Zambesi, and beyond, to the borders of the Mashukulumbe
   territory, where the party was attacked, plundered, and driven
   back.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Annexation by Germany of the whole western coast (except
   Walfish Bay) between the Portuguese Possessions and those of
   the British in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1884.
   German occupation of territory on the Cameroons River, under
   treaties with the native chiefs. English treaties securing
   contiguous territory to and including the delta of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1884.
   German Protectorate over Togoland on the Gold Coast declared.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Expedition of Dr. Peters, representing the Society of German
   Colonization, to the coast region of Zanzibar, and his
   negotiation of treaties with ten native chiefs, ceding the
   sovereignty of their dominions.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Crown colony of British Bechuanaland acquired by convention
   with the South African Republic.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Portuguese Government expedition, under Major Carvalho, from
   Loanda to the Central African potentate called the Muata
   Yanvo.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Exploration of the Benué and the whole region of the Adamawa,
   by Herr Flegel, for the German African Society.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Scientific expedition of Mr. H. H. Johnston to Kilimanjaro
   mountain, sent by the British Association for the Advancement
   of Science and the Royal Society.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Discovery of the M'bangi or Ubangi River (afterwards
   identified with the Wellé—see below, 1887), by Captain Hansens
   and Lieutenant Van Gèle.

AFRICA: 1884.
   Exploration of Reichard in the southeastern part of the Congo
   State.

AFRICA: 1884-1885.
   The Berlin Conference of Powers, held to determine the limits
   of territory conceded to the International Congo Association;
   to establish freedom of trade within that territory, and to
   formulate rules for regulating in future the acquisition of
   African territory.

AFRICA: 1884-1885.
   Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr from Cape Colony, across the
   Zambesi, to Lake Nyassa, and down the Shiré River to the
   coast.

AFRICA: 1884-1885.
   Travels of Mr. F. L. James and party in the Somali country.

AFRICA: 1884-1887.
   Exploration by Dr. Schinz of the newly acquired German
   territories in southwest Africa.

AFRICA: 1885.
   Transfer of the rights of the Society of German Colonization
   to the German East Africa Company, and extension of imperial
   protection to the territories claimed by the Company. German
   acquisition of Witu, north of Zanzibar.

{3675}

AFRICA: 1885.
   Agreement between Germany and France, defining their
   respective spheres of influence on the Bight or Biafra, on the
   slave coast and in Senegambia.

AFRICA: 1885.
   Transformation of the Congo Association into the Independent
   State of the Congo, with King Leopold of Belgium as its
   sovereign.

AFRICA: 1885.
   British Protectorate extended to the Zambesi, over the country
   west of the Portuguese province of Sofala, to the 20th degree
   of east longitude.

AFRICA: 1885.
   British Protectorate extended over the remainder of
   Bechuanaland.

AFRICA: 1885.
   Italian occupation of Massowa, on the Red Sea.

AFRICA: 1885.
   Mission of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the National African
   Company, up the Niger, to Sokoto and Gando, securing treaties
   with the sultans under which the company acquired paramount
   rights.

AFRICA: 1885-1888.
   Mission of M. Borelli to the kingdom of Shoa (Southern
   Ethiopia) and south of it.

AFRICA: 1885-1889.
   When, after the fall of Khartoum and the death of General
   Gordon, in 1885, the Sudan was abandoned to the Mahdi and the
   fanatical Mohammedans of the interior, Dr. Edward Schnitzer,
   better known as Emin Pasha, who had been in command, under
   Gordon, of the province of the Equator, extending up to Lake
   Albert, was cut off for six years from communication with the
   civilized world. In 1887 an expedition to rescue him and his
   command was sent out under Henry M. Stanley. It entered the
   continent from the west, made its way up the Congo and the
   Aruwimi to Yambuya; thence through the unexplored region to
   Lake Albert Nyanza and into communication with Emin Pasha;
   then returning to Yambuya for the rearguard which had been
   left there; again traversing the savage land to Lake Albert,
   and passing from there, with Emin and his companions, by way
   of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza (then ascertained to be the
   ultimate reservoir of the Nile system) around the southern
   extremity of the Victoria Nyanza, to Zanzibar, which was
   reached at the end of 1889.

AFRICA: 1886.
   Settlement between Great Britain and Germany of the coast
   territory to be left under the sovereignty of the Sultan of
   Zanzibar, and of the "spheres of influence" to be appropriated
   respectively by themselves, between the lakes and the eastern
   coast, north of the Portuguese possessions.

AFRICA: 1886.
   Agreement between France and Portugal defining limits of
   territory in Senegambia and at the mouth of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1886.
   Transformation of the National African Company into the
   British Royal Niger Company, with a charter giving powers of
   administration over a large domain on the River Niger.

AFRICA: 1886.
   Mission station founded by Mr. Arnot at Bunkeya, in the
   southeastern part of the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1886-1887.
   Journey of Lieutenant Wissmann across the continent, from
   Luluaburg, a station of the Congo Association, in the dominion
   of Muata Yanvo, to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba, and thence to
   Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1886-1889.
   Expeditions of Dr. Zintgraff in the Cameroons interior and to
   the Benue, for the bringing of the country under German
   influence.

AFRICA: 1887.
   Annexation of Zululand, partly to the Transvaal, or South
   African Republic, and the remainder to the British
   possessions.

AFRICA: 1887.
   French gunboats launched on the Upper Niger, making a
   reconnoissance nearly to Timbuctoo.

AFRICA: 1887.
   Identity of the Wellé River with the M'bangi or Ubangi
   established by Captain Van Gèle and Lieutenant Liénart.

AFRICA: 1887.
   First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. Hans Meyer.

AFRICA: 1887-1889.
   Exploration by Captain Ringer of the region between the great
   bend of the Niger and the countries of the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1887-1890.
   Expedition of Count Teleki through Masailand, having for its
   most important result the discovery of the Basso-Narok, or
   Black Lake, to which the discoverer gave the name of Lake
   Rudolf, and Lake Stefanie.

AFRICA: 1888.
   Chartering of the Imperial British East Africa Company, under
   concessions granted by the sultan of Zanzibar and by native
   chiefs, with powers of administration over a region defined
   ultimately as extending from the river Umba northward to the
   river Jub, and inland to and across Lake Victoria near its
   middle to the eastern boundary of the Congo Free State.

AFRICA: 1888.
   British supremacy over Matabeleland secured by treaty with its
   King Lobengula.

AFRICA: 1888.
   British Protectorate extended over Amatongaland.

AFRICA: 1888.
   Ascent of Mt. Kilimanjaro by Mr. Ehlers and Dr. Abbott; also
   by Dr. Hans Meyer.

AFRICA: 1888.
   Travels of Joseph Thomson in the Atlas and southern Morocco.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Royal charter granted to the British South Africa Company,
   with rights and powers in the region called Zambesia north of
   British Bechuanaland and the South African Republic, and
   between the Portuguese territory on the east and the German
   territory on the west.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Will of King Leopold, making Belgium heir to the sovereign
   rights of the Congo Free State.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia acknowledged by the
   Negus.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission established on the south
   shore of Lake Nyassa. Portuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto
   in the Lake Nyassa region, with designs of occupancy
   frustrated by the British.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Journey of M. Crampel from the Ogowé to the Likuala tributary
   of the Congo, and return directly westward to the coast.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Dr. Wolf's exploration of the southeast Niger basin, where be
   met his death.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Major Macdonald's exploration of the Benue, sometimes called
   the Tchadda (a branch of the Niger), and of its tributary the
   Kebbi.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston north of Lake Nyassa and to Lake
   Leopold.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the country lying between the
   Shiré and Loangwa Rivers.

AFRICA: 1889.
   Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper Tana, in the service of the
   Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1889-1890.
   British Protectorate declared over Nyassaland and the Shiré
   Highlands.

{3676}

AFRICA: 1889-1890.
   Italian Protectorate established over territory on the eastern
   (oceanic) Somali coast, from the Gulf of Aden to the Jub
   River.

AFRICA: 1889-1890.
   Imperial British East Africa Company's expedition, under
   Jackson and Gedge, for the exploring of a new road to the
   Victoria Nyanza and Uganda.

AFRICA: 1889-1890.
   Captain Lugard's exploration of the river Sabakhi for the
   Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1889-1890.
   Journey of Lieutenant Morgen from the Cameroons, on the
   western coast to the Benue.

AFRICA: 1889-1890.
   French explorations in Madagascar by Dr. Catat and MM. Maistre
   and Foucart.

AFRICA: 1890.
   Anglo-German Convention, defining boundaries of the
   territories and "spheres of influence" respectively claimed by
   the two powers; Germany withdrawing from Vitu, and from all
   the eastern mainland coast north of the river Tana, and
   conceding a British Protectorate over Zanzibar, in exchange
   for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea.

AFRICA: 1890.
   French "sphere of influence" extending over the Sahara and the
   Sudan, from Algeria to Lake Tchad and to Say on the Niger,
   recognized by Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1890.
   Exploration of the river Sangha, an important northern
   tributary of the Congo, by M. Cholet.

AFRICA: 1890.
   Exploring journey of M. Hodister, agent of the Upper Congo
   Company, up the Lomami river and across country to the
   Lualaba, at Nyangwe.

AFRICA: 1890.
   Journey of Mr. Garrett in the interior of Sierra Leone to the
   upper waters of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1890.
   Journey of Dr. Fleck from the western coast across the
   Kalihari to Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1890-1891.
   Italian possessions in the Red Sea united in the colony of
   Eritrea.

AFRICA: 1890-1891.
   Mission of Captain Lugard to Uganda and signature of a treaty
   by its king acknowledging the supremacy of the British East
   Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1890-1891.
   Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of the central region between
   the French territories on the Congo and Lake Tchad, ending in
   the murder of M. Crampel and several of his companions.

AFRICA: 1890-1891.
   Journey of Mr. Sharpe from Mandala, in the Shiré Highlands, to
   Garenganze, the empire founded by an African adventurer,
   Mshidi, in the Katanga copper country, between Lake Moero and
   the Luapula river on the east, and the Lualaba on the west.

AFRICA: 1890-1891.
   Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from the Niger to the Congo.

AFRICA: 1890-1891.
   Journey of Captain Becker from Yambuya, on the Aruwimi,
   north-northwest to the Wellé.

AFRICA: 1890-1892.
   Italian explorations in the Somali countries by Signor
   Robecchi, Lieutenant Baudi di Vesme, Prince Ruspoli, and
   Captains Bottego and Grixoni.

AFRICA: 1890-1893.
   Expedition of Dr. Stuhlmann, with Emin Pasha, from Bagamoyo,
   via the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau
   west of the Albert Nyanza. From this point Dr. Stuhlmann
   returned, while Emin pursued his way, intending it is said, to
   reach Kibonge, on the right bank of the Congo, south of
   Stanley Falls. He was murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast
   of Kibonge, by the order of an Arab chief.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Extension of the British Protectorate of Lagos over the
   neighboring districts of Addo, Igbessa, and Ilaro, which form
   the western boundary of Yoruba.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal defining their
   possessions; conceding to the former an interior extension of
   her South African dominion up to the southern boundary of the
   Congo Free State, and securing to the latter defined
   territories on the Lower Zambesi, the Lower Shiré, and the
   Nyassa, as well as the large block of her possessions on the
   western coast.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Convention between Portugal and the Congo Free State for the
   division of the disputed district of Lunda.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Convention of the Congo Free State with the Katanga Company,
   an international syndicate, giving the Company preferential
   rights over reputed mines in Katanga and Urua, with a third of
   the public domain, provided it established an effective
   occupation within three years.

AFRICA: 1891.
   French annexation of the Gold Coast between Liberia and the
   Grand Bassam.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Opening of the Royal Trans-African Railway, in West Africa,
   from Loanda to Ambaca, 140 miles.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Survey of a railway route from the eastern coast to Victoria
   Lake by the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Exploration of the Jub River, in the Somali country, by
   Commander Dundas.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Exploration by Captain Dundas, from the eastern coast, up the
   river Tana to Mount Kenia.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Mr. Bent's exploration of the ruined cities of Mashonaland.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Journey of M. Maistre from the Congo to the Shari.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Journeys of Captain Gallwey in the Benin country, West Africa.

AFRICA: 1891.
   Mission established by the Berlin Missionary Society in the
   Konde country, at the northern end of Lake Nyassa.

