which Fath Ali Shah was born (1772).

DAMIANI, PIETRO (c. 1007-1072), one of the most celebrated ecclesiastics
of the 11th century, was born at Ravenna, and after a youth spent in
hardship and privation, gained some renown as a teacher. About 1035,
however, he deserted his secular calling and entered the hermitage of
Fonte Avellana, near Gubbio; and winning sound reputation through his
piety and his preaching, he became the head of this establishment about
1043. A zealot for monastic and clerical reform, he introduced a more
severe discipline, including the practice of flagellation, into the
house, which, under his rule, quickly attained celebrity, and became a
model for other foundations. Extending the area of his activities, he
entered into communication with the emperor Henry III., addressed to
Pope Leo IX. in 1049 a writing denouncing the vices of the clergy and
entitled _Liber Gomorrhianus_; and soon became associated with
Hildebrand in the work of reform. As a trusted counsellor of a
succession of popes he was made cardinal bishop of Ostia, a position
which he accepted with some reluctance; and presiding over a council at
Milan in 1059, he courageously asserted the authority of Rome over this
province, and won a signal victory for the principles which he
advocated. He rendered valuable assistance to Pope Alexander II. in his
struggle with the anti-pope, Honorius II.; and having served the papacy
as legate to France and to Florence, he was allowed to resign his
bishopric in 1067. After a period of retirement at Fonte Avellana, he
proceeded in 1069 as papal legate to Germany, and persuaded the emperor
Henry IV. to give up his intention of divorcing his wife Bertha. During
his concluding years he was not altogether in accord with the political
ideas of Hildebrand. He died at Faenza on the 22nd of February 1072.
Damiani was a determined foe of simony, but his fiercest wrath was
directed against the married clergy. He was an extremely vigorous
controversialist, and his Latin abounds in denunciatory epithets. He was
specially devoted to the Virgin Mary, and wrote an _Officium Beatae
Virginis_, in addition to many letters, sermons, and other writings.

  His works were collected by Cardinal Cajetan, and were published in
  four volumes at Rome (1606-1615), and then at Paris in 1642, at Venice
  in 1743, and there are other editions. See A. Vogel, _Peter Damiani_
  (Jena, 1856); A. Capecelatro, _Storia di S. Pier Damiani e del suo
  tempo_ (Florence, 1862); F. Neukirch, _Das Leben des Peter Damiani_
  (Göttingen, 1875); L. Guerrier, _De Petro Damiano_ (Orleans, 1881); W.
  von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (Leipzig,
  1885-1890); and Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, Band iv. (Leipzig,
  1898).

DAMIEN, FATHER, the name in religion of JOSEPH DE VEUSTER (1840-1889),
Belgian missionary, was born at Tremeloo, near Louvain, on the 3rd of
January 1840. He was educated for a business career, but in his
eighteenth year entered the Church, joining the Society of the Sacred
Heart of Jesus and Mary (also known as the Picpus Congregation), and
taking Damien as his name in religion. In October 1863, while he was
still in minor orders, he went out as a missionary to the Pacific
Islands, taking the place of his brother, who had been prevented by an
illness. He reached Honolulu in March 1864, and was ordained priest in
Whitsuntide of that year. Struck with the sad condition of the lepers,
whom it was the practice of the Hawaian government to deport to the
island of Molokai, he conceived an earnest desire to mitigate their lot,
and in 1873 volunteered to take spiritual charge of the settlement at
Molokai. Here he remained for the rest of his life, with occasional
visits to Honolulu, until he became stricken with leprosy in 1885.
Besides attending to the spiritual needs of the lepers, he managed, by
the labour of his own hands and by appeals to the Hawaian government, to
improve materially the water-supply, the dwellings, and the victualling
of the settlement. For five years he worked alone; subsequently other
resident priests from time to time assisted him. He succumbed to leprosy
on the 15th of April 1889. Some ill-considered imputations upon Father
Damien by a Presbyterian minister produced a memorable tract by Robert
Louis Stevenson (_An Open Letter to the Rev. Dr Hyde_, 1890).

  See also lives by E. Clifford (1889) and Fr. Pamphile (1889).
       (J. M'F.)

DAMIENS, ROBERT FRANÇOIS (1715-1757), a Frenchman who attained notoriety
by his attack on Louis XV. of France in 1757, was born in a village near
Arras in 1715, and early enlisted in the army. After his discharge, he
became a menial in the college of the Jesuits in Paris, and was
dismissed from this as well as from other employments for misconduct,
his conduct earning for him the name of Robert le Diable. During the
disputes of Clement XI. with the parlement of Paris the mind of Damiens
seems to have been excited by the ecclesiastical disorganization which
followed the refusal of the clergy to grant the sacraments to the
Jansenists and Convulsionnaires; and he appears to have thought that
peace would be restored by the death of the king. He, however, asserted,
perhaps with truth, that he only intended to frighten the king without
wounding him severely. On the 5th of January 1757, as the king was
entering his carriage, he rushed forward and stabbed him with a knife,
inflicting only a slight wound. He made no attempt to escape, and was at
once seized. He was condemned as a regicide, and sentenced to be torn in
pieces by horses in the Place de Grève. Before being put to death he was
barbarously tortured with red-hot pincers, and molten wax, lead, and
boiling oil were poured into his wounds. After his death his house was
razed to the ground, his brothers and sisters were ordered to change
their names, and his father, wife, and daughter were banished from
France.

  See _Pièces originales et procédures du procès fait à Robert François
  Damiens_ (Paris, 1757).

DAMIETTA, a town of Lower Egypt, on the eastern (Damietta or Phatnitic)
branch of the Nile, about 12 m. above its mouth, and 125 m. N.N.E. of
Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 29,354. The town is built on the east bank of
the river between it and Lake Menzala. Though in general ill-built and
partly ruinous, the town possesses some fine mosques, with lofty
minarets, public baths and busy bazaars. Along the river-front are many
substantial houses furnished with terraces, and with steps leading to
the water. Their wooden lattices of saw-work are very graceful. After
Cairo and Alexandria, Damietta was for centuries the largest town in
Egypt, but the silting up of the entrance to the harbour, the rise of
Port Said, and the remarkable development of Alexandria have robbed
Damietta of its value as a port. It has still, however, a coasting trade
with Syria and the Levant. Ships over 6 ft. draught cannot enter the
river, but must anchor in the offing. Lake Menzala yields large
supplies of fish, which are dried and salted, and these, with rice,
furnish the chief articles of trade.

Damietta is a Levantine corruption of the Coptic name _Tamiati_, Arabic
_Dimyat_. The original town was 4 m. nearer the sea than the modern
city, and first rose into importance on the decay of Pelusium. When it
passed into the hands of the Saracens it became a place of great wealth
and commerce, and, as the eastern bulwark of Egypt, was frequently
attacked by the crusaders. The most remarkable of these sieges lasted
eighteen months, from June 1218 to November 1219, and ended in the
capture of the town, which was, however, held but for a brief period. In
June 1249 Louis IX. of France occupied Damietta without opposition, but
being defeated near Mansura in the February following, and compelled
(6th April) to surrender himself prisoner, Damietta was restored to the
Moslems as part of the ransom exacted. To prevent further attacks from
the sea the Mameluke sultan Bibars blocked up the Phatnitic mouth of the
Nile (about 1260), razed old Damietta to the ground, and transferred the
inhabitants to the site of the modern town. It continued to be a place
of commercial importance for a considerable period, until in fact Port
Said gave the eastern part of the Delta a better port. Damietta gives
its name to dimity, a kind of striped cloth, for which the place was at
one time famous. Cotton and silk goods are still manufactured here.

DAMIRI, the common name of KAMAL UD-DIN MUHAMMAD IBN MUSA UD-DAMIRI
(1344-1405), Arabian writer on canon law and natural history, belonged
to one of the two towns called Damira near Damietta and spent his life
in Egypt. Of the Shafi'ite school of law, he became professor of
tradition in the _Rukniyya_ at Cairo, and also at the mosque el-Azhar;
in connexion with this work he wrote a commentary on the _Minhaj
ut-Talibin_ of Nawawi (q.v.). He is, however, better known in the
history of literature for his _Life of Animals_ (_Hayat ul-Hayawan_),
which treats in alphabetic order of 931 animals mentioned in the Koran,
the traditions and the poetical and proverbial literature of the Arabs.
The work is a compilation from over 500 prose writers and nearly 200
poets. The correct spelling of the names of the animals is given with an
explanation of their meanings. The use of the animals in medicine, their
lawfulness or unlawfulness as food, their position in folk-lore are the
main subjects treated, while occasionally long irrelevant sections on
political history are introduced.

