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DIEGO COLLADO'S
GRAMMAR OF THE
JAPANESE
LANGUAGE

Edited and Translated
by
Richard L. Spear

INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, EAST ASIAN SERIES
RESEARCH PUBLICATION, NUMBER NINE

CENTER FOR EAST ASIAN STUDIES.
THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS.

DEDICATED
TO
THE MEMORY OF
JOSEPH K. YAMAGIWA

Table of Contents

  PREFACE

  I INTRODUCTION                                                     1
      The Grammatical Framework                                      3
      The Phonological System                                        6
      The Morphological System                                       8
      The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions
  	    Contrasted                                              11
      Bibliography                                                  26
      Editorial Conventions                                         28
  II _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_
  III A GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE                           105
      Prologue to the Reader                                       107
      The noun--Its Declension and its Gender                      111
      Pronouns                                                     118
      First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc.                             118
      Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc.                  119
      Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud.                    120
      Relative Pronouns                                            122
      The Formation of the Verb and its Conjugation                123
      The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect             124
      The Future of the First Conjugation                          125
      The Imperative of the First Conjugation                      125
      The Optative of the First Conjugation                        126
      The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation         127
      The Infinitive                                               129
      The First Negative Conjugation                               131
      The Second Affirmative Conjugation                           134
      The Second Negative Conjugation                              135
      The Third Affirmative Conjugation                            135
      The Third Negative Conjugation                               136
      The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb             137
      The Conditional Particles                                    139
      The Potential Verb                                           140
      The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs                           141
      The Aforementioned Verbs--Their Formation and Diversity      143
      Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor             147
      Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb           148
      The Adverbs: First Section                                   156
      Adverbs of Place                                             156
      Adverbs of Interrogation and Response                        159
      Adverbs of Time                                              159
      Adverbs of Negation                                          160
      Adverbs of Affirmation                                       160
      Comparative Adverbs                                          161
      Superlative Adverbs                                          162
      Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration                        162
      Accumulative Adverbs                                         162
      Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention                    163
      The Case Prepositions                                        164
      Conjugation and Separation                                   166
      Interjections                                                167
      The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs      168
      Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters Concerning Which
  	    Much Painful Labor Is Required                         174
      Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb in the Written
  	    Language                                               182
  IV WORKS CONSULTED                                               185
  V INDEX TO GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES                                187
  VI INDEX TO GRAMMATICAL ELEMENTS                                 189

Preface

The purpose of this translation of Collado's _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae
Linguae_ of 1632 is to make more readily available to the scholarly
community an annotated version of this significant document in the history
of both Japanese language study and grammatical description in general.

Collado's work, derived in all its significant features from the _Arte da
lingoa de Iapam_ completed in 1608 by João Rodriguez, is in a strict,
scholarly sense less valuable than its precursor. However, if used with the
_Arte_ as a simplified restatement of the basic structure of the language,
Collado's Grammar offers to the student of the Japanese language an
invaluable ancillary tool for the study of the colloquial language of the
early 17th Century.

While less extensive and less carefully edited than the _Arte_, Collado's
Grammar has much to recommend it as a document in the history of
grammatical description. It is an orthodox description attempting to fit
simple Japanese sentences into the framework established for Latin by the
great Spanish humanist Antonio Lebrija. Thus, as an application of
pre-Cartecian grammatical theory to the structure of a non-Indo-European
language, the _Ars Grammaticae_ is an important document worthy of careful
examination by those wishing insight into the origins of what three
centuries later was to become the purview of descriptive linguistics.

The present translation was begun with the able assistance of Ms. Roberta
Galli whose contribution to my understanding of the Latin text is most
gratefully acknowledged. For his continued encouragement in this
undertaking I am grateful to Professor Roy Andrew Miller. Thanks are also
due to the Graduate School of the University of Kansas for its support in
the preparation of the manuscript and to Ms. Sue Schumock whose capable
typing turned a scribbled, multi-lingual draft into a legible manuscript.
The imperfections are my own.

R.L.S.

  Lawrence, Kansas
  May, 1975

{1}

Introduction

In 1632, as the Christian Century in Japan was drawing swiftly to a close,
three works pertaining to the Japanese language were being published at
Rome by the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. These works were
by the Spanish Dominican Father, Diego Collado (d. 1638), who had spent the
years from 1619 to 1622 in Japan. Their publication clearly reflects the
vitality of the missionary spirit in that age as well as the important
place reserved for language study in the propagation of the faith.

The first two works, whose manuscripts had been prepared in Madrid the year
before, were a grammar and a dictionary of Japanese. The third, prepared in
1631, while the larger works were being seen through the press, was a guide
to the taking of confession written in both Latin and Japanese.[1] The
grammar, drafted in Spanish, was published in Latin in 1632 under the title
_Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_. It is this work that is translated
here. The dictionary, only at the last moment supplied with Latin glosses
to supplement those in Spanish, was published in the same year with the
title _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_.[2] Taken
together these three works by Collado constitute the final extant efforts
of those who studied the Japanese language first hand during the Christian
Century.[3]

Two other grammatical works must be mentioned here as central to the proper
assessment of Collado's Grammar. They are both by the great Jesuit scholar,
Father João Rodnguez (1561-1634);[4] the _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_
(Nagasaki, 1604-8, hereafter the _Arte_), and the _Arte Breve da Lingoa
Iapoa_ (Macao, 1620, hereafter _Arte Breve_). The first {2} is by any
standards the greatest grammatical study of Japanese made during the
Christian Century. It is further, as we shall see, the primary source for
Collado's Grammar. The _Arte Breve_, on the other hand, is not directly
related to Collado's work. Indeed it is clear that Rodriguez' 1620 Macao
publication was unknown to Collado. Nevertheless, since the _Arte Breve_ is
an abbreviated version of the _Arte_ with a purpose similar to the _Ars
Grammaticae_, a comparison of these two books with respect to the way they
systematize the material from the _Arte_ is included in this introduction
to contribute some insight into the treatment of the Japanese language at
the beginning of the Tokugawa Period.

In presenting this translation two potential audiences are envisioned. The
first, and more restricted, group is that having an interest in the history
of the Japanese language. It is hoped that an English version of this work
will make more readily available this significant material pertaining to
the Japanese language as spoken in the early modern period. I use the word
significant here to avoid granting excessive value to a work which derives
such a large portion of its material and insight from Rodriguez' _Arte_.

The second, and wider group for whom this translation is intended is that
which has a need for an edited edition of an important document in the
history of grammatical description. In this area of scholarship Collado's
work is of more than moderate significance. It was accepted for publication
by the prestigious Propaganda Press; and, even if those more familiar with
Japanese than the editorial board of that Press might have had serious
reservations concerning the linguistic accuracy of the text, it is
reasonable to assume that the Press judged it to be a good example of
grammatical description. It thus represents a grammar of a non-European
language which suited the requirements of the day for publication at
Rome.[5]

{3}

In order to permit this translation of the _Ars Grammaticae_ to be of use
in both these areas of scholarship I have made an effort to reduce to a
minimum those places where a knowledge of either Japanese or Latin is
required for the comprehension of the translation. It is sincerely hoped
that the result is not an effort that is satisfying to neither, and thus to
no one.

Because of the derivative nature of the text, this translation has put
aside a number of important philological problems as better dealt with
within the context of Rodriguez' grammars. This decision has its most
obvious consequences in the section on the arithmetic, where innumerable
data require exposition. However, since a basic purpose of this translation
is within the context of the history of descriptive grammar, these
tantalizing side roads have been left unexplored. It is, nevertheless,
hoped that this translation will serve as a convenient tool for those
wishing to make a more detailed investigation into the philological
questions raised by the text. But I must caution those who would undertake
such an inquiry that they had best begin with a careful study of the works
of Father Rodriguez.

With its limitations acknowledged, the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_
remains a document worthy of our interest, and I offer this translation in
order that Collado's work may more easily find its proper place in the
history of descriptive grammar.

_The Grammatical Framework_

Collado perceived his task to be the presentation of a grammar of Japanese
which would have sufficient scope to equip those dedicated to the
propagation of the faith with a knowledge of the proper spoken language of
his time. While he concludes his grammar with a brief, and rather
presumptuous, statement concerning the written language, his purpose is
clearly to train his students in the fundamentals of colloquial speech. His
sensitivity to this point is demonstrated by his carefully transforming
those examples presented by Rodriguez in the written language in the _Arte_
into correct colloquial expressions in his own grammar.

The description is, of course, prescriptive. But given its age and its
purpose this ought not to be construed in the contemporary, pejorative {4}
sense. Collado, as Rodriguez and indeed all the grammarians of the period,
felt obligated to train their students in those patterns of speech which
were appropriate to the most polite elements of society. Particularly as
they addressed themselves to missionaries, they wished to warn them away
from such illiteracies as might undermine their capacities to propagate the
faith.

The description further reflects the traditional process conceptualization
of language. This is particularly obvious in the treatment of the verb.
Thus:

    _Praesens subiunctiui fit ex praesenti indicatiui mutato_ u _in quo
    finitur in_ eba.... (The present subjunctive is formed from the present
    indicative by changing the _u_ in which it ends to _eba_....) [p. 23].

In general each of the verbal forms is conceived to be the result of a
specified alteration of a basic form. Likewise the nouns are treated within
the framework of the declension of cases.

The treatment of Japanese forms is based upon a semantic framework within
which the formal characteristics of the language are organized. For
example, given the construction _aguru coto aró_ (p. 31) and its gloss
'_Erit hoc quod ist offere: idest offeret_ (It will be that he is to offer,
or he will offer),' it is clear that the _aguru coto_ is classified as an
infinitive because of its semantic equivalence to _offere_. The same is
true of the latter supine. If the form in Latin is closely associated with
such constructions as 'easy to,' or 'difficult to,' the semantically
similar form which appears as the element _iomi_ in _iominicui_ 'difficult
to read,' must be classed as the latter supine. Rodriguez in his _Arte
Breve_ of 1620--unknown to Collado--makes an attempt to classify the
structural units of Japanese along more formal lines; but in Collado's
treatment the semantic, and for him logical and true, classes established
by the formal structure of Latin constitute the theoretical framework
through which the Japanese language is to be described.

Collado makes reference to two specific sources of influence upon his
grammar. The first is included in the title to the first section of the
grammar, Antonius Nebrissensis. It is to this great Spanish humanist, {5}
better known as Antonio Lebrija (1444-1522), that Collado turns for the
model of his description.

An examination of Lebrija's grammar, the _Introductiones Latinae_
(Salamanca, 1481), shows that from the basic outline of his presentation,
to the organization of subsections and the selection of terminology, there
is little departure by Collado from his predecessor.

Even in such stylistic devices as introducing the interrogatives by giving
the form, following it with "to which one responds," and then listing a
number of characteristic answers; Collado is faithful to the
_Introductiones_.

But it is from his Jesuit colleague, Father João Rodriguez, that Collado
receives his most significant influence. There is no section of his grammar
that does not reflect Rodriguez' interpretation of the raw linguistic data
of Japanese. On the basis of the innumerable examples taken from
Rodriguez--most of the substantive sentences are directly quoted from the
_Arte_--as well as the parallel listing of forms and identical descriptions
of certain grammatical phenomena, it is clear that the writing of the _Ars
Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ consisted to no small degree of abridging
the exhaustive material contained in Rodriguez' grammar and arranging it
within the framework of Lebrija's _Introductiones_.

To say that Collado followed Lebrija in the general structure of his
description is not to imply that he fell heir to all of his precursor's
virtues. The Salamanca grammar of 1481 is a masterpiece of orderly
presentation. Printed in _lettera formata_ with carefully indented
subdivisions, it offers the student a clear display of the conjugational
system as well as long columns of Latin examples of a given grammatical
structure, accompanied on the right side of the page with Spanish
equivalents. Collado makes little effort at copying this orderly display.
There are in his presentation no paradigms, but instead only loosely
connected sentences that talk the student through the various forms of the
conjugation; and there is no orderly array of examples. Add to this the
innumerable factual and typographical errors, and one is left with a
presentation that lacks most of the basic scholarly virtues of its
precursor.

A similar criticism may be leveled against the work from the point {6} of
view of Rodriguez' influence. Without matching the _Introductiones_ in
orderliness, the _Arte_ more than compensates for its casual format by
containing a mass of exhaustively collected and scrupulously presented
linguistic data.[6] There was available no better source than the _Arte_
from which Collado might have culled his examples of Japanese.

One doubt that remains in assessing Collado's use of Rodriguez' material is
that perhaps his presentation of the most readily understandable material
in the _Arte_ is not so much an effort on his part to simplify the learning
of Japanese for his students, as it is a reflection of his lack of adequate
familiarity with the language he was teaching.

_The Phonological System_

A study of the phonological data reveals the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae
Linguae_ to be of minimal historical value. Any student of the phonology of
early modern Japanese should turn to the far more reliable work of Father
Rodriguez. Nevertheless, certain aspects of Collado's transcription require
our attention.

The most obvious innovation in the representation of the language is
Collado's transcription with an _i_ of the palatal consonant which all his
contemporaries record with a _y_. Thus in the text we find _iomi_ and
_coie_ (terms for native words and Chinese borrowings) where Rodriguez
writes _yomi_ and _coye_. This change was affected while the text was being
translated from the Spanish manuscript which uses _y_; and Collado himself
must have felt the innovation to be of dubious value since he retained _y_
for the spellings in the _Dictionarium_.[7]

Collado's handling of the nasal sounds is too inconsistent to be a reliable
source for phonological data. Given his rather awkward specification that
nasalization is predictable before what we must assume he means to be the
voiced stops and affricates,[8] his grammar presents an uncomfortably
irregular pattern in the transcription of the phenomena. Thus, on page 39
we find _vo mõdori aró ca?_ as well as {7} _modori aró ca?_. Again, what he
presents as the ending _zũba_ in his description of the formation of the
negative conditional (p. 34) appears in _tovazunba_ in its only occurrence
in a sample sentence (p. 62). To further confound the issue such forms as
_tovazunba_ and _qinpen_ occur in contrast to _sambiacu_, _varambe_, and
_varãbe_.

