,
Tasmania; with no later expansion. The Western, or African, Section
lived in Africa south of the Sahara.

LATER EXPANSION.--Subsequently the Africans spread, either voluntarily
or were taken as slaves to Madagascar, north Africa, southern United
States, West Indies, and Latin America.

_Religion._--Spirit-worship very prevalent among native Negro races, and
totemism in Australia. The Melanesian system is distinctly animistic,
distinguishing between pure spirits, that is, supernatural beings that
never were in a human body, and ghosts--that is, men’s disembodied
spirits revisiting their former abodes. There are prayer, sacrifice,
divination, omens, death and burial rites, a Hades too, with trees and
houses, as on earth, also a ghostly ruler, but no supreme being. There
is little or nothing of all this in Australia or New Guinea, where the
religious sentiment is so little developed that many close observers
have failed to detect it.

Among African tribes, though religion is animistic, ancestor-worship
seems much more prevalent than nature-worship. There is no supreme being
anywhere. The chief deities are _Munkulunkulu_, with many variants along
the eastern seaboard, and _Nzambi_, also with many variants on the west
side, both intermingling in the interior. Witchcraft, omens, and ordeals
are very prevalent; pure fetishism and human sacrifices prevail in Upper
Guinea, in Uganda and other parts.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE AMERICAN, OR RED DIVISION

_Original Domain._--The New World. The chief sub-divisions were as
follows:

(1) NORTH AMERICAN: _Eskimo_, _Athabascan_ (Chippewaian, Taculli, Hupa,
Apache, Navajo); _Algonquian_ (Cree, Chippewa, Mohican, Delaware,
Shawnee, Cheyenne, Illinois, etc.); _Iroquoian_ (Erie, Huron, Mohawk,
Tuscarora, Cherokee, etc.); _Siouan_ (Dakota, Assinaboin, Missouri,
Iowa, Winnebago, Mandan, Tutelo, Catawba); _Muskhogean_ (Seminole,
Choktaw, Creek, Chickasaw, Alibamu, Apalachi); _Salish_; _Shoshone_;
_Pawnee_; _Pueblo_ (Zuñi, Hopi, Tegua).

(2) CENTRAL AMERICAN: _Opata-Pima_ (Yuma, Cora, Tarahumara, Tepeguana);
_Nahuan_ (Aztec, Huichol, Pipil, Niquiran); _Maya-Quiché_ (Huaxtec,
Maya, Lacandon, Quiché, Pocoman, Zendal, Chol, Zotzil, Cachiquel, Mamé);
_Zapotec_; _Mixtec_ (Mixé); _Lencan_ (Chontal, Wulwa, Rama, Guatusa);
_Bribri_; _Cuna_.

(3) SOUTH AMERICAN: _Chibcha_; _Choco_; _Quichua_ (Inca, Chanca);
_Aymara_ (Colla, Calchaqui); _Antisuyu_; _Jivaro_; _Zaparo_; _Pano_;
_Ticuna_; _Chuncho_; _Carib_ (Macusi, Akawai, Bakairi, Arecuna);
_Arawak_; (Atorai, Wapisiana, Naypure, Parexi); _Warrau_; _Chiquito_;
_Bororo_; _Botocudo_; _Tupi-Guarani_ (Chiriguana, Caribuna, Goajira,
Omogua, Mundrucu); _Payagua_; _Mataco_; _Toba_; _Araucan_; _Puelche_,
_Tehuelche_ (Patagonian); _Fuegian_ (Ona, Yahgan, Alakaluf.)

PRESENT RESTRICTED DOMAIN.--The Arctic seaboard, Greenland, Alaska;
numerous reservations and some unsettled parts of the United States and
Canada; most tribes of Mexico, Central and South America are partly
intermingled with the whites and blacks and still partly in the tribal
state. By far the greater part of the native tribes never progressed
beyond the savage state, except in the United States and Canada, where
during the past quarter century, and particularly during the last
decade, the Indians have rapidly advanced in civilization.

RELIGION.--Shamanism was widely diffused among the North America
aborigines. But still more prevalent is the cult of the aërial gods, who
support the four quarters of the heavens, and of animals (bear, wolf,
raven, jaguar) which has given rise to strange wehrwolf superstitions,
and to totemistic systems similar to those of the Australian natives.

Solar worship prevailed in Peru, while the cultured peoples of Mexico
(Aztecs, Mayas, Zapotecs and others) had developed a complete pantheon
of ferocious deities, such as _Tezcatlipoca_, _Quetzalcoatl_ and
_Tlaloc_, whose thirst for human blood was insatiable. Thus arose an
established order of priests, who sacrificed human victims on solemn
occasions, and presided over other sanguinary rites often accompanied by
unutterable horrors. Aztec women cast their infants into the Mexican
lagoons to propitiate the Rain-god _Tlaloc_.

Some modern races, like the Zuñis, have an elaborate and highly mystical
ritual, to the exhibitions of which none but the initiated are
admissible. The snake-dance of the Moquis of Arizona is a most curious
ceremonial and attracts many visitors. The ritual of the Roman Catholic
Church has strong attractions for the Indian; and the less elaborate
service of the Episcopalians has in several instances helped to win over
to Christianity tribes which had long rejected the teachings of
missionaries of other denominations.

THE CAUCASIAN THE REAL HISTORIC RACE

Of all these races the only one whose history is important for us is the
Caucasian or white race, to which we ourselves belong. This race is
“historical” because it displays the most highly civilized type of
mankind,--that type whose progress and achievements are the true
province of history.

THREE DIVISIONS OF THE CAUCASIAN RACE

This grand stock--the Caucasian race--has been classified into three
main branches,--(1) the Aryan or Indo-European; (2) the Semitic; (3) the
Hamitic.

The Hamitic branch is named from Ham, the son of Noah, and ancestor of
some of its peoples, most notable of which was the ancient empire in
Egypt. Accounts of their conquests, under great dynasties of kings, have
come down to us in hieroglyphic inscriptions. The Egyptians became
highly civilized at a very early time, and exerted a marked influence on
the civilization of succeeding ages.

The Semitic branch is so called from Shem, also a son of Noah, described
in the Bible as ancestor of some of the nations which it includes. Its
chief historical representatives are the Hebrews, Phœnicians, Assyrians,
Arabs, and Babylonians. The early Semitic race conquered Chaldea, united
Sumer and Accad, and have similarly left us records of their early
civilization in cuneiform inscriptions and tablets. It is distinguished
in religious history, because from it originated the three faiths whose
main doctrine is that there is but one God; namely, the Jewish, the
Christian, and the Mohammedan. Apart from this, and with the special
exception of the ancient Phœnicians and Carthaginians, the Semitic
nations have not been generally distinguished for progress and
enterprise, but have mainly kept to their old home between the
Mediterranean, the river Tigris, and the Red Sea.

THE SUPREMACY OF THE ARYANS IN HISTORY

The leading part in the history of the world has been, and is still,
played by the Aryan nations. The Caucasian presents us with the highest
type among the five families of man; the Aryan branch of the Caucasian
family presents us with the noblest pattern of that highest type.

The Aryan branch includes nearly all the present and past nations of
Europe, the Greeks, Latins, Teutons or Germans, Celts and Slavonians; as
well as three Asiatic peoples,--the Hindus, the Persians, and the
Afghans and the modern Americans. It is the Aryans that have been the
parents of new nations, and that have reached the highest point of
intellectual development, as shown in their political freedom, and in
their science, literature, and art.

The term Aryan is derived either from one ancient word implying that
they were “cultivators of the soil,” or from another meaning “worthy,
noble.” There was a time when these ancestors of the Celts, the Germans,
the Slavonians, the Greeks and Italians, the Persians, the Hindus, and
of nearly all the European nations, were living together, separate from
the ancestors of the Semitic race. Their earliest known home was the
high tableland of central Asia, north and northwest of the Himalaya
Mountains, near the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers.

Through pressure of numbers, and spurred on by their own enterprising
nature, these Aryan peoples for ages moved mainly westward, from their
ancestral seats. A branch went southward across the Himalayas, and
peopled Hindustan, Persia, and the intervening lands; another branch at
different times and long intervals moved westward into Europe.

The Celts were the first European emigrants and spread themselves over a
great part of the continent; as a distinct people they are now only
found in parts of the British Isles and France. Later came the Italic
(_Latin_) tribes who possessed the peninsula now known as Italy; the
Hellenic (or _Grecian_) tribes, who occupied the peninsula of Greece;
the Teutonic tribes, who replaced the Celts in central Europe, and
finally also occupied Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula (Sweden and
Norway). The last of the Aryans were the Slavonians, now spread over
Russia, Poland, and Bohemia, and the Lithuanians, settled on the Baltic
coast, partly in Prussia, partly in Russia. Thus was Europe gradually
overspread by successive waves of Aryan settlement.

ARYAN CIVILIZATION BEFORE THE MIGRATION

The study of the early Aryan languages tells us what progress had been
made by this race, before the time arrived for starting south and west,
to possess the Western world. Whatever words are alike in these Aryan
tongues must be the names of implements, or institutions, or ideas, used
or conceived before the first wave of migration made its way. We thus
learn that, at that far distant time, the Aryans had houses, plowed the
earth, and ground their corn in mills. The family life was
settled--basis as it is of all society and law--and had risen far above
the savage state. The Aryans had sheep, cattle, horses, dogs, goats, and
bees; drank a beverage made of honey; could work in copper, silver,
gold; fought with the sword and bow; and had the beginnings of kingly
rule which subsequently became the central element of the state.

DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORICAL RACE GROUPS

=Albanian= (_al-bā´ni-an_).--The native and aboriginal race or people of
Albania, unlike most of the so-called European “races,” is a distinct
race physically and not merely in language. It resembles most the Celtic
race, but the type is taller: the northern Albanians, like the
Montenegrins, rival the Scotch and the Norwegians in stature.

The Albanians are today a mixed race, as is every European people. They
are brave, but turbulent in spirit--warriors rather than workers. Even
their own tribes are at enmity among themselves and tribal and family
feuds are common. It is the most backward in cultivation of all; and
therefore not surprising that the rate of illiteracy is one of the
highest in Europe.

In religion the Albanians are about equally divided among the
Mohammedan, the Catholic, and the Greek faiths.