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Incorporation of the African Lakes Company with the British
   South Africa Company. Organization of the administration of
   Northern Zambesia and Nyassaland.

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Expedition of the Katanga Company, under Captain Stairs, from
   Bagamoyo to Lake Tanganyika, thence through the country at the
   head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, the Lualaba
   and the Luapula.

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Belgian expeditions under Captain Bia and others to explore
   the southeastern portion of the Congo Basin, on behalf of the
   Katanga Company, resulting in the determination of the fact
   that the Lukuga River is an outlet of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Journey of Dr. James Johnston across the continent, from
   Benguela to the mouth of the Zambesi, through Bihe, Ganguela,
   Barotse, the Kalihari Desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Gorongoza,
   Nyassa, and the Shiré Highlands.

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the British South Africa
   Company, from Kilimane or Quillimane on the eastern coast to
   Lake Bangweolo.

{3677}

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Journey of Captain Monteil from the Niger to Lake Tchad and
   across the Sahara to Tripoli.

AFRICA: 1891-1892.
   Exploration by Lieutenant Chaltin of the river Lulu, and the
   country between the Aruwimi and the Welle Makua rivers, in the
   Congo State.

AFRICA: 1891-1893.
   Journey of Dr. Oscar Baumann from Tanga, a port on the eastern
   coast, in the northern part of the German Protectorate;
   passing to the south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes
   between that mountain and the Victoria Nyanza; exploring the
   southeastern shores of the Victoria, traversing the Shashi
   countries lying east of the lake, and the Urundi country
   between the Victoria and Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1891-1894.
   Expedition under the command of Captain Van Kerckhoven and M.
   de la Kéthulle de Ryhove, fitted out by the Congo Free State,
   for the subjugation of the Arabs, the suppression of the slave
   trade and the exploration of the country, throughout the
   region of the Wellé or Ubangi Uellé and to the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892.
   Decision of the Imperial British East Africa Company to
   withdraw from Uganda.

AFRICA: 1892.
   Practical conquest of Dahomey by the French, General Dodds
   taking possession of the capital November 16.

AFRICA: 1892.
   Journey of M. Méry in the Sahara to the south of Wargla,
   resulting in a report favorable to the construction of a
   railway to tap the Central Sudan.

AFRICA: 1892.
   French expedition under Captain Binger to explore the southern
   Sudan and to act conjointly with British officials in
   determining the boundary between French and English
   possessions.

AFRICA: 1892.
   Journey of Mr. Sharpe from the Shiré River to Lake Moero or
   Mweru and the Upper Luapula.

AFRICA: 1892-1893.
   Construction of a line of telegraph by the British South
   African Company, from Cape Colony, through Mashonaland, to
   Fort Salisbury, with projected extension across the Zambesi
   and by the side of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika to Uganda,—and
   ultimately down the valley of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892-1893.
   French scientific mission, under M. Dècle, from Cape Town to
   the sources of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892-1893.
   Italian explorations, under Captain Bòttego and Prince
   Ruspoli, in the upper basin of the River Jub.

AFRICA: 1893.
   Brussels Antislavery Conference, ratified in its action by the
   Powers.

AFRICA: 1893.
   Official mission of Sir Gerald Porter to Uganda, sent by the
   British Government to report as to the expediency of the
   withdrawal of British authority from that country.

AFRICA: 1893.
   Scientific expedition of Mr. Scott-Elliot to Uganda.

AFRICA: 1893.
   Scientific expedition of Dr. Gregory, of the British Museum,
   from Mombassa, on the eastern coast, through Masailand to
   Mount Kenia.

AFRICA: 1893.
   Journey of Mr. Bent to Aksum, in Abyssinia, the ancient
   capital and sacred city of the Ethiopians.

AFRICA: 1893.
   Journey of M. Foureau in the Sahara, crossing the plateau of
   Tademait from north to south.

AFRICA: 1893-1894.
   German scientific survey of Mount Kilimanjaro, under Drs. Lent
   and Volkens.

AFRICA: 1893-1894.
   Expedition of Mr. Astor Chanler and Lieutenant von Höhnel from
   Witu, on the eastern coast, to the Jombini Range and among the
   Rendile.

AFRICA: 1893-1894.
   Explorations of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr. Passarge on the
   Benue.

AFRICA: 1893-1894.
   Journey of Baron von Schele from the eastern coast to Lake
   Nyassa, and thence by a direct route to Kihsa.

AFRICA: 1893-1894.
   Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from
   Dar-es-Salaam, on the eastern coast, to the Lower Congo.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Treaty between Great Britain and the Congo Free State,
   securing to the former a strip of land on the west side of the
   Nile between the Albert Nyanza and 10° north latitude, and to
   the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazel region, westward. This
   convention gave offense to France, and that country
   immediately exacted from the Congo Free State a treaty
   stipulating that the latter shall not occupy or exercise
   political influence in a region which covers most of the
   territory assigned to it by the treaty with Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Franco-German Treaty, determining the boundary line of the
   Cameroons, or Kamerun.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Treaty concluded by Captain Lugard, November 10, at Nikki, in
   Borgu, confirming the rights claimed by the Royal Niger
   Company over Borgu, and placing that country under British
   protection.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Agreement between the British South Africa Company and the
   Government of Great Britain, signed November 24, 1894,
   transferring to the direct administration of the Company the
   Protectorate of Nyassaland, thereby extending its domain to
   the south end of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Renewed war of France with the Hovas of Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from the Somali coast,
   aiming to reach Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, but stopped and
   turned back by the Abyssinians, in December.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Visit of Mr. Cecil Rhodes to England to arrange financially
   for the extension of the Cape railway system northwards from
   Mafeking into Matabeleland.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Completed conquest of Dahomey by the French; capture of the
   deposed king, January 25, and his deportation to exile in
   Martinique. Decree of the French Government, June 22,
   directing the administrative organization of the "colony of
   Dahomey and Dependencies"; with a ministerial order of the
   same date which divides the new conquest into "Territoirés
   annexés; Territoirés protégés; Territoirés d'action
   politique."

AFRICA: 1894.
   Occupation of Timbuctoo by a French force.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from the
   eastern coast, through Ruanda and the Great Forest to and
   along the Lowa, an eastern tributary of the Congo, reaching
   the Lower Congo in December.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Exploration of the Upper Congo and the Lukuga by Mr. R. Dorsey
   Mohun, American Agent on the Congo, and Dr. Hinde.

AFRICA: 1894.
   Scientific    to the Zambesi and Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1894-1895.
   War of the Italians in their colony of Eritrea with both the
   Abyssinians and the Mahdists. Italian occupation of Kassala as
   a base of operations against the Mahdists.

{3678}

AFRICA: 1895.
   Franco-British agreement, signed January 21, 1895, respecting
   the "Hinterland" of Sierra Leone, which secures to France the
   Upper Niger basin.

AFRICA: 1895.
   Convention between Belgium and France signed February 5,
   recognizing a right of pre-emption on the part of the latter,
   with regard to the Congo State, in case Belgium should at any
   time renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold desires to
   transfer to it.

AFRICA: 1895.
   Russian scientific expedition to Abyssinia, under Lieutenant
   Leontieff.

   ----------AFRICA: End--------

AKKADIANS,
ACCADIANS.

      See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

ALEXANDRIA:
   Early Christian Church.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100,
      and 100-312 (pages 43 and 445).

ALEXANDRIA:
   Library.

      See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).

AMANA COMMUNITY, The.

   See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1843-1874 (page 2945).

   ----------AMERICA: Start--------

AMERICA:
   The discoverers of the Northern Continent.
   Mr. Harrisse's conclusions.

   "The main points attained in this elaborate survey of all the
   facts and documents known can be recapitulated as
   follows,—perhaps with less assurance than a desire to be
   succinct may undesignedly impart to our expressions:

   1. The discovery of the continent of North America, and the
   first landing on its east coast were accomplished not by
   Sebastian Cabot, but by his father John, in 1497, under the
   auspices of King Henry VII.

   2. The first landfall was not Cape Breton Island, as is stated
   in the planisphere made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight
   or ten degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; which
   was then ranged by John Cabot, probably as far as Cape
   Chudley.

   3. This fact was tacitly acknowledged by all pilots and
   cosmographers throughout the first half of the 16th century;
   and the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian Cabot
   himself, whatever may have been afterwards his contrary
   statements in that respect.

   4. The voyage of 1498, also accomplished under the British
   flag, was likewise carried out by John Cabot personally. The
   landfall on that occasion must be placed south of the first;
   and the exploration embraced the northeast coast of the
   present United States, as far as Florida.

   5. In the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, or
   one of his lieutenants, was detected by some Spanish vessel,
   in 1498 or 1499.

   6. The English continued in 1501, 1502, 1504, and afterwards,
   to send ships to Newfound·land, chiefly for the purpose of
   fisheries. …

   7. The Portuguese mariners who lived in the Azores were the
   first who probed the Atlantic in search of oceanic islands and
   continents. Their objective, after the discovery achieved by
   Christopher Columbus, was the north-east coast of the New
   World.

   8. The earliest authentic records of Lusitanian transatlantic
   expeditions begin only with Gaspar Corte-Real, who made three,
   and not two voyages only; all to the same regions, as follows:
   The first voyage of that navigator was undertaken previous to
   May, 1500, in the direction of Greenland and Newfoundland, and
   proved an absolute failure. The second voyage lasted from the
   early part of the summer of 1500 until the autumn of that
   year, and embraced the east coast of Newfoundland, from its
   northernmost point down to Cape Race. The third expedition set
   out from Lisbon early In the spring of 1501. It was composed
   of three vessels. One of these returned to port On the 8th or
   9th of October, the second on the 11th following. As to the
   third, which was under the Immediate command of Gaspar
   Corte-Real, it was ice-bound or shipwrecked, we do not know
   when nor where, but probably in Hudson Bay, during the winter
   of 1501-1502. The country visited during the first part of the
   expedition seems to have been the northern extremity of
   Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador.

   9. The expedition of Miguel Corte-Real in search of his
   brother, sailed May 10, 1502, and was also lost. …

   10. Portugal continued to send ships to the fishing banks; and
   the region south of Newfoundland was explored, particularly by
   João Alvares Fagundes before 1521. …

   11. The assertion that already in the time of Christopher
   Columbus navigators and geographers believed in the existence
   of a continent interposed between the West Indies and Asia,
   and which was not Cathay, stands uncontroverted either by
   contemporary authorities, or by the early Spanish charts. Nay,
   it is corroborated by that class of proofs.

   12. The absolute insularity of Cuba was an acknowledged fact
   years before the periplus made by Sebastian de Ocampo, in
   1508.

   13. The mainland of the New World was believed to be a
   continent distinct from Cathay and from India the moment
   navigators commenced to search after a strait leading from the
   Atlantic Ocean to the Asiatic seas.

   14. The idea that America was a mere prolongation of Asia
   ceased therefore to be entertained almost immediately after
   the discovery of its east coast; by John Cabot in 1497; by
   Americus Vespuccius, before 1501; by Gaspar Corte-Real, before
   1502.

   15. Christopher Columbus himself soon ceased to think that he
   had discovered Cathay, or the Asiatic coast.

   16. So early as October, 1501, the notion prevailed in Europe
   that from Circulus articus to Pollus Antarticus, the newly
   discovered land formed a single coast line belonging to a
   separate continent."

      _H. Harrisse,
      Discovery of North America,
      part 1, book 8, chapter 5._

AMERICA:
   The alleged first voyage of Vespucius.