  The work exists in three forms. The fullest has been published several
  times in Egypt; a mediate and a short recension exist in manuscript.
  Several editions have been made at various times of extracts, among
  them the poetical one by Suyuti (q.v.), which was translated into
  Latin by A. Ecchelensis (Paris, 1667). Bochartus in his _Hierozoicon_
  (1663) used Damiri's work. There is a translation of the whole into
  English by Lieutenant-Colonel Jayakar (Bombay, 1906-1908).
       (G. W. T.)

DAMIRON, JEAN PHILIBERT (1794-1862), French philosopher, was born at
Belleville. At nineteen he entered the normal school, where he studied
under Burnouf, Villemain, and Cousin. After teaching for several years
in provincial towns, he came to Paris, where he lectured on philosophy
in various institutions, and finally became professor in the normal
school, and titular professor at the Sorbonne. In 1824 he took part with
P. F. Dubois and Th. S. Jouffroy in the establishment of the _Globe_;
and he was also a member of the committee of the society which took for
its motto _Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera_. In 1833 he was appointed
chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in 1836 member of the Academy of
Moral Sciences. Damiron died at Paris on the 11th of January 1862.

The chief works of Damiron, of which the best are his accounts of French
philosophers, are the following:--An edition of the _Nouveaux mélanges
philosophiques de Jouffroy_ (1842), with a notice of the author, in
which Damiron softened and omitted several expressions used by Jouffroy,
which were opposed to the system of education adopted by the Sorbonne,
an article which gave rise to a bitter controversy, and to a book by
Pierre Leroux, _De la mutilation des manuscrits de M. Jouffroy_ (1843);
_Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en France au XIX^e siècle_
(1828, 3rd ed. 1834); _Essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en France
au XVII. siècle_ (1846); _Mémoires à servir pour l'histoire de la
philosophie en France au XVIII. siècle_ (1858-1864); _Cours de la
philosophie_; _De la Providence_ (1849, 1850).

  See A. Franck, _Moralistes et philosophes_ (1872).

DAMJANICH, JÁNOS (1804-1849), Hungarian soldier, was born at Stása in
the Banat. He entered the army as an officer in the 61st regiment of
foot, and on the outbreak of the Hungarian war of independence was
promoted to be a major in the third Honvéd regiment at Szeged. Although
an orthodox Serb, he was from the first a devoted adherent of the Magyar
liberals. He won his colonelcy by his ability and valour at the battles
of Alibunár and Lagerdorf in 1848. At the beginning of 1849 he was
appointed commander of the 3rd army corps in the middle Theiss, and
quickly gained the reputation of being the bravest man in the Magyar
army, winning engagement after engagement by sheer dash and daring. At
the beginning of March 1849 he annihilated a brigade at Szolnók, perhaps
his greatest exploit. He was elected deputy for Szolnók to the Hungarian
diet, but declined the honour. Damjanich played a leading part in the
general advance upon the Hungarian capital under Görgei. He was present
at the engagements of Hort and Hatvan, converted the doubtful fight of
Tápió-Bicsk into a victory, and fought with irresistible _élan_ at the
bloody battle of Isaszeg. At the ensuing review at Gödöllö, Kossuth
expressed the sentiments of the whole nation when he doffed his hat as
Damjanich's battalions passed by. Always a fiery democrat, Damjanich
uncompromisingly supported the extremist views of Kossuth, and was
appointed commander of one of the three divisions which, under Görgei,
entered Vacz in April 1849. His fame reached its culmination when, on
the 19th of April, he won the battle of Nagysarló, which led to the
relief of the hardly-pressed fortress of Komárom. At this juncture
Damjanich broke his leg, an accident which prevented him from taking
part in field operations at the most critical period of the war, when
the Magyars had to abandon the capital for the second time. He recovered
sufficiently, however, to accept the post of commandant of the fortress
of Arad. After the Vilagós catastrophe, Damjanich, on being summoned to
surrender, declared he would give up the fortress to a single company of
Cossacks, but would defend it to the last drop of his blood against the
whole Austrian army. He accordingly surrendered to the Russian general
Demitrius Buturlin (1790-1849), by whom he was handed over to the
Austrians, who shot him in the market-place of Arad a few days later.

  See Ödön Hamvay, _Life of János Damjanich_ (Hung.), (Budapest, 1904).
       (R. N. B.)

DAMMAR, or DAMMER (Hind, _damar_ = resin, pitch), a resin, or rather
series of resins, obtained from various coniferous trees of the genus
_Dammara_ (_Agathis_). East Indian dammar or cat's eye resin is the
produce of _Dammara orientalis_, which grows in Java, Sumatra, Borneo
and other eastern islands and sometimes attains a height of 80-100 ft.
It oozes in large quantities from the tree in a soft viscous state, with
a highly aromatic odour, which, however, it loses as it hardens by
exposure. The resin is much esteemed in oriental communities for
incense-burning. Dammar is imported into England by way of Singapore;
and as found in British markets it is a hard, transparent, brittle,
straw-coloured resin, destitute of odour. It is readily soluble in
ether, benzol and chloroform, and with oil of turpentine it forms a fine
transparent varnish which dries clear, smooth and hard. The allied kauri
gum, or dammar of New Zealand (Australian dammar), is produced by
_Dammara australis_, or kauri-pine, the wood of which is used for wood
paving. Much of the New Zealand resin is found fossil in circumstances
analogous to the conditions under which the fossil copal of Zanzibar is
obtained. Dammar is besides a generic Indian name for various other
resins, which, however, are little known in western commerce. Of these
the principal are black dammar (the Hindustani _kala-damar_), yielded by
_Canarium strictum_, and white dammar, Indian copal, or piney varnish
(_sufed-damar_), the produce of _Vateria indica_. Sal dammar (_damar_)
is obtained from _Shorea robusta_; _Hopea micrantha_ is the source of
rock dammar (the Malay _dammer-batu_); and other species yield resins
which are similarly named and differ little in physical properties.

DAMMARTIN, a small town of France, in the department of Seine et Marne,
22 m. N.E. of Paris. It is well situated on a hill forming part of the
plateau of la Goële, and is known as Dammartin-en-Goële to distinguish
it from Dammartin-sous-Tigeaux, a small commune in the same department.
Dammartin is historically important as the seat of a countship of which
the holders played a considerable part in French history. The earliest
recorded count of Dammartin was a certain Hugh, who made himself master
of the town in the 10th century; but his dynasty was replaced by another
family in the 11th century. Reynald I. (Renaud), count of Dammartin (d.
1227), who was one of the coalition crushed by King Philip Augustus at
the battle of Bouvines (1214), left two co-heiresses, of whom the elder,
Maud (Matilda or Mahaut), married Philip Hurepel, son of Philip
Augustus, and the second, Alix, married Jean de Trie, in whose line the
countship was reunited after the death of Philip Hurepel's son Alberic.
The countship passed, through heiresses, to the houses of Fayel and
Nanteuil, and in the 15th century was acquired by Antoine de Chabannes
(d. 1488), one of the favourites of King Charles VII., by his marriage
with Marguerite, heiress of Reynald V. of Nanteuil-Aci and Marie of
Dammartin. This Antoine de Chabannes, count of Dammartin in right of his
wife, fought under the standard of Joan of Arc, became a leader of the
_Écorcheurs_, took part in the war of the public weal against Louis XI.,
and then fought for him against the Burgundians. The collegiate church
at Dammartin was founded by him in 1480, and his tomb and effigy are in
the chancel. His son, Jean de Chabannes, left three heiresses, of whom
the second left a daughter who brought the countship to Philippe de
Boulainvilliers, by whose heirs it was sold in 1554 to the dukes of
Montmorency. In 1632 the countship was confiscated by Louis XIII. and
bestowed on the princes of Condé.

DAMME, a decayed city of Belgium, 5 m. N.E. of Bruges, once among the
most important commercial ports of Europe. It is situated on the canal
from Bruges to Sluys (Ecluse), but in the middle ages a navigable
channel or river called the Zwyn gave ships access to it from the North
Sea. The great naval battle of Sluys, in which Edward III. destroyed the
French fleet and secured the command of the channel, was fought in the
year 1340 at the mouth of the Zwyn. About 1395 this channel began to
show signs of silting up, and during the next hundred years the process
proved rapid. In 1490 a treaty was signed at Damme between the people of
Bruges and the archduke Maximilian, and very soon after this event the
channel became completely closed up, and the foreign merchant gilds or
"nations" left the place for Antwerp. This signified the death of the
port and was indirectly fatal to Bruges as well. The marriage of Charles
the Bold and Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV., was celebrated at
Damme on the 2nd of July 1468. It will give some idea of the importance
of the town to mention that it had its own maritime law, known as _Droit
maritime de Damme_. The new ship canal from Zeebrugge will not revive
the ancient port, as it follows a different route, leaving Damme and
Ecluse quite untouched. Damme, although long neglected, preserves some
remains of its former prosperity, thanks to its remoteness from the area
of international strife in the Low Countries. The tower of Notre Dame,
dating from 1180, is a landmark across the dunes, and the church behind
it, although a shell, merits inspection. Out of a portion of the ancient
markets a hôtel-de-ville of modest dimensions has been constructed, and
in the hospital of St Jean are a few pictures. Camille Lemonnier has
given in one of his _Causeries_ a striking picture of this faded scene
of former greatness, now a solitude in which the few residents seem
spectres rather than living figures.