The Albanians go under many different names. Skipetar and Arnaut are
equivalents of Albanian. All mean “highlander.” Until about the
fifteenth century they were called Illyrians, or Macedonians. From them
came the name of the ancient Roman province of Illyricum, embracing
Epirus and parts of Macedonia. All the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula
made their settlements during the middle ages. The Albanians, or
Illyrians proper, previously occupied the entire country north to the
Danube.

=Arabian= (_a-rā´bi-än_).--One of the three great groups of the Semitic
branch of the Caucasian race. The Arabians are related to the Hebrews
and include Arabs proper and the wandering Bedouin tribes of the desert.
They have long since spread out from the country that bears their name
and settled in distant portions of Africa and Asia, as well as
penetrated into Europe. They have given their language, through the
Koran, to the vaster populations of Mohammedan faith. They are not to be
confounded with the Turks who are Mongolian, Tartar, in origin and
speech, rather than Caucasian. Neither are they closely related to the
Syrians who are Christians and Aryans, not Semites; nor even to the
Berbers and the modern Moors of north Africa, who are Hamitic rather
than Semitic in origin. Yet Syrians and Moors alike have long used the
Arabic tongue.

=Armenian= (_är-mē´ni-an_) or =Haik=.--The Aryan race, or people of
Armenia, in Asiatic Turkey. In language they are more European than are
the Magyars, the Finns, or the Basques of Europe. The nearest relatives
of the Armenic tongue are the Persian, the Hindu, and the Gypsy. In
religion the Armenians differ from all the above-named peoples excepting
the Syrians in that they are Christian. They boast a church as old as
that of Rome.

Only a fraction of the Armenians are found in their own country,
Armenia; perhaps one-eighth. Over 1,000,000 live in Russia; 400,000 in
European Turkey; 100,000 in Persia; about 15,000 in or near Hungary; and
6000 in India and Africa. About half their number still live in
different parts of the Turkish dominions. Large numbers have migrated
because of the persecutions of the Turks and Kurds directed against
them.

=Assyrians= (_a-sir´i-äns_).--The Assyrian is an ancient language
extinct for at least two thousand years. No people today can claim pure
physical descent from this stock. The arid region occupied by the early
Assyrian empire has been swept by one civilization after another. Their
ancient Hamitic speech was largely replaced by that of conquering Medes
and Persians and, later, of Mohammedan hosts. It finally disappeared
after the Babylonians and Chaldeans, who used a Semitic tongue replaced
the Assyrians in Mesopotamia. Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, and Arabian
blood has been added to the ancestral stock of the modern Assyrians.
Reclus says: “The Assyrians and Chaldeans were either exterminated or
else absorbed in the victorious races, forfeiting name, speech, and the
very consciousness of their race.”

=Babylonians= (_bab-i-lō´ni-äns_).--Babylonia has always been a land of
mixed races and tongues. The earliest of the inscriptions has revealed
that the first population was a people belonging to the Mongolian
family. The linguistic connection was afterwards confirmed by the
discovery by de Sarzec of statues of these primitive inhabitants which
present an undoubted Tartar type of features. The skull is that of the
Mongolian race with high cheek-bones, curly black hair, the eyes oblique
and bright; the type being ethnically related to the Elamites of Susiana
and the first Medean stock to which we find this early race
linguistically related.

These people were not aboriginal to the plains of Chaldea, but came, as
their traditions indicate, from the mountains to the northeast, and
brought with them the already fairly advanced elements of civilization
which they planted in Chaldea. At a very early period in the history of
Babylonia the Semites appear as an element in the population, their type
being clearly indicated in the sculptures connecting them with the
Hebrew and northern Arabs, while the same relationship is linguistically
established. From time to time, by war or commerce, other elements were
introduced into the population, until almost every nation finds its
representative in the “mixed crowd of nations” inhabiting the plains of
Chaldea.

The Semites, having once obtained a footing in Babylonia, soon
assimilated themselves to the more advanced culture of their
Sumero-Accadian masters. They borrowed the cuneiform mode of writing,
the religion, mythology, and much of the science of that inventive
people, and so rapidly increased in numbers and power, that as early as
about 3800 B. C. we find a dynasty of Semitic kings under Sargon of
Accad and his son Naram-Sin, ruling in northern Babylonia.

=THE WANDERING ARAB LOVES THE DESERT SANDS=

[Illustration: Warlike by nature, here we see him scouting the silent
wastes with his ever faithful companion in peace or war--restless as the
shifting sands.]

[Illustration: The desert oasis is his place of assembly for recreation
or trade. In the above picture we have a view of a desert market held
far remote from any city but at the junction of several caravan
routes.]

=Basques= (_bȧskz_).--A race inhabiting the Basque provinces and other
parts of Spain in the neighborhood of the Pyrenees, and part of the
adjacent territory in France. They were formerly Iberian as to language,
the sole non-Aryan language of western Europe. But few now live in the
old province of southwestern France, Gascony, formerly called
“Vasconia,” after them; about 500,000 still remain in northwestern
Spain. They are a fragment, perhaps the only distinct remnant, of the
pre-Aryan race of Europe. Recent researches connect them, not with the
Mongolian Finns as formerly, but with the Hamitic (Caucasian) Berbers of
northern Africa. They are not now easily distinguished in physical
appearance from their Spanish or French neighbors, although many still
speak the strange Basque tongue. The latter is not inflected, like most
European (Aryan) languages, but agglutinative, like the typical
languages of northern Asia.

=Berbers= (_bér´bérz_).--A race of people constituting, with the
Cushites, the Hamitic family, which is found scattered over North Africa
and the Sahara, from the Red Sea to the Atlantic. The complexion of the
Berbers varies from white to dark brown; their features remind one of
the Egyptian type; their stature is medium. They have occupied their
present habitat since the dawn of history. Never have their indomitable
tribes become entirely subject to a foreign master, or lost their racial
and linguistic characteristics, in spite of Punic, Roman, Germanic,
Arabic, and Saracen conquests. In the mountains they are agricultural;
in the Sahara, nomadic. For centuries they have been the middlemen
between the Mediterranean coast and the Negro states of the Sudan. In
religion the Berbers are nominally Mohammedan. A few tribes have adopted
the Arabic, and so have a few Arabs adopted Berber dialects. The Berber
languages are often called Libyan. They number at least 7,000,000 in
Morocco and Algeria and 500,000 in Tunis and Tripoli.

=Bulgarians= (_bul-gā´ri-anz_).--The people of Bulgaria are supposed to
be Finnic (Mongolian) in origin, are also the most numerous people in
European Turkey. The Bulgarians and their neighbors on the north, the
Roumanians, are among the rare races that are physically of one stock
and linguistically of another. Both possess adopted languages. While the
Bulgarians appear to be Asiatics by origin who have adopted a Slavic
speech, the Roumanians are Slavs who have adopted a Latin language.
While the Bulgarians adopted the language of the Slavs, whom they
conquered and organized politically, they were themselves swallowed up
in the Slavic population. They lost not only their ancient language but
their physical type. While they are the most truly Asiatic in origin of
all the Slavs, they are Europeanized in appearance and character. In
some respects their life is more civilized and settled than that of some
of the Slavs farther west, as in Montenegro and Dalmatia. They are not
only less warriors in spirit than these, but are more settled as
agriculturists. Yet they seem to feel that they do not belong to the
civilization of Europe, properly speaking, for they say of one who
visits the countries farther west that he “goes to Europe.”

There would appear to be little doubt that the Bulgars came through
southern Russia to their present home in the time of the early
migrations of the middle ages. Some records locate them in the second
century on the river Volga, from which they appear to have taken their
name. In fact, a country called “Greater Bulgaria” was known there as
late as the tenth century. If the common supposition be correct, the
Bulgarians are most nearly related in origin to the Magyars of Hungary
and the Finns of northern Russia. After these they are nearest of kin to
the Turks, who have long lived among them as rulers. But Turks and Finns
alike are but branches of the great Ural-Altaic family, which had its
origin in northern Asia, probably in Mongolia.

=Carthaginians.=--See Phœnicians.

[Illustration: This group of present day Bulgarian college girls shows
that a striking transformation has been wrought by European influences
upon a people of Mongolian origin centuries ago.]

=Celts=, or =Kelts= (_kelts_).--The peoples which speak languages akin
to those of Wales, Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and Britanny, and
constitute a branch or principal division of the Indo-European
families. Formerly these peoples occupied, partly or wholly, France,
Spain, northern Italy, the western parts of Germany, and the British
Islands. Of the remaining Celtic languages and peoples there are two
chief divisions, viz., the GAELIC, comprising the Highlanders of
Scotland, the Irish, and the Manx, and the CYMRIC, comprising the Welsh
and Bretons.

Irish, because of its more extensive literature and greater antiquity,
is considered to be the chief branch of the Gaelic group. Modern Erse or
Scotch is thought to be a more recent dialect of Irish. Manx is the
dialect spoken by a small number of persons in the Isle of Man. Welsh is
the best preserved of the Cymric group. It has a literature nearly if
not quite as rich as that of Irish, and is spoken by a larger population
than any other Celtic language found in the British Isles. Low Breton,
or Armorican, is the speech found in Lower Brittany, in France. It is
spoken by nearly two-thirds as many persons as are all other Celtic
dialects combined.

This “Celtic” race seems to have had its main center of dissemination in
the highlands of the Alps of midwestern Europe. While all
Celtic-speaking peoples are mixed races, those of the British Isles are
distinctly long-headed and tall, in fact, are among the tallest of all
Europe. It is almost impossible to give the population of the Celtic
race--that is, of those whose ancestral language was Celtic--since most
of its members now speak English or French only.

=Chaldean.=--See Babylonian.

=Chinese= (_chī-nēs´_ or _-nēz´_).--The race or people inhabiting China
proper. Linguistically, one of the Sinitic groups of the Mongolian or
Asiatic race. The name Chinese is also applied, erroneously from an
ethnical standpoint, to all the natives of the Chinese Empire, including
China proper; that is, to the entire Sibiric group. These are, on the
northeast the Manchus, on the north the Mongols, on the west the tribes
of Turkestan and of Thibet. The name does not properly apply to the
other Sinitic peoples--the Cochin-Chinese and the Annamese of the French
colonies and the Burmese of the British colonies, all of whom border on
China on the south and southwest. The people of Manchuria and of
Mongolia are not so nearly related linguistically to the Chinese as they
are to the Japanese. All these “Sibiric” peoples have agglutinative
languages, while the Chinese is monosyllabic, being more nearly related
to the languages stretching from Thibet southeast to the Malay
Peninsula.