   In the first volume of this work (page 52) the argument in
   support of the disputed claim for Amerigo Vespucci, or
   Vespucius, that he made a voyage in 1497-8 during which he
   coasted the American continent from Honduras to Cape Hatteras,
   is given in an excerpt from Dr. Fiske's "Discovery of
   America." The following, from a paper by Mr. Clements R.
   Markham, read before the Royal Geographical Society in June,
   1892, presents, in part, the counter argument: "Vespucci's
   account of his alleged first voyage is briefly as follows. He
   says that he went to Spain to engage in mercantile pursuits,
   but that after some years he resolved to see the world and its
   marvels. King Ferdinand having ordered four ships to go forth
   and make discoveries to the westward, Vespucci was chosen by
   His Highness to go in the fleet, to assist in the work of
   discovery. They sailed from Cadiz on May 10th, 1497, and
   reached Grand Canary, which, he says, is in 27° 30' North, and
   280 leagues from Lisbon.
{3679}
   There they remained eight days, and then sailed for
   thirty-seven (twenty-seven, Latin version) days on a W. S. W.
   course ('Ponente pigliando una quarta di libeccio'), reaching
   land when they were nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary.
   For they found, by their instruments, that they were in 16°
   North latitude and 75° West longitude. Vespucci then gives a
   long account of the natives. After some days they came to a
   village built over the water, like Venice, about forty-four
   houses resting on very thick poles. Sailing along the land for
   80 leagues, they came to another people, speaking a different
   language, where Vespucci saw an iguana being roasted, which he
   describes. He made an excursion inland for 18 leagues, and
   found the country very populous. This place was on the Tropic
   of Cancer, where the latitude is 23° North. The province is
   called 'Parias' (Latin version), 'Lariab' (Italian version).
   Thence they sailed, always in sight of the land, on a
   Northwest course ('verso el maestrale') for 870 leagues,
   having intercourse with many tribes, and finding some gold.
   When they had been absent thirteen months the ships begun to
   leak, and required caulking, so they entered the best harbour
   in the world, where there were many friendly people. Here they
   refitted, and remained for thirty-seven days. They then sailed
   eastward for seven days, and carne to some islands 100 leagues
   off the mainland, inhabited by fierce people called 'Iti.'
   They had encounters with the natives, when one of their men
   was killed and twenty-two were wounded. They then sailed for
   Spain with 222 slaves, arriving at Cadiz on October 15th,
   1498, where they sold their slaves, and were well received.
   This is the story of Vespucci. It has been considered to be a
   fabrication from that time to this, for the following reasons.
   Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant,
   from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1498, as is
   shown by the official records, examined by Muñoz, of expenses
   incurred in fitting out the ships for western expeditions.
   Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order
   of King Ferdinand in 1497; and there is no allusion to any
   such expedition in any contemporary record. The internal
   evidence against the truth of the story is even stronger.
   Vespucci says that he sailed West South West for nearly 1,000
   leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the
   Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than 900 leagues West
   South West from Grand Canary. It would never have taken him
   near the land at 16° North. Even with a course direct for that
   point, instead of a West North West course, and disregarding
   intervening land, the distance he gives would leave him 930
   miles short of the alleged position. No actual navigator would
   have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead
   reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and invented the latitude at
   random. It is useless for the defenders of Vespucci to refer
   to the faulty reckonings of those days, and to pilots thinking
   they were near the Canaries when they were off the Azores.
   This is a different matter. It is the case of a man alleging
   that he has fixed his position by observations, and giving a
   dead reckoning nearly a thousand miles out, in the belief that
   it would bring him to the same point. It is fudging, but the
   fudging of a man ignorant of a pilot's business. His statement
   that he went Northwest for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a
   position in latitude 23° North, is still more preposterous.
   Such a course and distance would have taken him right across
   the continent to somewhere in British Columbia. The chief
   incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1499.
   There is the village built on piles called Little Venice.
   There is the best harbour in the world, which was the Gulf of
   Cariaco, where Ojeda refitted. There was the encounter with
   natives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded.
   These numbers are convincing evidence. … Vespucci does not
   mention the commanders of the expedition, nor any Spanish name
   whatever, and only gives two names of places, namely, 'Parias'
   or 'Lariab,' and 'Iti,' both imaginary. Humboldt was aware of
   the proofs that Vespucci could not have been absent from Spain
   in 1497-98, and that the incidents of his alleged first voyage
   belonged to that of Ojeda; but he was reluctant to believe in
   actual fraud. He therefore suggested that there were misprints
   with regard to the dates; that the first voyage of Vespucci
   was that of Ojeda; and that the Florentine merchant returned
   home from Española in time to join the voyage of Pinzon in
   1500, which was the second voyage. But no one was allowed to
   land from Ojeda's ships at Española, and the dates are too
   detailed, and occur too clearly in both versions, to admit of
   the wholesale alterations demanded by this theory. The Baron
   Varnhagen, in his defences of Vespucci, published in 1865 at
   Lima, and in 1869 at Vienna, takes a bolder course. He adopts
   the whole of the statements of Vespucci as perfectly true,
   including the dates; but his defence does not amount to much.
   He was evidently unaware of the extent of the error in
   Vespucci's reckoning, and did not realise the inevitable
   inference. He got over the Little Venice difficulty by
   suggesting that there were many other villages built on piles,
   and that there might have been one on the coast of Tabasco.
   That is true. There was also the old Quebec hotel in
   Portsmouth Harbour; but this is not the point, and he failed
   to see where the difficulty lies. The Little Venice was a
   discovery in Ojeda's voyage when Vespucci was present. Its
   recurrence here, and its omission in the version of Ojeda's
   voyage by Vespucci, are the suspicious points which Varnhagen
   fails to explain away. Of the words 'Parias' and 'Lariab' in
   the two versions, Varnhagen prefers the latter. It is quite
   impossible to tell which form, or whether either, was in the
   original manuscript. Although there is no such place as
   'Lariab,' yet a Mexican author, named Orozco, said that some
   of the names of places near Tampico, where the Huasteca
   language is spoken, ended in 'ab.' This is a point, so far as
   it goes—which is not very far. Even the voyage of 870 leagues
   Northwest from latitude 23°, does not daunt the Baron. He
   ignores Vespucci's course, and takes him a marvellous voyage
   round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the peninsula of
   Florida, to Cape Hatteras, where he certainly does not find
   the best harbour in the world. Thence Vespucci is taken to
   Bermuda, identified as 'Iti,' and so home. It is well known
   that Bermuda was uninhabited before its settlement by
   Europeans, and that there were no signs of previous
   inhabitants; while the 'Iti' of Vespucci was densely peopled
   with fierce savages. But this is ignored by Varnhagen.
{3680}
   It would certainly have been a most extraordinary voyage, and
   it is still more extraordinary, that though the secret must
   have been known to many people at the time, it should have
   been inviolably kept without any object in such secrecy, and
   that the discoveries should have appeared on no map and in no
   narrative. Yet Vespucci's story, though a bold flight, bears
   no comparison with the grandeur of Varnhagen's conception of
   it."

      _C. R. Markham,
      Fourth Centenary of his Discovery,
      note 2 (Royal Geographical Society,
      Proceedings, 1892, September)._

AMERICA:
   Monetary effects of the discovery of America.

      See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES (page 2208).

   ----------AMERICA: End--------

AMERICAN ABORIGINES:
   Iroquois Confederacy.
   Hiawatha the founder.

      See IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY (page 1802).

AMERICAN COLONIAL TRADE.

      See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

AMERICAN LIBRARIES.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2017, and after).

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).

AMHERST COLLEGE, The founding of.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

AMPERE'S ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISCOVERIES.

      See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
      A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).

   [Transcriber's note: For a detailed look at electrical
   theory of 1892.]

      _T. O'Conor Sloane,
      The Standard Electrical Dictionary,
      www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535._

AMSTERDAM, The founding of the Bank of.

      See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2208).

ANÆSTHETICS, The discovery of.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2143).

ANARCHISM AND NIHILISM.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894;
      and 1860-1870 (pages 2941 and 2948).

ANDORRA.

   "The pastoral and picturesque valley of Andorra, a jumble of
   hills, enclosed on all sides by the Pyrenean spurs, extends
   about 7 L. long by 6 broad, and is bounded by the French and
   Spanish ridges, by Puigcerdá to the South and East, by the
   Comté de Foix (départ. de l'Ariège) to the North, and by the
   Corregimiento of Talaru to the West. Watered by the Balira [or
   Valira], Ordino, and Os, it is one of the wildest districts of
   the Spanish Pyrenees, abounding in timber, which is floated
   down the Balira and Segre to Tortosa. The name Andorra is
   derived from the Arabic Aldarra, 'a place thick with trees,'
   among which is found the Cabra Montaraz, with bears, boars,
   and wolves."

      _R. Ford,
      Handbook for Travellers in Spain,
      part 1, section 6._

   "The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a
   defeat of the Saracens by Charlemagne or Louis le Débonnaire,
   but in reality up to the French Revolution the valley enjoyed
   no sovereign rights whatever. It was a barony of the Counts of
   Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was decided that Andorra
   should be held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts
   of Foix. In 1793 the French republic declined to receive the
   customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished
   the feudal regime. Andorra thus became an independent state.
   The inhabitants, however, continue to govern themselves in
   accordance with old feudal customs, which are not at all
   reconcilable with the principles of modern republics. The land
   belongs to a few families. There is a law of entail, and
   younger brothers become the servants of the head of the
   family, whose hospitality they enjoy only on condition of
   their working for him. The tithes were only abolished in 1842.
   The 'liberty' of these mountaineers consists merely in
   exemption from the Spanish conscription and impunity in
   smuggling; and, to increase their revenues, they have recently
   established a gambling-table. Their legitimate business
   consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a
   woollen factory. The republic of Andorra recognises two
   suzerains, viz. the Bishop of Urgel, who receives an annual
   tribute of £25, and the French Government, to whom double that
   sum is paid. Spain and France are represented by two provosts,
   the commandant of Séo de Urgel exercising the functions of
   viceroy. The provosts command the militia and appoint the
   bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a judge of appeal,
   alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two
   'rahonadores,' or defenders of Andorran privileges, form the
   Cortes. Each parish is governed by a consul, a vice-consul,
   and twelve councillors elected by the heads of families. A
   General Council, of which the consuls and delegates of the
   parishes are members, meets at the village of Andorra. But in
   spite of these fictions Andorra is an integral part of Spain,
   and the carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of
   this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs the
   Andorrans are Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to
   grow comparatively rich."

      _E. Reclus,
      The Earth and its Inhabitants: Europe, Spain,
      section 6._

ANN ARBOR, University at.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 732).

ANNAM.

      See TONKIN (page 3114).

ANSELM: Dispute with William Rufus.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135 (page 796).

ANTIOCH, The early Christian Church in.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 435).

ANTIOCH COLLEGE.

      See EDUCATION (page 744).

ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT, The.

      See JEWS: 19TH CENTURY (page 1931).

APOSTLES, Missionary labors of the.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 433).

ARABS:
   Ancient and Mediæval Commerce.

      See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE.

ARABS:
   Medical Science.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2129).

   ----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: Start--------

ARCTIC EXPLORATION:
   A Chronological Record.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1500-1502.
   Discovery and exploration of the coast of Labrador and the
   entrance of Hudson Strait by the Cortereals.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1553.
   Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor from London, in search of
   a northeast passage to India. Chancellor reached Archangel on
   the White Sea, and opened trade with Russia, while Willoughby
   perished with all his crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1556.
   Exploring voyage of Stephen Burroughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1576-1578.
   Voyages of Frobisher to the coast of Labrador and the entrance
   to Davis Strait, discovering the bay which bears his name, and
   which he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay; afterwards
   entering Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1580.
   Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jackman, passing Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1585-1587.
   Three voyages of John Davis from Dartmouth, in search of a
   northwestern passage to India, entering the strait between
   Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name and exploring it
   to the 72nd degree north latitude.