DAMOCLES, one of the courtiers of the elder Dionysius of Syracuse. When
he spoke in extravagant terms of the happiness of his sovereign,
Dionysius is said to have invited him to a sumptuous banquet, at which
he found himself seated under a naked sword suspended by a single hair
(Cicero, _Tusc._ v. 21; Horace, _Odes_, iii. 1, 17; Persius iii. 40).

DAMOH, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division
of the Central Provinces. The town has a railway station, 48 m. E. of
Saugor. Pop. (1901) 13,355. It has a considerable cattle-market, and a
number of small industries, such as weaving, dyeing and pottery-making.

The DISTRICT OF DAMOH has an area of 2816 sq. m. Except on the south and
east, where the offshoots from the surrounding hills and patches of
jungle break up the country, the district consists of open plains of
varying degrees of fertility, interspersed with low ranges and isolated
heights. The richest tracts lie in the centre. The gentle declivity of
the surface and the porous character of the prevailing sandstone
formation render the drainage excellent. All the streams flow from south
to north. The Sunar and the Bairma, the two principal rivers, traverse
the entire length of the district. Little use has been made of any of
the rivers for irrigation, though in many places they offer great
facilities for the purpose. Damoh was first formed into a separate
district in 1861. In 1901 the population was 285,326, showing a decrease
of 12% in one decade due to famine. Damoh suffered severely from the
famine of 1896-1897. Fortunately the famine of 1900 was little felt. A
branch of the Indian Midland railway was opened throughout from Saugor
to Katni in January 1899.

DAMON, of Syracuse, a Pythagorean, celebrated for his disinterested
affection for Phintias (not, as commonly given, Pythias), a member of
the same sect. Condemned to death by Dionysius the Elder (or Younger) of
Syracuse, Phintias begged to be set at liberty for a short time that he
might arrange his affairs. Damon pledged his life for the return of his
friend; and Phintias faithfully returned before the appointed day of
execution. The tyrant, to express his admiration of their fidelity,
released both the friends and begged to be admitted to their friendship
(Diod. Sic. x. 4; Cicero, _De Off._ iii. 10). Hyginus (_Fab._ 257, who
is followed by Schiller in his ballad, _Die Bürgschaft_) tells a similar
story, in which the two friends are named Moerus and Selinuntius.

DAMOPHON, a Greek sculptor of Messene, who executed many statues for the
people of Messene, Megalopolis, Aegium and other cities of Peloponnesus.
Considerable fragments, including three colossal heads from a group by
him representing Demeter, Persephone, Artemis and the giant Anytus, have
been discovered on the site of Lycosura in Arcadia, where was a temple
of the goddess called "The Mistress." They are preserved in part in the
museum at Athens and partly on the spot. Hence there has arisen a great
controversy as to the date of the artist, who has been assigned to
various periods, from the 4th century B.C. to the 2nd A.D. A good
account of the whole matter will be found in Frazer's _Pausanias_, iv.
372-379. Frazer wisely inclines to an early date; it is in fact
difficult to find any period, when the cities mentioned were in a
position to found temples, later than the time of Alexander.

DAMP, a common Teutonic word, meaning vapour or mist (cf. Ger. _Dampf_,
steam), and hence moisture. In its primitive sense the word persists in
the vocabulary of coal-miners. Their "firedamp" (formerly fulminating
damp) is marsh gas, which, when mixed with air and exploded, produced
"choke damp," "after damp," or "suffocating damp" (carbon dioxide).
"Black damp" consists of accumulations of irrespirable gases, mostly
nitrogen, which cause the lights to burn dimly, and the term "white
damp" is sometimes applied to carbon monoxide. As a verb, the word means
to stifle or check; hence damped vibrations or oscillations are those
which have been reduced or stopped, instead of being allowed to die out
naturally; the "dampers" of the piano are small pieces of felt-covered
wood which fall upon the strings and stop their vibrations as the keys
are allowed to rise; and the "damper" of a chimney or flue, by
restricting the draught, lessens the rate of combustion.

DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652-1715), English buccaneer, navigator and
hydrographer, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire, in 1652 (baptized
8th of June). Having early become an orphan, he was placed with the
master of a ship at Weymouth, in which he made a voyage to Newfoundland.
On his return he sailed to Bantam in the East Indies. He served in 1673
in the Dutch War under Sir Edward Sprague, and was present at two
engagements (28th of May; 4th of June); but then fell sick and was put
ashore. In 1674 he became an under-manager of a Jamaica estate, but
continued only a short time in this situation. He afterwards engaged in
the coasting trade, and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the
ports and bays of the island. He made two voyages to the Bay of
Campeachy (1675-1676), and remained for some time with the
logwood-cutters, varying this occupation with buccaneering. In 1678 he
returned to England, again visiting Jamaica in 1679 and joining a party
of buccaneers, with whom he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, spent the
year 1680 on the Peruvian coast, and sacking, plundering and burning,
made his way down to Juan Fernandez Island. After serving with another
privateering expedition in the Spanish Main, he went to Virginia and
engaged with a captain named Cook for a privateering voyage against the
Spaniards in the South Seas. They sailed in August 1683, touched at the
Guinea coast, and then proceeded round Cape Horn into the Pacific.
Having touched at Juan Fernandez, they made the coast of South America,
cruising along Chile and Peru. They took some prizes, and with these
they proceeded to the Galapagos Islands and to Mexico, which last they
fell in with near Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook died,
and the command devolved on Captain Davis, who, with several other
pirate vessels, English and French, raided the west American shores for
the next year, attacking Guayaquil, Puebla Nova, &c. At last Dampier,
leaving Davis, went on board Swan's ship, and proceeded with him along
the northern parts of Mexico as far as southern California. Swan then
proposed, as the expedition met with "bad success" on the Mexican coast,
to run across the Pacific and return by the East Indies. They started
from Cape Corrientes on the 31st of March 1686, and reached Guam in the
Ladrones on the 20th of May; the men, having almost come to an end of
their rations, had decided to kill and eat their leaders next, beginning
with the "lusty and fleshy" Swan. After six months' drunkenness and
debauchery in the Philippines, the majority of the crew, including
Dampier, left Swan and thirty-six others behind in Mindanao, cruised
(1687-1688) from Manila to Pulo Condore, from the latter to China, and
from China to the Spice Islands and New Holland (the Australian
mainland). In March 1688 they were off Sumatra, and in May off the
Nicobars, where Dampier was marooned (at his own request, as he
declares, for the purpose of establishing a trade in ambergris) with two
other Englishmen, a Portuguese and some Malays. He and his companions
contrived to navigate a canoe to Achin in Sumatra; but the fatigues and
distress of the voyage proved fatal to several and nearly carried off
Dampier himself. After making several voyages to different places of the
East Indies (Tongking, Madras, &c.), he acted for some time, and
apparently somewhat unwillingly, as gunner to the English fort of
Benkulen. Thence he ultimately contrived to return to England in 1691.

In 1699 he was sent out by the English admiralty in command of the
"Roebuck," especially designed for discovery in and around Australia. He
sailed from the Downs, the 14th of January, with twenty months'
provisions, touched at the Canaries, Cape Verdes and Bahia, and ran from
Brazil round the Cape of Good Hope direct to Australia, whose west coast
he reached on the 26th of July, in about 26° S. lat. Anchoring in
Shark's Bay, he began a careful exploration of the neighbouring
shore-lands, but found no good harbour or estuary, no fresh water or
provisions. In September, accordingly, he left Australia, recruited and
refitted at Timor, and thence made for New Guinea, where he arrived on
the 3rd of December. By sailing along to its easternmost extremity, he
discovered that it was terminated by an island, which he named New
Britain (now Neu Pommern), whose north, south and east coasts he
surveyed. That St George's Bay was really St George's Channel, dividing
the island into two, was not perceived by Dampier; it was the discovery
of his successor, Philip Carteret. Nor did Dampier visit the west coast
of New Britain or realize its small extent on that side. He was
prevented from prosecuting his discoveries by the discontent of his men
and the state of his ship. In May 1700 he was again at Timor, and thence
he proceeded homeward by Batavia (4th July-17th October) and the Cape of
Good Hope. In February 1701 he arrived off Ascension Island, when the
vessel foundered (21st-24th February), the crew reaching land and
staying in the island till the 3rd of April, when they were conveyed to
England by some East Indiamen and warships bound for home. In 1703-1707
Dampier commanded two government privateers on an expedition to the
South Seas with grievous unsuccess; better fortune attended him on his
last voyage, as pilot to Woodes Rogers in the circumnavigation of
1708-1711. On the former venture Alexander Selkirk, the master of one of
the vessels, was marooned at Juan Fernandez; on the latter Selkirk was
rescued and a profit of nearly £200,000 was made. But four years before
the prize-money was paid Dampier died (March 1715) in St Stephen's
parish, Coleman Street, London. Dampier's accounts of his voyages are
famous. He had a genius for observation, especially of the scientific
phenomena affecting a seaman's life; his style is usually
admirable--easy, clear and manly. His knowledge of natural history,
though not scientific, appears surprisingly accurate and trustworthy.