In Chart 1 the traditional pattern of the _gojūonzu_ (chart of 50 sounds)
is followed as a convenient framework in which to display the
transcriptional system employed by Collado.

                             Chart 1

                 COLLADO'S TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM

                     _The Simple Series_

        /#/ /k/ /g/ /s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ /n/ /φ/ /b/ /p/ /m/ /y/ /r/ /w/

  /a/    a  ca  ga  sa  za  ta  da  na    fa    ba  pa  ma  ia  ra  va
  /i/    i  qi  gui xi  ji  chi gi  ni    fi    bi  pi  mi  -   ri  -
  /u/    u  cu  gu  su  zu  tçu zzu nu    fu    bu  pu  mu  iu  ru  -
  /e/  [ie] qe  gue xe  je  te  de  ne    fe    be  pe  me  ie  re  -
  /o/  [vo] co  go  so  zo  to  do  no    fo    bo  po  mo  io  ro  vo

                      _The Long Series_

  /au/ [vó] có  gó  só  zó  tó  dó  nó    fó    bó (pó) mó  ió  ró  vó
  /uu/   ú  cú (gú)(sú) -  (tçú) -  -     fú   (bú)(pú) -   iú  rú  -
  /ou/ [vô] cô (gô) sô  zô  tô  dô  nô   (fô)  (bô) pô  mô  iô  rô  vô

                 _The Palatal and Labial Series_

       /ky/       /sy/    /ty/      /ny/      /by/      /my/       /kw/
            /gy/      /zy/     /dy/     /φy/   /py/       /ry/     /gw/

  /a/  (qua)(guia) xa  ja  cha  gia (nha) fia  bia  pia (mia) (ria) qua gua
  /u/   qui (guia) xu  ju (chu)(giu)(nhu)(fiu)  -    -  (miu) (riu)  -   -
  /o/   qio  guio  xo (jo) cho  gio (nho)(fio)(bio)  -  (mio) (rio)  -   -
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
  /au/  qió  guió  xó  jó  chó  gió   -  (fió)(bió)  -   mió  (rió) quó guó
  /uu/ (qiú)(guiú)(xú) jú (chú) giú  nhú   -    -    -    -   (riú)  -   -
  /ou/  qiô (guiô) xô  jô  chô  giô  nhô  fiô (biô) piô (miô) (riô)  -   -
             gueô               geô  neô       beô             reô

In this chart the phonemic grid is presented in a broad phonetic {8}
notation while the underlined entries are in the form used by the text.
Dashes indicate sequences which do not occur in the Christian material;
while the forms in parentheses are sequences which do not occur in the text
but have been reconstructed on the basis of the overall system from
sequences attested to elsewhere. The forms _ie_, _vo_, _vó_, and _vô_ have
been placed in brackets to indicate that neither /e/, /o/, /oo/, or /au/
occur in the syllable initial position; and, where in the modern language
they do, the text regularly spells that with an initial _i_ or _v_. The
forms in _eô_ at the foot of the chart represent sequences that are
phonetically identical to the forms above them, but which are transcribed
differently to reflect morphological considerations; e.g., the form _agueô_
from the stem _ague_. The phonetic values of /au/, /uu/, and /ou/ are
[[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], [u:], and [o:].

Two aspects of the usage of _q_ should be noticed. First, as in the _Arte_,
_c_ is changed to _q_ before _o_ and _u_, when the sequence occurs at a
morphological juncture; e.g., _ioqu_ 'well,' and _iqó_ 'I shall go.' (This
rule does not extend to _a_ in such contexts; cf., _iocatta_ 'was good.')
Second, in contrast to the system used by Rodriguez, Collado does not feel
compelled to follow _q_ with _u_ in all contexts. Thus what Rodriguez
spells as _queredomo_ Collado spells as _qeredomo_. Finally, the text
records one usage of the letter _h_ in the exclamation _ha_.

_The Morphological System_

Collado's treatment of the morphology contains one quite obvious difference
from those of his predecessors: he isolates the particles of the language
as separate elements of the structure. While his effort is more or less
carelessly maintained by the type setter, his attempt to establish a
division between the semantemes (_shi_) and the morphemes (_ji_) of
Japanese by establishing formal distance between his _verba_ and
_particula_, reflects his consciousness that the morphological elements in
Japanese are of a different order than those in Latin. At times, such as
when he describes the preterit subjunctive as _agueta raba_, his divisions
fly in the face of derivational history. But he can claim a reasonable
justification for his decision by citing Rodriguez' rule for the formation
of this form; "add _raba_ to the preterit of the verb" (_Arte_, 18v).
Perhaps it is a prejudice founded upon familiarity with {9} contemporary
romanizations, but I cannot help but consider this attempt to give greater
independence to the particles as an improvement in the representation of
the morphological system.

In all other significant facets of the morphology Collado follows the
principles established by Rodriguez with the one exception that in the
over-all systematization of the verbal formation and conjugation he follows
the classifications established in Lebrija's _Introductiones_ rather than
those which Rodriguez inherited from the _Institutiones_ of Alverez. The
most significant difference between the two systems is the use by Lebrija
of the term subjunctive in his description of the moods where Rodriguez
gives independent status to the conjunctive, conditional, concessive, and
potential. As we shall see, after presenting the conjugational system of
the verb within the framework of Lebrija, Collado breaks the expected
sequence of his description of the verb to interject a section on
conditional constructions and another on those of the potential.

In the treatment of the tenses Collado breaks with Rodriguez in not
attempting to establish an imperfect for Japanese, but he does follow him
in the overall classification of the conjugations. Thus:[9]

  1st Conjugation    verbs ending in _e_, _gi_, and     e.g., _ague, uru_
                       _ji_ (_xi_ and _maraxi_)
  2nd Conjugation    verbs ending in _i_                e.g., _iomi, u_
  3rd Conjugation    verbs ending in _ai_, _oi_, and    e.g., _narai, ó_
                       _ui_

To the description of this general system Collado adds the treatment of the
substantive verbs. This section in many respects is the weakest in his
grammar with a portion of his description lost in composing the final text.

Since Collado does not, as Rodriguez, present the conjugations in
paradigmatic form, I have extracted from his presentation the most
representative forms of the verb _ague, uru_ for each of the categories of
the system, and presented them in Chart 2 for reference.

                         CHART 2

                 THE CONJUGATIONAL SYSTEM

                   _Affirmative_         _Negative_

                      INDICATIVE MOOD

  Present           aguru                 aguenu
  Perfect           agueta                aguenanda
  {10}
  Pluperfect        aguete atta           aguenande atta
  Future            agueôzu               aguru mai
  Future perfect    aguete arǒzu          ----

                      IMPERATIVE MOOD

  Present           ague io               aguru na
  Future            agueôzu               aguru mai

                       OPTATIVE MOOD

  Present           avare ague io caxi    avare aguru na caxi
  Preterit          agueôzu mono vo       aguru mai mono vo
  Future            avare ague io caxi    avare aguru na caxi

                     SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

  Present           agureba               agueneba
  Perfect           agueta reba           aguenanda reba
  Pluperfect        aguete atta reba      ----
  Future            agueô toqi            aguru mai qereba

                PERMISSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

  Present           agueredomo            aguenedomo
  Preterit          agueta redomo         aguenanda redomo
  Future            agueôzu redomo        aguru mai qeredomo

                        INFINITIVE

  Present           aguru coto            aguenu coto
  Preterit          agueta coto           aguenanda coto
  Future            agueô coto            aguru mai coto

                      GERUND IN _DI_

  Present           aguru [jibun]         aguenu [jibun]
  Future            agueô [jibun]         aguru mai [jibun]

                      GERUND IN _DO_

  ----              aguete                agueĩde

                      GERUND IN _DUM_

  Present           aguru tame            aguenu tame
  Future            agueô tame            aguru mai tame

                      SUPINE IN _TUM_

  ----              ague ni               ----

                      SUPINE IN _TU_

  ----              ague                  ----

                        PARTICIPLE

  Present           aguru fito            aguenu fito
  Preterit          agueta fito           aguenando fito
  Future            agueô fito            aguru mai fito

  The forms treated separately are:

                       THE CONDITIONAL

  Present           agueba                aguezũba
  Preterit          agueta raba           aguenanda raba
  Future            agueô naraba          aguru mai naraba

                        THE POTENTIAL

  Present           aguru ró              aguenu coto mo arózu
  Preterit          aguetçu ró            aguenanzzu ró
  Future            agueôzu ró            aguru mail coto mo arózu

{11}

_The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions Contrasted_

In every section of his description, Collado is indebted to the material
presented by Rodriguez in his _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_. The structure of
the _Ars Grammaticae_, however, follows a much more simplistic design than
that of the _Arte_. As a consequence Collado found it necessary to assemble
his data from various sections of Rodriguez' description. In the paragraphs
which follow we will briefly sketch the structural relation between these
two grammars.

As he clearly states in his title to the main portion of the grammar
Collado bases his description on the _Introductiones_ of Antonio Lebriya,
and more specifically upon that portion of the great Latin grammar which
dealt with the parts of speech. Further, he limits himself to the spoken
language rather than attempting, as does Rodriguez, an integrated treatment
of both the spoken and written grammars.

Under these influences Collado's grammar takes on the following form:

  A Prologue (including the phonology)               3-5
  The Body of the Grammar (by parts of speech)       6-61
  A Brief Syntax                                    61-66
  A Treatment of the Arithmetic                     66-74
  A Note on the Written Language                    74-75

In contrast Rodriguez' _Arte_, prepared under the influence of Alvarez'
_Institutiones_, develops its description over the span of three books
which treat both the spoken and written grammar in progressively greater
detail. Thus:

  The Introduction                          iii-v

          BOOK I

  The Declensions                             1-2v
  The Conjugations                           2v-54
  The Parts of Speech (_Rudimenta_)          55-80v

          BOOK II

  The Syntax of the Parts of Speech          83-168
  Styles, Pronunciation, Poetics, etc.      168-184

          BOOK III

  The Written Language                     184v-206v
  Names, Titles, etc.                      206v-212v
  The Arithmetic                           212v-239

{12}

Given these differing formats[10] it is clear that Collado is unable to
cope adequately with the more complex aspects of the grammar, specifically
those syntactic constructions to which Rodriguez devotes almost an entire
book.

An analysis of Collado's description and a listing of the portions of
Rodriguez' grammar from which material was taken yields the following:

  _Collado_                        _Rodriguez_

  Phonology (3-5)             {Parts of Speech (55-58)
                              {Book III (173-179v)

  Nouns (6-13)                {Declensions (1-2v)
                              {Parts of Speech (59-61)

  Adjectives (9-11, 32-33)    {Declensions (2-2v)
                              {Conjugations (47-52)
                              {Parts of Speech (61-67)

  Pronouns (13-18)            {Declensions (2v)
                              {Parts of Speech (67-68)

  Verbs (18-49)               {Conjugations (6v-54v)
                              {Parts of Speech (69-73)
                              {Syntax (83v-112v)

  Adverbs (49-57)             {Parts of Speech (73v-77)
                              {Syntax (113-125)

  Prepositions (57-59)        {Parts of Speech (73-73v)
                              {Syntax (140-148v)

  Conjunctions (59-60)        {Parts of Speech (76-76v)
                              {Syntax (130-137)

  Exclamations (60-61)        {Parts of Speech (76-76v)
                              {Syntax (125-130)

  Syntax (61-66)               Book II (83-168)

  Arithmetic (66-75)           Book III (212v-239)

  Written Language (74-75)     Book III (184v-206v)

Two aspects of Japanese were not able to be described with any degree of
satisfaction by Collado; the adjectives (_adjectiva_) and the prepositions
(_praepositio_). His difficulties, attributable to the basic structural
difference between Latin and Japanese, were compounded by the fact that
Rodriguez too was unable to find a satisfactory solution to their
description.

With respect to the adjectives, Collado attempts to deal with their
functions in the manner appropriate to Latin, that is as a sub-class of
{13} nouns (pp. 9-11). He also recognizes their formal similarity to the
verb and treats them briefly as a sub-class of the substantive verb (pp.
32-33), but his heavy reliance upon the semantic categories of Latin does
not permit him to follow Rodriguez who is able more clearly to recognize
their formal as well as their functional distinctiveness.

Concerning prepositions, Collado was confronted with an all but
insurmountable taxonomic problem. Here too Rodriguez was unable to develop
a completely satisfactory descriptive framework. In the _Arte_ the term
_posposição_ is used for those particles which function in a manner similar
to the Latin prepositions; e.g., _tameni_, _taixite_, and _tomoni_ (cf.
73-73v and 140-148v); the term _artigo_ is used for those particles having
the functions of the inflectional endings of Latin; e.g., _ga_, _ye_, and
_ni_ (cf. 1-2, 78, and 137-140); and the general term _particula_ is used
to cover the broad spectrum of particles that include adverbs,
conjunctions, and exclamations, as well as those otherwise unaccounted for
elements which end phrases, clauses, and sentences; e.g., _no_, _nite_, and
_yo_ (cf. 77-78 and 144-154v).