{3681}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595.
   Dutch expeditions (the first and second under Barentz) to the
   northeast, passing to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya
   Zem]ya, but making no progress beyond it.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1596-1597.
   Third voyage of Barentz, when he discovered and coasted
   Spitzbergen, wintered in Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his
   ship in the ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in
   undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open boats.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1602.
   Exploration for a northwest passage by Captain George
   Weymouth, for the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company,
   resulting in nothing but a visitation of the entrance to
   Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1607.
   Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for the Muscovy Company of
   London, attaining the northern coast of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1608.
   Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova Zembla for the Muscovy Company.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1610.
   Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English employ, to seek the
   northwest passage, being the voyage in which he passed through
   the Strait and entered the great Bay to which his name has
   been given, and in which he perished at the hands of a
   mutinous crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1612-1614.
   Exploration of Hudson Bay by Captains Button, Bylot, and
   Baffin, practically discovering its true character and shaking
   the previous theory of its connection with the Pacific Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1614.
   Exploring expedition of the Muscovy Company to the Greenland
   coast, under Robert Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot,
   making its way to latitude 80°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616.
   Voyage into the northwest made by Captain Baffin with Captain
   Bylot, which resulted in the discovery of Baffin Bay, Smith
   Sound, Jones Sound, and Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1619-1620.
   Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by the King of Denmark to seck the
   northwest passage; wintering in Hudson Bay, and losing there
   all but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in making the
   voyage home.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1632.
   Voyages of Captains Fox and James into Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1670.
   Grant and charter to the Hudson Bay Company, by King Charles
   II. of England, conferring on the Company possession and
   government of the whole watershed of the Bay, and naming the
   country Prince Rupert Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616.
   Voyage of Captain John Wood to Nova Zembla, seeking the
   northeastern passage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1728.
   Exploration of the northern coasts of Kamtschatka by the
   Russian Captain Vitus Behring, and discovery of the Strait
   which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1741.
   Exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captain
   Middleton.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1743.
   Offer of £20,000 by the British Parliament for the discovery
   of a northwest passage to the Pacific.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1746.
   Further exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by
   Captains Moor and Smith.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1753-1754.
   Attempted exploration of Hudson Bay by the colonial Captain
   Swaine, sent out from Philadelphia, chiefly through the
   exertions of Dr. Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1765.
   Russian expedition of Captain Tchitschakoff, attempting to
   reach the Pacific from Archangel.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1768-1769.
   Exploration of Nova Zembla by a Russian officer, Lieutenant
   Rosmyssloff.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1769-1770.
   Exploring journey of Samuel Hearne, for the Hudson Bay
   Company, from Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine
   River and down the river to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1773.
   Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, toward the
   North Pole, reaching the northeastern extremity of
   Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1779.
   Exploration of the Arctic coast, east and west of Behring
   Strait, by Captain Cook, in his last voyage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1789.
   Exploring journey of Alexander Mackenzie, for the Northwest
   Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the
   Polar Sea, which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1806.
   Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and
   longitude 19° east.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818.
   Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin Bay and
   into Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818.
   Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the
   northern part of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820.
   First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest
   passage, through Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Lancaster Sound,
   and Barrow Strait, to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1822.
   Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr.
   Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from
   Fort York, on the western coast of Hudson Bay, by the way of
   Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Coppermine River, to
   Coronation Gulf, opening into the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1824.
   Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1820-1824.
   Russian surveys of the Siberian Polar region by Wrangel and
   Anjou.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1823.
   Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest
   passage to the Pacific Ocean, through Hudson Strait and Fox
   Channel, discovering the Fury-and-Hecla Strait, the northern
   outlet of the Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1824.
   Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant
   Lutke.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822.
   Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of
   Greenland, which was considerably traced and mapped by him.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822-1823.
   Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander
   Clavering, to Spitzbergen and the eastern coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1824-1825.
   Third voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest
   passage, by way of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Lancaster
   Sound, to Prince Regent Inlet, where one of his ships was
   wrecked.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1825-1827.
   Second journey of Franklin, Richardson, and Back, from Canada
   to the Arctic Ocean; Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie River
   and westward along the coast to longitude 149° 37'; Richardson
   by the Mackenzie River and the Arctic coast eastward to
   Coppermine River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1826.
   Voyage of Captain Beechey through Behring Strait and eastward
   along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1827.
   Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, attempting to reach the North
   Pole, by ship to Spitzbergen and by boats to 82° 45' north
   latitude.

{3682}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833.
   Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth,
   to seek a northwest passage, resulting in the discovery of the
   position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not
   far from which Ross' ship was ice-bound for three years.
   Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to
   Baffin Bay and were rescued by a whale-ship.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835.
   Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave Lake, to
   the river which he discovered and which bears his name,
   flowing to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1836-1837.
   Voyage of Captain Back for surveying the straits and channels
   in the northern extremity of Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1837-1839.
   Expeditions of Dease and Simpson, in the service of the Hudson
   Bay Company, determining the Arctic coast line as far east as
   Boothia.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1845.
   Departure from England of the government expedition under Sir
   John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror,
   which entered Baffin Bay in July and were never seen
   afterward.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848.
   Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the
   Mackenzie River, searching for traces of Sir John Franklin and
   his crews.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1849.
   Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin Bay and
   westward as far as Leopold Island, searching for Sir John
   Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1851.
   Searching expedition of the Herald and the Plover, under
   Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Behring Strait
   and westward to Coppermine River, learning nothing of the fate
   of the Franklin party.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850.
   Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain
   Forsyth, for the examination of Prince Regent Inlet.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
   United States Grinnell Expedition, sent to assist the search
   for Sir John Franklin and his crew, consisting of two ships,
   the Advance and the Rescue, furnished by Mr. Henry Grinnell
   and officered and manned by the U. S. Government, Lieutenant
   De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. Frozen into the ice
   in Wellington Channel, in September, 1850, the vessels drifted
   helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named,
   then southward and westward until the next June, when they
   escaped in Baffin Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
   Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British
   Government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington
   Channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851.
   Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and
   Beechey Island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1852.
   Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through
   Behring Strait and eastward into Prince of Wales Strait,
   sending sledge parties to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854.
   Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through
   Behring Strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince
   Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville
   Sound, already reached from the East; thus demonstrating the
   existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the
   navigation of it. McClure received knighthood, and a reward of
   £10,000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the
   expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851.
   Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the British Government to
   descend the Coppermine River and search the southern coast of
   Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the
   coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King
   William's Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851-1852.
   Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under
   Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent
   Inlet and the surrounding region.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854.
   Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the
   British Government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains
   McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn under his command.
   Belcher and Osborn, going up Wellington Channel to
   Northumberland Sound, were frozen fast; McClintock and Kellett
   experienced the same misfortune near Melville Island, where
   they had received Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from
   their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet
   except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into
   Davis Strait in 1855, was rescued, bought by the United States
   Government and presented to Queen Victoria.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1854.
   Hudson Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse Bay and
   Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos
   in possession of articles which had belonged to Sir John
   Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1850
   they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling
   southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and, afterwards saw
   dead bodies and graves on the mainland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1855.
   Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight
   northward through Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel,
   nearly to the 79th degree of latitude, where the vessel was
   locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring
   of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by
   an expedition under Lieutenant Hartstein which the American
   Government had sent to their relief.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855.
   Cruise of the U. S. ship Vincennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers
   commanding, in the Arctic Sea, via Behring Strait to Wrangel
   Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855.
   Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson Bay Company, down
   the Great Fish River to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking
   traces of the party of Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1857-1859.
   Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain
   McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville Bay, August,
   1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200
   miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; refitted in
   Greenland and returned into Prince Regent Inlet, whence
   Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge
   journeys, discovering, at last, In King William's Land, not
   only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that
   they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel Sound,
   September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of
   the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22d of
   April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land,
   and that the survivors, 105 in number, set out for Back or
   Great Fish River. They perished probably one by one on the
   way.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1861.
   Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith Sound; wintering on the
   Greenland side at latitude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with
   sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'.

{3683}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1862.
   Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry,
   and discovery of relics of Frobisher.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1864-1869.
   Residence of Captain Hall among the Eskimos on the north side
   of Hudson Strait and search for further relics of the Franklin
   expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867.
   Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangel Land by Captains Long
   and Raynor, of the whaling ships Nile and Reindeer.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867.
   Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson
   Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1868.
   Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiöld,
   attaining latitude 81° 42', on the 18th meridian of east
   longitude.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869.
   Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Greenland coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870.
   German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of
   which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and
   drifting 1,100 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on
   the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast
   of Greenland to latitude 77°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872.
   Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S.
   Government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin Bay,
   through Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, into what Kane and
   Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the
   widening of a strait, called Robeson Strait by Captain Hall,
   thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously
   been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in latitude 81°
   38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward
   the following August. During a storm, when the ship was
   threatened with destruction by the ice, seventeen of her crew
   and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with
   them for 1,500 miles, until they were rescued by a passing
   vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to
   run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made
   their way south in the spring, until they met whale-ships
   which took them on board.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1872-1874.
   Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and
   Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the
   result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown
   Prince Rudolf Land and Petermann Land, the latter (seen, not
   visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers
   were obliged to abandon their ice-locked steamer, and make
   their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were
   picked up.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875.
   Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest
   passage through Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait and Peel
   Strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876.
   English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the
   Discovery, attaining by ship the high latitude of 82° 27', in
   Smith Sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while
   exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the
   northwest coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1876-1878.
   Norwegian North-Atlantic expedition, for a scientific
   exploration of the sea between Norway, the Faroe Islands,
   Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878.
   Discovery of the island named "Einsamkeit," in latitude 77°
   40' North and longitude 860 East, by Captain Johannesen, of
   the Norwegian schooner Nordland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879.
   Final achievement of the long-sought, often attempted
   northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by
   the Swedish geographer and explorer, Baron Nordenskiöld, on
   the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to
   Yokohama, Japan, through the Arctic Sea, coasting the Russian
   and Siberian shores.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1883.
   Six annual expeditions to the Arctic Seas of the ship Willem
   Barentz, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879.
   Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in
   the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barentz Sea and the
   Kara Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880.
   Journey of Lieutenant Schwatka from Hudson Bay to King William
   Island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of
   the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the
   Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1882.
   Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of
   the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, United
   States Navy. The course taken by the Jeannette was through
   Behring Strait towards Wrangel Land, and then northerly, until
   she became ice-bound when she drifted helplessly for nearly
   two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew
   escaped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the
   occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of
   the river Lena. One of these two boats, commanded by Engineer
   Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settlement and obtain
   speedy relief. The other, which contained commander De Long,
   landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its
   occupants perished of starvation and cold.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882.
   First and second cruises of the United States Revenue Steamer
   Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, via Behring Strait, to Wrangel
   Land seeking information concerning the Jeannette and
   searching for two missing whaling ships.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882.
   Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his
   yacht Eira, in the first of which a considerable exploration
   of the southern coast was made, while the second resulted in
   the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in
   boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881.
   Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing
   explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic Sea through
   Behring Strait, but abruptly stopped by the burning of the
   Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881.
   Cruise of the United States Alliance, Commander Wadleigh, via
   Spitzbergen, to 79° 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the
   Jeannette.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881-1884.
   International undertaking of expeditions to establish Arctic
   stations for simultaneous meteorological and magnetic
   observations: by the United States at Smith Sound and Point
   Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth
   of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in
   Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of
   the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland Sound, Davis Strait; by
   Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen Island; by Sweden at Mussel Bay in
   Spitzbergen. The United States expedition to Smith Sound,
   under Lieutenant Greeley, established its station on Discovery
   Bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the highest latitude
   ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and
   failing to receive expected supplies, which had been
   intercepted by the ice, Greeley and his men, twenty-five in
   number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the
   way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of
   starvation, by a vessel sent to their relief under Captain
   Schley, United States Navy.

{3684}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1882-1883.
   Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmphna, under Lieutenant
   Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological
   Expedition beset in the ice at 69° 42' North latitude and 64°
   45' East longitude; both vessels becoming frozen in together
   and drifting for nearly twelve months, being carried to 71°
   North; the Dijmphna taking the crew of the Varna, which
   succumbed to the ice pressure and went down; the Danish ship
   finally being liberated, August 1, 1893, and regaining Vardo,
   Norway, in October of that year.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883.
   Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, United States Navy, from Point
   Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, to Meade River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883.
   Expedition of Baron Nordenskiöld to Greenland, making
   important explorations in the interior, but failing to find
   the temperate central valleys which the Baron's theoretical
   studies had led him to expect.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883-1885.
   East Greenland expedition of Captain Holm and Lieutenant
   Garde, surveying and mapping the coast from 59° 49' to 68° 45'
   North latitude, and studying its geology, meteorology and
   natural history.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1884.
   Second cruise of the U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Corwin in
   the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886.
   Reconnoissance of the Greenland inland ice by Civil Engineer
   R. E. Peary, United States Navy, "to gain a practical
   knowledge of the obstacles and ice conditions of the
   interior," and "to put to the test of actual use certain
   methods and details of equipment."