  See Dampier's _New Voyage Round the World_ (1697); his _Voyages and
  Descriptions_ (1699), a work supplementary to the _New Voyage_; his
  _Voyage to New Holland in ... 1699_ (1703, 1709); also Funnell's
  Narrative of the Voyage of 1703-1707; Dampier's _Vindication of his
  Voyage_ (1707); Welbe's _Answer to Captain Dampier's Vindication_;
  Woodes Rogers, _Cruising Voyage Round the World_ (1712).
       (C. R. B.)

DAN (from a Hebrew word meaning "judge"), a tribe of Israel, named after
a son of Jacob and Bilhah, the maid of Rachel. The meaning of the name
(referred to in Gen. xxx. 5 seq., xlix. 16) connects Dan with Dinah
("judgment"), the daughter of Leah, whose story in Gen. xxxiv. (cf.
xlix. 5 seq.) seems to point to an Israelite occupation of Shechem, a
treacherous massacre of its Canaanite inhabitants by Simeon and Levi,
and the subsequent scattering of the latter. But, historically, the
occupation of Shechem, whether by conquest (Gen. xlviii. 22) or purchase
(xxxiii. 19), is as obscure as the conquest of central Palestine itself
(see JOSHUA), and the true relation between Dan and Dinah is uncertain.
The earliest seats of Dan lay at Zorah, Eshtaol and Kirjath-jearim, west
of Jerusalem, whence they were forced to seek a new home, and a valuable
narrative detailing some of the events of the move is preserved in the
story of the sanctuary of the Ephraimite Micah (q.v.). Laish (Leshem)
was taken with the sword and re-named Dan (see below). Here a sanctuary
was founded under the guardianship of Jonathan, the grandson of Moses,
which survived until the "captivity of the land" (by Tiglath-Pileser IV.
in 733-732), or, according to another notice, until the fall of Shiloh
(Judg. xviii. 30 seq.). Dan formed the northern limit of the land,[1]
and with Abel (-beth-Maacah) was an old place renowned for Israelite
lore (2 Sam. xx. 18; on the text see the commentaries). Little can be
made of Dan's history. The reference to it as a seafaring folk (Judg. v.
17) is difficult, and it is uncertain whether its character as
represented in Gen. xlix. 17, Deut. xxxiii. 22, refers to its earlier or
later seat. The post-exilic accounts of its southern border would make
it part of Judah, and both of them are in tradition the greatest of the
tribes in the wanderings in the wilderness. Dan was subsequently either
regarded as the embodiment of wickedness or entirely ignored; late
speculation that the Antichrist should spring from it appears to be
based upon an interpretation of Gen. xlix. 17 (see further R. H.
Charles, _Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs_, pp. 128 seq.).

A brief record of the Danite migration is found in some old detached
fragments which K. Budde (_Richter und Samuel_) ingeniously arranges
thus:--Judg. i. 34 (Amorite pressure); Josh. xix. 47a (see the
Septuagint), 47_b_; Judg. i. 35. The position of Judg. xvii. seq.
(after the stories of Samson) may imply that the Philistines, not the
Amorites, caused the migration (cf. 1 Sam. vii. 14, where the two
ethnical terms interchange). The Mosaic priesthood and the reference to
Shiloh suggest that the story of Eli may have belonged to this cycle of
narratives; and the spoliation of the unknown sanctuary of the
Ephraimite Micah and the character of the fierce Puritan tribesmen
connect Dan with the problems of the tribes of Simeon and Levi. Dan's
northern home lay near Beth-rehob, which appears to have been Aramean in
David's time (2 Sam. x. 6), and it is possible that the migration has
been antedated (cf. similarly the case of Jair, Num. xxxii. 41, Judg. x.
3-5). The Tyrian artificer sent to Solomon by Hiram was partly of Danite
descent (2 Chron. ii. 13 seq.; but of Naphtali, so 1 Kings vii. 14); and
of the two workers in brass who took part in the building of the
tabernacle in the desert, one was Danite (Oholiab, Ex. xxxi. 6), while
the other appears to have been Calebite (Bezalel, ib., v. 2; 1 Chron.
ii. 20). The Kenites, too, have been regarded as a race of metal-workers
(see CAIN, KENITES), and there is evidence which would show that
Danites, Calebites and Kenites were once closely associated in
tradition.

  See S. A. Cook, _Critical Notes_, Index, _s.v._: E. Meyer,
  _Israeliten_, pp. 525 seq.      (S. A. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] On the late phrase "Dan to Beersheba" as the extreme points of
    religious life in Israel, see H. W. Hogg, _Expositor_, viii. 411-421
    (1898); and for a complete discussion of the tribe, his art. "Dan" in
    _Encyc. Bib._

DAN, a town of ancient Israel, near the head-waters of the Jordan,
inhabited before its conquest by the Danites by a peaceful commercial
population who called their city Laish or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47, Judg.
xviii.). It appears to have been even at this early period a sacred
city, the shrine of Micah being removed hither, and it was chosen by
Jeroboam as the site of one of his calf-shrines. It makes the north
limit of Palestine in the proverbial expression "from Dan to Beersheba."
The town was plundered by Benhadad of Damascus, and appears from that
time to have gradually declined. Its site is sought in the mound called
Tell-el-Kadi, "the hill of the judge" (Dan = "judge" in Hebrew), though
weighty authorities incline to place it 4 m. east of this, at Banias,
the old Caesarea Philippi. (See above.)

DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON (1819-1897), American journalist, was born in
Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the 8th of August 1819. At the age of twelve
he became a clerk in his uncle's general store at Buffalo, which failed
in 1837. In 1839 he entered Harvard, but the impairment of his eyesight
in 1841 forced him to leave college, and caused him to abandon his
intention of entering the ministry and of studying in Germany. From
September 1841 until March 1846 he lived at Brook Farm, where he was
made one of the trustees of the farm, was head waiter when the farm
became a Fourierite phalanx, and was in charge of the phalanstery's
finances when its buildings were burned in 1846. He had previously
written for (and managed) the _Harbinger_, the Brook Farm organ, and had
written as early as 1844 for the Boston _Chronotype_. In 1847 he joined
the staff of the New York _Tribune_, and in 1848 he wrote from Europe
letters to it and other papers on the revolutionary movements of that
year. Returning to the _Tribune_ in 1849, he became its managing-editor,
and in this capacity actively promoted the anti-slavery cause, seeming
to shape the paper's policy at a time when Greeley was undecided and
vacillating. In 1862 his resignation was asked for by the board of
managers of the _Tribune_, apparently because of wide temperamental
differences between him and Greeley. Secretary of War Stanton
immediately made him a special investigating agent of the war
department; in this capacity Dana discovered frauds of quartermasters
and contractors, and as the "eyes of the administration," as Lincoln
called him, he spent much time at the front, and sent to Stanton
frequent reports concerning the capacity and methods of various generals
in the field; he went through the Vicksburg campaign and was at
Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and urged the placing of General Grant in
supreme command of all the armies in the field. Dana was second
assistant-secretary of war in 1864-1865, and in 1865-1866 conducted the
newly-established and unsuccessful Chicago _Republican_. He became the
editor and part-owner of the New York _Sun_ in 1868, and remained in
control of it until his death at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, on
the 17th of October 1897. Under Dana's control the _Sun_ opposed the
impeachment of President Johnson; it supported Grant for the presidency
in 1868; it was a sharp critic of Grant as president; and in 1872 took
part in the Liberal Republican revolt and urged Greeley's nomination. It
favoured Tilden, the Democratic candidate for the presidency, in 1876,
opposed the Electoral Commission and continually referred to Hayes as
the "fraud president." In 1884 it supported Benjamin F. Butler, the
candidate of Greenback-Labor and Anti-Monopolist parties, for the
presidency, and opposed Blaine (Republican) and even more bitterly
Cleveland (Democrat); it supported Cleveland and opposed Harrison in
1888, although it had bitterly criticized Cleveland's first
administration, and was to criticize nearly every detail of his second,
with the exception of Federal interference in the Pullman strike of
1894; and in 1896, on the free-silver issue, it opposed Bryan, the
Democratic candidate for the presidency. Dana's literary style came to
be the style of the _Sun_--simple, strong, clear, "boiled down." _The
Art of Newspaper Making_, containing three lectures which he wrote on
journalism, was published in 1900. With George Ripley he edited _The New
American Cyclopaedia_ (15 vols., 1857-1863), reissued as the _American
Cyclopaedia_ in 1873-1876. He had excellent taste in the fine arts and
edited an anthology, _The Household Book of Poetry_ (1857). He was a
very good linguist, published several versions from the German, and read
the Romance and Scandinavian languages; he was an art connoisseur and
left a remarkable collection of Chinese porcelain. Dana's _Reminiscences
of the Civil War_ was published in 1898, as was his _Eastern Journeys,
Notes of Travel_. He also edited a campaign _Life of U. S. Grant_,
published over his name and that of General James H. Wilson in 1868.