Collado, rather than attempting to refine the system suggested by
Rodriguez, follows the _Arte_ in listing as _praepositio_ those elements
which translate the Latin prepositions (pp. 57-59) but uses the term
_particula_ to cover all the other particles of the language.

This tendency of Collado's to retreat from the challenging problems left
unresolved by Rodriguez constitutes the greatest weakness of his
description. Given concise grammatical descriptions on the one hand and
over-simplified versions of previous works on the other, the _Ars
Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ unfortunately falls among the latter.

In his shorter work, the _Arte Breve_ of 1620, Rodriguez retains the same
general format, but makes every effort to reduce the description to its
barest essentials. Thus:

                      BOOK I

  A General Note on the Language                   1-2
  An Essay on How to Learn the Language           2v-6
  The Orthography                                  6-8
  Composition of the Syllables                    8v-9v
  The Way to Write and Pronounce the Letters      10-12v
  The Declension of Nouns                         13-18
  The Conjugation and Formation of Verbs          18-52
  {14}

                      BOOK II

  The Rudimenta                                   52-59v
  The Syntax                                      59v-66v

                      BOOK III

  The Written Language                            67-75
  The Various Kinds of Names                     75v-98v

Of particular interest in the context of Collado's grammar is the manner in
which Rodriguez displays the verbal system. While the _Ars Grammaticae_
presents the verbal system as a series of alterational rules to be applied
to the base forms, the _Arte Breve_ goes even further than the _Arte_ to
differentiate the formational rules from the conjugational displays.
Rodriguez tries several devices to elucidate his material. For example,
Charts A and B below represent very early attempts to use a bordered format
for linguistic description.

In order to indicate the differences to be found between the descriptions
presented by Rodriguez and Collado, I have extracted the formational rules
from the _Arte Breve_ and, setting aside only two short appendices dealing
with variant forms, present them here in their entirety.

_THE CONJUGATION AND FORMATION OF THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERBS_

_All the verbs of this language may be reduced _(se reduzem)_ to four
affirmative and three negative conjugations. This is because the negative
conjugation of the adjectival verb, which we discussed before,[11] agrees
with the second of the three conjugations; and the conjugation of the
substantive verb _Sǒrai_, _Sǒrǒ_, or _soro_, which is an abbreviated form
of _Samburai_, _samburǒ_[12] both in the affirmative and the negative is
reduced to the third conjugation. At this point we will treat the three
affirmative and three negative ordinary conjugations of the regular
personal verbs.[13] Following this, and on account of its particular usage
and formation, we will discuss the conjugation of the adjectival verb._

_The verbs of this language do not change _(naõ fẽ variedade)_ to show
person and number as do those of Latin; rather, one form _(voz)_ {15} is
used for all persons, singular and plural. Number and person are understood
according to the subject _(Naminativo [_sic_])_, or pronoun, which is
joined to the verb. The moods of the verb, which in this language have
distinct forms for the tenses, are indicative, imperative, conjunctive,
conditional, and preterit participle. The remaining moods are made up of
these forms joined to certain particles. Each mood has but three tenses
which have distinct forms; these are preterit, present, and future. These
forms are signified by the Japanese terms _(vocabulos)_ _Quaco_, _ghenzai_,
_mirai_. The preterit imperfect and pluperfect are made up of the present,
preterit, and preterit participle together with the substantive verb, as
will be seen below in the conjugations._

_Concerning the formation of the tenses and moods of the verbs in general,
one is reminded that to understand the actual root _(raiz)_ and the natural
formation of all the tenses and moods, both affirmative and negative, it is
extremely important to take notice of the usage of the _Goyn_,[14] which
are the five vowels _(cinco letras vogaes)_ in the syllables which are
below each aforementioned formation; and that it is also important to
understand _Canadzucai_,[15] which is the way to write with _Firagana_ as
well as the way one joins together syllables, or letters, to form other
words _(palauras)_, while noticing which syllable is changed by which, what
constitutes long, short, or diphthongal syllables, which combinations cause
contraction _(sincope)_, which cause augmentation _(incremento)_ of the
verb, whether one makes a syllable liquid _(liquescit)_[16] or not, and how
the tenses of the moods are written with the same _Cana_.[17] The term
_Goyn_, not only indicates the syllables, or _Cana_, which are transformed
to others, such as _Fa_, _Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_, which are changed to the
closely related sounds _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_ and _Pa_, _Pe_, _Pi_,
_Po_, _Pu_; but it also indicates another kind of change from one sound to
another in the same order _(ordem)_, as happens among the syllables _Fa_,
_Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_. _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_. _Ma_, _Me_, _Mi_,
_Mo_, _Mu_, {16} etc. where often by rule _(regna)_ _Ma_ is changed to
_Mi_; or to the contrary _Bu_ to _Ba_ and _Bi_ to _Ba_, and likewise for
others. The greater part of the formation of the tenses of each mood is
confined to such changes, as is clearly seen in the way one writes the
tense forms with _Cana_. It is to this that another change belongs. That
which exists among those syllables having a certain relationship and
rapport between them, as _Ma_, _Fa_, _Ba_, _Pa_; _Me_, _Fe_, _Be_, _Pe_;
_Mi_, _Fi_, _Bi_, _Pi_; _Mo_, _Fo_, _Bo_, _Po_; _Mu_, _Fu_, _Bu_, _Pu_;
with _Mu_ and _V_. Thus, what is written _Vma_ in _Cana_ is written _Muma_,
and _Mume_ written for _Vme_ in order to conform more closely to its
pronunciation.[18] Also _Mu_ is written for _Bu_[19] so that all the
harmony _(armonia)_ in the formations of this language are contained in the
rules for _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_. Those who are informed see, as native
speakers, how the tenses are formed for any mood, and which letter, or
syllable, must be changed to another to affect a formation. Concerning this
matter there is a booklet[20] which teaches _Canadzucai_, and the general
rules on the subject. Teachers should have this booklet to teach more
easily and advantageously those students who are learning _Cana_. Lacking a
knowledge of _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_, some of the rules which until now
have been used in the formation of verbs (some of which I have let remain
as they were), are not the original and natural rules as are the
_Goyn_.[21] They are rather devices, some forming affirmative tenses and
moods from negative forms and others forming them from yet other more
remote sources, which appear to correspond to formational rules, but for
which the proper rules are not known. The fact is that the affirmative as
well as negative are formed from the affirmative, beginning with the root,
as will be seen below._

_Speaking in general of the formation of the verb, the forms of the
indicative and imperative moods of all three conjugations are formed from
the root of the verb. The rest of the tenses in the other affirmative moods
are formed from either the indicative or imperative forms. In the same way,
the negative indicative present is formed from the root of the verb and the
other tenses of the indicative are formed from {17} the present form. The
other negative moods are formed from the indicative forms._

FORMATION OF THE TENSES FOR THE INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOODS OF THE
VERBS OF THE FIRST AFFIRMATIVE CONJUGATION

_The final syllables of the roots of the first affirmative conjugation, by
which the verbs conjugated here are known, and from which the tenses of the
indicative will be formed, end in _E_, with the exception of the verb "to
do," _Xi_, or _Ii_, with its compounds and certain other verbs which end in
_I_. The verbs which belong to the first conjugation, are as follows [in
Charts A & B]._

_The verb _Xi_ "to do," with its compounds ending in _Xi_ or _Ii_, follows
the formation of the verbs of the first conjugation. _Ii_ is _Xi_ which has
been changed _(alterado)_ to _Ii_ because it follows the letter _N_. _Xi_
conforms to the rules for the syllables which are changed _(se mudam)_ to
others. Thus:_

  Xi         _In the present change _Xi_ to    Suru, xita, xeô, ôzu, ôzuru,
             _Suru_. In the preterit add         xeyo, xenu, _or_ zu.
  Faixi      _Ta_ to the root. In the future   Faisuru, faixita, faixeô,
             change _Xi_ to _Xeô_. In the        faixeyo, faixenu.
  Tayxi[22]  imperative change _Xi_ to _Xe_    Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeò,
             and add _Yo_, _i_, or _sai_. In     taxxeyo, taxxenu.
  Gaxxi      the negative add _Nu_, or _zu_    Gassuru, gaxxita, gaxxeô,
             to _Xe_._                           gaxxeyo, gaxxenu.

  Zonji      _In the present _Ii_ is changed   Zonzuru, zonjita, zonjeô,
             to _Zuru_. In the preterit _Ta_     ôzu, ôzuru, zonjeyo,
             is added to the root. In the        zonjenu.
  Caronji    future _Ii_ is changed to _Ieô_,  Caronzuru, caronjita,
             etc._                               _etc._

  Vomonji                                   Vomonzuru, vomonjita.
  Sanji                                     Sanzuru, sanjita.
  Goranji                                   Goranzuru, goranjita.
  Soranji                                   Soranzuru, soranjita.
  Ganji                                     Canzuru, canjita.
  Manji                                     Manzuru, manjita.

_Many of these verbs have another, less used, form made by adding _Ru_ to
the root; e.g., _Abi, abiru_; _Mochiy, mochiyru_; _xiy, xiyru_. Among these
are some that have only this second form and lack the first; e.g., _Mi,
miru_; _Ni, niru_; _Fi, firu_; _Cagammi, cagammiru_; _Ki, kiru_ "to dress,"
as distinct from _Ki, kuru_ "to come"; and _y, yru_._

{18}

                            CHART A

      [The Formation of First Conjugation Verbs Ending in _E_]

  ------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+------------
  _Syllables_ |_Roots_  |_Formation_      |_Present_  |_Preterit_
  ============+=========+=================+===========+============
              |Tate,    |_In the present  |Tatçuru.   |Tateta.
              |         |change _Te_ to   |           |
    Te,       |         |_Tçuru._ The     |           |
              |Fate,    |remainder are    |Fatçuru.   |Fateta.
              |         |from the root.   |           |
              |         |See above._      |           |
              |         |                 |           |
    Ie,       |Maje,    |_Change _Ie_ to  |Mazuru.    |Majeta.
              |         |_Zuru_ in the    |           |
              |         |present. The     |           |
              |         |remainder are    |           |
              |         |from the root.   |           |
              |         |See above._      |           |
              |         |                 |           |
              |Saxe,    |_In the present  |Sasuru.    |Saxeta.
    Xe,       |         |change _Xe_ to   |           |
              |         |Suru. The        |           |
              |Mairaxe, |remainder are    |Mairasuru. |Mairaxeta.
              |         |from the root.   |           |
              |         |See above._      |           |
  ============+=========+=================+===========+============

  ------------+---------+------------+-------------+-----------
  _Syllables_ |_Roots_  |_Future_    |_Imperative_ |_Negative_
  ============+=========+============+=============+===========
              |Tate,    |Tateô, ôzu, |Tateyo.      |Tatenu,
              |         |ôzuru.      |Tatei,       |_or_, zu.
    Te,       |         |            |tatesay.[23] |
              |Fate,    |Fateô, ôzu  |Fateyo,      |Fatenu,
              |         |ôzuru.      |_etc._       |_or_, zu.
              |         |            |             |
              |         |            |             |
    Ie,       |Maje,    |Majeô.      |Majeyo,      |Majenu,
              |         |            |_etc._       |_or_, zu.
              |         |            |             |
              |Saxe,    |Saxeô.      |Saxeyo.      |Saxenu,
    Xe,       |         |            |             |_or_, zu.
              |         |            |             |
              |Mairaxe, |Mairaxeô.   |Mairaxeyo,   |Mairaxenu,
              |         |            |_etc._       |_or_, zu.
              |         |            |             |
  ============+=========+============+=============+===========

{19}

                            CHART B

  ------------+---------+-----------------+------------+-----------
  _Syllables_ |_Roots_  |_Formation_      |_Present_   |_Preterit_
  ============+=========+=================+============+===========
    Be,       |Curabe,  |_In the present  |Curaburu.   |Curabeta.
              |         |tense of these   |            |
              |         |eight forms,     |            |
    Fe,       |Fe,      |change _E_ to    |Furu, _or_, |Feta.
              |         |Vru. _In the     |feru.       |
              |         |preterit add     |            |
    Ghe,      |Aghe,    |_Ta_ to the root.|Aghuru.     |Agheta.
              |         |In the future    |            |
              |         |_ô, ôzu, ôzuru_  |            |
    Ke,       |Tokoke,  |to the root.     |Todokuru.   |Todoketa.
              |         |In the Negative  |            |
    Me,       |Motome,  |present add      |Motomuru.   |Motometa.
              |         |_Nu_, or _zu_    |            |
    Ne,       |Fane,    |to the root._    |Fanuru.     |Faneta.
    Re,       |Fanare,  |                 |Fanaruru.   |Fanareta.
    Ye,       |Ataye,   |                 |Atayuru.    |Atayeta.
              +---------+-----------------+------------+-----------
              |De,      |_In the present  |Dzuru.      |Deta.
              |         |change _De_ to   |            |
              |Ide,     |_Dzuru_. The     |Idzuru.     |Ideta.
  [De,]       |         |other tenses     |            |
              |Mǒde,    |are formed, as   |Mǒdzuru.    |Mǒdeta.
              |         |above, from      |            |
              |Mede,    |the root._       |Medzuru.    |Medeta.
              |         |                 |            |
  ============+=========+=================+============+===========