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888.
   Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland, from the
   icebound eastern coasts to the Danish settlements on the
   western.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
   Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, under G. Nordenskiöld and
   Baron Klinkowström.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
   Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890.
   Russian exploration of the Malo-Zemelskaya, or Timanskaya
   tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic
   Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892.
   Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, United States Navy, with a
   party of seven persons, including Mrs. Peary, establishing
   headquarters on McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison
   Sound, north west Greenland; thence making sledge journeys to
   the northeastern coast of Greenland, at Independence Bay and
   northward from it to latitude 82°, and following the coast
   southward to Cape Bismarck. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary
   have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892.
   Danish East Greenland expedition of Lieutenant Ryder,
   wintering on Denmark Island in Scoresby's Sound, from which
   boat journeys were made and the interior ramifications of the
   Sound surveyed and mapped.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1893.
   Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the
   movement of the great glaciers.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892.
   Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last
   records of which were found on one of the Cary Islands, in
   Baffin Bay, in the autumn of 1892.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892.
   French expedition under M. Ribot to explore the islands of
   Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
   Expedition of Dr. Nansen, who sailed June 24, in the Fram from
   Christiania, for the New Siberian Islands, thence aiming to
   enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across
   the Arctic region to Greenland, touching the North Pole, or
   nearly, in its course.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
   Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian
   Islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893.
   Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a
   geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894.
   Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of
   the number), landing in Bowdoin Bay, Inglefield Gulf, north of
   McCormick Harbor, in August, 1893; attempting in the following
   March a sledge journey with dogs to Independence Bay, but
   compelled to turn back when no more than a quarter of the
   distance had been traversed. An auxiliary expedition brought
   back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but
   Lieutenant Peary with two men remained in Greenland to
   continue explorations.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894.
   Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of
   the State University of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth
   of Mackenzie River and to Herschel Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894.
   Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist,
   purposing to reach Spitzbergen via Norway, and to advance
   thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats, weighing only
   400 pounds each, and provided with runners for use on the ice.
   The party left Tromsoë May 1, but were arrested before the end
   of the month by the crushing of their vessel in the ice at
   Walden. They were picked up and brought back to Norway.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894.
   Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North
   Polar Expedition, which sailed from Greenhithe, in England,
   July 11, under the command of Mr. F. G. Jackson, Mr.
   Harmsworth equipping the expedition at his personal cost. Its
   plan is to make Franz Josef Land a base of operations from
   which to advance carefully and persistently towards the Pole.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1895.
   Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, the explorer of Franz
   Josef Land, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the
   east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accompanied by
   landscape and animal painters, photographers, and savants.

   ----------ARCTIC EXPLORATION: End--------

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The Constitution of.

      See CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (page 511).

ARMENIA, Atrocities in.

      See TURKS: A. D. 1895 (page 3157).

ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROPE.

      See EUROPE (page 990, and after).

ASCHAM, Roger, and "The Scholemaster."

      See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 708).

{3685}

ASCLEPIADÆ, The.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE, GREEK (page 2124).

ASIA MINOR, Missionary journeys of St. Paul in.

      See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 436).

ASOKA, and the rise of Buddhism.

      See INDIA: B. C. 312 (page 1704).

ASSIGNATS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

      See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1789-1796 (page 2212).

ASSYRIAN EDUCATION, Ancient.

      See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

ASSYRIAN LIBRARIES.

      See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

ASSYRIAN MONEY AND BANKING.

      See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

ATHENS: Outline sketch of ancient history.

      See EUROPE (pages 992-996).

ATLANTIC CABLE, The laying of the.

      See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
      A. D. 1854-1866 (page 776).

ATTAINDER.
BILL OF ATTAINDER.

   "An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or public
   dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of blood. It is
   the consequence of any condemnation to death, and induces the
   disherison of the heirs of the condemned person, which can
   only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of attainder,
   or of pains and penalties, inflicts the consequences of a
   penal sentence on any state criminal. … By the instrumentality
   of such bill the penalties of high treason are generally
   imposed. Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure,
   either in accordance with, or in contravention of, the common
   law. No other court of law can protect a person condemned in
   such manner. The first bill of the kind occurred under Edward
   IV., when the commons had to confirm the statute condemning
   Clarence to death. This convenient method of getting rid of
   disagreeable opponents was in high favour during the reign of
   Henry VIII. The bills of pains and penalties were hurried
   through the parliament, and the parties accused were not even
   put upon their trial. Thus were the illustrious Sir Thomas
   More and Bishop Fisher, for misprision of treason, without
   regular trial, without examination of witnesses, or hearing
   the accused in their self-defence, legally consigned to the
   scaffold. Anne Boleyn was formally tried for high treason by
   the house of peers; but the head of Catharine Howard was
   disposed of by a simple bill of attainder. This was the first
   case in which the offence charged was created by the very bill
   against which the pretended criminal was held to have
   offended. Under Philip and Mary the benefit of clergy was, by
   means of a bill, withheld from a certain Rufford. What had
   been an instrument of kingly despotism, under Tudor sway, was
   converted, under the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine
   against the crown. The points of indictment against Strafford
   were so weak that the lords were for acquitting him.
   Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig introduced a bill of attainder
   in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym
   and Hampden, did not support this measure; but yet it passed
   through the commons with only 59 dissentient voices. After the
   35 peers opposed to the trial of Strafford had withdrawn, the
   terror-stricken lords accepted the bill by 26 against 19
   votes. … This parliamentary administration of justice has by
   no means been relinquished. A bill of attainder may refer
   simply to a concrete case, and contrive penalties for acts
   which are not specially punishable by statute, whereas an
   impeachment applies to some violation of recognized legal
   principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by the
   commons to the house of lords."

      _E. Fischel,
      The English Constitution,
      book 7, chapter 9._

   "By the 33 & 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for
   treason or felony have been abolished."

      _T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
      English Constitutional History,
      chapter 10 (2d edition, page 393), foot-note._

   ----------AUSTRIA: Start--------

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1273-1349.
   The House of Hapsburgh in the earlier period of its fortunes.

   "It was just now [1273] that the German monarchy received once
   more a real king [in the person of Rudolph of Hapsburgh]. It
   is evident that Ottocar's remarkable rise into power was due
   essentially to the previous excessive weakness of German
   kingship. He had acquired Austria and Styria by doubtful right
   according to German notions, Carinthia and Carniola without
   any acquiescence at all on the part of the empire. … In the
   election of Rudolph he was not willing to take part and
   afterwards he refused him recognition. No wonder that from the
   very beginning the German princes felt the necessity of
   driving him from his usurped position. … For the German cause
   it was the greatest gain that through Ottocar's fall (1278)
   room was won on the Middle Danube for a national rule: the
   House of Austria was enabled there to found that power which
   played so great a part in the world's history. The victory on
   the marchfeld was a victory of the renewed imperial might over
   a recalcitrant vassal whose power had extended the due measure
   of that of a prince of the realm. Looked at in this light the
   fall of Ottocar reminds one of the fall of Henry the Lion a
   hundred years before; the gain for Rudolph, however, was still
   greater and more essential than it had been at that former
   time for Frederick I. His position was for the first time now
   actually assured; for if the battle had resulted unfavorably
   it is doubtful if he could have continued to command
   obedience. Besides this the possibility presented itself now
   of using the position of ruler, conferred on him personally,
   to the lasting advantage of his house; at the same time he
   could only go to work in the matter very slowly and
   cautiously. … At his departure from these parts in 1281 he
   conferred the regency in Austria proper and in the other lands
   to his own son Albrecht. The latter appears already as a
   matured man with a certain talent for ruling. He overthrew all
   those who opposed them but, having done this, he bore no
   malice and cherished no hostility. No one could be in doubt
   but that for Albrecht, and for his house altogether, the king
   thought to found there a separate territorial principality. To
   begin with, the fiefs which the dukes of Austria had held of
   the neighboring bishoprics, especially the Bavarian ones, were
   conferred by Rudolph on his sons, other privileges in
   compensation being granted to the bishoprics. The consent of
   the electors, according to the new order of things, was
   necessary in such a case, and the king next sought to gain
   them over. … On December 27, 1282, he invested his sons
   Albrecht and Rudolph in common with Austria, Styria, Carniola
   and the Windischmark. …
{3686}
   At the request of the Estates of those lands, who wished
   neither a joint rule nor a separation from each other, Rudolph
   in 1283 invested his son Albrecht alone with those four
   provinces. To the younger Rudolph the promise of another
   appanage or at least of a compensation was held out—a fatal
   matter! For the son of this Rudolph was John the Parricide. It
   was an event of the greatest import that in these
   south-eastern marks of the empire the Babenbergers were
   replaced by the Hapsburghs. The latter now, in consequence of
   their all-decisive victory, turned their attention at the same
   time to Bohemia and Hungary. Although neither in the one land
   nor the other did they now actually attain their goal, yet
   their efforts in this direction deserve our close attention as
   being the first tokens of a policy that was most strongly to
   affect the world's history. … One sees, even in these
   unsuccessful attempts, the bold dynastic ambition of King
   Rudolph; the kingdom of Arles, also, he had had in view for
   one of his sons. The acquisition of Austria alone, indeed,
   marks an epoch in itself; all the more so as only through this
   did he gain the prestige which he needed to enable him to do
   justice to his task as king of Germany. If this task be
   regarded as having consisted chiefly in restoring and
   maintaining the public peace after thirty years of utter
   confusion, then, indeed, he showed himself completely equal to
   it. … In short, through valor and steadfastness he strongly,
   in internal matters, upheld the power of the empire.
   Rebellions, indeed, were not wanting; now the archbishop of
   Cologne, now the duke of Savoy revolted; now Bern or Colmar,
   now the counts in Suabia and Burgundy. He overcame and humbled
   them all. … He was a very tall, thin man, pale of countenance
   and with very little hair on his small head; in all things
   moderate and of a genial nature as was shown by his offering
   to become the guest of artisans and by his darning his own
   doublet. … When giving Austria to his son Albrecht who was to
   try and establish here a dynastic power (Hausmacht), Rudolph
   had really intended to give the German crown to his younger
   son, Rudolph, and he might have put this through had not this
   son died before himself. In May 1291 the king then held a diet
   at Frankfort for the purpose of inducing the electors now to
   give their vote to his son Albrecht. This he was unable to
   bring about and with his hopes unrealized he died on the 15th
   of July 1291. … After long preliminary negotiations between
   the separate electors … the election took place on May 5th,
   1292. Albrecht had not yet abandoned hope and had appeared in
   the vicinity. … The electors laid down the principle that it
   was not right for the son to directly follow the father on the
   throne of the empire. … They chose again a simple count,
   Adolphus of Nassau. … The less Adolphus fulfilled the
   expectations of his electors … the more did he lose his
   authority. … In short it appears that Adolphus's whole
   attitude, his league with England, his conception of the
   rights of the empire, the way he insulted ecclesiastical and
   secular princes, his policy with regard to the majority of the
   cities, caused a general ferment. … It was at a great assembly
   of princes in Prague, where Mainz, Bohemia, Brandenburg and
   Saxony met together that Albrecht's influence began to gain
   the upper hand. Albrecht promised, in case he should become
   king, to give to King Wenzel the conquests made by Adolphus in
   Meissen. Albrecht and all his friends then girded themselves
   up to conquer the empire. In April 1298 we find him in Alsace
   opposing Adolphus who, however, still had the upper hand. The
   archbishop of Mainz then summoned the electors to Mainz for
   June 15 to consult about the disturbances in the empire. …
   They determined now to depose the king whom they had elected.
   This was done in the Thiergarten near Mainz on June 23, 1298.
   … The battle for the possession of the empire took place on
   July 2nd at Göllheim, where a stone cross still marks the
   spot. … The kings wore the same coat-of-arms—yellow with a
   black eagle—and bore the same banner. According to one
   account, for which Albert of Strassburg is voucher, they came
   into hand to hand conflict with each other. Adolphus cried
   out: 'Here you will relinquish the Empire!' Albrecht answered
   'The decision lies in the hand of God.' The one-eyed Albrecht
   struck the surer blow, hitting his antagonist directly over
   the eye. The blood ran down Adolphus s face; he fell and died.
   Albrecht would never acknowledge that he had been the slayer
   of the Lord's anointed. Be that as it may he won the crown for
   himself on the battle-field. … Albrecht is altogether a
   striking figure in German history. Everywhere, in the lowest
   plains of Switzerland or in the highest mountains of
   Switzerland he is busy in founding his dynastic power. Under
   him the House of Austria made a vigorous beginning in the
   matter of establishing a great and extensive authority in all
   parts of the empire. … It was fatal for him that the harsh
   want of consideration which forms the chief feature of his
   sway as a statesman should have raised up a murderer against
   him in his own immediate vicinity—in the person of his own
   nephew."