  See James Wilson, _The Life of Charles A. Dana_ (New York, 1907).

DANA, FRANCIS (1743-1811), American jurist, was born in Charlestown,
Massachusetts, on the 13th of June 1743. He was the son of Richard Dana
(1699-1772), a leader of the Massachusetts provincial bar, and a
vigorous advocate of colonial rights in the pre-revolutionary period.
Francis Dana graduated at Harvard in 1762, was admitted to the bar in
1767, and, being an opponent of the British colonial policy, became a
leader of the Sons of Liberty, and in 1774 was a member of the first
provincial congress of Massachusetts. During a two years' visit to
England he sought earnestly to gain friends to his colony's cause, but
returned to Boston in April 1776 convinced that a friendly settlement of
the dispute was impossible. He was a member of the Massachusetts
executive council from 1776 to 1780, and a delegate to the Continental
Congress from 1776 to 1778. As a member of the latter body he became
chairman in January 1778 of the committee appointed to visit Washington
at Valley Forge, and confer with him concerning the reorganization of
the army. This committee spent about three months in camp, and assisted
Washington in preparing the plan of reorganization which Congress in the
main adopted. In this year he was also a member of a committee to
consider Lord North's offer of conciliation, which he vigorously
opposed. In the autumn of 1779 he was appointed secretary to John Adams,
who had been selected as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties
of peace and commerce with Great Britain, and in December 1780 he was
appointed diplomatic representative to the Russian government. He
remained at St Petersburg from 1781 to 1783, but was never formally
received by the empress Catherine. In February 1784 he was again chosen
a delegate to Congress, and in January 1785 he became a justice of the
Massachusetts supreme court. He was chief justice of this court from
1791 to 1806, and presided with ability and rare distinction. He was an
earnest advocate of the adoption of the Federal constitution, was a
member of the Massachusetts convention which ratified that instrument,
and was one of the most influential advisers of the leaders of the
Federalist party. His tastes were scholarly, and he was one of the
founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 25th of April 1811.

His son, RICHARD HENRY DANA (1787-1879), was born in Cambridge,
Massachusetts, on the 15th of November 1787. He was educated at Harvard
in the class of 1808. Subsequently he studied law and in 1811 was
admitted to practice. But all other interests were early subordinated to
his love of literature, to which the greater part of his long life was
devoted. He became in 1814 a member of a literary society in Cambridge,
known as the Anthology Club. This club began the publication of a
monthly magazine, _The Monthly Anthology_, which gave way in 1815 to
_The North American Review_. In the editorial control of this periodical
he was associated with Jared Sparks and Edward T. Channing (1790-1856)
until 1821, contributing essays and criticisms which attracted wide
attention. In 1821-1822 he edited in New York a short-lived literary
magazine, _The Idle Man_. He published his first volume of _Poems_ in
1827, and in 1833 appeared his _Poems and Prose Writings_, republished
in 1850 in two volumes, in which were included practically all of his
poems and of his prose contributions to periodical literature. Although
the bulk of his published writings was not large, his influence on
American literature during the first half of the 19th century was
surpassed by that of few of his contemporaries.

RICHARD HENRY DANA (1815-1882), son of the last-mentioned, was born in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 1st of August 1815. He entered Harvard
in the class of 1835, but at the beginning of his junior year an illness
affecting his sight necessitated a suspension of his college work, and
in August 1834 he shipped before the mast for California, returning in
September 1836. The rough experience of this voyage did more than endow
him with renewed health; it changed him from a dreamy, sensitive boy,
hereditarily disinclined to any sort of active career, into a
self-reliant, energetic man, with broad interests and keen sympathies.
He re-entered Harvard in December 1836 and graduated in June 1837. He
was a student at the Harvard law school from 1837 to 1840, and from
January 1839 to February 1840 he was also an instructor in elocution in
the college. In 1840 the notes of his sea-trip were published under the
title _Two Years Before the Mast_. The book attained an almost
unprecedented popularity both in America and in Europe, where it was
translated into several languages; and it came to be considered a
classic. Immediately after the appearance of this book Dana began the
practice of law, which brought him a large number of maritime cases. In
1841 he published _The Seaman's Friend_, republished in England as _The
Seaman's Manual_, which was long the highest authority on the legal
rights and duties of seamen. After gaining recognition as one of the
most prominent members of the Suffolk bar, he became associated in 1848
with the Free Soil movement, and took a prominent part in the Buffalo
convention of that year. This step, which caused him to be ostracized
for a time from the Boston circles in which he had been reared, brought
him the cases of the fugitive slaves, Shadrach, Sims and Burns, and of
the rescuers of Shadrach. On the night following the surrender of Burns
(May 1854) Dana was brutally assaulted on the Boston streets. In 1853 he
took a prominent part in the state constitutional convention. He allied
himself with the Republican party on its organization, but his inborn
dislike for political manoeuvring prevented his ever becoming prominent
in its councils. In 1857 he became a regular attendant at the meetings
of the famous Boston Saturday Club, to the members of which he dedicated
his account of a vacation trip, _To Cuba and Back_ (1857). He returned
to America from a trip round the world in time to participate in the
presidential campaign of 1860, and after Lincoln's inauguration he was
appointed United States district attorney for Massachusetts. In this
office in 1863 he won before the Supreme Court of the United States the
famous prize case of the "Amy Warwick," on the decision in which
depended the right of the government to blockade the Confederate ports,
without giving the Confederate States an international status as
belligerents. He brought out in 1865 an edition of _Wheaton's
International Law_, his notes constituting a most learned and valuable
authority on international law and its bearings on American history and
diplomacy; but immediately after its publication Dana was charged by the
editor of two earlier editions, William Beach Lawrence, with infringing
his copyright, and was involved in litigation which was continued for
thirteen years. In such minor matters as arrangement of notes and
verification of citations the court found against Dana, but in the main
Dana's notes were vastly different from Lawrence's. In 1865 Dana
declined an appointment as a United States district judge. During the
Reconstruction period he favoured the congressional plan rather than
that of President Johnson, and on this account resigned the
district-attorneyship. In 1867-1868 he was a member of the Massachusetts
House of Representatives, and in 1867 was retained with William M.
Evarts to prosecute Jefferson Davis, whose admission to bail he
counselled. In 1877 he was one of the counsel for the United States
before the commission which in accordance with the treaty of Washington
met at Halifax, N.S., to arbitrate the fisheries question between the
United States and Great Britain. In 1878 he gave up his law practice and
devoted the rest of his life to study and travel. He died in Rome,
Italy, on the 9th of January 1882.

  See Charles Francis Adams, _Richard Henry Dana: a Biography_ (2 vols.,
  Boston, Mass., 1891).

DANA, JAMES DWIGHT (1813-1895), American geologist, mineralogist and
zoologist, was born in Utica, New York, on the 12th of February 1813. He
early displayed a taste for science, which had been fostered by Fay
Edgerton, a teacher in the Utica high school, and in 1830 he entered
Yale College, in order to study under Benjamin Silliman the elder.
Graduating in 1833, for the next two years he was teacher of mathematics
to midshipmen in the navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged
in his duties. In 1836-1837 he was assistant to Professor Silliman in
the chemical laboratory at Yale, and then, for four years, acted as
mineralogist and geologist of a United States exploring expedition,
commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, in the Pacific ocean (see WILKES,
CHARLES). His labours in preparing the reports of his explorations
occupied parts of thirteen years after his return to America in 1842. In
1844 he again became a resident of New Haven, married the daughter of
Professor Silliman, and in 1850, on the resignation of the latter, was
appointed Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale
College, a position which he held till 1892. In 1846 he became joint
editor and during the later years of his life he was chief editor of the
_American Journal of Science and Arts_ (founded in 1818 by Benjamin
Silliman), to which he was a constant contributor, principally of
articles on geology and mineralogy. A bibliographical list of his
writings shows 214 titles of books and papers, beginning in 1835 with a
paper on the conditions of Vesuvius in 1834, and ending with the fourth
revised edition (finished in February 1895) of his _Manual of Geology_.
His reports on _Zoophytes_, on the _Geology of the Pacific Area_, and on
_Crustacea_, summarizing his work on the Wilkes expedition, appeared in
1846, 1849 and 1852-1854, in quarto volumes, with copiously illustrated
atlases; but as these were issued in small numbers, his reputation more
largely rests upon his _System of Mineralogy_ (1837 and many later
editions in 1892); _Manual of Geology_ (1862; ed. 4, 1895); _Manual of
Mineralogy_ (1848), afterwards entitled _Manual of Mineralogy and
Lithology_ (ed. 4, 1887); and Corals and Coral Islands (1872; ed. 2,
1890). In 1887 Dana revisited the Hawaiian Islands, and the results of
his further investigations were published in a quarto volume in 1890,
entitled _Characteristics of Volcanoes_. By the Royal Society of London
he was awarded the Copley medal in 1877; and by the Geological Society
the Wollaston medal in 1874. His powers of work were extraordinary, and
in his 82nd year he was occupied in preparing a new edition of his
_Manual of Geology_, the 4th edition being issued in 1895. He died on
the 14th of April 1895.