The Chinese physical type is well known--yellowish in color, with
slanting eyes, high cheek bones, black hair, and a flat face. The eye is
more properly described as having the “Mongolic fold” at the inner
angle. This mark is found to some extent in all Mongolian peoples, in
the Japanese, and now and then in individuals of the European branches
of this race in Russia and Austria-Hungary.

=Egyptian= (_ē-jipt´ē-ăn_).--The ancient race or people of Egypt, best
represented to-day by the Copts or Fellahs, although those are generally
of mixed stock. In a political sense, any native of Egypt.

The origin of the Egyptians is still a matter of dispute. It is quite
probable that they were Hamitic and belonged to the Berber type. They
have no real negroid trace about them, though probably there is a strain
from intermarrying; thus it is likely that they may have been a
fair-skinned indigenous race, mixed also with people of Asiatic origin,
and a certain amount of negro blood. The earliest types, as pictured by
themselves on monuments, show men of fine build with no trace of the
negroid type; the males are painted red-brown and the females a light
yellowish tint.

The fellah (Arabic for ploughman) forms the bulk of the peasantry. They
are chiefly Mohammedan in faith, though the Copts, also natives of
Egypt, have kept their Christian belief.

[Illustration: The Egyptian features are as unchangeable as the pyramids
themselves. On the right is the sculptured likeness of Queen Tiy of four
thousand years ago; on the left of an Egyptian girl of the present day.]

The fellah is a hard-working and industrious person, of big build, with
a fine, oval face, smooth black hair (the head is usually shaved), and
well formed features. The women are often of great beauty, both in form
and figure, though they lose their youth early. The Copts are racially
the purest descendants of the ancient Egyptians. The coloring of the
fellah varies from a fair yellowish shade in Lower Egypt to a deeper
tone in Middle Egypt, and in Upper Egypt the majority are a deep bronze.
The Arab portion of the population are of two classes: the Arabic
speaking tribes who come from the deserts, and the Hamitic tribes who
speak a language of their own. The Nubians are chiefly mixed with Arab
blood. The foreigners are mainly Greeks, Turks, Italians, British,
French, Syrians, Levantines, and Persians.

=Etrurians= (_ē-tru´ri-anz_), or =Etruscans= (_ē-trus´-kanz_).--The
ancient inhabitants of Etruria, the modern Tuscany. The Etrurians are
the most mysterious people of antiquity. According to ancient tradition,
they came from Lydia in prehistoric times, and colonized Latium. Certain
details of their costumes and customs appear to be identical with those
of Lydia, and the legend is probably based upon fact.

The Etruscans were proverbially a religious people. Their tombs bear
witness to a belief in a future life, and a dread of the malignant power
of their deities.

=Greeks.=--The ancient Greeks belonged to Aryan or Indo-European race.
They entered Greece from the North, and as they moved south in separate
tribes, the foremost tribes were impelled forward by the pressure of
those behind. Even when the whole of the peninsula had been for some
time filled and fully occupied, a fresh wave of immigrants swept over
the whole country, disturbing everything. Such a wave was the “Return of
the Heraclidæ,” or the Dorian Invasion. The result was to drive
emigrants on to and over the isles of Greece, and to plant Greek cities
and Greek culture on the coasts of Asia Minor. At later times Sicily,
the Black Sea, Libya, etc., were dotted with Greek colonies, the ancient
Greeks were pre-eminent in philosophy and science, leaders in the
civilization of their own day, and laid the foundations of modern
civilization.

The modern Greek race or people is that which has descended, with
considerable foreign admixture, from the ancient Greeks. While the stock
has changed much, physically and otherwise, the modern language is more
nearly like the ancient Greek than Italian, for instance, is like the
ancient Latin.

The Greek race of today is intensely proud of its language and its
history, and naturally wishes to be considered as genuinely Hellenic.
The official title of the country is now the “Kingdom of Hellas,” and
any citizen, however mixed in race, styles himself a Hellene. The people
are wide-awake on political questions, are avid readers of newspapers,
and, like the Greek of older times, eager to learn some new thing.
Generally speaking, in customs, superstitions, and folklore, the modern
race is a continuation of the ancient.

It may not be commonly known that the greater part of the Greeks live
outside of Greece, probably twice as numerous as those in Greece. Ripley
says that they form a third of the total population of the Balkan
States. On the other hand, von Hellwald says that of the population of
Greece itself only about 1,300,000 are truly Greek in race.

=Gypsies= (_jip´sēz_).--A peculiar wandering race which appeared in
eastern Europe in the fourteenth century and is now found in every
country of Europe, as well as in parts of Asia, Africa, and America. The
Gypsies are distinguishable from the peoples among whom they rove by
their bodily appearance and by their language. Their forms are generally
light, lithe, and agile; skin of a tawny color; eyes large, black and
brilliant; hair long, coal black, and often ringleted; mouth well
shaped; and teeth very white. Ethnologists generally concur in regarding
the Gypsies as descendants of some obscure Hindu tribe. They pursue
various nomadic occupations, being tinkers, basket-makers,
fortune-tellers, dealers in horses, etc.; are often expert musicians;
and are credited with thievish propensities. They appear to be destitute
of any system of religion, but traces of various forms of paganism are
found in their language and customs.

The Gypsy calls himself “Rom,” whence comes Romany as a name for the
language. Special names are applied to Gypsies in the different
countries where they are found. Some of these relate to the supposed
origin of this singular people, as Gypsy or Egyptian in the British
Isles, Bohémien in France, Gitano (Egyptian) in Spain, and Tatare in
Scandinavia. In some countries they are known, by a term of contempt, as
Heiden (heathen) in Holland, Harami (robbers) in Egypt, and Tinklers in
Scotland, but in most parts of Europe a local form of the word Zingani
is used to designate them, as Zigeuner in Germany, Cygany in Hungary,
and Zingari in Spain.

Intermarriage with other peoples is becoming more frequent. Through loss
of language, the assumption of a sedentary life, and intermarriage,
Gypsies are decreasing in numbers and seem everywhere doomed to
extinction by absorption.

Of the total population of Gypsies in the world, three-fourths are in
Europe. There are 200,000 in Roumania, 100,000 each in Hungary and the
Balkan Peninsula, 50,000 each in Spain, Russia and Servia, and 50,000 in
Germany and Italy combined. The number in the British Isles is variously
estimated at from 5,000 to 20,000. There are thought to be 100,000 in
Asia and 25,000 in Africa. Only a few thousand are found in the
Americas.

=Hebrews= (_hē´bruz_), =Jewish= or =Israelite=.--The race or people that
originally spoke the Hebrew language. They were primarily of Semitic
origin, and according to tradition, descended from Heber, the
great-grandson of Shem, in the line of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They
are scattered throughout Europe, especially in Russia, yet preserve
their own individuality to a marked degree. Linguistically, the nearest
relatives of the ancient Hebrew are the Syriac, Assyrian, and Arabic
languages. While the Hebrew is not so nearly a dead language as the
related Syrian, Aramaic, or the ancient Assyrian, its use in most Jewish
communities is confined mainly to religious exercises. The Jews have
adopted the languages of the peoples with whom they have long been
associated. More speak Yiddish, called in Europe “Judeo-German,” than
any other language, since the largest modern population of Jews borders
on eastern Germany and has been longest under German influence.

Physically the Hebrew is a mixed race. In every country, however, they
are found to approach in type the people among whom they have long
resided. The two chief divisions of the Jewish people are the northern
type, and the Spanish or southern type. The latter are now found mainly
in the countries southeast of Austria. They consider themselves to be of
purer race than the northern Jews and in some countries refuse to
intermarry or worship with the latter. Their features are more truly
Semitic.

The social solidarity of the Jews is chiefly a product of religion and
tradition. Taking all factors into account, and especially their type of
civilization, the Jews of today are more truly European than Asiatic or
Semitic.

The Jews are endowed with the most varied qualities, as shown by the
whole course of their checkered history. Originally pure nomads, the
Israelites became excellent husbandmen after the settlement in Canaan,
and since then they have given proof of the highest capacity for poetry,
letters, erudition of all kinds, philosophy, finance, music, and
diplomacy. The reputation of the medieval Arabs as restorers of learning
is largely due to their wise tolerance of the enlightened Jewish
communities in their midst.

[Illustration: This remarkable Cliff Palace of Chapin’s Mesa, Colorado,
is believed to have been constructed either by the Pueblo Indians or
their immediate predecessors. Originally it was a city in itself, being
prepared for siege, drought, and famine, besides the necessities of
every-day life.]

In late years the persecutions, especially in Russia and Roumania, have
caused a fresh exodus, and flourishing agricultural settlements have
been founded in Argentina and Palestine.

Jewish immigrants usually, however, settle in the cities. New York City,
for example, has the largest Jewish population of any city in the world,
now estimated by some at about 1,000,000, or nearly one-fourth of the
total population. About 50,000 more are added annually. Among large
cities, Warsaw and Odessa have a still larger ratio of Jewish
population, namely, one-third. In London, on the contrary, only
one-fiftieth of the population is Hebrew. The Jewish population of the
entire United States is less than 2,000,000.

=Hindus= (_hin´duz_), or =Hindoos=.--The native race in India descended
from the Aryan conquerors. Their purest representatives belong to the
two great historic castes of Brahmans and Rajputs. Many of the non-Aryan
inhabitants of India have been largely Hinduized. More loosely the name
includes also the non-Aryan inhabitants of India.

It is not generally realized how great a number of races and tribes
there are in India, many of them extremely low in civilization and
approaching the Negro in physical characteristics. Such are some of the
Dravidas and Mundas, who occupy all of southern India. In greatest
contrast with these are the Aryan Hindus of the north, more closely
related in language, if not in physical appearance, to the northern
Europeans than are the Turks, Magyars, and various peoples of eastern
Russia.

Hindi and Hindustani are the most widely spread modern languages or
group of dialects of India. Hindustani is generally understood to be the
polite speech of all India, and especially of Hindustan. Hindi, in the
wider sense of the term, is spoken by 97,000,000 of people, mainly of
northern India. The darker non-Aryans and Mongolians alone of India
nearly equal the population of the United States. There are one hundred
and forty-seven peoples or tribes speaking different languages.

=Indians= (_in´di-anz_).--The aboriginal inhabitants of North America
were so named on the supposition that the lands discovered by the early
navigators were parts of India. This erroneous name has continued in use
ever since, notwithstanding attempts at its correction. The Indians were
not nomadic until after the arrival of Europeans, who drove many tribes
from their established seats to those occupied by other tribes. From the
same Europeans they procured the horse and firearms, both of which were
necessary to a nomadic life under the existing conditions.