  ------------+---------+------------+----------------+-----------
  _Syllables_ |_Roots_  |_Future_    |_Imperative_    |_Negative_
  ============+=========+============+================+===========
    Be,       |Curabe,  |Curabeô,    |Curabeyo,       |Curabenu,
              |         |ôzu, ôzuru. |ei, sai.        |_or_, Curabezu.
              |         |            |                |
    Fe,       |Fe,      |Feô, ôzu,   |Feyo, fei,      |fenu,
              |         |ôzuru.      |fesai.          |fezu.
              |         |            |                |
    Ghe,      |Aghe,    |Agheô,      |Agheyo,         |Aghenu,
              |         |_etc._      |_etc._          |_etc._
              |         |            |                |
    Ke,       |Tokoke,  |Todokeô.    |Todokeyo,       |Todokenu,
              |         |            |_etc._          |_etc._
    Me,       |Motome,  |Motoneô.    |Motomeyo,       |Motomenu,
              |         |            |_etc._          |_etc._
    Ne,       |Fane,    |Faneô.      |Faneyo.         |Fanenu.
    Re,       |Fanare,  |Fanareô.    |Fanareyo.       |Fanarenu.
    Ye,       |Ataye,   |Atayeô.     |Atayeyo.        |Atayenu.
              +---------+------------+----------------+-----------
              |De,      |Deô, ôzu,   |Deyo,           |Denu.
              |         |_etc._      |_etc._          |
              |Ide,     |Ideô, ôzu.  |Ideyo.          |Idenu.
  [De,]       |         |            |                |
              |Mǒde,    |_This verb is defective and lacks
              |         |other forms._
              |Mede,    |_This verb is defective and has no
              |         |other forms_.
  ============+=========+============+================+===========

{20}

FORMATION OF THE OPTATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND CONDITIONAL MOODS, AND THE
PARTICIPLE

_The optative mood does not have forms of its own but compensates for this
in part by adding to the imperative certain particles which indicate
desire, in part by adding to the future indicative particles which show
regret for not doing something, and in part by circumlocutions with the
conditional mood and certain particles, as will be seen in the
conjugations._

_The conjunctive mood has two sorts of proper forms. The first is the
common and ordinary form ending in _Eba_, corresponding to the Latin _cum_.
The other ends in _Domo_, corresponding to the particle "although _(posto
que)_." The other verbs of this mood do not have their own forms, but are
expressed by circumlocutions as we shall see.[24]_

_The present tense of the first conjunctive is formed from the present
indicative by changing the final _Ru_ to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomureba_. For
the preterit _Reba_ is added to the preterit indicative; e.g.,
_Motometareba_. For the future the final _Ru_ of the third form of the
future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomeôzureba_. For a second
form of the future the syllable _Rǒ_ is added to the indicative preterit
perfect; e.g., _Motometarǒ_. This particle is _Ran_ in the written
language; e.g., _Motometaran_.[25] An utterance _(oraçam)_ does not end in
this form, but must be followed by a noun.[26]_

_The present tense of the second conjunctive is formed by changing the
final _Ru_ of the present indicative to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomuredomo_. For
the preterit _Redomo_ is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g.,
_Motometaredomo_. Strictly speaking this form is _Motomete aredomo_, losing
the _E_ of the participle. Furthermore, _Motometa_, together with the other
preterit forms in _Ta_ is from _Motometearu_ which is first elided to
_Motometaru_ and then by common usage _(pratica)_ to _Motometa_. All of
which is seen in its _Canadzucai_. For the future, the final _Ru_ of the
future indicative is changed to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomeôzuredomo_._

_The conditional mood, for the present tense, is formed by adding the
syllable _Ba_ to the root of the verb and _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ to the
{21} present tense form; e.g., _Motomeba_, _motomuru naraba_, and
_motomuruni voiteua_. For the preterit, _Raba_, _Naraba_, or _Ni voiteua_
are added to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Motometaraba_, which is in
reality _Motomete araba_, _motometa naraba_, and _motometani voiteua_. For
the future _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ are added to the future forms; e.g.,
_Motomeô naraba_ and _motomeôni voiteua_. The present tense forms are also
used for the future._

VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION THAT END IN I

_There are some irregular verbs ending in _I_ which follow the formational
rules of the first conjugation, both affirmative and negative. There are a
precise number of them. Those which have been found to date are shown
below. They are formed for the present indicative by changing _I_ to _Uru_,
for the preterit by adding _Ta_ to the root of the verb, and for the future
by adding long _û_, _ûzu_, or _ûzuru_ to the same root. For the present
conditional _Ba_ is added to the root, for the preterit _Raba_ is added to
the preterit indicative, and for the future _Naraba_ is added to the future
indicative. For the present conjunctive the _Ru_ of the present indicative
is changed to _Reba_, for the preterit _Reba_ is added to the same preterit
indicative, and for the future the final _Ru_ of the future is changed to
_Reba_. All the other forms are formed as has been stated for the formation
of the first conjugation. Thus:[27]_

        { Abi, aburu, abita, abiû, ûzu, ûzuru, abiyo, _or_ sai, abiba,
        {     taraba.
        { Cabi, caburu, cabita, cabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba,
        {     bitaraba.
  Abi   { Carabi, caraburu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, taraba.
        { Sabi, saburu, sabita, sabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, sabiyo, bisai, biba,
        {     taraba.
        { Vabi, vaburu, vabita, vabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, yo, sai, biba,
        {     bitaraaba.

        { Nobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
        { Corobi, buru, bita, biû, biûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba,
        {     bitaraba.
  Obi   { Forobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
        { Fitobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
        { Fokorobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

  Ubi   { Furubi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

{22}

  Vochi,   { Chi _to_   } Votçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba.
  Cuchi,   { Tçuru      } Cutçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba.

  Fagi,    { _Change_   } Fadzuru, fagita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.
  Vogi,    { Gi _to_    } Vodzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.
  Negi,    { Dzu        } Nedzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.

  Mochiy,  } _the_      { Mochiyuru, mochiyta, chiyû, yûzu, ûzuru, iyo,
           } _final_    { yba, yttaraba.
  Xiy,     } Y          { Xiyuru, xiyta, yû iyo, yba ytaraba.
  Mimixiy, } _to_       { Mimixiyta, mimixiyte, _Defective_.
  Mexiy,   } Yuru       { Mexiytaru, mexiyte, _Defective_.

  Y, yru, yta, yû, ûzu, ûzuru, yyo, yba, yreba. _To be_
  Ki, kiru, kita kiû, kiyo, _&c._ _To wear_
  Ki, kuru, kita, kô, kôzu, kôzuru, koyo _or_ koi. _To Come_
  Coru, coruru, corita, coriû, _&c._
  Furi, fururu, furita, furiû, _&c._
  Iki, ikuru, ikita, ikiû, _&c._
  Ideki, idekuru, idekita, idekiû, _&c._
  Deki, dekuru, dekita, dekiû, _&c._
  Voki, vokuru, vokita, vokiû, _&c._
  Tçuki, tçukuru, tçukita, tçukiû, _&c._
  Vori, voruru, vorita, voriû, _&c._
  Vrami, vramuru, vramita, vramiû, _&c._
  Cagammi, cagammiru, cagammita, cagammiû, _&c._
  Mi, miru, mita, miû, _&c._
  Ni, niru, nita, niû, _&c._
  Sughi, sughuru, sughita, sughiû, _&c._

FORMATION OF THE VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION

_All the roots of second conjugation verbs end in_ I. _There are eight
final syllables for these verbs; i.e._, Bi, Chi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, Ni, Ri, Xi.
_It is by these syllables that the verbs of the second conjugation (except
for those mentioned above as being in the first conjugation) are
recognized, and from which the tenses are formed._

_The roots ending in the syllables_ Bi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, _and_ Ri _change the_
I _to_ V _for the present tense; e.g._, Tobi, tobu; Coghi, coghu; Caki,
caku; Yomi, yomu; Kiri, kiru.

_Those ending in_ Chi _change to_ Tçu _for the present; e.g._, Mochi,
motçu; Cachi, catçu; Tachi, tatçu.

_Those ending in_ Ni _change to_ Nuru _for the present; e.g._, Xini,
xinuru; Yni, ynuru.[28]

{23}

_Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Su_ for the present; e.g., _Fanaxi,
fanasu_; _Cudaxi, cudasu_; _Taraxi, tarasu_._

_For the preterit those ending _Obi_ and _Omi_ change to _ôda_; e.g.,
_Yomi, yôda_; _Tobi, tôda_; _Yobi, yôda_; _Yorocobi, yorocôda_. _Tomi_
becomes _tonda_._

_Those ending in _Abi_ and _Ami_ change to _ǒda_; e.g., _Yerabi, yerǒda_;
_Vogami, vogǒda_; _Yami, yǒda_._

_Those ending in _Imi_ change to _ûda_; e.g., _Najimi, najǔda_; _Nijimi,
nijǔda_; _Ximi, xûda_.[29]_

_Those ending in _Umi_ and _Ubi_ change their endings to _Vnda_ or in some
instances _ûda_. While some have two forms others have only one form which
is seen in use, the more general is _Vnda_; e.g., _Musubi, musunda_;
_Susumi, susunda_ or _susûda_; _Nusumi, nusunda_ or _nusûda_; _Sumi, sunda_
or _sûda_; _Cumi, cunda_ only._

_Those ending in _Ebi_ and _Emi_ change to _Eôda_; e.g., _Sakebi, sakeôda_;
_Sonemi, soneôda_._

_Those ending in _Ghi_ change to _Ida_; e.g., _Auoghi, auoida_; _Voyoghi,
voyoida_; _Coghi, coida_._

_Those ending in _Ni_ change to _Inda_; e.g., _Xini, xinda_; _Yni, ynda_._

_Those ending in _Chi_ and _Ri_ change to _Tta_; e.g., _Machi, matta_;
_Cachi, catta_; _Tachi, tatta_; _Kiri, kitta_; _Chiri, chitta_; _Cari,
catta_._

_Those ending in _Ki_ and _Xi_ change to _Ita_; e.g., _Caki, caita_; _Faki,
faita_; _Nuki, nuita_; _Todoki, todoita_; _Sosoki, sosoita_; _Saxi, saita_;
_Fataxi, fataita_; _Maxi, maita_ or _maxita_; _Coxi, coita_ or _ oxita_.
The following add _Ta_ to the root; e.g., _Moxi, moxita_; _Muxi, muxita_;
_Fuxi, fuxita_; _Mexi, mexita_._

_The future can be formed in two ways. The first and more common way is to
change _I_ to _ǒ_, _ǒzu_, or _ǒzuru_; e.g., _Yomi, yomǒ, yomǒzu, yomǒzuru_;
_Yerabi, yerabǒ_, etc.; _Kiri, kirǒ_; _Xini, xinǒ_; _Auoghi, auogǒ_.[30]
Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Tǒ_; e.g., _Cachi, catǒ_, etc.; _machi,
matǒ_. Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Sǒ_; e.g., _Mǒxi, mǒsǒ_; _Nagaxi,
nagasǒ_; _Mexi, mesǒ_; _Coxi, cosǒ_, etc. The other way, which is easy too,
is to change the final _V_ of the present indicative to _ǒ_; e.g., _Yomu,
yomǒ_; _Kiku, kikǒ_; _Mǒsu, mǒsǒ_; _Mesu, mesǒ_. Those ending in {24} _çu_
change to _Tǒ_; e.g., _Tatçu, tatǒ_; _Catçu, catǒ_. Those ending in _Nuru_
change to _Nǒ_; e.g., _Xinuru, xinǒ_; _Ynuru, ynǒ_. This second rule seems
to be more naturally in accord with the rules for the Japanese language._

_The imperative changes the final _I_ of the root to _E_. Those ending in
_Chi_ change to _Te_; e.g., _Yome_; _Kike_; _Tamochi, tamote_; _Vchi, ute_;
_Machi, mate_._

_The present conjunctive is formed by adding _Ba_ to the imperative; e.g.,
_Yomeba_; _Tateba_.[31] For the preterit, _Reba_ is added to the preterit
indicative; e.g., _Yôdarebe_.[32] For the future the final _Ru_ of the
future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Yomǒzureba_. The conjunctive
in _Domo_ is formed in the same manner; e.g., _Yomedomo, yôdaredomo,
yomǒzuredomo_._

_The conditional is formed from the future indicative by changing the _ǒ_
to _Aba_; e.g., _Yomaba_; _Tataba_.[33] The preterit is formed by adding
_Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Yôdaraba_; _Tattaraba_.[34]_

_The preterit participle is formed from the preterit by changing the _A_ to
_E_; e.g., _Yôde_; _Kite_; _Tatte_. The present participle, in _Te_, is
formed by adding _Te_ ['hand'] to the root of any verb. This is properly a
substantive and thus governs the genitive as do the other substantives. It
does not indicate tense; e.g., _Yomite_; _Cakite_; _Machite_, etc._