      _L. Ranke,
      Weltgeschichte
      (translated from the German),
      volume 8, pages 566-601._

      See, also, AUSTRIA (pages 199-201).

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1648-1715.
   Relations with Germany and France.
   See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1648-1715.

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1780-1790.
   Joseph II., the enthroned Philosopher.

   "The prince who best sums up the spirit of the century, is not
   Frederic [the Great, of Prussia), it is Joseph II. [the
   emperor]. Frederic was born a master, Joseph II. a disciple,
   and it is by disciples that we judge schools. The king of
   Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of
   the current: the emperor cast himself upon them and permitted
   himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always
   dominates, it is he who proposes and finally decides; the
   philosopher is subordinate: he furnishes to the results
   brought about by policy their abstract cause for existence and
   their theoretical justification. With Joseph II. rational
   conception precedes political calculation and governs it. He
   had breadth of mind, but his mind was superficial; ideas
   slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for
   grandeur; but there was nothing profound in him but ambition,
   and it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished to
   surpass Frederic; his entire conduct was but an awkward,
   imprudent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had
   made his hero, whom history made his rival and whom he copied
   while detesting him.
{3687}
   The political genius of Frederic was born of good sense and
   moderation: there was nothing in Joseph II. but the
   immoderate. He was a man of systems: he had only great
   velleities. His education was mediocre, and, as to methods,
   entirely jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast
   confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the philosophers of
   France, from the economists especially. He thus formed a very
   vague ideal of political aspirations and an exaggerated sense
   of the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since I
   ascended the throne and have worn the first crown of the
   world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have made Philosophy the lawmaker
   of my empire. Her logical applications are going to transform
   Austria.' He undertakes reforms in every direction at once.
   History is null for him, traditions do not count, nor do facts
   acquired. There is no race, nor period, nor surrounding
   circumstances: there is the State which is everything and can
   do everything. He writes in 1782, to the bishop of Strasbourg:
   'In a kingdom governed conformably to my principles,
   prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of mind must disappear, and
   each of my subjects must be reinstated in the possession of
   his natural rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first
   condition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance makes
   him operate on a soil the most heterogeneous, the most
   incoherent, the most cut up, parceled out and traversed by
   barriers, that there is in Europe. Nothing in common among his
   subjects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. It
   is from this, according to him, that the defect of monarchy
   arises. 'The German language is the universal language of my
   empire. I am the emperor of Germany, the states which I
   possess are provinces which form but one body with the State
   of which I am the head. If the kingdom of Hungary were the
   most important of my possessions, I should not hesitate to
   impose its tongue on the other countries.' So he imposes the
   German language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchèques,
   the Poles, on all the Slavs. He suppresses the ancient
   territorial divisions; they recall the successive
   agglomerations, the irregular alluvions which had formed the
   monarchy; he establishes thirteen governments and divides them
   into circles. The diets disappear; the government passes into
   the hands of intendants according to the French formula. In
   the cities the burgomaster appointed by the government becomes
   a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already much
   curtailed, that they still had, here and there, in the
   government. He taxes them, he taxes the ecclesiastics; he
   meditates establishing a tax proportional to incomes and
   reaching all classes. He protects the peasants, alleviates
   serfdom, diminishes the corvées, builds hospitals, schools
   above all, in which the state will form pupils to obey her.
   His ideal would be the equality of his subjects under the
   uniform sway of his government. He unifies the laws; he
   institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the
   entire empire. He makes regulations for manufactures, binds
   commerce to the most rigorous protective system. Finally he
   puts a high hand on the church and decrees tolerance. … This
   immense revolution was accomplished by means of decrees, in
   less than five years. If we compare the state of cohesion
   which the Bourbon government had brought about in France in
   1789, with the incoherence of the Austrian monarchy on the
   death of Maria Theresa in 1780, it will be seen that the
   revolution which caused the Constituent Assembly was a small
   matter compared with that which Joseph II. intended to
   effect."

      _A. Sorel,
      L'Europe et la Rêvolution française
      (translated from the French),
      part 1, pages 119-122._

   ----------AUSTRIA: End--------

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Libraries of.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

AUSTRIAN SCHOOLS.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

AVICENNA AND ARABIAN MEDICAL SCIENCE.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2130).

B.

BÂB, The.

   The word Bâb, "meaning, in Arabic, 'a gate,' is the title of a
   hero of our own days, the founder, if not of a new religion,
   at least of a new phase of religious belief. His history, with
   that of his first followers, as told by M. le Comte de
   Gobineau in his 'Religions et Philosophies dans l'Asie
   Centrale,' presents a picture of steadfast adherence to truth
   (as they held it), of self-denial, of joyful constancy in the
   face of bitterest suffering, torture and death, as vivid and
   touching as any that are found in the records of the heroic
   days of old. … Among the crowd of pilgrims who flocked to
   Mecca in the summer of 1843 was a youth who had then hardly
   completed his nineteenth year. He had come from the far
   distant city of Shiraz, where his family held an honourable
   position, claiming, indeed, to trace their descent from the
   great Prophet himself. Thoughtful and devout from his
   childhood, Mirza Ali Mohammed had zealously and regularly
   practised all religious duties considered binding on an
   orthodox Mussulman. He had received a liberal education, and
   while still a mere boy had eagerly examined and weighed every
   new set of ideas with which he came in contact. Christians,
   Jews, Fire-worshippers—he conversed with them all, and studied
   their books. … Up to the time of his visiting the shrine of
   the Prophet there had been no indication of any departure from
   the faith of his fathers. But this pilgrimage, instead of
   confirming his faith in Islam, had a quite contrary effect.
   While still in the holy city, and still more on the return
   journey, he had begun to confide to a select few views which
   attracted and delighted them, not more, perhaps, by their
   breadth and freedom than by the vague mystery in which they
   were still wrapped. His decisive breach with the old faith was
   not far distant. … Arrived at Shiraz, his first overt act was
   to present to his friends his earliest written works. These
   were two: a journal of his pilgrimage and a commentary on a
   part of the Korân. In the latter the readers were amazed and
   charmed to find meanings and teachings of which they had never
   dreamed before. From this time he began to teach more
   publicly; and day by day larger crowds flocked around him.
{3688}
   In public he still spoke with reverence of the Prophet and his
   laws; while in more private conferences he imparted to his
   disciples those new ideas which were, perhaps, not yet very
   clearly defined in his own mind. Very soon he had gathered
   round him a little band of devoted followers, ardently
   attached to himself, and ready to sacrifice wealth, life, all,
   in the cause of truth. And throughout the great empire men
   began everywhere to hear of the fame of Mirza Ali Mohammed.
   There was much in the young teacher himself, apart from the
   subject of his teaching, to account for this rapid success. Of
   blameless life; simple in his habits; strict and regular in
   all pious observances, he had already a weight of character to
   which his extreme youth added a tenfold interest. But in
   addition to these things, he was gifted with striking beauty
   of person, and with that subtle, winning sweetness of manner
   so often possessed by leaders of men, and to which, more than
   to the most weighty arguments, they have often owed their
   power. … Ere long, Mirza assumed the title by which he has
   since been known throughout Persia—the Bâb—that is, the Door,
   the only one through which men can reach the knowledge of God.
   It may be well to give here an outline of what the Bâb did
   teach. He believed in one God, eternal, unchangeable, Creator
   of all things, and into whom all shall finally be reabsorbed.
   He taught that God reveals His will to men by a series of
   messengers, who, while truly men, are not mere men, but also
   divine; that each of these messengers—Moses, Jesus,
   Mohammed—is the medium of some new truth, higher than that
   brought by the one who preceded him; that he himself, the Bâb,
   though claiming divine honours while he lived, was but the
   forerunner of one greater than he, the great Revealer—'He whom
   God shall manifest, who should complete the revelation of all
   truth, and preside at the final judgment, at which all the
   good shall be made one with God, and all evil annihilated. One
   of the most marked and singular characteristics of his system
   is the prominence given in it to that mysterious and fanciful
   theory of numbers which had always had so great a charm for
   him. Taking various forms of the name of God—'ahyy,' meaning
   'the giver of life'; 'wahed,' 'the only One'; or that which is
   a most sacred formula, 'Bismillah elemna elegdous,' 'in the
   name of God, highest and holiest'—he shows that the letters
   composing each of those names, taken by their numerical value,
   make up the number 19. This he therefore concludes is the
   number which lies at the foundation of all things in heaven
   and earth, the harmony of the universe, the number which must
   rule in all earthly arrangements. The year should have 19
   months, the month 19 days, the day 19 hours. … There are three
   points in particular in which the reforms proposed by the Bâb
   cannot fail, so far as they gain ground, to have a mighty
   effect on society. In the first place, he abolished polygamy;
   that is, he so strongly discountenanced it that his followers
   universally regard it as a prohibition. In close
   connection—almost as a necessary accompaniment of this—he
   forbade divorce; that festering sore which corrupts the mass
   of Persian society to its very heart, and makes pure family
   life almost impossible. His third revolutionary step was in
   the same direction. He abolished the veiling of the women. …
   While the fame and popularity of the young preacher were daily
   increasing, his bold exposure of the vices of the clergy
   aroused against him their bitterest enmity." This hostility
   soon became influential enough to prevail on the king and his
   ministers to silence the Bâb. Mirza was placed under
   confinement in his own house; but a chosen band of apostles
   went forth to do missionary work throughout the empire, and
   their success was great. Ere long, they began to combine
   political with religious aims, and one of them, Moulla
   Houssein, organized a movement which assumed a revolutionary
   character and spread to formidable proportions. The government
   became greatly alarmed, and an energetic minister took
   measures to suppress the Bâbys, which was done with merciless
   vigor. The Bâb, himself, though he had taken no part in the
   political doings of his disciples, and had remained a quiet
   prisoner on parole at Shiraz, was put to death, after being
   brutally exposed for several hours to the insults of a mob.
   This was in 1851. The following year witnessed the martyrdom
   of a large number of the surviving Bâbys of prominence, all of
   whom died for their faith without shrinking—as exalted in
   spirit, it would seem, as the early Christian martyrs. But
   Bâbism was not extinguished. It is said to have spread
   secretly and continually throughout Persia, and to be of
   unknown extent at the present day."

      _M. F. Wilson,
      The Story of the Bâb
      (Contemporary Review, December, 1885)._

BABŒUF, Conspiracy of.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1753-1797 (page 2934).

BABYLONIA: Captivity of the Jews.

      See JEWS: B. C. 604-536;
      and 537 (page 1907).

BABYLONIA:
   Commerce.

      See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

BABYLONIA:
   Education, ancient.

      See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

BABYLONIA:
   Libraries.

      See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

BABYLONIA:
   Medical Science.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE, BABYLONIAN (page 2122).

BABYLONIA:
   Money and banking.

      See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

BACK, Captain, Northern explorations of.

      See (in this Supplement)
      ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835; and 1836-1837.

BACTERIOLOGY, Development of the science of.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2146).

BALOCHISTAN,
BALUCHISTAN.