Explorers and early settlers gave fanciful names to many of the groups
of Indians which they encountered. Efforts to reproduce native tribal
names (unpronounceable in foreign tongues) in the traveler’s own
language, resulted in many different names for the same tribes. Several
thousand names for Indian tribes or groups are found in the English and
European writings of the last three hundred years.

Recent ethnological study tends to recognize possibly two marked types
of North American Indians, (1) those facing the Pacific and the Asiatic
Continent with its broad-headed Mongolic races; and (2) those found
chiefly on the Eastern Slope, looking toward Africa and Europe. They
incline to the view, also, that the race is not traceable to a “_single_
origin, but that immigrants came by many routes from many regions.”
While a similarity in the new environment tended to bring the fragments
of the old populations into similarity of physical type, likenesses in
language, are accepted as the sound basis for classification of Indian
tribes and groups.

Major J. W. Powell, in 1891, recognized “fifty-eight linguistic
families,” and mapped the geographic distribution of these great stocks
over the continent. The Pacific coast has a multiplicity of small
linguistic families; while the more populous central and eastern parts
have comparatively fewer linguistic stocks. Dr. McGee, in 1896 estimated
the number of Indian tribes belonging to various linguistic families at
782--the largest number of these, tribes of little importance,
numerically or historically. Some of the principal linguistic families
are:

1. THE ALGONQUIAN (including thirty-six tribes) originally distributed
along the Atlantic Coast from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia as far south
as North Carolina, and throughout the middle portion of the continent
from Tennessee, northward throughout the main part of Canada. Among them
were the tribes found in New England and Virginia by the earliest
settlers from Europe,--the Abnaki, Delawares, Narragansetts, Pequots,
Powhatans, Mohegans, Ottawas, Illinois, Objibwa (Chippewa), Cheyennes,
Siksika and Arapaoes, with the now largely civilized and dispersed
Potawatomi.

2. THE ATHABASCAN (fifty-three tribes) chiefly found now in Northwestern
Canada, but including also the large Southwestern tribe of about 30,000
Navahoes, in Arizona and New Mexico; the Apaches and the Mescaleros,
with a few small tribal groups on the coast of central and northern
California.

3. THE IROQUOIAN (thirteen tribes) among which were the famous “Five
Nations” of New York, including the Cayugas, Oneidas, Senecas,
Onondagas, Tuscaroras, Mohawks, the numerous Cherokees, and the Hurons,
nearly annihilated in 1650 by the Iroquois.

=TWO INSTRUCTIVE VIEWS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN=

[Illustration: The former free and open life of the plains is now
supplemented with the refinements and even luxuries of modern American
life. Rich in lands, and protected by the guardianship of the American
government, the future of the Indian is unusually safe-guarded.]

[Illustration: The Indian farmer is under the instruction of upward of
five hundred skilled specialists who demonstrate the art of profitable
farming. His lands equal in area all New England and New York, and their
value is placed at six hundred million dollars.]

4. THE SIOUAN (sixty-eight tribes) including the great Dakota (Sioux)
tribes, with their numerous sub-divisions; the Omahas, Poncas, Osages,
the Winnebagos, Iowas, Crows; and the Catawbas in Carolina, who perhaps
mark the original eastern habitat from which Siouan tribes moved
northwest.

5. THE SHOSHONEAN (twelve tribes) including the Comanches, Utes, Hopis,
and Shoshone.

6. THE MUSKHOGEAN (nine tribes) including the Creeks, Choctaws,
Chickasaws, and Seminoles.

7. THE ESKIMAUAN family (seventy tribes) scattered through Greenland and
the Arctic Coast and islands of Central and North America and Alaska.

8. THE PUEBLO, including the Zuñi, Hopi and Tegna.

On the continent of North America, north of Mexico, three or four
hundred years ago, there were probably about 1,150,000 Indians. Of
these, perhaps 850,000 were on territory now that of the United States
proper; 220,000 in British America; 72,000 in Alaska; and 10,000 in
Greenland. Numerous and prolonged intertribal wars, ravages of
tuberculosis, and fevers, are known to have swept off entire populations
of large districts, before contact with Whites had greatly accelerated
the death-rate of the American Indians. Smallpox, introduced by the
Whites, has nearly extinguished entire tribes, time after time. Whiskey,
and attendant dissipation, sexual diseases brought in by Whites, and the
lowered vitality which results from changed conditions of life, with
tuberculosis, rendered much more deadly in the conditions of life forced
upon Indians by the Whites, had largely reduced the Indian population
before 1800, and have steadily tended toward the extermination of
Indians since that date, although intermarriages and enrolment of
mixed-bloods have kept up the numbers on tribal rolls.

The most interesting groups of Indians in Central and South America have
been the (a) Aztecs, (b) Pipils, making the _Nahuatlan_ group; and the
(a) Mayas, (b) Quichés, (c) Pocomans, making the _Huastecan_ group.

THE AZTECS were the dominant race in Mexico prior to their conquest by
Spaniards. Although the name is usually extended to all the
semi-civilized tribes of Nahuatlan (_Aztlan_, “heron clan”) stock, it
properly belongs only to a small group of seven related clans. The
principal tribe had its capital at Tenochtitlan, now the city of Mexico.
They developed a form of astronomy which was mainly astrological, and
could take accurate observations, not only of lunations, but also of the
periods of Venus. They divided the solar year into eighteen months of
twenty days each and named each day by consecutive hieroglyphics. Their
writing system was mainly pictorial. The Aztec monuments, however, or
pyramids surmounted by temples, were not to be compared with those of
Yucatan, while the finest in Mexico itself (Teotihuacan, Colula,
Papantla) were the work of their Toltec predecessors.

Possessed of a high degree of culture, the Aztecs were also notorious
for their cruelty and the barbarous character of their religious rites.
Some of their descendants, comparatively pure in blood and retaining the
ancient language, are still to be found in the neighborhood of the city
of Mexico.

INCAS (_ing´käz_).--The reigning and aristocratic order in ancient Peru
from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. They were originally a
tribe or family of the Quichés who inhabited certain valleys near Cuzco
and first became dominant under Manco Capac about 1240. Their own
traditions described Manco Capac as a child of the Sun. From him
descended the twelve other historical sovereigns of Peru, the last
reigning one being Huascar, though the lineage was preserved long after.
These sovereigns (the Incas in a restricted sense) always married their
own sisters, and the throne was inherited, in general, by the oldest son
proceeding from this marriage. Children by their other wives could not,
by custom or law, receive the crown, though this rule was broken when
Atahualpa inherited a part of the empire in 1523. The rule of the Incas
was absolute, but very mild. They had attained to a high state of
civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards. They cultivated many
of the arts, and had some knowledge of astronomy. They had domesticated
the llamas and alpacas, had brought under cultivation maize, potatoes
and other edible roots, understood mining and the working of metals, and
excelled as masons, weavers, potters, and farmers. They brought the
science of government to a high pitch of perfection. The Incas composed
songs and dramas; and as soldiers their skill and prowess enabled them
to conquer and consolidate a vast empire. Three centuries of oppression
under Spanish rule have deteriorated the character of the Inca Indian,
but he is still industrious and honest, and retains some of the virtues
of his ancestors.

=Israelites.=--See Hebrews.

=Japanese.=--The Japanese and Koreans form the easternmost group of the
great Sibiric branch, which, with the Sinitic branch (Chinese, etc.,)
constitutes the Mongolian race. The Japanese and Koreans stand much
nearer than the Chinese to the Finns, Lapps, Magyars, and Turks of
Europe, who are the westernmost descendants of the Mongolian race. The
languages of all these peoples belong to the agglutinative family, while
Chinese is monosyllabic.

Although many people may mistake a Japanese face for Chinese, the
Mongolian traits are much less pronounced. The skin is much less yellow,
the eyes less oblique. The hair, however, is true Mongolian, black and
round in section, and the nose is small. These physical differences no
doubt indicate that the Japanese are of mixed origin. In the south there
is probably a later Malay admixture. In some respects their early
culture resembles that of the Philippines of today.

Then there is an undoubted white strain in Japan. The Ainos, the
earliest inhabitants of Japan, are one of the most truly Caucasian-like
people in appearance in eastern Asia. They have dwindled away to less
than 20,000 under the pressure of the Mongolian invasion from the
mainland, but they have left their impress upon the Japanese race. The
“fine” type of the aristocracy, the Japanese ideal, as distinct from the
“coarse” type recognized by students of the Japanese of today, is
perhaps due to the Aino.

The race, as a whole, is physically under-developed, the men being
small, and harsh in feature, while the women lose their good looks after
the first bloom of youth is over. The girls, with their rosy cheeks,
fascinating manners, and exquisitely tasteful dress, are, however,
particularly attractive, and the children are bright and comely, being
allowed full liberty to enjoy themselves--indeed Japan is the paradise
of children.

The Japanese have many excellent qualities, they are kindly, courteous,
law-abiding, cleanly in their habits, frugal, and possessed of a high
sense of personal honor which makes sordidness unknown. This is
associated, moreover, with an ardent patriotic spirit, quite removed
from factiousness. On the other hand the people are deficient in moral
earnestness and courage, which leads to corruption in social life and
institutions.

[Illustration: The people of Japan are noted for their love of things
beautiful. The above scene is a typical picture of an exquisite garden,
presided over by several picturesquely gowned Japanese girls.]

The town costume of the Japanese gentleman consists of a loose silk robe
extending from the neck to the ankles, but gathered in at the waist,
round which is fastened a girdle of brocaded silk. Over this is worn a
loose, wide-sleeved jacket, decorated with the wearer’s armorial device.
White cotton socks, cleft at the great toes, and wooden pattens complete
the attire. European costume has been prescribed by government as the
official dress, and the empress and her suite have recently adopted
foreign costume, being followed to a certain extent by the fashionable
ladies of the capital. Hats are not generally worn, except by those who
follow European fashions or in the heat of summer.

The women wear a loose robe, overlapping in front and fastened with a
broad heavy girdle of silk (_obi_), often of great value. In winter a
succession of these robes are worn, one over the other. The formerly
universal chignon coiffure of the women, stiff with pomatum, which was
done up by the hair-dresser once or twice a week, is rapidly yielding to
the simpler Grecian knot.