_The negative present can be formed in two ways. The first, and that which
accords with the rules for _Canadzucai_, is formed by changing _I_ of the
root to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g., _Corobi, corobanu, corobazu_; _Yomi, yomanu_,
etc.; _Coghi, coghanu_; _Caki, cacanu_;[35] _Kiri, kiranu_; _ini, inanu_.
Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Tanu_; e.g., _Tachi, tatanu_. Those ending
in _Xi_ change to _Sanu_; e.g., _Fanasanu_. Another formation common to all
is made with the future indicative by changing _ǒ_ to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g.,
_Corobǒ, corobanu, corobazu_; _Yomǒ, yomanu_, etc.; _Coghǒ, coghanu_;
_Cakǒ, cakanu_; _Kirǒ, kiranu_; _Inǒ, inanu_; _Tatǒ, tatanu_; _Matǒ,
matanu_; _Fanasǒ, fanasanu_. This rule is common to all three conjugations
by changing the affirmative future indicative _ǒ_ to _Anu_ and the _ô_ {25}
and _û_ to _Nu_ or _Zu_;[36] e.g., _Todomeô, todomenu, todomezu_; _Saxeô,
saxenu_, etc.; _Tateô, tatenu_; _Miû, minu_; _Yomǒ, yomanu_; _Tatǒ,
tatanu_; _Fanasǒ, fanasanu_; _Narauǒ, narananu_; _Vomouǒ, vomouanu_;
_Furuuo, furuuanu_. For the second conjugation preterit, those in _Nu_ are
changed to _Nanda_: e.g., _Yomananda_. For the preterit participle _Da_ is
changed to _De_; e.g., _Yomanande_. For the second form of the negative
participle, the _Nu_ is changed to _Ide_; e.g., _Yomaide, Corobaide_,
_Tataide_, _Totonouaide_. For the future the particle _majij_[37] or _mai_
is added to the affirmative present indicative; e.g., _Yomumajij, yomumai_;
_Matçumajij, matçumai_._

FORMATION OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION AND THE ROOTS FROM WHICH THE TENSES ARE
FORMED

_The final syllables of the third conjugation are the diphthongs _Ai_,
_Oi_, _Vi_. By these syllables the verbs are known to belong to this
conjugation, and from them the tenses are formed. The present indicative is
formed by changing _Ai_ to _ǒ_, _Oi_ to _ô_, and _Vi_ to _û_; e.g., _Narai,
narǒ_; _Vomoi, vomô_; _furui, furû_. The preterit is formed by adding the
syllable _Ta_ to the present; e.g., _Narǒta_, _Vomôta_, _Furûta_. The
future is formed by changing the final _I_ of the root to _Vǒ, vǒzu,
vǒzuru_; e.g., _Narauǒ, narauǒzu_, etc.; _Vomouǒ, vomouǒzu_, etc.; _Furuuǒ,
furuuǒzu_, etc. The present imperative is formed by changing the final _I_
to _Ye_; e.g., _Naraye_, _Vomoye_, _Furuye_._

_For the present conjunctive _Ba_ or _Domo_ is added to the imperative;
e.g., _Narayeba, narayedomo_; _Vomoyeba, vomoyedomo_; _Furuyeba,
furuyedomo_. For the preterit _Reba_ or _Redamo_[38] is added to the
indicative preterit; e.g., _Narǒtareba, narǒtaredomo_; _Vomôtareba,
vomôtaredomo_; _Furûtareba, furûtaredomo_._

_The present conditional is formed by changing _ǒ_ of the future to _Aba_;
e.g., _Narauaba_, _Vomouaba_, _Furuuaba_. The preterit is formed by adding
_Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Narǒtaraba_, _Vomôtaraba_,
_Furûtaraba_._

{26}

_The negative present is formed by changing the _I_ of the root to _Vanu_
or _vazu_; e.g., _Narai, narauanu, narauazu_; _Vomoi, vomouanu_, etc.;
_Furui, Furuuana_, etc. This form can also be formed from the future by
changing the _ǒ_ to _Anu_ or _azu_; e.g., _Narauǒ, narananu_, etc. For the
preterit the _Nu_ is changed to _Nanda_; e.g., _Narauananda_. For the
preterit participle the _Da_ is changed to _De_; e.g., _Narauanande_. For
the second form the _Nu_ of the present is changed to _Ide_; e.g.,
_Narauaide_, _Vomouaide_, _Furuuaide_. For the future the particle
_Majii_,[39] _maji_, or _mai_ is added to the affirmative present
indicative; _e.g._, _Narǒmajii, narǒmaji, narǒmai_; _Vomômajii, ji_, or
_mai_; _Furûmajii, ji_, or _mai_._

_The verb _Yy_ 'to speak' becomes _Yû, yûta, yuǒ, yye, yuanu_. _Yei_ or
_yoi_ 'to become sick' becomes _Yô, yôta, youǒ, yoye, yonanu_. The
substantive verb _Saburai_, which also belongs to this conjugation, becomes
_Saburǒ, saburauanu_; and _Sǒrai_ becomes _Sǒrǒ, soro, sǒraite, sǒraye,
sorouanu_._

Rodriguez follows these formational rules with a full display of all the
forms of the three conjugations. In his display he, like Alvarez before
him, recapitulates the appropriate rules for each form. Collado nowhere
presents his conjugational system as a paradigm but does, as we shall see,
include a full complement of example sentences in his description,
something which Rodriguez does not do in the _Arte Breve_.

_Bibliography_

In the examination of any portion of the Christian materials certain works
are indispensable. Father Johannes Laures, S.J., _Kirishitan Bunko_ (Tokyo,
1957) remains the basic bibliographic source for the study of all sources
of the Christian Century, while Hashimoto Shinkichi, _Kirishitan kyōgi no
kenkyū_ (Tokyo, 1929) and Doi Tadao, _Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū_ (Tokyo,
1942) serve as indespensible guides to our understanding of the linguistic
aspects of the field. A later contribution to the general bibliography has
been made by Fukushima Kunimichi, _Kirishitan shiryō to kokugo kenkyū_
(Tokyo, 1973).

The basic grammatical study of the period, based upon the _shōmono_
materials, is Yuzawa Kōkichirō, _Muromachi jidai gengo no kenkyū_ {27}
(Tokyo, 1958). More closely related to the language reflected in the text
is his "Amakusabon Heike monogatari no gohō," in _Kyōiku ronbunshū_ (no.
539, Jan. 1929). An English treatment of the grammatical system of the
period is to be found in R. L. Spear, "A Grammatical Study of _Esopo no
Fabulas_," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Michigan, 1966). The phonology
has been carefully analyzed by Ōtomo Shin'ichi, _Muromachi jidai no kokugo
onsei no kenkyū_ (Tokyo, 1963), with a valuable contribution made in
English by J. F. Moran, "A Commentary on the _Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapao_
of João Rodriguez, S.J., with Particular Reference to Pronunciation," an
unpublished doctoral thesis (Oxford, 1971). This latter work presents an
exhaustive examination of the phonological system reflected in the _Arte
Breve_ of 1620 within the framework of Berhard Bloch's phonemic theory.

Two lexical works have been used as basic references in this translation.
The _Vocabulario de Lingoa de Iapam_ (hereafter the _Vocabulario_) produced
by the Jesuit Mission Press at Nagasaki in the years 1603 and 04. In a
carefully annotated version by Professor Doi, under the title _Nippo jisho_
(Tokyo, 1960), this work is the most important single source for the
vocabulary of the period. The second work is the _Dictionarium sive
Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_ (hereafter the _Dictionarium_) which
is the companion piece to the present text. This dictionary has been
carefully edited and cross-referenced by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu, under the title
_Koriyaado Ra Su Nichi jiten_ (Tokyo, 1966). In this form it has served as
a constant aid to the translator in the determination of the proper glosses
for the lexical items in the text.

The aforementioned _Arte_ of 1604-08 by Rodriguez, has been the single most
frequently used tool in the preparation of this translation.[40] As the
most significant influence upon Collado's work and the source for most of
his material, both theoretical and practical, I have related the two works
at every point in the translation. In its Japanese version by Professor
Doi, _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ (Tokyo, 1950), this work has been
invaluable in gaining a clearer understanding of many of the passages which
might have otherwise been obscure.

Rodriguez' _Arte Breve_ of 1620, while having no influence upon the
preparation of the _Ars Grammaticae_, is nevertheless of fundamental {28}
importance as a work against which Collado's treatment of Japanese grammar
is to be judged. This shorter grammar is as yet to be fully translated into
English--Moran having limited his study to the treatment of the phonology.

With respect to the text itself I have made this translation on the basis
of the facsimile edition published by the Tenri Central Library in 1972 as
part of its _Classica Japonica_ series. Ōtsuka Takanobu, _Koiyaado-cho
Nihongo bunten_ (Tokyo, 1934) and its revised edition under the title of
_Koriyaado Nihon bunten_ (Tokyo, 1957) have served as invaluable aids at
every step of the translation.

Ōtsuka's second edition is of invaluable scholarly importance because it
contains a cross-reference to the Spanish manuscript from which Collado
prepared the printed Latin edition as well as a concordance to the Japanese
vocabulary.[41] This translation attempts to supplement Ōtsuka's invaluable
contribution by relating the Latin text of this grammar with Rodriguez'
_Arte_.

_Editorial Conventions_

The Latin matrix of the text is printed in italic letters while the
Japanese is in roman. For this translation I have reversed the convention.
(In footnotes where the text is quoted the style of the original is
followed.) In making editorial corrections in the Japanese material the
corrected version is presented in brackets with periods to indicate the
general location;

    e.g., _mairu mai queredomo_ [... qeredomo]

(The only exception to this rule is the correcting of a missing open _o_,
q.v.) Sentences that have been taken from the _Arte_ are indicated by the
parenthetical recording of the leaf number of the citation immediately
after the sentence;

    e.g., _xô tame no chôqui gia_ (22) 'it is....

Shorter sentences and specific words that in all likelihood have been taken
from the _Arte_ are not listed if they are to be found in the section
elsewhere noted as being the source of the material covered. Any {29}
significant alteration in the form of the source is noted. Since the _Arte_
is numbered by the leaf, _v_ is added to the number to indicate the
_verso_.

All the corrections made by the _errata_ (on page 75 of the text) have been
applied to the text without notation unless the correction is itself in
error.

The punctuation follows the text with the following exceptions;

1. In translating from Latin the English follows modern rules of
punctuation.

2. Single quotes have been introduced into the text to mark glosses and
translations.

3. In transcribing the Japanese citations any alteration of the original
punctuation is noted.

4. The spacing of words in Japanese--a relatively casual matter in the
text--has been regularized on the basis of the predominant pattern.

5. Two specific rules, based upon Collado's more or less consistent usage,
are followed in the citing of verb forms:

    a. In the most frequent citation of verbs, where the root form is
    followed by the present indicative ending, a comma is used;

        e.g., _ari,u_; _ague,uru_; _mochi,tçu_

    b. In an alternate form of citation, where the two forms are given in
    their entirety, a colon is used;

        e.g., _ari:aru_; _ague:aguru_; _mochi:motçu_

Spelling and accentuation are treated in the following manner:

1. The _ſ_ in all instances is represented by _s_.

2. The usage of _v_ and _u_ has been regularized: the _v_ serves as the
consonant; and _u_ as the vowel, semi-vowel, and orthographic symbol; e.g.,
_vaga_, _uie_, _quan_, and _agueta_.

3. The predictable nasalization--marked by a tilde in the text--has not
been included in the translation unless the presence of nasalization is
morphologically significant; e.g., _tobu:tõda_. {30}

4. The accent grave--which appears in no discernible pattern--is not
transcribed in the translation.

5. The accent acute is used in the translation to mark the long _ú_ [u:]
and the long, open _ó_ [[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], in those
places where the length is marked by Collado. Since the most frequent
typographical error in the text is the failure to mark the presence of
these long syllables, I follow the convention of correcting the absence of
this feature in the Latin text by using the inverted caret in the
translation. Thus, the appearance in the translation of _mósu_ indicates
that Collado recorded the length of this word, either by an accent acute
(e.g., _mósu_), or an inverted caret (e.g., _mǒsu_). The appearance of
_mǒsu_ indicates that he did not, and that its absence is being corrected.
The form _mǒsu_ in the translation is therefore the shorthand equivalent
for what would more regularly be _mosu_ [_mósu_].

6. The circumflex, which indicates the long, closed _ô_ [o:], is corrected
as other errors by placing the corrected version of the item in brackets;
e.g., _roppio_ [_roppiô_].

ARS
GRAMMATICAE
IAPONICAE
LINGVAE

IN GRATIAM ET ADIVTORIVM
eorum, qui prædicandi Euangelij causa ad
Iaponiæ Regnum se voluerint conferre.

_Composita, & Sacræ de Propaganda Fide Congregationi
dicata à Fr. Didaco Collado Ordinis Prædicatorum
per aliquot annos in prædicto Regno
Fidei Catholicæ propagationis
Ministro._

ROMÆ,
Typis & impensis Sac. Congr. de Propag. Fide.
MDCXXXII.
_SVPERIORVM PERMISSV_.

{105}

A
Grammar
of the Japanese
Language

FOR THE SAKE AND HELP
of those who wish to go to the Kingdom of
Japan to preach the Gospel.

Composed and dedicated to the Blessed Congregation for the
Propagation of the Faith by Brother Didico Collado,
O.P., who was for many years in that Kingdom
as a Minister for the Propagation of
the Catholic Faith.

Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
1632
BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS.

{106}

      It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,
          Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.
              For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.

  It may be published.

      Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,
          Order of Preachers.

{107}

Prologue to the Reader

_With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation of the Japanese Language_

Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith in
the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father Ioannus
Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42] However, since things rarely turn
out perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have
made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would
honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught
without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are
many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the
experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to the
evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience, practice, and
continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook of the Japanese
language in which I would bring together in a brief span these examples
with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began this work) need
to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because examples are
necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible to demonstrate
the rule which has just been explained. Not only have these examples been
selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the students, but also their
explanation has been added in Latin (which is the language most common to
theologians); thus the teacher will have very little left to be desired.
Even if all the elements included in this grammar, as in the dictionary
(which with the help of God I plan to publish shortly),[43] are polished
enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want them to be
submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching of the
faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more fruitful.

When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not
pronounced as in the Latin word _valeo_ or in the Spanish, _vaca_, but each
is pronounced independently; _v_, _a_; _v_, _o_; _v_, _i_.