   "Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of the term, may be
   said, in a general sense, to include all that tract of country
   which has for its northern and north-eastern boundary the
   large kingdom of Afghanistan, its eastern frontier being
   limited by the British province of Sindh, and its western by
   the Persian State, while the Arabian Sea washes its southern
   base for a distance of nearly six hundred miles. … In area
   Balochistan had long been supposed to cover in its entirety
   quite 160,000 square miles, but the latest estimates do not
   raise it higher than 140,000 square miles, of which 60,000 are
   said to belong to what is termed Persian Balochistan, and the
   remaining 80,000 to Kalāti Balochistan, or that portion which
   is more or less directly under the rule of the Brāhui Khān of
   Kalāt. …
{3689}
   Balochistan may be said to be inhabited chiefly by the Baloch
   tribe, the most numerous in the country, and this name was
   given to the tract they occupy by the great Persian monarch,
   Nadir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after driving the Afghan
   invaders from Persia, made himself master in his turn of the
   whole country west of the Indus, and placed a native chief
   over the new province, formed out of the districts bounded on
   the north and south by the Halmand valley and the sea, and
   stretching from Karmān on the west to Sindh on the east. This
   newly formed province he called Balochistan, or, the country
   of the Baloch, from the name of the most widely spread and
   numerous, though not the dominant, tribe. According to Masson,
   who, it must be admitted, had more ample opportunities of
   obtaining correct information on this subject than any other
   European, the Balochis are divided into three great classes,
   viz.,
   (1) the Brahuis;
   (2) the Rinds; and
   (3) the Lumris (or Numris);
   but this must be taken more in the sense of inhabitants of
   Balochistan than as divisions of a tribe, since the Brahuis
   are of a different race and language and call the true
   Balochis 'Nhāruis,' in contradistinction to themselves as
   'Brahuis.' … The origin of the word 'Baloch' is evidently
   involved in some obscurity, and has given rise to many
   different interpretations. Professor Rawlinson supposes it to
   be derived from Belūs, king of Babylon, the Nimrod of Holy
   Writ, and that from 'Kush,' the father of Nimrod, comes the
   name of the Kalāti eastern district, 'Kachh.' Pottinger
   believes the Balochis to be of Turkoman lineage, and this from
   a similarity in their institutions, habits, religion—in
   short, in everything but their language, for which latter
   anomaly, however, he has an explanation to offer. But be this
   as it may, the very tribe themselves ascribe their origin to
   the earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and are extremely
   desirous of being supposed to be of Arab extraction. They
   reject with scorn all idea of being of the same stock as the
   Afghan. They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and the
   affinity of their language, the Balochki, to the Persian,
   bears out this supposition; but the proper derivation of the
   word 'Baloch' still remains an open question. … The Brahuis,
   who, as a race, are very numerous in Balochistan, Pottinger
   considers to be a nation of Tartar mountaineers, who settled
   at a very early period in the southern parts of Asia, where
   they led an ambulatory life in Khels, or societies, headed and
   governed by their own chiefs and laws for many centuries, till
   at length they became incorporated and attained their present
   footing at Kalāt and throughout Balochistan generally. Masson
   supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a corruption of Ba-roh-i,
   meaning, literally, of the waste; and that that race entered
   Balochistan originally from the west. … The country may be
   considered as divided into two portions—the one, Kalāti
   Balochistan, or that either really or nominally under the rule
   of the Khān of Kalāt; and the other as Persian Balochistan, or
   that part which is more or less directly under the domination
   of the Shah of Persia. Of the government of this latter
   territory, it will suffice to say that it is at present
   administered by the Governor of Bam-Narmashir, a deputy of the
   Kermān Governor; but the only district that is directly under
   Persian rule is that of Banpur—the rest of the country, says
   St. John, is left in charge of the native chiefs, who, in
   their turn, interfere but little with the heads of villages
   and tribes. … It would … appear that the supremacy of the Shah
   over a very large portion of the immense area (60,000 square
   miles) known as Persian Balochistan is more nominal than real,
   and that the greater number of the chiefs only pay revenue to
   their suzerain when compelled to do so. As regards Kalāti
   Balochistan, the government is, so to speak, vested
   hereditarily in the Brahui Khān of Kalāt, but his sovereignty
   in the remote portions of his extensive territory (80,000
   square miles), though even in former times more nominal than
   real, is at the present moment still more so, owing to the
   almost constant altercations and quarrels which take place
   between the reigning Khān and his Sardārs, or chiefs. … In …
   the modern history of Kalāti Balochistan under the present
   dynasty, extending from about the commencement of the 18th
   century, when Abdula Khān was ruler, down to the present time,
   a period of, say, nearly 180 years, there is not much to call
   for remark. Undoubtedly the Augustan age of Balochistan was
   the reign of the first Nasir Khān [1755-1795], the Great
   Nasir, as he is to this day called by the Balochis. Of his
   predecessors little seems to be known; they were indeed simply
   successful robbers on a large scale, with but few traces of
   any enlightened policy to gild over a long succession of deeds
   of lawlessness, rapine, and bloodshed. … Had his successors
   been of the same stamp and metal as himself, the Kalāti
   kingdom of to-day would not perhaps show that anarchy and
   confusion which are now its most striking characteristics."

      _A. W. Hughes,
      The Country of Balochistan,
      pages 2-48, and 285._

BANKING, History of.

      See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2198).

BANKS, Nathaniel P.
   His election to the Speakership.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1855-1856 (page 3396).

BAPTIST CHURCH, The first in Rhode Island.

      See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1639 (page 2641).

BAPTISTS.

    The name 'Baptist' was not a self-chosen one. In the early
    Reformation time those who withdrew from the dominant
    churches because of the failure of these churches to
    discriminate between the church and the world, between the
    regenerate and the unregenerate, and who sought to organize
    churches of believers only, laid much stress on the lack of
    Scriptural warrant for the baptism of infants and on the
    incompatibility of infant baptism with regenerate membership.
    Following what they believed to be apostolic precept and
    example, they made baptism on a profession of faith a
    condition of church-fellowship. This rejection of infant
    baptism and this insistence on believers' baptism were so
    distinctive of these Christians that they were stigmatized as
    'Anabaptists,' 'Catabaptists,' and sometimes as simply
    'Baptists'; that is to say, they were declared to be
    'rebaptizers,' 'perverters of baptism,' or, as unduly
    magnifying baptism and making it the occasion of schism,
    simply 'baptizers.' These party names they earnestly
    repudiated, preferring to call themselves Brethren,
    Christians, Disciples of Christ, Believers, etc. …
{3690}
    Baptists have, for the most part, been at one with the Roman
    Catholic, the Greek Catholic, and most Protestant communions
    in accepting for substance the so-called Apostles', Nicene,
    and Athanasian creeds, not, however, because they are
    venerable or because of the decisions of ecclesiastical
    councils, but because, and only in so far as, they have
    appeared to them to be in accord with Scripture. … As regards
    the set of doctrines on which Augustin differed from his
    theological predecessors, and modern Calvinists from
    Arminians, Baptists have always been divided. … The great
    majority of the Baptists of today hold to what may be called
    moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism tempered with the
    evangelical anti-Augustinianism which came through the
    Moravian Brethren to Wesley and by him was brought powerfully
    to bear on all bodies of evangelical Christians. Baptists are
    at one with the great Congregational body and with most of
    the minor denominations as regards church government."

      _A. H. Newman,
      A. History of the Baptist Churches in the United States,
      introduction._

   "Baptist principles are discoverable in New England from the
   very earliest colonial settlements. The Puritans of Plymouth
   had mingled with the Dutch Baptists during the ten years of
   their sojourn in Holland, and some of them seem to have
   brought over Baptist tendencies even in the Mayflower. Dutch
   Baptists had emigrated to England and extended their
   principles there; and from time to time a persecuted Baptist
   in England sought refuge in America, and, planted here,
   brought forth fruit after his kind. But as every offshoot of
   these principles here was so speedily and vigorously beaten
   down by persecution, and especially as, after the banishment
   of Roger Williams, there was an asylum a few miles distant,
   just over Narraganset Bay, where every persecuted man could
   find liberty of conscience, Baptist principles made little
   progress in the New England colonies, except Rhode Island, for
   the first hundred and twenty years. A little church of Welsh
   Baptists was founded in Rehoboth, near the Rhode Island line,
   in 1663, and shortly afterwards was compelled by civil force
   to remove to Swanzea, where, as it was distant from the
   centres of settlement, it was suffered to live without very
   much molestation. It still exists, the oldest Baptist church
   in the State. In 1665, the First Baptist Church in Boston was
   organized, and, alone, for almost a century, withstood the
   fire of persecution,—ever in the flames, yet never quite
   consumed. In 1693, a second church was constituted in Swanzea,
   not as a Regular, but as a Six-Principle, Baptist Church. In
   1705, a Baptist church was formed in Groton, Connecticut.
   These four churches, three Regular and one Six-Principle,
   having in the aggregate probably less than two hundred
   members, were all the Baptist churches in New England outside
   of Rhode Island previous to the Great Awakening."

      _D. Weston.
      Early Baptists in Massachusetts
      (The Baptists and the National Centenary),
      pages 12-18._

   "The representative Baptists of London and vicinity, who in
   1689 put forth the Confession of Faith which was afterward
   adopted by the Philadelphia Association, and is therefore
   known in this country as the Philadelphia Confession, copied
   the Westminister Confession word for word, wherever their
   convictions would permit, and declared that they would thus
   show wherein they were at one with their brethren, and what
   convictions of truth made impossible a complete union. And
   wherever Baptists appeared however or by whomsoever they were
   opposed, the ground of complaint against them was their
   principles. Some of these principles were sharply antagonistic
   to those of existing churches, and also to those on which the
   civil governments were administered. They were widely
   disseminated, especially in Holland, England, and Wales, and
   there were separate churches formed. From purely doctrinal
   causes also came divisions among 'the Baptized churches'
   themselves. The most notable one was that in England between
   the General or Arminian Baptists, and the Particular or
   Calvinistic Baptists. With the latter division do the Regular
   Baptists of America hold lineal connection. … The churches of
   Philadelphia and vicinity kept the closest connection with the
   mother country, and were most affected by it. In New England,
   in 'the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jonathan Edwards,
   there was made from within the Congregational churches a most
   vigorous assault against their own 'half-way Covenant' in the
   interest of a pure church. Along his lines of thought he
   started multitudes who could not stop where he himself
   remained and would fain have detained them. They separated
   from the Congregational churches, and were hence called
   Separates. A large proportion of them became Baptists, and
   formed themselves into Baptist churches. Through the labors of
   earnest men who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, their
   principles were widely disseminated in those and the
   neighboring colonies, and, in consequence, many churches came
   into existence."

      _G. D. B. Pepper,
      Doctrinal History and Position (The same),
      pages 51-52._

BARDI, The.

      See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2206).

BARENTZ, Voyages of.

      See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION:
      1594-1595; and 1596-1597.

BARNARD COLLEGE.

      See EDUCATION (page 743).

BARRE, Colonel Isaac.
   Speech against the Stamp Act.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765 (page 3186).

BATTLE, Trial by.

      See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1077,
      and CRIMINAL: A. D. 1818 (pages 1957 and 1985).

BELCHER, Sir Edward,
   Franklin search expedition of.

      See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852--1854.

BELGIUM:
   Constitutional revision of 1893.

      See (in this Supplement) CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM.

BELGIUM:
   King Leopold's legacy of the Congo State.

      See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1889.

BELGIUM:
   Libraries.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

BELGIUM:
   Schools.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

BELL TELEPHONE, The invention of the.

      See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION:
      A. D. 1876-1892 (page 776).

      [Transcriber's Note.]
      _T. O'Conor Sloane
      The Standard Electrical Dictionary,
      www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26535._

BELLAMY, Edward, and the Nationalist Movement.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).

BENTHAM, Jeremy, and reforms in the Law of Evidence.

      See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1851 (page 1979).

{3691}

BERNADOTTE:
   Election to the throne of Sweden.

      See (in this Supplement) SWEDEN: A. D. 1810.

BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN: FRANCE (page 2010).

BICHAT, and the progress of physiological science.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2142).

BILL OF ATTAINDER.

      See (in this Supplement) ATTAINDER

BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

      See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1603 (page 1968).

BIORKO.

      See (in this Supplement), COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

BISMARCK'S POLICY AND SPEECHES.

      See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1862-1890.

BLACK FRIDAY.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1869 (page 2347).

BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories of.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1652-1654 (page 885).

BLANC, Louis, and his scheme of stateaided co-operation.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1840-1848 (page 2942).

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, The.