MODE OF LIVING.--Japanese houses are slight constructions of wood. In
the northern districts at least two sides of the house are closed in
with walls of mud plastered on wicker-work. The floors are covered with
thick soft straw mats, measuring six by three feet, and the
accommodation of the houses is reckoned by the number of these mats. On
them the inmates sit, eat and sleep, the bed-clothes--heavily padded
quilts--being kept during the day in adjoining closets. Rice is the
staple food of the people, but in the poorer mountainous regions millet
often takes its place. Fish, seaweed, and beans in all forms are served
with the rice, especially in the soups, which likewise contain bean
curd, eggs, and vegetables. Chestnuts and hazel-nuts are also largely
eaten, and the walnut is made into a sweetmeat. _Shōyu_ (soy), a sauce
made of beans and wheat, is the universal condiment. Fowls are now
pretty widely used for the table, and pork and beef, as well as bread,
are increasingly eaten.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.--The social position of women is more favorable
than in most non-Christian countries, but still leaves much to be
desired. Marriages are arranged through an intermediary, and both sexes
marry at an early age. As the continuance of families is a point of
great importance, adoption is largely resorted to in order to prevent
families dying out. Great respect is paid to the dead, and posthumous
names are conferred after death, some of the most celebrated names in
Japanese history being posthumous titles. Heavy sums are lavished on
funerals.

[Illustration: The Jinrikisha (_jin-rik´i-shaw_) or two-wheeled carriage
generally in use in Japan.]

Until lately the only vehicles in Japan were two kinds of palanquin; but
in all the more level districts these have now been superseded by the
_jinrikĭsha_ (man-power-carriage), a sort of two-wheeled perambulator
drawn by a man who runs between the shafts. In many of the more
mountainous regions the roads are impracticable even for the
_jinrikĭsha_.

The Japanese are essentially a pleasure-loving people, and spend
comparatively large sums upon amusements. The theater, though formerly
despised by the _samurai_ class, who refused to enter its doors, forms
one of the chief national resorts. The time of greatest festivity is the
New Year, now held contemporaneously with our own, when pinetrees are
planted before the doors, the houses are gay with decoration, and
presents are lavishly made. The favorite game at this season is
_oyobane_, a kind of battledore and shuttlecock. January is the kite
season; the smaller kites are of various fantastic shapes, while the
larger and more powerful ones are usually rectangular. Wrestling,
juggling, and archery are favorite sports.

RELIGIONS OF JAPAN.--There are two prevailing religions in
Japan--_Shintoism_ (The way of the gods), the indigenous faith; and
Buddhism, introduced from China in 552.

The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are the absence of an
ethical and doctrinal code, of idol-worship, of priestcraft, and of any
teachings concerning a future state, and the deification of heroes,
emperors, and great men, together with the worship of certain forces and
objects in nature.

Of Buddhists there are no fewer than thirty-five sects. The monks have
assumed the functions of priests, and Japanese Buddhist worship presents
striking resemblances to that of the Roman Catholic Church.
Notwithstanding the increased patronage recently bestowed upon Shintoism
by the government, Buddhism is still the dominant religion among the
people.

Japan is a land of temples, but many are now falling into decay, while
others are turned into schoolhouses. Every grove has its shrine and
_torii_, a structure in wood or stone, consisting of two upright pillars
joined at the top by two transverse beams or slabs; metal torii are also
not unknown. The Buddhist monasteries in the Japanese middle ages were
undoubtedly wonderful centers of civilization, and the priests for long
commanded reverence by their self-denial.

=Latins=, or =Latini= (_la-tī´ni_), or =Romans=.--The ancient Latins
inhabited Latium, on the west coast of central Italy, before the
existence of Rome. It would seem that they had branched off from the
Aryan stem next after the Celts, and upon entering Italy soon united
with the primitive Liguirians, later forming a confederation or league
of which Alba Longa became the head.

Out of the Latins, Etruscans (which see) and Sabines (another primal
stock), the Roman people were originally formed, each speaking a most
marked variety of the original Italic mother-tongue. The principal
element was _Latin_, as the language shows. The next in importance was
the _Sabine_, and the third, in order both of time and of influence, was
the _Etruscan_. But with the spread of the Roman arms (the Romans were
Latins), all were absorbed by the Latin variety, which still lives in
its modern progeny--Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Langue d’Oc (South
France), Langue d’Oïl (North or Standard French), Roumanian, Walloon of
Belgium, Rumansch or Ladin and Vaudois of Switzerland. Thus half of
Europe has been Latinized, while the different nationalities still
retain their distinctive physical and mental characters.

=Malays= (_mālāz´_).--Blumenbach, the father of ethnology, regarded the
Malays as one of the five grand divisions of mankind; but the weight of
modern authorities is in favor of considering them as a branch of the
Mongolian race. They are distinguished in color by a variety of shades
of brown, and are native to the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula and the
Island of Madagascar, with perhaps a few related remnants of tribes in
Indo-China. The Malay Archipelago includes the Philippines, but not New
Guinea on the east. Within this archipelago there is no other native
race with the exception of the small groups of pigmy Negroes called
Negritos distantly related to the Papuan of New Guinea, if not to the
Australian.

All the languages spoken by the Malay race belong to the great
Malayo-Polynesian family of languages, which are found everywhere among
Polynesians; that is, as far east as the waters of South America and
northward to include the Hawaiian Islands. The term Malay is also
applied in a narrower sense to that part of the Malay race called the
“true Malay” or “_Orang Malaya_,” that is, the section speaking the
standard Malay tongue and which lived originally in and about the Malay
Peninsula.

While linguistically the Malays are radically distinct from the
Mongolians, physically they approach them more nearly than any other
great race. The lighter brown color found in some sections approaches
the yellow of the Chinese, and the slanting eye or “Mongol fold” of the
upper lid is frequently found where no intermixture can be assumed. The
appearance of the face and head is also somewhat similar in these races.
In temperament and native civilization, however, the Malay is quite
distinct. He has primitive, cruel instincts more like those of the
American Indian. He has nowhere accepted the Mongolian type of
civilization so much as the Caucasian type. The Filipinos are far in
advance of any other Malay people in the latter respect, although the
earlier Malayan civilization was most highly developed in Java. Buddhism
has here been replaced by Mohammedanism, which has extended even into
the southern Philippines.

The question of their origin has been much discussed, some fixing the
cradle of the race on the Asiatic mainland, others in Sumatra.

The Malay intellect is of a low order, and the race has never developed
a native culture, their civilization being entirely due to foreign
influences, chiefly Hindu and Arab.

=Mongolian= (_mon-gō´li-än_).--The second in Blumenbach’s classification
of the races of mankind. The chief characteristics are broad cheekbones,
low, retreating forehead, short and broad nose, and yellowish
complexion. It included the Chinese, Japanese, Turks, Tartars,
Indo-Chinese, Lapps, etc. The Mongolian and the Caucasian are the two
largest races, or divisions, of mankind,--the latter being somewhat the
larger because it includes the greater part of the population of India.

[Illustration: Finish girl of to-day--a descendent of Mongolian
ancestors who settled in Europe centuries ago.]

Just as the Caucasian race extends into southwestern and southern Asia,
so the Mongolian race extends far into Europe, embracing not only the
Lapps of Scandinavia, the Finns, Cossacks, and many other peoples of
Russia, and the Turks of southern Europe, but even the Magyars of
Hungary, the most advanced of all the Europeans of Mongolian origin. The
main western branches of the Mongolians, although Europeanized in blood
as well as in culture, still possess a Mongolian speech.

Brinton divides the Mongolian race into two great branches, the Sinitic
and the Sibiric.

The word “Sinitic” is derived from the late Latin _Sina_, China. It
comprises that branch of the Mongolian race of which the Chinese,
Indo-Chinese, and Tibetan groups are the chief representatives.

The Sibiric branch of the Mongolian race comprises the Japanese,
Arctic, Tungusic, Finnic, Tataric, and Mongolic groups, and therefore
all the Mongolian peoples which have invaded Europe, such as the Finns,
Lapps, Magyars, and Osmanlis or Turks.

=Moor= is a term applied to very different peoples of northwestern
Africa. In Roman history it is applied to inhabitants of Mauretania
(Morocco and Algeria), who were in part Phoenician colonists. In Spanish
history the “Moors” and “Moriscos” were mainly Berbers rather than, as
commonly supposed, Arabs. Today the word is wrongly applied to the Riffs
of Morocco and to the town dwellers of Algeria and Tunis. The latter
call themselves generally “Arabs,” although often in part of Berber
blood. The Moors, in a stricter racial sense, are the mixed Trarza and
other tribes on the western coast, from Morocco to the Senegal, mainly
of nomadic habits. They are of mixed Berber, Arab, and often Negro
blood. Many speak Arabic.

=Negro.=--The only negroes to whom practically all ethnologists are
willing to apply the term are those inhabiting the central and western
third of Africa, excluding even the Bantus, who occupy practically all
Africa south of the Equator. The Bantus, well typified by the Zulu
subdivision, are lighter in color than the true negroes, never sooty
black, but of a reddish-brown. From the negroes proper of the Sudan have
descended most American negroes.

To some extent the northern Negro stock has become intermixed with the
African Caucasian, especially about the Upper Nile, in Abyssinia, and in
Gallaland and Somaliland farther east. Keane’s theory is that the
Australians and Africans represent the earliest offshoots of the
precursors of man who inhabited the continent now submerged in the
Indian Ocean. In line with this theory is the claim that the Veddahs and
Dravidians of India are still more divergent branches toward the north
which have become more affected by Caucasian or, perhaps, Mongolian
elements.

The Papuans and Nigritos of Australasia, having all or most of the
characteristics of the African negroes, are classed with them.

There is a bewildering confusion in the terms used to indicate the
different mixtures of white and dark races in America. Thus, all natives
of Cuba, whether colored or white, are called “creoles,” as this word is
loosely used in the United States; but creole, as more strictly defined,
applies only to those who are native-born but of pure European descent.
This is the use of the word in Mexico. In Brazil and Peru, on the
contrary, it is applied to those possessing colored blood in some
proportion; in Brazil to Negroes of pure descent; and in Peru to the
issue of whites and mestizos. “Mestizo” is the Spanish word applied to
half-breeds (white and Indian.)

SLAVE TRAFFIC IN AMERICA.--The importation of Negroes into America has
been going on steadily since the early years of the sixteenth century,
when it was begun by the Spaniards, even the good Las Casas recommending
it in the interest of the native Indians. Both Queen Elizabeth and King
James I. issued patents to English slave-trading companies operating
between the coast of Guinea and the American colonies. Britain, by the
Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, engaged to carry out the contract of the old
French Guinea Company, and to import into the New World one hundred and
thirty thousand slaves in the course of the next thirty years, and is
said to have more than made good the engagement.