{108}

The letter _s_ is pronounced as _sç_; e.g., _susumuru_, _sçusçumuru_.

The letter _j_ is pronounced smoothly (_blande_), as in the Portuguese
_joaõ_ and _judeo_.

The letter _x_ is also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese (4
_queixumes_.

When there is the sign ˆ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced _ou_ with the
lips almost closed and the mouth partly closed; e.g., _buppô_.

When there is the sign ˇ or ´ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced with the
mouth open as if there were two letters, _oo_; e.g., _tenxó_ or
_gacuxǒ_.[44]

If the signs we have just shown are over the letter _u_, it is pronounced
long as if there were two letters, _uu_; e.g., _taifú_ or _aiaǔ_.

When the sign ˜ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced like an
_n_, not strongly but swiftly (_cursim_) and softly (_leniter_); e.g.,
_vãga_.[45]

_Qe_ and _Qi_ are written without _u_, because when _u_ follows _q_ or _c_
both letters are pronounced as a _sinalepha_;[46] e.g., _quódai_ or
_quainin_.

When _u_ follows _g_ and immediately after the _u_ is the letter _e_ or
_i_, it should be pronounced as in the Spanish word _guenin_; but if the
letter _e_ or _i_ follows _g_ immediately without the _u_, it should be
pronounced as in the Italian word _giorno_; e.g., _xitãgi_.

The letter _z_ is pronounced with the same strength as in the Spanish word
_zumbar_; e.g., _mizu_.

But if there are two _zz_ then they are pronounced more strongly; _e.g._,
_mizzu_.

When there are two _tt_, _xx_, _zz_, _qq_, _cq_, _ij_, or _pp_[47] it is
important to persist in order to obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact
value of the word; for _mizu_ means 'honey' and _mizzu_ means 'water.'
Therefore, if the words are said with the same strength or the same
gentleness they can mean either 'water' or 'honey.'

When _ch_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish
_chimera_; e.g., _fochó_.

{109}

But if _nh_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish _maña_;
e.g., _nhuva_.

The letter _f_ is pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is in Latin.
In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfect _h_. For both
pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not completely,
closed.

When _tç_ is in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the student should
pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the word is very
difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found (5 in any other
language. It is not truly pronounced _tç_, nor as _s_, nor as _c_ alone,
but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in order to
pronounce both _t_ and _ç_, but with more _ç_ than _t_ seeming to be
sounded; e.g., _tçutçumu_.

The letter _r_ is said smoothly and softly everywhere it is found, either
at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g., _ranguió_, or
_cutabiruru_.

_Ya_, _ye_, _yo_, and _yu_ are pronounced as in Spanish.[48]

When words ending in _i_ or _u_ are pronounced by the Japanese, the last
letter is almost not heard by the student. For instance, if he hears
_gozaru_ he will think he hears _gozar_, if he hears _fitotçu_ he will
believe he hears only _fitotç_, and when he hears _axi no fara_ he will
perceive only _ax no fara_.

When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant,
particularly _b_ or _s_,[49] between that vowel and consonant is pronounced
the letter _n_, not perfectly, but softly; e.g., _sonõ gotoqu._

I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50] This has been done
so that the signs that have been placed correctly over the accented letter
will allow the listener to understand the meaning of the words and the
sentences of the speaker. For instance, _qèixèi_ has the accent on both
_èè_; _fìbicàxi_ has it on the first _i_ and on the a.[51] This same {110}
arrangement will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being
written with the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with
great attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct
them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left
out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do
that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is easy
to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by the
Head of our Order (_pater familias_) and the Lord our God, nor do I wish
this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52] I want by these two
works to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by
preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of the
language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the
Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in Japan.
Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August 1631.

{111} (6

IN THIS GRAMMAR WE HAVE FOR THE MOST PART OBSERVED THE ARRANGEMENT WHICH
ANTONIUS NEBRISSENSIS AND OTHERS HAVE FOLLOWED IN LATIN FOR THE TREATMENT
OF SENTENCES, NAMELY NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ETC.

_The Noun--Its Declension and Its Gender_

In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in
Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns,
determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper
nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five; _va_, _ga_,
_cara_, _no_, and _iori_. The particle _va_ is used when we want to give a
sort of reduplicative[53] and specific turn to the person or thing that is
signified by such a noun. It indicates either the first, second, or third
person; e.g., _Vatacuxi va mairanu_ 'I, or those related to me, will not
come.' The particle _no_ is suffixed to the second and third person,
especially if they are inferior in rank or in a sentence where there is a
relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action; e.g.,
_sonata no móxita coto_ 'that which you said.' The particle _no_ is also
used when some indefinite form is used; e.g., _iie no aru ca miió_ [...
_miio_] 'see if there are houses.' The particle _ga_ is used usually for
the first and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second
person when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g., _Pedro ga
qita_ 'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something
indefinite, as has been said of the particle _no_; e.g., _coco ni va iie ga
nai ca?_ 'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in sentences that have a
relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action. If the
reference is to something of inferior or humble status the particle _ga_ is
also used; e.g., _soregaxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,'
_sochi ga iúta coto_ 'what you said.' The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are
used to form the {112} nominative case when the sentence shows a transitive
action, especially if the sentence contains a relative construction; e.g.,
_Deus iori cudasareta gracia_ 'the mercy which God gave,' _tono cara core
vo vôxe tçuqerareta_ 'the Lord taught this.' Sometimes the words are in the
nominative case without any particle; e.g., _Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta_ 'Peter
called (7 John.' There are two particles for the genitive; i.e., _no_ and
_ga_. The particle _no_ is used for all persons of superior rank; e.g.,
_Padre no võ qiru mono_ 'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particle _ga_
is used for people of inferior rank; e.g., _Pedro ga fumi_ 'Peter's
letter,' _sochi ga mono_ 'your thing,' _are ga cane_ 'your money,' _tono va
iocu ga fucai fito gia_ 'the Lord is of great cupidity, that is to say he
is very eager.' Sometimes the particle _to_ is suffixed to the genitive;
e.g., _Pedro no to degozaru_ 'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a
perfect way of speaking, it is better not to use it. I have cited it so
that if you hear it you will understand. When two nouns are joined to form
a single word, the one which is like an adjective does not require the
genitive particle; e.g., _cocuxu_ 'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to
the ordinary rule we should say _cocu no xu_. This way of forming the
genitive is very common in Japanese; e.g., _Maria coto_ 'Mary's thing.'

Two particles form the dative; i.e., _ni_ and _ie_. For example, _Pedro ni
móxita_ 'I told Peter,' _Padre ie ague maraxita_ 'I gave, or offered, it to
the priest.'

There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e., _vo_,
_voba_, _va_, _ie_, and _ga_. The first, _vo_, is the most used; e.g.,
_Pedro vo iobe_ 'call Peter.' _Va_ is used when one wishes to express in
particular a noun in the accusative; e.g., _niffon guchi va xiranu_[54] 'I
don't know Japanese.' The ending _voba_ is the same as _vo va_, changing
the second _v_ to _b_ they use it as _va_; e.g., _fune voba nori sutete;
cane bacari tori maraxita_ 'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold,
with me.' _Ie_ is used to indicate the place to which one goes; e.g., _Roma
ie mairó_ 'I go to Rome.' _Ga_ is used for nouns which indicate non-living
or humble things; e.g., _are ie gozare, mono ga móxitai_ 'go there! I have
something to tell you.' The accusative is also formed without any particle,
as has {113} been shown in the example second before last, where the second
accusative is without a particle.

The vocative is formed with the particle _icani_. It is not suffixed to
words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead; e.g., _icani
qimi core vo goronjerarei_ 'look at this, My Lord.'[55] Usually, however,
the vocative is formed without any particle; e.g., _Padre sama_ (8
_qicaxerareio_ 'listen, Reverend Father.'

There are three particles for the ablative; i.e., _iori_, _cara_, and _ni_.
The third indicates the place in which; e.g., _iglesia ni gozaru_ 'he is in
church.' Sometimes _ni_ is used after _no_; e.g., _sonata no ni xi aru ca?_
'are you going to make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much
more a dative than an ablative. The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are more
common in the formation of the ablative; e.g., _Madrid cara maitta_ 'I came
from Madrid,' _Pedro iori corosareta_ 'he was killed by Peter.'

There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed
immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which
indicate case. These four particles are _tachi_, _xu_, _domo_, and _ra_.
The first, _tachi_, forms the plural of those noble things which one wishes
to honor; e.g., _tono tachi_ 'lords.' The particle _xu_ forms the plural
for noble things but not those of the highest rank; e.g., _samurai xu_
'nobles (_nobiles_), but not lords (_domini_).' The particle _domo_ is
suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either abstract, animate,
or inanimate; e.g., _fiacuxó domo_ 'farmer,' _ixi domo_ 'stones,' _mma
domo_ 'horses.' The particle _ra_ forms the plural of nouns which indicate
very low things which are to be despised; e.g., _Iudeo ra_ 'Jews.'[56] The
case particles which are required by the sentence are placed after the
pluralizing particles; e.g., _tono tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na_ 'don't
speak badly about the Lords' affairs.'

There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g., _tomo gara_ means
'men,' _Nan ban mono_ 'European things,' _Nan ban mono vo fomuru na_ 'don't
praise European things.'

The particle _icani_, which as has been indicated above forms the vocative,
is not placed after but always before the pronouns which are {114} made
plural, while the particles which form the plural are placed after; e.g.,
_icani Padre tachi vo qiqi nasare io_ 'listen to the priests.'

But two of the four particles which form the plural, _domo_ and _ra_, are
with certain words singular. _Varera_ and _midomo_ mean 'I.' Sometimes both
are found together in the singular; e.g., _midomora_ 'I,' _midomora ga_
'my, or mine.' The particles _domo_ and _ra_ are also (9 suffixed to the
singular when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g., _hara domo
ga itai_ 'I have a stomach ache,' _asu domo va aru mai_ 'tomorrow will not
come,' _asu ra va naró mode_ 'tomorrow will perhaps not come.'

The particle _va_ is suffixed to singular and plural nouns which already
have a particle; e.g., _coco ie va mairanu_ 'he will not come here,' _coco
cara va denu_ 'he did not go out from here,' _coco ni va aru mai_ 'he will
not enter here.' Sometimes _va_ replaces the particles of the declension;
e.g., _fune de saie ióió tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai_ (119v) 'I
arrived with such difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have
arrived had I come by foot, or on foot.'[57] The particle _va_ here
replaces _cara_.

Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as Latin
does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or masculine
because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these genders. For
things which do not have a proper gender _vo_ is placed before masculine
nouns and _me_ before feminine; e.g., _voivo_ means 'male fish' and _meivo_
'female fish,' _vojica_ means 'roe-buck,' _melica_ [_mejica_]
'roe-doe,'[58] _coma_ means 'horse,' _zoiacu_ 'mare,' _xô_ means 'male
hawk,' _dai_ 'female hawk,' _cotoi_ means 'bull,' _meuxi_ 'cow,' _votoco_
means 'man,' _vonago_, _nhóbó_, or _vonna_ 'woman.' All these words are
placed in the dictionary as they come to mind.

The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of the
same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse adjectives.
Certain ones end in _ai_ others in _oi_, _ei_, _ui_ and _ij_. There are
other, more proper adjectives, which are formed by adding _no_ to nouns.
When the first five types of adjectives are placed before nouns they are
then properly adjectives and do not in any way alter the composition of
{115} the sentence. But when they are placed after nouns they become more
like verbs and are in fact conjugated like them; e.g., _tacai iama_ 'a high
mountain,' _xiguei ideiri_ 'frequent comings and goings,' _caxicoi_ (10
_fito_ 'a wise man,' _cavaij mono_ 'a wretched thing,' _aiaui coto_ 'a
dangerous thing,' _umare tçuqi no cuchi_ 'one's natural, or mother tongue.'
There are also adjectives ending in _na_ which, when they are placed before
nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g., _qirei na coto_ 'a clean
thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending in _no_, change their form
in some way when they occur before verbs. Those that end in _ai_ change to
_ó_; e.g., _cono iama va tacó gozaru_ 'this mountain is lofty.' Those
ending in _ei_ change to _eô_; e.g., _cono iama va xigueô gozaru_ 'these
mountains are dense.' Those ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _caxicô
gozaru_ 'he is wise.' Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _xei no
ficú gozaru_ 'he is small in stature.' Those ending in _ii_ [_ij_] change
to _iú_; e.g., _caiú gozaru_ 'it itches.'[59] Among those adjectives ending
in _ij_ there are many which come from verbs; e.g., _nozomi,u_ means 'to
wish,' and from it comes _nozomaxij_ 'which is to be wished for.' Other
adjectives come from nouns; e.g., _varambe_ means 'a child, or infant,' and
from this comes _varamberaxij_ which means 'childish.' Other examples may
be found in the dictionary.

Adjectives which end in _na_ change the _na_ to _ni_ when they are placed
before verbs; e.g., _fuxin ni zonzuru_ 'I think it doubtful.' The
adjectives that end in _no_ sometimes change the _no_ to _na_; e.g., _bechi
no fito_ changes to _bechi na fito_ 'a different man.' Sometimes when it is
followed by a verb the _na_ changes to a _ni_; e.g., _bechi ni gozaru_ 'it
is different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends
in _na_ or _no_; e.g., _bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita_ [... _cuchi_ ...]
is the same as _bechi na fito no cuchi cara qiita_ 'I heard it from the
mouth of a different person.'[60] The only difference in these forms is
that when the word ends in _no_ no change occurs as a consequence of what
follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that end in _na_ change to
_ni_ when they come before a verb. If a substantive verb follows an
adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g., _cono iami va tacó gozaru_
'this mountain is high.' But if this kind of verb does not follow, the
sense {116} is not altered since the adjective is used as a substantive
verb. But this is not used before superiors. To them we will not say _cono
iama va tacai_ but rather _cono iama va tacó gozaru_. The same is true for
the other adjectives.