His son EDWARD SALISBURY DANA, born at New Haven on the 16th of November
1849, is author of _A Textbook of Mineralogy_ (1877; new ed. 1898) and a
_Text Book of Elementary Mechanics_ (1881). In 1879-80 he was professor
of natural philosophy and then became professor of physics at Yale.

  See _Life of J. D. Dana_, by Daniel C. Gilman (1899).

DANAE, in Greek legend, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. Her father,
having been warned by an oracle that she would bear a son by whom he
would be slain, confined Danae in a brazen tower. But Zeus descended to
her in a shower of gold, and she gave birth to Perseus, whereupon
Acrisius placed her and her infant in a wooden box and threw them into
the sea. They were finally driven ashore on the island of Seriphus,
where they were picked up by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother
Polydectes, who was king of the island, fell in love with Danae and
married her. According to another story, her son Perseus, on his return
with the head of Medusa, finding his mother persecuted by Polydectes,
turned him into stone, and took Danae back with him to Argos. Latin
legend represented her as landing on the coast of Latium and marrying
Pilumnus or Picumnus, from whom Turnus, king of the Rutulians, was
descended. Danae formed the subject of tragedies by Aeschylus,
Sophocles, Euripides, Livius Andronicus and Naevius. She is the
personification of the earth suffering from drought, on which the
fertilizing rain descends from heaven.

  Apollodorus ii. 4; Sophocles, _Antigone_, 944; Horace, _Odes_, iii.
  16; Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 410. See also P. Schwarz, _De Fabula
  Danaeia_ (1881).

DANAO, a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, Philippine
Islands, on the E. coast, at the mouth of the Danao river, 17 m. N.N.E.
of Cebú, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,173. Danao has a comparatively cool
and healthy climate, is the centre of a rich agricultural region
producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, copra and cacao, and coal is mined
in the vicinity. The language is Cebú-Visayan.

DANAUS, in Greek legend, son of Belus, king of Egypt, and twin-brother
of Aegyptus. He was born at Chemmis (Panopolis) in Egypt, but having
been driven out by his brother he fled with his fifty daughters to
Argos, the home of his ancestress Io. Here he became king and taught the
inhabitants of the country to dig wells. In the meantime the fifty sons
of Aegyptus arrived in Argos, and Danaus was obliged to consent to their
marriage with his daughters. But to each of these he gave a knife with
injunctions to slay her husband on the marriage night. They all obeyed
except Hyperm(n)estra, who spared Lynceus. She was brought to trial by
her father, acquitted and afterwards married to her lover. Being unable
to find suitors for the other daughters, Danaus offered them in marriage
to the youths of the district who proved themselves victorious in racing
contests (Pindar, _Pythia_, ix. 117). According to another story,
Lynceus slew Danaus and his daughters and seized the throne of Argos
(schol. on Euripides, _Hecuba_, 886). By way of expiation for their
crime the Danaïdes were condemned to the endless task of filling with
water a vessel which had no bottom. This punishment, originally
inflicted on those who neglected certain mystic rites, was transferred
to those who, like the Danaïdes, despised the mystic rite of marriage;
cf. the water-bearing figure ([Greek: loutrophoros]) on the grave of
unmarried persons. The murder of the sons of Aegyptus by their wives is
supposed to represent the drying up of the rivers and springs of Argolis
in summer by the agency of the nymphs.

  Apollodorus ii. 1; Horace, _Odes_, iii. 11; O. Waser, in _Archiv für
  Religionswissenschaft_, ii. Heft 1, 1899; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's
  _Realencyclopädie_ and W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_;
  Campbell Bonner, in _Harvard Studies_, xiii. (1902).

DANBURITE, a rare mineral species consisting of calcium and boron
orthosilicate, CaB2(SiO4)2, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. It
was discovered by C.U. Shepard in 1839 at Danbury, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
and named by him after this locality. The crystals are prismatic in
habit, and closely resemble topaz in form and interfacial angles. There
is an imperfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane. Crystals are
transparent to translucent, and colourless to pale yellow; hardness 7;
specific gravity 3.0. At Danbury the mineral occurs with microcline and
oligoclase embedded in dolomite. Large crystals, reaching 4 in. in
length, have been found with calcite in veins traversing granite at
Russell in St Lawrence county, New York. Smaller but well-developed
crystals have been found on gneiss at Mt. Scopi and Petersthal (the
valley of the Vals Rhine) in Switzerland. Splendid crystals have
recently been obtained from Japan.

DANBURY, a city and one of the county-seats of Fairfield county,
Connecticut, U.S.A., in Danbury township, in the south-west part of the
state, on the Still river, a tributary of the Housatonic. Pop. (1890)
16,552; (1900) 16,537 (3702 foreign-born); (1910) 20,234. In 1900 the
population of the township, including that of the city, was 19,474, and
in 1910, 23,502. Danbury is served by three divisions of the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railway; by the Danbury & Harlem electric railway,
which connects at Goldens Bridge, New York, with the Harlem division of
the New York Central; and by an electric line to Bethel, Connecticut.
Lake Kenosia, about 2½ m. from the centre of the city, is a pleasure
resort. A state normal school was opened in Danbury in 1904, and there
is a home for destitute and homeless children under private
(unsectarian) control. The city has good water-power, and the
municipality owns the water works. The principal industry is the
manufacture of felt hats, begun in 1780, and in 1905 engaging about
thirty factories, with a product for the year valued at $5,798,107
(71.9% of the value of all the factory products of the city, and 15.8%
of the value of all the felt hats produced in the United States). The
city ranked first among the cities of the country in this industry in
1900 and second in 1905, and in 1905 no other city showed so high a
degree of specialization in it. Silver-plated ware (mostly manufactured
by Rogers Bros.) is another important product. At Danbury is held
annually the well-known agricultural Danbury Fair. The township was
settled in 1684 by emigrants from Norwalk, and received its present name
in 1687. When the War of Independence opened, Enoch Crosby, believed to
be the original of Harvey Birch, the hero of J. F. Cooper's _The Spy_,
was a resident of Danbury. A depot of military supplies was established
in the village of Danbury in 1776; in April 1777 Governor William Tryon,
of New York, raided the place, destroying the military stores and
considerable private property. During his retreat he was attacked (April
26th) at Ridgefield (about 9 m. south by east of Danbury) by the
Americans under General David Wooster (1710-1777), who was fatally
wounded in the conflict (being succeeded by General Benedict Arnold),
and to whose memory a monument was erected in Danbury in 1854. Danbury
was chartered as a borough in 1832 and as a city in 1880. In 1870 the
_Danbury News_ was established by the consolidation of the
_Jeffersonian_ and the _Times_, by James Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894),
from 1865 to 1870 proprietor of the _Times_. He wrote for the _News_
humorous sketches, which made him and the paper famous, Bailey being
known as the "Danbury News Man"; among his books are _Life in Danbury_
(1873), _The Danbury News Man's Almanac_ (1873), _They All Do It_
(1877), _England from a Back Window_ (1878), _Mr Philip's Goneness_
(1879), _The Danbury Boom_ (1880), and _History of Danbury_ (1896).