   "Just when or by whom the acts and proceedings of New Haven
   colony were first stigmatized as Blue Laws, cannot now be
   ascertained. The presumption, however, is strong that the name
   had its origin in New York, and that it gained currency in
   Connecticut, among episcopalian and other dissenters from the
   established church, between 1720 and 1750. … In the colony of
   New Haven, before the union with Connecticut, the privileges
   of voting and of holding civil office were, by the
   'fundamental agreement,' restricted to church-members. This
   peculiarity of her constitution was enough to give color to
   the assertion that her legislation was, pre-eminently, blue.
   That her old record-book contained a code of 'blue laws' which
   were discreditable to puritanism and which testified to the
   danger of schism—became, among certain classes, an assured
   belief. To this imaginary code wit and malice made large
   additions, sometimes by pure invention, sometimes by borrowing
   absurd or arbitrary laws from the records of other colonies.
   And so the myth grew—till the last vestige of truth was lost
   in fable. The earliest mention of the 'New Haven Blue Laws'
   that I remember to have seen in print, is in a satirical
   pamphlet published in 1762, entitled; 'The Real Advantages
   which Ministers and People may enjoy, especially in the
   Colonies, by conforming to the Church of England,' etc. … From
   the manner in which this allusion is introduced it is evident
   that reproach of New Haven for her 'blue laws' was already a
   familiar weapon of religious controversy. A few years later—in
   1767—William Smith, Chief-Justice of New York, had the
   curiosity to inspect 'the first records of the colony of New
   Haven, vulgarly called the Blue Laws.' In the continuation of
   his history of New York, he gives (p. 93) the result of his
   examination: 'A note ought not to be suppressed concerning
   these records, to correct a voice of misplaced ridicule. Few
   there are, who speak of the Blue Laws, … who do not imagine
   they form a code of rules for future conduct, drawn up by an
   enthusiastic, precise set of religionists; and if the
   inventions of wits, humorists, and buffoons were to be
   credited, they must consist of many volumes. The author had
   the curiosity to resort to them, when the Commissaries met at
   New Haven, for adjusting a partition line between New York and
   the Massachusetts in 1767; and a parchment-covered book of
   demi-royal paper was handed to him for the laws asked for, as
   the only volume in the office passing under this odd title. …
   It contains the memorials of the first establishment of the
   colony, which consisted of persons who had wandered beyond the
   limits of the old charter of the Massachusetts Bay, and who,
   as yet unauthorized by the crown to set up any civil
   government in due form of law, resolved to conduct themselves
   by the Bible. As a necessary consequence, the judges they
   chose took up an authority similar to that which every
   religious man exercises over his own children and domestics.
   Hence their attention to the morals of the people, in
   instances with which the civil magistrate can never
   intermeddle under a regular well-policied institution;
   because, to preserve liberty, they are cognizable only by
   parental authority. … So far is the common idea of the blue
   laws being a collection of rules from being true, that they
   are only records of convictions, consonant, in the judgment of
   the magistrates, to the word of God, and dictates of reason.'
   … Occasional allusions to the 'Blue Laws' are found in
   newspapers and pamphlets printed before the Revolution, but no
   specimens of the laws so stigmatised seem to have been
   published before 1781, when 'a sketch of some of them' was
   given to the world by the Rev. Samuel Peters, in 'A General
   History of Connecticut, from its First Settlement under George
   Fenwick, Esq.,' etc.: 'By a Gentleman of the Province:'
   printed in London, 'for the Author.' … As the sole authority
   for the only 'New Haven Blue Laws' that are now popularly
   known by the name, he and his book are entitled here to a
   larger notice. The late Professor J. L. Kingsley, in the notes
   to his Historical Discourse at New Haven (1838), was at the
   pains of pointing out 'a few errors'—as he charitably named
   them—of 'the work which, more than any other, has given
   currency to various misrepresentations respecting the New
   Haven colony:' and in this connection he quoted a remark made
   by the Rev. Dr. Trumbull, the historian, who was a townsman of
   Peters and had known him from childhood,—that, 'of all men
   with whom he had ever been acquainted, Dr. Peters, he had
   thought, from his first knowledge of him, the least to be
   depended upon as to any matter of fact, especially in
   story-telling.' The best excuse that can be made for him is,
   that he was a victim of pseudomania; that his abhorrence of
   truth was in fact a disease, and that he was not morally
   responsible for its outbreaks. He could not keep even his name
   clear of falsification. It passes into history with doubtful
   initials and fictitious titles. … In 1774, his obstinate and
   aggressive toryism rendered him very obnoxious to his
   neighbors and finally provoked the resentment of the Sons of
   Liberty. A party of two or three hundred men paid him a visit,
   threatened him (so he averred) with tar and feathers, handled
   him somewhat roughly when they detected him in falsehood, and
   drew from him a promise that he would not again meddle in
   public affairs. … He found his only comfort in the
   anticipation that, if his plans of vengeance should succeed,
   Connecticut might be blotted out: 'the bounds of New York may
   directly extend to Connecticut river, Boston meet them, New
   Hampshire take the Province of Maine, and Rhode Island be
   swallowed up as Dathan.'
{3692}
   In October, 1774, he sailed for England, where he remained
   until 1805. He obtained a small pension from the crown, and
   some compensation for the property he professed to have lost
   in Connecticut: and it was perhaps in the hope of eking out a
   livelihood, as well as of gratifying his resentment, that he
   employed his pen in abuse of the colony which gave him birth,
   and the religion of his fathers. He did not, says Mr.
   Duykinck, 'carry his point of dismembering Connecticut, but he
   punished the natives almost as effectually by writing a
   book—his History of the State.'"

      _J. H. Trumbull,
      Introduction to "The True-Blue Laws of
      Connecticut and New Haven."_

   "In this 'History' were collected all the extravagant stories
   that had been set afloat during the previous fifty years to
   gratify the stupidity of those among the lower classes in New
   York who were descended from the Dutch, or the hatred of the
   most bitter of the British royalists. This 'History' is the
   first and the only 'authority' for the 'Blue Laws' which were
   attributed to the early New Haven colonists. … No person in
   America who knew anything about the history of his country
   ever seriously quoted Dr. Peters's 'History' as an authority
   on any subject whatever. The 'Comic History of England,' or
   the 'Travels of Baron Munchausen,' would be as little likely
   to be quoted in England for any serious purpose. And yet this
   falsehood about the 'Blue Laws,' which was thus first
   concocted for a purpose, has a vitality which, in some of its
   aspects, is amusing."

      W. L. Kingsley,
      Blackwood's Magazine on the "Blue Laws"
      (New Englander, April, 1871), pages 296-299.

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, The.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2016).

BOERHAAVE, and humoral pathology.

      See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 17TH CENTURY (page 2136).

BOLOGNA, University of.

      See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 696).

"BOMBA," King.

      See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849 (page 1862).

BOOTH, Reverend General William, and the Salvation Army.

      See (in this Supplement) SALVATION ARMY.

BOROUGH FRANCHISE, English.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885 (pages 973-978).

BOSTON LATIN SCHOOL.

      See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 727).

BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, and Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots.
      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568 (page 2857).

BOWDOIN COLLEGE.

   An act of the Legislature of the province of Maine, approved
   in 1794, incorporated the above-named institution. The
   management of the college was placed under a board of
   trustees, with full powers of control. … That the institution
   might not want for proper support, it was further enacted,
   'That the clear rents, issues, and profits of all the estate,
   real and personal, of which the said corporation shall be
   seized or possessed, shall be appropriated to the endowment of
   the said college, in such manner as will most effectually
   promote virtue, piety, and the knowledge of such of the
   languages and the useful and liberal arts and sciences as
   shall hereafter be directed from time to time by said
   corporation.' Five townships of land, each six miles square,
   were granted to the college for Its endowment and vested in
   the trustees, provided that fifteen families be settled in
   each of the said townships within a period of twelve years,
   and provided further that three lots containing 320 acres each
   be reserved, one for the first settled minister, one for the
   use of the ministry, and one for the support of schools within
   the township where it is located. These townships were to be
   laid out and assigned from any of the unappropriated lands
   belonging to the commonwealth of the district of Maine. The
   first money endowment was instituted by a general law of
   Massachusetts, approved February 24, 1814, which reads as
   follows: 'Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
   Representatives in General Court now assembled, That the tax
   which the president, directors and company of the
   Massachusetts Bank are and shall be liable to pay to the
   commonwealth, shall be and hereby is granted to and
   appropriated as follows, viz: ten-sixteenths parts thereof to
   the president and fellows of Harvard College; and
   three-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and trustees
   of Williams College; and three-sixteenths thereof
   to the president and trustees of Bowdoin College.'"

      _F. W. Blackmar,
      History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in
      the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 123-124._

   The college was named in honor of Governor James Bowdoin, of
   Massachusetts, whose son made valuable gifts to it.

BRACTON, Henry de, and early English Law.

      See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1216-1272 (page 1961).

BRADFORD PRESS, The.

      See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 16815-1693:
      and 1704-1729 (page 2597).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1891.
   Adoption of the Constitution.

      For text see CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL (page 518).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1893-1894.
   Triumph of the Peixoto government.

   "The civil war In Brazil resulted in the complete triumph of
   the Peixoto government in the spring. During November [1893]
   the insurgents held their own in the harbor of Rio Janeiro,
   and in the following month occupied a number of islands in the
   bay. On December 1 Admiral Mello, their leader, with two of
   his ships, ran past the government batteries and out to sea,
   leaving in command in the harbor Admiral da Gama, who up to
   that time had remained neutral. The latter shortly after
   issued a manifesto pointing to a restoration of the monarchy
   as the ultimate purpose of the rebels. This seems to have
   tended rather to weaken the insurgent cause, and a month later
   da Gama tried in another proclamation to explain away the
   interpretation that had been put upon the first. The
   government, meanwhile, confined itself to strengthening its
   positions in the city and along the shore so as to make any
   attempt to land unsuccessful. Desultory hostilities continued
   throughout December and January, incidentally to which the
   American commander on one occasion enforced respect for
   merchant vessels bearing his flag by firing on an insurgent
   vessel. On February 12 da Gama made his most elaborate attempt
   to gain a foothold on the main land at Armacao, but was repulsed
   with severe losses.
{3693}
   By this time the insurgent cause was clearly on the decline.
   On the first of March a presidential election was held, which
   resulted in the choice of Prudente Moraes, a civilian. This
   removed the leading grievance of the rebels, that Piexoto was
   perpetuating a regime of pure militarism. On the 11th of March
   the fleet which the government had been fitting out in the United
   States and Europe appeared at the entrance to the harbor of
   Rio, and Peixoto gave notice of an active movement against the
   rebels. Da Gama promptly offered to surrender on certain
   conditions, which being refused, he and his officers sought
   asylum on first a French and later a Portuguese war vessel.
   Thus deserted, the crews of the insurgent vessels surrendered
   without resistance when the government batteries opened fire
   on the 13th. Admiral Mello, meanwhile, had been operating with
   some success in connection with the insurgents on land in the
   southern states of Brazil. In the first part of April,
   however, the government forces totally defeated the rebels in
   Rio Grande do Sul, and Mello, about the middle of the month,
   surrendered himself and his command to the Uruguayan
   authorities, by whom they were disarmed."

      _Political Science Quarterly,
      June, 1894._

BREAKSPEAR, Nicholas.
   Pope Hadrian IV., 1154-1159.

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, Schools of the.

      See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 705).

BRISBANE, Albert, and Fourierism in America.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1832-1847,
      and 1841-1847 (pages 2940 and 2944).

BRITANNIC FEDERATION, Proposed.

      See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (page 1112).

BRITISH MUSEUM LIBRARY, The.

      See LIBRARIES, MODERN: ENGLAND (page 2014).

BROCTON COMMUNITY, The.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROOK FARM.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS; A. D. 1841-1847 (page 2943).

BROTHERHOOD OF THE NEW LIFE, The.

      See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROWN UNIVERSITY.

   "Brown University, the oldest and best endowed institution of
   learning connected with the Baptist denomination, dates back
   for its origin to a period anterior to the American
   Revolution, when in all the thirteen colonies there were less
   than 70 Baptist churches, with perhaps 4,000 communicants. It
   is not surprising that, at the memorable meeting of the
   Philadelphia Association, held on the 12th of October, 1762,
   when the members were finally led to regard it, in the words
   of Backus, as 'practicable and expedient to erect a College in
   the Colony of Rhode Island, under the chief direction of the
   Baptists, in which education might be promoted and superior
   learning obtained, free from any sectarian tests,' the mover
   in the matter should at first have been laughed at, the thing
   being looked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter
   impossibility. But lenders at that time, like Morgan Edwards
   and Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones, Abel Morgan, Benjamin Griffith,
   John Sutton and John Gano, were men of faith. … At the time of
   which I speak, there was graduated from Princeton, with the
   second honors of his class, a man of wonderful mental and
   physical endowments, an early pupil of Isaac Eaton at
   Hopewell, James Manning, of Elizabethtown, New Jersey. To him
   the enterprise of the college was by common consent intrusted.
   … The first commencement of the college, which was held in the
   then new Baptist meeting-house of the town of Warren, on the
   7th of September, 1769, has already been regarded as a Red