Adjectives usually end in _i_ but infrequently these adjectives change to
_xi_ or to _qu_. _Ioi_, which means 'good,' changes to _ioqu_, or _ioxi_;
e.g., _ioqu dancó xite_, which has the meaning of 'offering good (11
council.'[61] There are innumerable nouns which become adjectives if _na_
is suffixed to them; e.g., _afo_ means 'ignorance' and from it comes the
word _afo na_ which means 'ignorant,' _jiiu_ means 'liberty' and _jiiu na_
means 'which is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary.

There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they precede
a vocable (_vocabulis_) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g., _jifi_ means
'pity,' but when the word _jin_ is placed after it, it becomes _jifijin_ 'a
pitiable person.' _Fin_ means 'poverty,' but when the word _nin_ is
suffixed to it, it becomes _finnin_ 'a poor person.' In the same way, when
one suffixes _ja_ to _fin_, it makes _finja_, which also means 'a poor
person.' The word _ban_ means 'watch,' but if the word _ja_ is added to it,
it becomes _banja_ 'a careful person.' Many other examples can be found in
the dictionary.

There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, called
_cobita_[62] or _coie_, and are written together to form by their union a
noun and an adjective. Thus, _ten_ mean 'heaven,' _xu_ means 'lord,' and
_tenxu_ means 'lord of heaven.'

The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have
the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before
nouns; e.g., _iogoreta te_ 'dirty hands,' where _iogoreta_ is the preterit
of the verb _iogore,uru_ 'I became dirty.' _Caita qió_ means 'a written
book' and _caita_ is the preterit of the verb _caqi,u_ I write.' The
abstract (_abstracta_), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a
noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., {117}
_facari_ means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb _facari,u_ 'I measure'
while _fajime_ means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb _fajime,uru_ 'I
begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle
_mono_, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which
indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., _mono_ before _caqi_ makes
_monocaqi_ 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root
forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., _caqimono_ 'a
writing.'

The particle _goto_ placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which
means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g.,
_mi_ is the root of the verb _mi,uru_ 'I see,' and _migoto_ is 'a visible
thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while _qiqi_ is the root of the
verb _qiqi,u_ 'I hear,' and _qiqigoto_ means 'a thing which can be heard,
or is worthy of being heard.'

If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns
about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the
meaning of the action; e.g., _foxi_ is the root of the verb _foxi,u_ 'to
dry under the sun'; but, if _ivo_ 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of
the expression _foxiivo_ becomes 'fish dried in the sun.'

When the particle _dógu_ 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it
forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the
verb; e.g., _varaidógu_ 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' _caqidógu_
'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.'

The particle _me_ when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the
terminus of the action; e.g., _avaxe_ is the root of the verb _avaxe,uru_
'to unite or join two things,' and _avaxeme_ means 'junction.' The same is
true of other forms.

An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in _i_ if the
_i_ is changed to _sa_; e.g., _nagai_ means 'is long,' and _nagasa_ means
'length.' The adjectives ending in _na_ change the _na_ to _sa_ in order to
form abstract nouns; e.g., _aqiraca na_ which means 'clear' will become
_aqiracasa_ 'clarity.'

Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first
or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive
(_quasi connotativus_), almost like an adjective or noun with a {118}
genitive; e.g., from _qi_ 'wood' and _fotoqe_ 'idol' there results
_qibotoqe_ 'wooden idol,' with the _f_ changed to _p_ [_b_]. But if the
prefixed noun ends in _e_, this _e_ is changed to _a_ in the attributive of
the compound; e.g., _tçumasaqi_ 'the tip of the nail,' _canacugui_ 'iron
nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its
first letter; if it is _f_ it becomes _b_ or _p_, if it is _s_ it becomes
_z_, if it is _c_ it becomes _g_, if it is _tç_ it becomes _zz_, if it is
_x_ it becomes _j_; e.g., _caribune_, _buppô_, (13 _nigorizaqe_,
_soragoto_, _qizzumari_, and _sorajeimon_. See the dictionary.

_Pronouns_

In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as
_meus,a,um_, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as _mei_, _tui_, etc.,
are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but
rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns.

Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word
indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such
circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say _von
fumi_, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I
am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about
mine I would not say _von fumi_ but only _fumi_, since the particle _von_,
which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such
particles as _mi_ which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is
joined.

_First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc._[63]

There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They are
_vatacuxi_, _soregaxi_, _vare_, _mi_, _varera_, _midomo_, _midomora_,
_vare_.[64] The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of
those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other
particles _mizzucara_, _varava_, and _vagami_ which are not used by men.
The people in the countryside use two others, _vara_ [_vora_] and _vorara_,
while priests {119} when speaking of themselves use _gusô_, that is to say
'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves
use _guró_, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (_rex_) says
_chin_ or _maru_ which means 'I, the King.' (14

To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles _domo_ or
_ra_ are added; e.g., _midomo ga maitta toqi_ 'when we went.' To indicate
the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken
are suffixed.

_Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc._[65]

There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are
differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect,
those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In
speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you'; _vare_,
_vonore_, and _sochi_. If _me_ or _mega_ is added as in _vareme_ or
_varemega_ it means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we
speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use
one of the three particles _sonata_, _sonofǒ_, or _varesama_. If we speak
to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must
speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particles _conata_, _qixo_,
_qifó_, _gofen_, _qiden_, _conatasama_, and _sonatasama_. When speaking to
persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office before _sama_,
it serves as a pronoun; e.g., _Padresama gozare_ 'will the Father come.'

_Conata_, _cochi_, and _conofǒ_ mean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive
sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same way _sochi_, _sonofó_,
and _sonata_ mean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.'

The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns
according to the different degrees of honor. _Vonore domo_, _varera_, and
_sochira_ mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors. _Vare tachi_ and _sonata
domo_ mean 'you' with persons of the same rank. _Qifó tachi_, _vocatagata_,
and _vono vono_ mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of
these honorable expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles.

{120}

_Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud_[66]

The two particles _care care_ and _are are_ mean 'this (_ille, illa,
illud_)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles;
_aitçu_, _aitçume_, _areme_, and _caitçume_ which mean 'this' when one
wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is
emphasized if one adds _ga_ to those forms that end in _me_; e.g.,
_aitçuga_ and _aitçumega_ 'this humble man.' _Cono_ means 'this (_hic,
haec, hoc_),' _sono_ means 'that (_iste, ista, istud_),' and _ano_ means
'that (_ille, illa, illud_).' These words require a noun after them; e.g.,
_cono fito_ 'this man' with _cono mono_ having the same meaning but not
being an honorific expression. _Sono coto_ means 'that thing,' _ano fito_
'that person,' _conata_ or _conofó_ 'here,' _sonata_ or _sonofó_ 'there,'
and _anofó_ 'there, yonder.' _Core_ means 'this (_hic_),' _sore_ 'that
(_istud_),' and _are_ 'that (_illud_).' These forms are in the neuter
gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are _corera_, _sorera_,
and _arera_, while the others follow the common rules. _Cano_ means 'that
which we have mentioned'; e.g., _cano fito_ 'that person.' The pronoun 'a
certain (_quidam_)' is made with the particle _aru_; e.g., _aru fito_ 'a
certain person,' _aru tocoro ni_ 'in a certain place.'

The pronoun 'each (_unusquisque_)' is formed with the particles _men men_
and _sore sore_.

The pronoun 'each and every (_universi & singuli_)' is formed with _tare mo
mina_.

The pronoun 'anyone (_quicumque_)' is formed with _tare nite mo_, _tare
nite mo are_, and _tare nari tomo_.

The particle _tare mo_, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun
'no one, or nobody'; e.g., _tare mo mairananda_ 'nobody went.' The particle
_nani taru coto nari tomo_ means 'whatever happens, or whichever thing
happens.' The particle _mei mei_ means 'to each, or everyone in
particular.'

The particle _goto_ makes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This
form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language;
i.e., _iomi_. The same results are achieved by placing the (16 particle
_mai_ before vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e., {121}
_coie_. For example, _fi_ means 'day,' and _figoto ni_ means 'daily.' _Nen_
is a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and _mainen_
means 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the
repetition of the noun; e.g., _fito_ means 'person,' and _fitibito_ means
'all the people, or many people,' _fi_ means 'day,' and _fibi ni_ means
'all of the days, or every day.'

The indefinite pronoun 'some (_aliqui_)' is formed with _niiotte_; e.g.,
_toqi niiotte_ 'some times,' _fito niiotte_ 'some men.'

The pronoun 'the same (_idem_)' is formed with _vonaji_; e.g., _vonaji
tocoro cara_ 'from the same place.' The particle _dôjen_ means the same
thing but in the neuter ; e.g., _dôjen degozaru_ 'it is the same.' This
word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc.

The pronoun 'himself (_ipse_)' is formed with the particles _nuxi_, _sono
mi_, and _vaga_. The particle _vareto mi_ forms the pronoun 'himself
(_ipsemet_)'; e.g., _vareto mi ni ata vo nasu_ (96) 'he brings harm to
himself,' _mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru_ 'he forgets himself and saves
others.' The particle _vatacuxi_ means 'a thing which belongs to oneself
(_re propria_)'; e.g., _vatacuxi no coto_ 'ones own thing,' _vatacuxi ni
ivareta_ 'he spoke for himself.'

The pronoun 'somebody (_aliquis_)' is made with the particles _tare zo_ and
_taso_; e.g., _tare zo maittaraba_ 'if somebody were to come,' _taso sacana
ga aru ca tói ni iqe_ [... _toi_ ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is
food.'

The neuter pronoun 'something (_aliquid_)' is formed with the particles
_nan zo_ and _nanica_; e.g., _nan zo ga araba cuvózu_ 'I would eat if there
were something,' _ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô_
'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.'

The interrogative 'who (_quis_)' is translated with the three particles
_tare_, _taga_, and _taso_. The particles _taga_ or _tare no_ form the
genitive; e.g., _taga mono ca_ 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to
the door and knocks, he says _mono mó_.[68] To this one responds _taso_,
_taga_, or _tare_ 'who is it?' _Nani_ means 'what (_quid_)'; e.g., _nani vo
suru_ (17 _ca_ or _nani goto vo suru ca?_ 'what are you doing?' _nani ni
sore vo totte iqu ca?_ 'for what reason do you bring this to me?'

{122}

_Relative Pronouns_

The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with
which there is a relative (_relativum_), after the verb; e.g., _ten ni
maximasu varera ga von voia_ 'Our Father who is in Heaven,' _deta tocoro
va_ 'the place from which he came out,' _te ni sumi no tçuita fito_ (88) 'a
man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (_oratio_) requires a
nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles
which indicate the nominative; _ga_, _no_, or _iori_. For example,
_vatacuxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' _conata no vôxerareta
coto_ 'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, _iori_, is
used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., _Deus iori ataie
cudasareta gracia_ 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' _ano tocoro ni
amata no qió atta vo torareta_ (87v.) 'he brought what many books there
were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together
the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either
a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the
sense of the sentence; e.g., _qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie
ni aru vo motte coi_ 'bring the book which is on the desk (_sedila_) at
which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence _qió ga_, which is
the first relative, comes after the verb _móxita_; and the _vo_ which
stands for the second relative comes after the verb _aru_. When we want to
be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particle
_tocoro no_ between the thing itself and the verb; e.g., _vare to dôxin
xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta_ 'all those who agreed
with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in
understanding it, is expressed by expositions (_per exponentes_). Thus, in
place of _ima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia_ which means
'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say _ima
Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru_.

Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a
kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g., _sono
tocoro de no dancó_ 'the consultation at that place,' (18 _Marsella ie no
fune_ 'the ship to Marseille,' _maire to no móxi goto dearu_ [ ... _gia_]
'it is said that I should go.'

{123}

_Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta_ 'it was resolved that he not go,'
_maitte nochi no dancó_ 'the consultation he arrived after,' _varambe cara
no catagui_ 'a custom from youth,' _xô tame no chôgui gia_ (22) 'this is
the plan (_ars_) according to which it will be done,' _anofito no vo toró_
'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative
pronouns.

_The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation_[70]

The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are
indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and
in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same
number of negative.

The root (_radix_) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this
reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses.

All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in _gi_
or _ji_, together with _xi_ and _maraxi_, although they end in _i_, are
also in the first conjugation. If the root ends in _de_ or _gi_, the
present form is made by changing them to _zzuru_; e.g., _fagi_ forms its
present in _fazzuru_ and means 'to blush,' _de_ becomes _zzuru_ and means
'to leave.' If the root ends in _je_ or _ji_ it changes in the present to
_zuru_; e.g., _maje:mazuru_ 'to mix,' _anji:anzuru_ 'to consider.' If they
end in _xe_ they change to _suru_; e.g., _avaxe:avasuru_ 'to join.' _Xi_
and _maraxi_, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72]
change _xi_ to _suru_; e.g., _xi:suru_ 'to do,' _maraxi:marasuru_ which
also means 'to do.' If the root ends in _te_ it changes to _tçuru_; e.g.,
_sodate:sodatçuru_ 'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end
in _e_ change, in their separate ways, the _e_ to _uru_; e.g., _ague:aguru_
'to offer,' _nigue:niguru_ 'to run away.'