DANBY, FRANCIS (1793-1861), English painter, was born in the south of
Ireland on the 16th of November 1793. His father farmed a small property
he owned near Wexford, but his death caused the family to remove to
Dublin, while Francis was still a schoolboy. He began to practice
drawing at the Royal Dublin Society's schools; and under an erratic
young artist named O'Connor he began painting landscape. Danby also made
acquaintance with George Petrie, and all three left for London together
in 1813. This expedition, undertaken with very inadequate funds, quickly
came to an end, and they had to get home again by walking. At Bristol
they made a pause, and Danby, finding he could get trifling sums for
water-colour drawings, remained there working diligently and sending to
the London exhibitions pictures of importance. There his large pictures
in oil quickly attracted attention. "The Upas Tree" (1820) and "The
Delivery of the Israelites" (1825) brought him his election as an
associate of the Royal Academy. He left Bristol for London, and in 1828
exhibited his "Opening of the Sixth Seal" at the British Institution,
receiving from that body a prize of 200 guineas; and this picture was
followed by two others from the Apocalypse. He suddenly left London,
declaring that he would never live there again, and that the Academy,
instead of aiding him, had, somehow or other, used him badly. Some
insurmountable domestic difficulty overtook him also, and for eleven or
twelve years he lived on the Lake of Geneva, a Bohemian with
boat-building fancies, painting only now and then. He returned to
England in 1841, when his sons, James and Thomas, both artists, were
growing up. Other pictures by him were "The Golden Age" and "The Evening
Gun," the first begun before he left England, the second painted after
his return; he had taken up his abode at Exmouth, where he died on the
9th of February 1861.

DANCE, the name of an English family distinguished in architecture, art
and the drama. GEORGE DANCE, the elder (1700-1768), obtained the
appointment of architect to the city of London, and designed the Mansion
House (1739); the churches of St Botolph, Aldgate (1741), St Luke's, Old
Street; St Leonard, Shoreditch; the old excise office; Broad Street; and
other public works of importance. He died on the 8th of February 1768.
His eldest son, JAMES DANCE (1722-1744), was born on the 17th of March
1722, and educated at the Merchant Taylors' School and St John's
College, Oxford, which he left before graduating. He took the name of
Love, and became an actor and playwright of no great merit. In the
former capacity he was for twelve years connected with Drury Lane
theatre. He wrote "an heroic poem" on _Cricket_, about 1740, and a
volume of _Poems on Several Occasions_ (1754), and a number of
comedies--the earliest _Pamela_ (1742).

George Dance's third son, Sir NATHANIEL DANCE-HOLLAND, Bart.
(1735-1811), was born on the 18th of May 1735, and studied art under
Francis Hayman, and in Italy, where he met Angelica Kauffmann, to whom
he was devotedly and hopelessly attached. From Rome he sent home "Dido
and Aeneas" (1763), and he continued to paint occasional historical
pictures of the same quasi-classic kind throughout his career. On his
return to England he took up portrait-painting with great success, and
contributed to the first exhibition of the Royal Academy, of which he
was a foundation member, full-length portraits of George III. and his
queen. These, and his portraits of Captain Cook and of Garrick as
Richard III., engraved by Dixon, are his best-known works. Himself a
rich man, in 1790 he married a widow with £15,000 a year, dropped his
profession, and became M.P. for East Grinstead, taking the additional
name of Holland. He was made a baronet in 1800. He died on the 15th of
October 1811, leaving a fortune of £200,000.

George Dance's fifth and youngest son, GEORGE DANCE, the younger
(1741-1825), succeeded his father as city surveyor and architect in
1768. He was then only twenty-seven, had spent several years abroad,
chiefly in Italy with his brother Nathaniel, and had already
distinguished himself by designs for Blackfriars Bridge sent to the 1761
exhibition of the Incorporated Society of Artists. His first important
public work was the rebuilding of Newgate prison in 1770. The front of
the Guildhall was also his. He, too, was a foundation member of the
Royal Academy, and for a number of years the last survivor of the forty
original academicians. His last years were devoted to art rather than to
architecture, and after 1798 his Academy contributions consisted solely
of chalk portraits of his friends, seventy-two of which were engraved
and published (1808-1814). He resigned his office in 1815, and after
many years of illness died on the 14th of January 1825, and was buried
in St Paul's. His son, CHARLES DANCE (1794-1863), was for thirty years
registrar, taxing officer and chief clerk of the insolvent debtors'
court, retiring, when it was abolished, on an allowance. In
collaboration with J. R. Planché and others, or alone, he wrote a great
number of extravaganzas, farces and comediettas. He was one of the
first, if not the first, of the burlesque writers, and was the author of
those produced so successfully by Madame Vestris for years at the
Olympic. Of his farces, _Delicate Ground, Who Speaks First?_, _A Morning
Call_ and others are still occasionally revived. He died on the 6th of
January 1863.

DANCE (Fr. _danse_; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger.
_danson_, to stretch). The term "dancing" in its widest sense includes
three things:--(1) the spontaneous activity of the muscles under the
influence of some strong emotion, such as social joy or religious
exultation; (2) definite combinations of graceful movements performed
for the sake of the pleasure which the exercise affords to the dancer
or to the spectator; (3) carefully trained movements which are meant by
the dancer vividly to represent the actions and passions of other
people. In the highest sense it seems to be for prose-gesture what song
is for the instinctive exclamations of feeling. Regarded as the outlet
or expression of strong feeling, dancing does not require much
discussion, for the general rule applies that such demonstrations for a
time at least sustain and do not exhaust the flow of feeling. The voice
and the facial muscles and many of the organs are affected at the same
time, and the result is a high state of vitality which among the
spinning Dervishes or in the ecstatic worship of Bacchus and Cybele
amounted to something like madness. Even here there is traceable an
undulatory movement which, as Herbert Spencer says, is "habitually
generated by feeling in its bodily discharge." But it is only in the
advanced or volitional stage of dancing that we find developed the
essential feature of _measure_, which has been said to consist in "the
alternation of stronger muscular contractions with weaker ones," an
alternation which, except in the cases of savages and children, "is
compounded with longer rises and falls in the degree of muscular
excitement." In analysing the state of mind which this measured dancing
produces, we must first of all allow for the pleasant glow of excitement
caused by the excess of blood sent to the brain. But apart from this,
there is an agreeable sense of uniformity in the succession of muscular
efforts, and in the spaces described, and also in the period of their
recurrence. If the steps of dancing and the intervals of time be not
precisely equal, there is still a pleasure depending on the gradually
increasing intensity of motion, on the undulation which uniformly rises
in order to fall. As Florizel says to Perdita, "When you do dance, I
wish you a wave of the sea" (_Winter's Tale_, iv. 3). The mind feels the
beauty of emphasis and cadence in muscular motion, just as much as in
musical notes. Then, the figure of the dance is frequently a circle or
some more graceful curve or series of curves,--a fact which satisfies
the dancer as well as the eye of the spectator. But all such effects are
intensified by the use of music, which not only brings a perfectly
distinct set of pleasurable sensations to dancer and spectator, but by
the control of dancing produces an inexpressibly sweet harmony of sound
and motion. This harmony is further enriched if there be two dancing
together on one plan, or a large company of dancers executing certain
evolutions, the success of which depends on the separate harmonies of
all the couples. The fundamental condition is that throughout the dance
all the dancers keep within their bases of gravity. This is not only
required for the dancers' own enjoyment, but, as in the famous Mercury
on tiptoe, it is essential to the beautiful effect for the spectator.
The idea of much being safely supported by little is what proves
attractive in the posturing ballet. But this is merely one condition of
graceful dancing, and if it be made the chief object the dancer sinks
into the acrobat.

Dancing is, in fact, the universal human expression, by movements of the
limbs and body, of a sense of rhythm which is implanted among the
primitive instincts of the animal world. The rhythmic principle of
motion extends throughout the universe, governing the lapse of waves,
the flow of tides, the reverberations of light and sound, and the
movements of celestial bodies; and in the human organism it manifests
itself in the automatic pulses and flexions of the blood and tissues.
Dancing is merely the voluntary application of the rhythmic principle,
when excitement has induced an abnormally rapid oxidization of brain
tissue, to the physical exertion by which the overcharged brain is
relieved. This is primitive dancing; and it embraces all movements of
the limbs and body expressive of joy or grief, all pantomimic
representations of incidents in the lives of the dancers, all
performances in which movements of the body are employed to excite the
passions of hatred or love, pity or revenge, or to arouse the warlike
instincts, and all ceremonies in which such movements express homage or
worship, or are used as religious exercises. Although music is not an
essential part of dancing, it almost invariably accompanies it, even in
the crudest form of a rhythm beaten out on a drum.