In the United States the traffic was open and active until the passage
of the Act of 1794 prohibiting the importation of slaves into any of the
federal ports. Long after this it continued to be a brisk business in
the West Indies and South America. As late as 1840 there were
seventy-five ships plying constantly between Brazilian ports and the
African coast, bringing cargoes of three or four hundred slaves at each
trip. The principal points at which the slaves were obtained were along
the coast of Guinea, especially on what was known as the Slave Coast,
between the rivers Lagos and Assinie, where were the crowded marts of
Waidah and Anamaboe, and again along the Angola coast. In these two
regions the traders encountered two quite different branches of the
African race, and their human wares in America show that they were
derived from different sources. Along the Guinea coast, whence most of
the slaves brought to the United States were derived, the population
belongs to the true negro type.

In Brazil and other parts of South America the preponderance of
importations was from the negroid stock of the equator, whose dialects
and physical traits are allied to those of the Kaffirs and Zulus of the
east coast (Bantus). The slaves in all parts, however, being from mixed
stocks, their descendants do not present any well-marked peculiarities
inside those of the race. As a rule, they are in strength equal to the
whites, and in endurance of exposure and labor under a tropical sun are
superior to all other immigrants.

It is usually held that the negro is not naturally industrious; but this
seems to some extent answered by the severe field labor of many tribes,
both men and women, in their native continent, and by the official
reports of the United States government showing a greater acreage of
land under cultivation in the former slave states and a larger crop of
cotton than before the Civil War. When under the control of a strong
social organization, and with obvious motives for industry and economy
before his eyes, the American negro is both industrious and provident,
and the instances are numerous where members of the race have
accumulated fortunes of respectable size. Their vitality appears on the
whole to be about the same as the whites, except in the more northern
states, where it is unquestionably much less. In New England and Canada
negroes gradually but surely perish.

NEGRO CHARACTERISTICS.--The negro is a tireless talker and story-teller.
Many of them reveal a high stage of the art of story-telling, as the
Georgia tales collected from the southern states by various writers
attest. Many of them belong to the class of “beast-fables,” similar to
some which have been collected among the American Indians and the
natives of the African continent, and such as were favorite staples of
amusement in Europe during the middle ages.

One of the principal figures is the rabbit--the “brer rabbit” of the
“Uncle Remus” tales. He figures conspicuously not only in the southern
United States, but in the West Indies and on the Amazons, and in the
folklore of the Venezuelan negroes.

Along with story-telling, singing and music are favorite diversions of
the colored population. This tendency is a direct inheritance from their
African ancestry, as throughout that continent the natives are
passionately fond of these diversions. In Central America the negroes
still employ the _marimba_, a native African instrument with wooden keys
placed over jars or gourds, the keys being struck with a stick. In the
United States the violin, the fife, and the guitar are used, but the
favorite is the banjo, an instrument of African derivation, modified
from the guitars with grass strings still in use on the Guinea coast.
With these simple means they produce music of pleasant though not
artistic character. In individual instances (as Blind Tom, born in
Georgia in 1849) members of the race have attained remarkable skill on
the piano and organ, rendering the most difficult compositions with
spirit. No negro composer, however, has attained wide celebrity. Their
songs are numerous, many of them of a religious character, others
turning on the incidents of daily life. They are generally defective in
prosody and without merit, being often little more than words strung
together to carry an air.

=Persians= (_per´shanz_).--The natives or inhabitants of ancient or of
modern Persia. The Persian race or people is quite different from the
Persian nationality. The latter includes several very different peoples,
as will presently be seen. Linguistically the Persian is the chief race
of Persia speaking an Iranic language, that is, one of the Aryan tongues
most nearly related to the Hindi. Physically, the race is of mixed
Caucasian stock. It is almost entirely composed of Tajiks. The small
section known as “Parsis” or, incorrectly, “Fire worshipers,” have for
the most part emigrated to India. The Armenians are so closely related
to the Persians as to be put with them by some into the Iranic branch.
The Kurds, the Beluchis, and the Afghans also belong to the latter.

Of the 9,500,000 estimated population of Persia about two-thirds are
true Persian or “Tajik.” The other third is also Caucasian for the most
part, including Kurds (400,000), Armenians (150,000), and other Iranians
(820,000), and the non-Aryan Arabs (350,000). There are 550,000 Turks
and 300,000 Mongols in the Empire. The only Christians are the Armenians
and a small group of 25,000 “Chaldeans,” “Assyrians,” or “Nestorians,”
really eastern Syrians, about Lake Urmia, on the northwestern border.

In intellect, if not in civilization the Persian is perhaps more nearly
a European than is the pure Turk. He is more alert and accessible to
innovation. Yet he is rather brilliant and poetical than solid in
temperament. Like the Hindu he is more eager to secure the semblance
than the substance of modern civilization.

[Illustration: =MODERN RUSSIAN POLICE OFFICER=]

=Slavs= (_slȧvz_).--Peoples widely spread in eastern, southeastern, and
central Europe. The Russian and Polish are its leading tongues. The
Slavs are divided into two sections--the southeastern and the western.
The former section comprises the Russians, Bulgarians, Serbo-Croatians,
and Slovenes; the latter, the Poles, Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks,
Wends, etc.

[Illustration: =RUSSIAN POSTMAN=]

Physically, and perhaps temperamentally, the Slavs approach the Asiatic,
or particularly the Tartar, more closely than do the peoples of western
Europe. In language they are as truly Aryan as ourselves. Of course,
languages do not fuse by interbreeding; physical races do. There is some
truth in the old saying, “Scratch a Russian and you find a Tartar,”
especially if he come from southern Russia, where once lived the Mongol
conquerors of the Russians.

Yet the common conception of the Slav as dreamy and impractical does not
seem to fit with the greatness of the new nation which impresses the
imagination of the beholder more than any other in Europe. The fact is
that we do not know the Slav. Unfortunately the unlikeness of the
language to those of western Europe, perhaps even the unfamiliarity of
the alphabet used, has delayed the study of what must soon be regarded
as one of the great languages and literatures of civilization. Its
spread, like that of the Russian Empire, has been more rapid than that
of any other in the present century.

If the Slav be still backward in western ideas, appliances, and form of
government, it is nevertheless conceivable that the time is not far
distant when he will stand in the lead. The race is still young. Its
history is shorter than that of any other important people of Europe.

Turning to the physical characteristics of the Slavs, it is found that
there is not, properly speaking, a Slavic race. Deniker says that no
fewer than five European races are represented among the Slavs, besides
Turkic and Ugric or Mongolian elements. These are the fair, but
broad-headed and short races, in Poland and White Russia especially; the
dark, very broad-headed, and short peoples among the Little Russians of
the south, the Slovaks, and some Great Russians; and the taller, but
still dark and broad-headed races among the southwestern Slavs or
Serbo-Croatians and some Czechs and Ruthenians. In the northwest the
Russians have been modified by the blond or Teutonized Finns, in the
northeast by the dark Finns, and in the southeast by the Tartars; but
all such alike are broad-headed Mongolians in origin. With the exception
of these Asiatic remnants and the related Magyars and Turks, and the
Greeks, all of Europe east of Germany is filled with Slavs. They occupy
more than one-half of the continent of Europe, and their presence has
been a fertile source of political and governmental dissensions for many
centuries, particularly in the Balkan countries. Indeed the scourge of
war which has been ravaging all Europe, since 1914, is traceable in no
small degree to this admixture of racial elements.

[Illustration: Servian Slav woman showing the native costume worn by the
Servian women on feast days.]

[Illustration: Russian Slavs, in native costumes, from a southern
province on the Black Sea.]

=Teutonic.=--This great branch of the Aryan family of languages and
“races,” includes all those of northwestern Europe excepting the Celtic.
The Teutonic was the second Aryan swarm in Western Europe, that which
came after the Celts, and is the one with whose history we are more
concerned than with that of any other; for it is the branch of the Aryan
family to which we ourselves belong. The Teutons were the forefathers of
the Germans and the English, and of the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians in
Northern Europe. They do not appear in history till a much later time
than the Celts, and then we find them lying immediately to the east of
the Celts, chiefly in the land which is now called Germany. From this
they spread themselves into many of the countries of Europe; but in most
cases they were absorbed into the earlier inhabitants, and learned, like
them, to speak the language of the Romans. The chief parts of Europe
where Teutonic languages are now spoken are Germany, England and
Scandinavia.

In Scandinavia we cannot doubt that the present Teutonic inhabitants
were the first Aryan settlers; for they found a Mongolian people there,
some of whom still remain, by the name of Lapps and Finns, in the
extreme north of Sweden and Norway and on the eastern coast of the
Baltic. But in most places the Teutons, as the second wave, came into
land where other Aryan settlers had been before them. Sometimes they may
have simply come in the wake of the Celts as they were pressing
westward; but, sometimes they found the Celts in the land and drove them
out, as was specially the case in Britain. Of the first coming of the
Teutons into Europe we can say nothing from written history, any more
than of the first coming of the Celts.

The Teutonic stock of nations, as they exist at the present day, is
divided into two principal branches: (1) The Scandinavian, embracing
Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders; and (2) the Germanic, which
includes, besides the German-speaking inhabitants of Germany proper and
Switzerland, also the population of the Netherlands (the Dutch), the
Flemings of Belgium, and the descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes
in Great Britain, together with their offspring in North America,
Australia, and other British colonies--the English-speaking peoples of
the world. It is necessary in this case, as in all similar cases, to
guard against making language the sole test of race. In many parts of
Germany, where German now prevails, Slavic dialects were spoken down to
recent times, and in some places are not yet quite extinct. And in Great
Britain it is unreasonable to suppose that the Anglo-Saxon invaders
exterminated the native Celtic population, or even drove more than a
tithe of them into Wales and the Highlands.