There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They
are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g.,
_cocoroieta_ 'to understand,' _qicoieta_ 'to hear,' _voboieta_ 'to
remember,' _qiqiieta_ 'to understand,' _zonjita_ 'to know,' and there may
{124} be many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first
conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If
the present tense of these forms does not change the _i_ to _uru_ they are
exceptional; e.g., _abi,uru_ 'to wash oneself,' _fotobi,uru_ 'to become
soft,' _focorobi,uru_ 'to become unstitched,' _cabi_ [_cabi,uru_] 'to be
moldy,'[74] _sabi_ [_sabi,uru_] 'to rust,' _deqi_ [_deqi,uru_] 'to be
finished, or ended,' _cuchi:cutçuru_ 'to rot,' _michi:mitçuru_ 'to be
filled in by the sea,' _ini,uru_ 'to leave,' _nobi:nobiru_ or _noburu_ 'to
be spread out,' _tçuqi,uru_ 'to be used,' _vori:uru_ 'to descend from
above,' _xij:xijru_[75] 'to invite to dine, by compulsion,' _ni:niru_ 'to
resemble,' _mochij:mochiiuru_ 'to evaluate,' _ni:niru_ 'to cook,' _mi:miru_
'to look at,' _cori,uru_ 'to correct,' _vochi:votçuru_ 'to fall,' _i:iru_
'to exist, or be present,' _fugui,uru_ 'to pass, as time passes,'
_vabi,uru_ 'to beg for mercy,' _carabi,uru_ 'to become dry,' _iqi:iquru_
'to live,' _fi:firu_ 'to become dry,' _qi:quru_ 'to come,' _qi:qiru_ 'to
dress oneself,' _voqi,uru_ 'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs
have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] _ataie_ has _atóru_
'to give,' _vaqimaie_ has _vaqimǒru_ 'to discriminate,' _tonaie_ has
_tonóru_ 'to bless,' _sonaie_ has _sonóru_ 'to place in a high position.'

_The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect_

In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The
perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing _ta_ to the root
of a verb ; e.g., _agueta_ is the preterit of the verb _ague,uru_ 'to
offer.' The second is by suffixing _te_ to the root and to that adding
_gozari,u_ or _ari,u_ which is then conjugated in the present or the
preterit of the second conjugation; e.g., _aguete gozaru_ or _aguete
gozatta_, or _aguete aru_ or _aguete atta_ 'offered, or had offered.' If
the particle _fáia_ [_faia_] is placed before the verb the expression is
strengthened; e.g., (20 _fáia aguete gozatta_ [_faia_ ...] 'I had already
offered it.' When the verb _ari,u_ is suffixed to the perfect it is not as
elegant a way of speaking as {125} when _gozari,u_ is used. Therefore when
speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one
speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves.

_The Future of the First Conjugation_

If the root of the verb ends in _te_ this syllable is changed to _teô_ or
_chô_ to form the future; e.g., _tate,uru_ will become _tateô_ or _tachô_
'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in _ji_ the future is formed by
changing _ji_ to _jô_; e.g., _xenji_ becomes _xenjô_ 'I shall prepare, or
brew, the medicine.' If the root ends in _xe_ [_xi_] it changes to _xô_;
e.g., _xi_ becomes _xô_, and _maraxi_ becomes _maraxô_ 'I shall do.' If it
ends in _ie_ it is changed to _io_ [_iô_]; e.g., _voxiie_ becomes _voxiio_
[_vaxiiô_] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in _e_ suffix the
particles _ô_, _ôzu_, or _ôzuru_; e.g., _agueô_, _agueôzu_, or _agueôzuru_
'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78] even
when the roots end in _i_; e.g., _deqiôzu_ 'I shall be finished.'

The future is also formed by taking the syllable _nu_ from the negative
present (see below) and putting in its place the particle _baia_. Thus, by
taking _nu_ away from _aguenu_ and putting in its place _baia_, we obtain
_aguebaia_ 'I will offer.' For _minu_ if you take away the _nu_ and put in
its place _baia_ it will become _mibaia_ 'I will see, or behold.'

The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles _te arózu_ or
_tarózu_ to the root; e.g., _aguete arózu_ or _aguetarózu_ 'I shall already
have offered.' The same results are obtained if _faia_ is placed before the
simple future; e.g., _faia agueôzu_.

(21

_The Imperative of the First Conjugation_

The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb
alone, or with the addition of the particle _io_; e.g., _ague_ or _ague io_
'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the future absolute _agueô_ or
_agueôzu_. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a
command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by
taking the _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and {126} putting in
its place the particle _sai_. Thus, if one takes the _nu_ from _aguenu_ and
replaces it with _sai_ it becomes _ague sai_ which means 'offer!' If the
particle _tai_ is placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or
optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an
elegant imperative; thus _mizzu fitotçu nomitai_ 'I would like to have a
drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a
relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the
imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation,
affirmative or negative; e.g., _Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga
aru_ [_Christian ni_ ...] 'it is the law of the Shōgan (_imperator_) that
no one should become a Christian,' _Padre core vo coxiraie io to voxerareta
niiotte_ [... _vôxerareta_ ...] 'because the Priest told me to do it.'

_The Optative of the First Conjugation_

The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the
imperative with the particles _negavacu va_ or _avare_ placed before it and
the particles _gana_ or _caxi_ placed after it. Sometimes it is formed by
adding the particle _gana_ without any prefix; e.g., _negavacu va ague io
caxi?_ or _avare aguei gana_[80] 'would that you were to offer?' _avare
icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe
io caxi!_ (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or
soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particle
_gana_ when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing
specified by the noun; e.g., _saqe gana_ 'oh! sake'; and if (22 one is
asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is _nani gana_ 'would
that I had some.'

The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by
the particle _mono vo!_; e.g., _niqueozu mono vo!_ [_nigueôzu_ ...] 'would
that I had fled!' The same is achieved by _niguetaraba iocaró mono vo_.
Sometimes they say only _niguetaró va_ or _niguete aró ni va iocaró mono
vo_.

{127}

_The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation_

The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ in which
the present indicative ends to _eba_; e.g., _aguru_ becomes _agureba_
'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by adding _ni_, _de_,
_vo_, or _va_ to the particle _tocoro_ according to the case requirements
of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun;
e.g., _aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite_
(16v)[82] 'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he
was drunk,' _nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni_ (16v)[83] 'since they
were separated and divorced,' _có aru tocoro ni_ 'since things are this
way,' _ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta_ (16v)[84] 'when he went
outside, he was killed by someone,' _go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi
coroita_ (121)[85] 'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a
general rule which applies to all conjugations.

The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these
same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle _reba_;
e.g., _agueta reba_ 'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking
away _gozaru_ from the preterit pluperfect and putting in its place _atta
reba_ or _atta_; but, when _atta_ is used, the particles _ni_, _vo_, _va_,
or _ie_ must be added according to the requirements of the following verb,
just as with _tocoro_ in the present tenses; e.g., _aguete atta reba_ or
_aguete atta ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ 'since I had already offered it.'

The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _toqi_ to
the future indicative; e.g., _agueô toqi_ 'since he would offer it later.'

The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (_vox_) which signify
that which comes after a completed action, is formed by (23 placing _cara_,
_nochi_, or _igo_ after the pluperfect indicative, minus _gozaru_; {128}
e.g., _aguete cara, nochi_, or _igo, mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has
offered it.' This is like _aguetaró toki mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has
already offered it.' _Agueôzuru ni_ or _agueôzuru tocoro ni_ means 'since
he was already prepared to offer it.' _Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni_ means 'a
little while before he offered it.'

The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The
first is by changing the _u_ of the present indicative to _edomo_; e.g.,
_aguredomo_ 'although I could offer it.'

The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to
the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta redomo_ 'although he had offered
it.' The future permissive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the second form
of the future indicative; e.g., _agueôzu redomo_ 'although he would be able
to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by
adding the particle _tomo_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru tomo_
'although he could offer it.' The particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ may also
be added to the present tense; e.g., _sore vo voxiiuru mamaio_ or _sore vo
voxiiuru madeio_ 'although he could teach this.'

The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing _ritomo_ to
the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta ritomo_ 'although he had offered
it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particles _mamaio_ or
_madeio_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta mamaio_ or _agueta
madeio_; or by adding _tote_ to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., _aguetareba
tote_.

The future permissive is formed by adding _tomo_ to the second form of the
future indicative; e.g., _agueozu tomo_ [_agueôzu tomo_ 'although he would
offer it']. It is also formed by adding _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the same
future form. If the particle _tatoi_ is placed before the forms of the
permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g.,
_tatoi vôxeraruru tomo_ 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning
is obtained by removing the verbs _gozaru_ or _aru_ from the pluperfect
indicative and replacing it with the particle _mo_; e.g., _aguete mo_
'although he may offer it.' The same _mo_ when placed after the present
indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono
sata va mósanu_ 'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any
attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentences _ague mo xeio
caxi?_, _aguete mo xô madeio_, and _nanto mo ague caxi?_ {129} [... _aguei
caxi?_][86] 'although he offers.' _Aguru ni saxerarei_, (24 _agueta ni
saxerarei_, or _agueo ni saxerarei_ [_agueô_ ...] have the meanings of
'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he
would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.'

_The Infinitive_

The present infinitive is formed by adding _coto_ or _to_ to the present
indicative; e.g., _aguru coto_ or _aguru to_ 'to offer.'

The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the
preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta coto_ or _agueta to_ 'to have offered.'
The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future
indicative; e.g., _agueô coto_ or _agueô to_ 'to be about to offer.' The
same meaning is obtained by adding _ióni_ to the present, preterit, or
future indicative; e.g., _nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo
zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita_ (22v) 'I think and others believed me to have
been favored by you with many benefits,' _qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru
ióni gozaru_ (117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,' _agueta ióni gozaru_
'he is said to have offered it.'

To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb
which follows; e.g., _nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?_ 'did you fall
into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All
the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way.

Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with
_gozaru_ or _aru_ removed; e.g., _Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró_ 'it is
good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative
plus _ga_ replaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g., _sore
vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró_ 'it will be bad to say that,' _maitta ga maxi
gia_ (21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.'

When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle _coto_ is
not required; e.g., _cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai_ (23) 'to drink
sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,' _core coso caqu de gozare_
'this we are able to say, or better, write,' _caqu de gozatte coso_ 'this
is not the way for it to be written,' _sore va aguru devanai_ 'that is not
to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations
but the general rule applies to all. The idea of the {130} infinitive is
also obtained by the following means of expression; _ague va_, _aguredomo_
'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because
this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say _qiqi va
tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu_ 'although I have listened, or done
everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say
_aguru vo motte_ 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,'
_aguru iori_ 'from the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru nitçuite_ 'about
the fact that he is to offer.'

The gerund in _Di_ is the present or future indicative followed by the
particle _jibun_, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time';
e.g., _aguru jibun_ 'the time for offering,' _agueô ni qivamatta_ 'he made
the decision that it be offered,' _niguru jibun gia_ 'it is time to flee,'
_corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte arǒzu_ (13) 'it will have been decided that
he will be killed, or will have to be killed.'

The gerund in _Do_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding the
particles _ni_ or _tote_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguruni_ or
_agurutote iurusareta_ 'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is
by removing the verb _gozaru_ from the pluperfect; e.g., _aguete
cutabireta_ 'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say,
'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of
becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to
form the gerund in _Do_. It is done by placing the root of the verb in
front of another verb making a compound; e.g., _fiqi iosuru_ 'to approach,
pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect
to their function. The gerund in _Do_ is also used to express purpose
_taixó to xite_ 'since he was a commander (_dux_), or was fulfilling the
function of a commander,' _von rei to xite_ 'giving thanks,' _rǒtai nomi ni
xite_ 'since he was an old man,' _tçucai xite ivaruru_ 'he said it as a
messenger.'

The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by adding the particles _tame_ or _tote_ to
the present or future indicative; e.g., _aguru tame_ or _agueo tote_
[_agueô tote_] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by _aguru
ni fatto ga aru_ 'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be
considered a gerund in ni [_Di_].

The supine in _Tum_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding _ni_ to
the root. The second is by adding _tameni_ to the present indicative; {131}
e.g., _tazzune ni maitta_ or _tazzunuru tameni maitta_ 'I came in order to
obtain it.'

The supine in _Tu_ is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same
meaning they also use _mósu ni voiobanu_ 'it is not necessary to (26
speak.'

The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the
particles _fito_ or _mono_ to the indicative. When _fito_ is used the
result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., _aguru fito_ or _aguru
mono_ 'he who offers,' _agueta fito_ 'he who offered,' _agueô mono_ 'he who
will offer,' _Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va_ (73v) 'as for those who
devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,' _von vo xiru vo
fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie_ (96v). In this
last sentence the _vo_ takes the place of the participle, and the sentence
therefore means 'those who know kindness (_beneficia_) are correctly called
men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general
rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb
from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding _te_
['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., _aguete_ 'one who offers.'

_The First Negative Conjugation_

The negative root is formed by adding _zu_ to the affirmative root; e.g.,
_aguezu_.

The present tense is formed with _nu_ instead of _zu_; e.g., _aguenu_ 'I do
not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only
exceptions are _xi_ and _maraxi_ which form the negative present in _xenu_
and _maraxenu_ 'I do not do.' The roots that end in _ji_ change the _ji_ to
_je_ and then suffix the particle _nu_ to the present; e.g., _zonji_ in the