THE TEUTONIC RACIAL GROUP

               {          {         {          {Icelandic.
               {          {W.       {Old       {W. Dalecarlian.
               {          {Branch.  {Norwegian.{Jämetlandish.
               {          {         {          {Faroic.
               {          {
               {          {         {          {Bornholm.
               {NORSE.    {         {Danish.   {Normanno-Jutish.
               {          {         {          {Dano-Jutish.
               {          {E.       {
               {          {Branch.  {          {E. Dalecarlian.
               {          {         {Swedish.  {Gothic.
               {          {         {          {Scanian.
               {
               {          {
               {          {                    {W. Fr. Groningen.
               {          {                    {E. Fr. Saterland.
               {          {          Frisic.   {N. Fr. Helgoland,
               {          {                    {Sylt, etc.
               {          {
               {          {                    {Old Saxon of the
  LOW GERMAN.  {          {                    {“Heliand.”
               {          {          Conti-    {Westphalian.
               {          {          nental    {Hanoverian.
               {          {          Saxon.    {Brunswick.
               {          {                    {Pomeranian, etc.
               {NIEDER-   {
               {DEUTSCH.  {         {Anglisc   {Northumbrian.
               {          {         {(North-   {Lowland Scotch.
               {          {         {ern).     {Shetland, etc.
               {          {         {
               {          {Anglo-   {          {Lincoln.
               {          {Saxon    {Midland.  {Yorkshire.
               {          {(En-     {          {Derby, etc.
               {          {glish).  {
               {          {         {          {Cornish.
               {          {         {Saxon     {Somerset.
               {          {         {(South-   {Dorset.
               {          {         {ern).     {Kent, etc.

               {          {Salic Frankish (extinct).
               {          {
               {          {         {Rhenish.
               {          {Riparian {E. Frankish.
               {          {Frankish.{Hessian.
               {MITTEL-   {
               {DEUTSCH.  {         {Upper Saxon.
               {          {Thuring- {Erzgebirge.
               {          {ian.     {Transylvanian.
               {          {         {Meissen.
               {
               {          {                    {Bernese.
  HIGH GERMAN. {          {Bur-      Swiss.    {Hazli.
               {          {gundian.            {Appenzell.
               {          {
               {          {         {Neuhochdeutsch
               {          {         {(literary standard).
               {OBER-     {Alemanno-{Alsatian.
               {DEUTSCH.  {Suabian. {Wurtemberg.
               {          {         {Baden.
               {          {
               {          {         {Tyrolese.{Styrian.
               {          {Bavarian.{Austrian.{Carinthian.
               {          {         {         {Zips, etc.

[Illustration: =GROUP OF OLD SCHOOL TURKISH GENTLEMEN OF CONSTANTINOPLE=

The modern Turk is very far from being of purely Mongolian stock. In
truth the mixed blood of practically all the peoples of southeastern
Europe and western Asia courses in his veins.]

=Turks= (_tèrks_) or =Ottomans=, the race now dominant in Turkey, lived
originally in central Asia. They belong to the Sibiric or Tartar
division of the Mongolian race, and reached Europe, probably in
straggling bands, before the Christian Era (See Mongolian). To the same
race division belong the European Finns, Lapps, Hungarians, Bulgarians,
and Basques. Physically and in culture the Turks have become
Europeanized, though to a less degree than the related Finns and
Magyars. Instead of becoming blond, as the Finns, they have approached
the brunette type of southern Europe, probably in part through their
frequent intermarriages with the Circassian and other Mohammedan peoples
of the Caucasus. In fact, today they are not so much Turkish by blood as
Arabian, Circassian, Persian, Armenian, Greek, and Slavic. They prefer
to be considered as Arabo-Persian in culture rather than as Turkish. In
religion they are almost universally Mohammedan.

The Turks are in the minority in their own country, especially in the
European part of Turkey, where the Turks, Greeks, Albanians, and “Slavs”
(Bulgarians and Servians) are to be found in nearly equal parts. The
first three named have been estimated to constitute seventy per cent of
the population. No census of Turkey has ever been taken. The following
estimates are compiled from various sources. The entire Ottoman Empire,
excluding states practically independent, has a population of about
24,000,000. Of these 10,000,000 are Turks. In European Turkey, 1,500,000
out of a population of 6,000,000 are Turks. Here they are without doubt
decreasing in numbers. In Macedonia the Turks number about 500,000 out
of a population of 2,200,000. Of the latter number, however, only about
1,300,000 are Christians. In the capital itself, Constantinople, the
Turks constitute only about one-half of the population of 1,200,000. In
Turkey in Asia, on the other hand, the Turkish race is in the majority.
The Mohammedans number perhaps 10,000,000 in a total population of
13,000,000 in Asiatic Turkey and Armenia. There are about 500,000 Turks
in Bulgaria out of a total population of 4,000,000. The Mohammedan
population of Bosnia and Herzegovina--550,000 out of a total of
1,600,000--is mainly Slavic rather than Turkish.

=COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES AND PEOPLES=

Showing also the latest estimated population of the various subdivisions
throughout the world, together with a view of the numerous races
entering into the population of the United States.

  +----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-----------+
  |  =Race=  | =Stock= |  =Group=  | =Peoples and | =Estimated  |  =Races   |
  |          |         |           |    Tribes=   |   Total     |Represented|
  |          |         |           |              | Population= |   in the  |
  |          |         |           |              |             |   United  |
  |          |         |           |              |             |  States=  |
  +----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-----------+
  |          |{        |{Egyptians |{Copts        |   800,000   |}      500 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Fellaheen    |  5,000,000()|}          |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Berbers      |  7,500,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{(modern)     |             |           |
  |          |{Hamitic |{Lybians   |{_Etruscans_  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Assyrians_  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{(early)      |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Hittites_   |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{East      | Somalis      |  1,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{Africans  |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Arabians  |{Arabs        |} 5,000,000  |       500 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Bedouins     |}            |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Abyssini- | Ethiopians   |  9,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{ans       |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{Semitic |{          |{_Assyrians_  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{(later)      |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Babylonians_|             |           |
  |          |{        |{Chaldean  |{Hebrews      | 11,000,000  | 2,050,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Arameans     |  2,000,000  |    50,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Syrians)    |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Samaritans_ |             |           |
  |          |{        |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Hindus       |225,000,000  |    10,000 |
  |          |{        |{Iranic, or|{_Medes_      |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Persic    |{Persians     |  6,500,000  |       300 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Gypsies      |    800,000  |     4,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Armenic   | Armenians    |  4,000,000  |    30,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Britons_    |}Celtic popu-|Scotch:    |
  |          |{        |{          |{Scotch (part)|}lation of   |   660,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Irish (part) |}Europe,     |Irish:     |
  |          |{        |{Celtic    |{Welsh        |} 3,200,000; | 4,600,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Gauls_      |}of the      |Welsh:     |
  |=Caucasian|{        |{          |{_Picts_      |}world,      |   250,000 |
  |  Race=   |{        |{          |{             |} 9,200,000  |           |
  | (White)  |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Latins_     |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Romans)     |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Italians     | 38,000,000  | 2,100,000 |
  |          |{        |{Italic    |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{Aryan   |{          |{Roumanians   | 10,000,000  |    90,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Spanish      | 50,000,000  | 1,375,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Portuguese   |  5,000,000  |   115,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{French       | 45,000,000  |   300,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Hellenic  | Greeks       |  6,000,000  |   110,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Illyric   |Albanian      |  1,500,000  |     3,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Scandinavian | 13,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Danish     |  2,800,000  |   450,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Norwegian  |  3,000,000  | 1,010,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Swedish    |  5,500,000  | 1,450,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{German       | 85,000,000  | 8,300,000 |
  |          |{        |{Teutonic  |{Dutch        |  6,300,000  |   300,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{English      |126,000,000  | 2,250,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Flemish      |  4,000,000  |   100,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Swiss (part) |  2,300,000  |   300,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Austrians    | 10,000,000  | 2,000,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Lettic    | Lithuanians  |  4,000,000  |   225,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Russians     | 84,000,000  |   100,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Polish       | 17,000,000  | 1,725,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Czech:       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Bohemian   |  4,000,000  |}  550,000 |
  |          |{        |{Slavonic  |{  Moravian   |  2,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{Serbs, Croa- | 10,000,000  |   125,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{tians (Servia, Montenegro, Bosnia,     |
  |          |{        |{          |{Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Herzego-  |
  |          |{        |{          |{vina)                                  |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Caucasic  |{Georgians    |  1,200,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{Circassians  |    500,000  |       ... |
  |          |         |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Finns        |  6,000,000  |   200,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Lapps        |     30,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{Finnic    |{Magyar       |  8,500,000  |   700,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Hungarian)  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Bulgarian    |  5,000,000  |    25,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Turks        | 10,000,000  |   125,000 |
  |          |{Sibiric |{Tartaric  |{Cossacks     |  4,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{Kalmucks     |    200,000  |       500 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Iberian   | Basques (in  |    800,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          | Spain)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Japanese  |{Japanese     | 48,000,000  |    75,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Korean       | 10,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |=Mongolian|{        |           |{Chinese      |305,000,000  |    75,000 |
  |  Race=   |{Sinitic | Chinese   |{Indo-Chinese | 35,000,000  |       ... |
  | (Yellow  |{        |           |{  Siamese    |  1,600,000  |       ... |
  |and Brown)|{        |           |{  Burmese    | 10,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{New Zealand  |     45,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Maoris)     |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Philippines  |  7,600,000  | 7,600,000 |
  |          |{        |{Polynesian|{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Hawaiians    |     40,000  |    40,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Samoans      |     40,000  |}      500 |
  |          |{Malay   |{          |{Javanese     | 25,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Dravidians   | 65,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{Madagascar   |  2,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{East      |{(part)       |             |}   10,000 |
  |          |{        |{Indian    |{Sumatra      |  3,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{Borneo (part)|  1,500,000  |}          |
  +----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-----------+
  |          |{Tribes and peoples whose real homes|{(1)         |           |
  |  =Negro  |{are (1) Central and Southern       |{180,000,000 |       ... |
  |   Race=  |{Africa; (2) Malay Peninsula, Anda- |{(2)         |           |
  | (Black)  |{mans, parts of the Eastern Archi-  |{  5,000,000 |       ... |
  |          |{pelago and Philippines, New Guinea,|{(3)         |           |
  |          |{Australia; (3)America              |{ 25,000,000 | 9,850,000 |
  +----------+------------------------------------+-------------+-----------+
  |=American |{Tribes comprising: (1) North Ameri-|(1)  500,000 |   270,000 |
  |    or    |{can Indians; (2) South American In-|(2)6,000,000 |       ... |
  | Indians= |{dians; (3) Central American Indi-  |(3)7,500,000 |       ... |
  |  (Red)   |{ans; (4) Patagonians; (5) Eskimo   |(4)  190,000 |       ... |
  |          |                                    |(5)   40,000 |       ... |
  +----------+------------------------------------+-------------+-----------+

N.B.--Races in _italic_ are either now non-existent or have merged with
later peoples thus forming mixed races.

[Illustration: =NAPOLEON AT THE BURNING OF MOSCOW IN 1812=

The disastrous Russian campaign of Napoleon in 1812, which resulted in
the destruction of the city of Moscow by its own inhabitants to prevent
it from falling into the hands of the French, was the virtual turning
point in European history. From that time Napoleon’s star declined, and
Europe was reconstituted a few years later practically as it is today.]

  THE BOOK OF NATIONS

  _Geographical, Historical, Descriptive_

  EXTINCT NATIONS OF THE PAST

  CHIEF HISTORICAL PEOPLES: EGYPTIANS -- BABYLONIANS -- ASSYRIANS --
  HEBREWS -- PHŒNICIANS -- MEDES AND PERSIANS -- HINDUS -- GREEKS --
  ROMANS

  PROGRESS OF HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERY,
  B.C. 3800 TO THE PRESENT, WITH 16 MAPS

  THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS, B.C. 1400 TO 1917 A.D.

  COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS,
  B.C. 5000 TO 843 A.D.

  DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT:

    THE SPELL OF EGYPT: ANCIENT AND MODERN

    THE BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN EMPIRES

    THE HEBREWS AND THE HOLY LAND

    THE PHŒNICIANS: FIRST NATION OF COLONIZERS

    THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE

    THE GREEKS: GLORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

    ROME: MISTRESS OF THE WORLD

    THE SARACEN EMPIRE: ITS FANATICISM, ART AND LEARNING

    THE GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE

  LIVING NATIONS OF TO-DAY

  COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF MODERN NATIONS

  TRANSITION PERIOD FROM THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN

  GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT POWERS: GREAT
  BRITAIN -- FRANCE -- GERMANY -- ITALY -- AUSTRIA-HUNGARY -- RUSSIA
  -- UNITED STATES -- JAPAN

  THE LESSER MODERN NATIONS: IN EUROPE, Spain and Portugal --
  Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) -- The Netherlands --
  Switzerland -- The Balkan States (Bulgaria, Roumania, Turkey,
  Greece, Servia); IN ASIA, China, Persia, Turkey; IN AMERICA, Brazil
  -- Argentina -- Chile -- Mexico -- Canada

  DICTIONARY OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT, including
  Great Wars, Great Battles, Dynasties, Rulers, Historic and Literary
  Shrines, Allusions, etc.

  HISTORICAL CHARTS AND TABLES, MAPS AND PLANS

[Illustration: =HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD=

=Showing its Territorial Growth Due to Successive Discoveries=

The Known World about 3800 B. C.]

[Illustration: MYCENEAN GREECE AND THE ORIENT ABOUT 1450 B. C.]

THE BOOK OF NATIONS

  We shall perhaps gain the best idea of the gradual expansion of the
  world to-day if we go back to the earliest times of which we have
  any definite historical records, and from that as a starting point,
  picture to ourselves the world at important epochs as it was divided
  among the more civilized nations. In spite of revolutions and the
  rise and fall of nations, the course of history has been continuous.
  The periods of history are not separated by gaps or breaks, but
  really merge gradually one into another. Bearing this in mind, the
  general history of the world may be viewed in two great
  divisions--ancient and modern. _Ancient history_ begins with the
  dawn of civilization, and traces the progress of mankind among those
  nations which have now ceased to exist--or at least have ceased to
  contribute anything to the world’s progress. _Modern history_, on
  the other hand, deals with the origin and growth of those nations
  which still exist and are working out the problems and ideals
  peculiar to their own national life.

THE ANCIENT EXTINCT NATIONS

  In the Oriental world we see the beginnings of civilized life--the
  first successful efforts of man to subdue the earth and to utilize
  the resources of nature; the beginnings of science and of a
  well-defined written language; the first evidences of architectural
  skill in the construction of great buildings; and the first marked
  tendency in the direction of great empires and of centralized
  governments. The chief nations may be summarized as follows:

EGYPTIANS.--One of the earliest civilized nations--the great
representative of the Hamitic race--developed apart--were not a
conquering or aggressive people--wonderful builders in the massive
style--made great progress in mechanical arts, and some advances in
science--government a monarchy restricted in authority by law, custom,
and powerful priesthood--religion a nature-worship--popular worship the
adoration of animals--an artistic, industrious and peculiar
nation--always wonderful and interesting to foreigners---did not greatly
influence others.

BABYLONIANS.--As ancient a race in civilization as the
Egyptians--partially of Tartar race, mainly Semitic--made great progress
at an early date in science--reached a high pitch of power and
civilization--known to us, in great measure, from ruins with
inscriptions in cuneiform writing--invented permanent system of weights
and measures--great in astronomy--the Chaldæan priests developed into a
caste of learned men, continuing (in the later Babylonian and Persian
empires) long after extinction of their own nation as an independent
power.

ASSYRIANS.--A Semitic people--warlike and conquering race--great in
architecture and sculpture--very wealthy and luxurious--empire extended
over Asia Minor (east of river Halys), Syria, Phœnicia, Palestine, most
of Egypt, Media, and countries on Tigris and Euphrates to Persian
Gulf--artistic workers in glass, metals, gems--rule despotic over
loosely connected nations.

BABYLONIANS (Later kingdom).--A Semitic people--as a political power
ruled for only eighty-seven years, 625-538 B.C., from end of Assyrian
power to conquest by Persians under Cyrus--were a commercial and
luxurious race--city of Babylon emporium for trade between eastern Asia
and western Asia, Egypt and Europe--great in manufactures of woven
stuffs and gem-engraving.

HEBREWS.--A pure Semitic race--little influence on political history of
antiquity--distinguished by their worship of one God, and for the
Scriptures transmitted to future ages--a great monarchy under David and
Solomon, then declined--a non-artistic, unscientific nation in ancient
history.

PHŒNICIANS.--A pure Semitic people--greatest commercial and colonizing
race of early times--distinguished as transmitters of civilization from
East to West--never formed one great independent state--several
independent cities, sometimes in alliance, sometimes hostile--Tyre and
Sidon famous for dyes, glass-making, embroideries, brass-work, weaving
of cloth in linen and cotton, ship-building, mining--developers of
alphabet still used by modern nations--religion a sensual worship--a
crafty, money-making people--Carthage was the greatest of all the
Phœnician colonies.

MEDES AND PERSIANS.--Pure Aryans in race--warlike people, great in
cavalry and as archers--Median monarchy ended 558 B.C., then Persian
monarchy arose--Persians a lively, brave, poetical people, simple in
life at first, after their great conquests degenerated into luxury--more
like Europeans in civilization than any other Asiatics--were the great
ruling power in Asia from time of Cyrus to conquest by Alexander the
Great (558-331 B.C.)--first Asiatics that tried to conquer in
Europe--signally failed--empire extended over all western Asia, and over
Egypt--religion recognized two principles, a good and a bad spirit--had
taste in architecture--no literature of importance.

HINDUS.--Until recent times almost isolated from the western
world--unwarlike, dreamy specimens of Aryan stock--early advance in
civilization--a rich and remarkable religious and poetical literature in
Sanscrit, one of the oldest of the Indo-European tongues--first known in
real history on invasion by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C.--progress
greatly checked by rigid system of castes--government of native princes
thoroughly despotic--no free aspirations or political instincts in the
people--popular religion grossly superstitious--Brahminism (a
philosophic deism), creed of the educated, along with Mohammedanism,
introduced by conquest in thirteenth century A.D.--skilled at an early
period in mathematics, manufactures, architecture--a tasteful,
intelligent, but unpractical, non-historical people.

[Illustration: =THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE AND THE REGION ABOUT THE EASTERN
MEDITERRANEAN, 750-625 B. C.=]

  GREEKS.--In the Greek world we see a finer type of humanity: a
  versatile intellect, expressed in exalted works of philosophy and
  literature; a refined æsthetic taste embodied in the most beautiful
  specimens of architecture and sculpture; and a strong love of
  freedom, shown in the development of democratic institutions.

  ROMANS.--In the Roman world we see a more practical genius and a
  more vigorous manhood; a great capacity for military and political
  organization; a broad sense of civil justice, expressed in an
  enduring system of law; a wide cosmopolitan spirit, capable of
  appropriating the ideas of other peoples--in short, a civilization
  which expressed the highest unity and broadest culture of the
  ancient world.

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERY

No intelligent knowledge of the historical nations is possible without a
corresponding knowledge of their geography. The first and most important
question that geography answers for us is _where_. Historical Geography
answers both _where_ and _when_? _Where_ is Rome located? _Where_ and
_when_ did the Babylonian Empire exist?

_History_ not only answers the questions _when_ and _who_ but, in
addition, gives us a consecutive account of the doings of civilized
mankind in their progress toward the most valued and elevating of social
and political blessings. It deals rather with the life of _nations_ than
with _races_ of men; and its special function is to sketch the career
and describe the conditions of those great nations whose ideas and
institutions, or whose achievements in politics, war, literature, art
and science, were remarkable in their own epoch, or, by influencing
other nations, helped to make the civilized world what it is now.

WHERE THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS BEGAN

The first scenes in the drama of human history are laid in two
remarkable river valleys--the one formed by the Euphrates and the Tigris
in western Asia, and the other formed by the river Nile in northeastern
Africa. The Euphrates and the Tigris poured their waters into the
Persian Gulf, the Nile flowed north into the Mediterranean Sea. Both
these valleys were possessed of a rich, alluvial soil, that favored the
early development of industrial life among their dwellers. Along the
lower courses of the Asiatic rivers were the Babylonians, and later, by
conquest, the Chaldeans. In the upper reaches were the Assyrians. On the
banks of the Nile were the Egyptians. Such, according to our present
knowledge, is the first historic zone in which the real history of the
civilized world began.

In the basins of the Tigris and the Euphrates were several distinct
territories: Armenia, or the mountainous region between Asia Minor and
the Caspian Sea; Assyria proper, between the Tigris and the Zagros
Mountains; Babylonia, the great plain between the lower courses of the
Tigris and of the Euphrates, and extending westward to the Syrian
Desert; Chaldæa (in the narrower sense, as a province of the Babylonian
Empire), west of the Euphrates, at the head of the Persian Gulf;
Mesopotamia, between the middle courses of the Tigris and the Euphrates;