_Primitive and Ancient Dancing._--In Tigrè the Abyssinians dance the
_chassée_ step in a circle, and keep time by shrugging their shoulders
and working their elbows backwards and forwards. At intervals the
dancers squat on the ground, still moving the arms and shoulders in the
same way. The Bushmen dance in their low-roofed rooms supporting
themselves by sticks; one foot remains motionless, the other dances in a
wild irregular manner, while the hands are occupied with the sticks. The
Gonds, a hill-tribe of Hindustan, dance generally in pairs, with a
shuffling step, the eyes on the ground, the arms close to the body, and
the elbows at an angle with the closed hand. Advancing to a point, the
dancer suddenly erects his head, and wheels round to the starting point.
The women of the Pultooah tribe dance in a circle, moving backwards and
forwards in a bent posture. The Santal women, again, are slow and
graceful in dance; joining hands, they form themselves into the arc of a
circle, towards the centre of which they advance and then retire, moving
at the same time slightly towards the right, so as to complete the
circle in an hour. The Kukis of Assam have only the rudest possible
step, an awkward hop with the knees very much bent. The national dance
of the Kamchadale is one of the most violent known, every muscle
apparently quivering at every movement. But there, and in some other
cases where men and women dance together, there is a trace of deliberate
obscenity; the dance is, in fact, a rude representation of sexual
passion. It has been said that some of the Tasmanian _corrobories_ have
a phallic design. The Yucatan dance of _naual_ may also be mentioned.
The Andamans hop on one foot and swing the arms violently backwards and
forwards. The Veddahs jump with both feet together, patting their
bodies, or clapping their hands, and make a point of bringing their long
hair down in front of the face. In New Caledonia the dance consists of a
series of twistings of the body, the feet being lifted alternately, but
without change of place. The Fijians jump half round from side to side
with their arms akimbo. The only modulation of the Samoan dance is one
of time--a _crescendo_ movement, which is well-known in the modern
ball-room. The Javans are perhaps unique in their distinct and graceful
gestures of the hands and fingers. At a Mexican feast called
Huitzilopochtli, the noblemen and women danced tied together at the
hands, and embracing one another, the arms being thrown over the neck.
This resembles the dance variously known as the Greek Bracelet or Brawl,
[Greek: Hormos], or Bearsfeet; but all of them[1] probably are to a
certain extent symbolical of the relations between the sexes. Actual
contact of the partners, however, is quite intelligible as matter of
pure dancing; for, apart altogether from the pleasure of the embrace,
the harmony of the double rotation adds very much to the enjoyment. In a
very old Peruvian dance of ceremony before the Inca, several hundreds of
men formed a chain, each taking hold of the hand of the man beyond his
immediate neighbour, and the whole body moving forwards and backwards
three steps at a time as they approached the throne. In this, as in the
national dance of the Coles of Lower Bengal, there was perhaps a
suggestion of "l'union fait la force." In Yucatan stilts were
occasionally used for dancing.

It seldom happens that dancing takes place without accompaniment, either
by the dancers or by others. This is not merely because the feelings
which find relief in dancing express themselves at the same time in
other forms; in some cases, indeed, the vocal and instrumental elements
largely predominate, and form the ground-work of the whole emotional
demonstration. Whether they do so or not will of course depend on the
intellectual advancement of the nation or tribe and upon the particular
development of their aesthetical sensibility. A striking instance occurs
among the Zulus, whose grand dances are merely the accompaniment to the
colloquial war and hunting songs, in which the women put questions which
are answered by the men. So also in Tahiti there is a set of national
ballads and songs, referring to many events in the past and present
lives of the people. The fisherman, the woodsman, the canoe-builder,
has each his trade song, which on public occasions at least is
illustrated by dancing. But the accompaniment is often consciously
intended, by an appeal to the ear, to regulate and sustain the
excitement of the muscles. And a close relation will be found always to
exist between the excellence of a nation's dancing and the excellence or
complexity of its music and poetry. In some cases the performer himself
sings or marks time by the clanking of ornaments on his person. In
others the accompaniment consists sometimes of a rude chant improvised
by those standing round, or of music from instruments, or of mere
clapping of the hands, or of striking one stick against another or on
the ground, or of "marking time," in the technical sense. The Tasmanians
beat on a rolled-up kangaroo-skin. The Kamchadales make a noise like a
continuous hiccough all through the dance. The Andamans use a large
hollow dancing-board, on which one man is set apart to stamp. Sometimes
it is the privilege of the tribal chief to sing the accompaniment while
his people dance. The savages of New Caledonia whistle and strike upon
the hip.

The rude imitative dances of early civilization are of extreme interest.
In the same way the dances of the Ostyak tribes (Northern Asiatic)
imitate the habitual sports of the chase and the gambols of the wolf and
the bear and other wild beasts, the dancing consisting mainly of sudden
leaps and violent turns which exhaust the muscular powers of the whole
body. The Kamchadales, too, in dancing, imitate bears, dogs and birds.
The _Kru_ dances of the Coast Negroes represent hunting scenes; and on
the Congo, before the hunters start, they go through a dance imitating
the habits of the gorilla and its movements when attacked. The Damara
dance is a mimic representation of the movements of oxen and sheep, four
men stooping with their heads in contact and uttering harsh cries. The
canter of the baboon is the humorous part of the ceremony. The Bushmen
dance in long irregular jumps, which they compare to the leaping of a
herd of calves, and the Hottentots not only go on all-fours to
counterfeit the baboon, but they have a dance in which the buzzing of a
swarm of bees is represented. The Kennowits in Borneo introduce the mias
and the deer for the same purpose. The Australians and Tasmanians in
their dances called _corrobories_ imitate the frog and the kangaroo
(both leaping animals). The hunt of the emu is also performed, a number
of men passing slowly round the fire and throwing their arrows about so
as to imitate the movements of the animal's head while feeding. The
Gonds are fond of dancing the bison hunt, one man with skin and horns
taking the part of the animal. Closely allied to these are the mimic
fights, almost universal among tribes to which war is one of the great
interests of life. The Bravery dance of the Dahomans and the Hoolee of
the Bhil tribe in the Vindhya Hills are illustrations. The latter seems
to have been reduced to an amusement conducted by professionals who go
from village to village,--the battle being engaged in by women with long
poles on the one side, and men with short cudgels on the other. There is
here an element of comedy, which also appears in the Fiji club-dance.
This, although no doubt originally suggested by war, is enlivened by the
presence of a clown covered with leaves and wearing a mask. The
monotonous song accompanying the club-dance is by way of commentary or
explanation. So, also, in Guatemala there is a public _baile_ or dance,
in which all the performers, wearing the skins and heads of beasts, go
through a mock battle, which always ends in the victory of those wearing
the deer's head. At the end the victors trace in the sand with a pole
the figure of some animal; and this exhibition is supposed to have some
historical reference. But nearly all savage tribes have a regular
war-dance, in which they appear in fighting costume, handle their
weapons, and go through the movements of challenge, conflict, pursuit or
defeat. The women generally supply the stimulus of music. There is one
very picturesque dance of the Natal Kaffirs, which probably refers to
the departure of the warriors for the battle. The women appeal
plaintively to the men, who slowly withdraw, stamping on the ground and
darting their short spears or _assegais_ towards the sky. In
Madagascar, when the men are absent on war, the women dance for a great
part of the day, believing that this inspires their husbands with
courage. In this, however, there may be some religious significance.
These war-dances are totally distinct from the institution of military
drill, which belongs to a later period, when social life has become less
impulsive and more reflective.[2] There can be little doubt that some of
the characteristic movements of these primitive hunting and war-dances
survive in the smooth and ceremonious dances of the present day. But the
early mimetic dance was not confined to these two subjects; it embraced
the other great events of savage life--the drama of courtship and
marriage, the funeral dance, the consecration of labour, the celebration
of harvest or vintage;[3] sometimes, too, purely fictitious scenes of
dramatic interest, while other dances degenerated into games. For
instance, in Yucatan one man danced in a cowering attitude round a
circle, while another followed, hurling at him _bohordos_ or canes,
which were adroitly caught on a small stick. Again, in Tasmania, the
dances of the women describe their "clamber for the opossum, diving for
shell-fish, digging for roots, nursing children and quarrelling with
husbands." Another dance, in which a woman by gesture taunts a chieftain
with cowardice, gives him an opportunity of coming forward and
recounting his courageous deeds in dance. The funeral dance of the Todas
(another Indian hill-tribe) consists in walking backwards and forwards,
without variation, to a howling tune of "ha! hoo!" The meaning of this
is obscure, but it can scarcely be solely an outburst of grief. In
Dahomey the blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, braves and bards, with
their various tools and instruments, join in a dramatic dance. We may
add here a form of dance which is almost precisely equivalent to the
spoken incantation. It is used by the professional devil-dancer of the
wild Veddahs for the cure of diseases. An offering of eatables is put on
a tripod of sticks, and the dancer, decorated with green leaves, goes
into a paroxysm of dancing, in the midst of which he receives the
required information. This, however, rather belongs to the subject of
religious dances.

It is impossible here to enumerate either the names or the forms of the
sacred dances which formed so prominent a part of the worship of
antiquity. A mystic philosophy found in them a resemblance to the
courses of the stars. This Pythagorean idea was expanded by Sir John
Davies, in his epic poem _Orchestra_, published in 1596. They were
probably adapted to many purposes,--to thanksgiving, praise,
supplication and humiliation. It is only one striking illustration of
this widespread practice, that there was at Rome a very ancient order of
priests especially named Salii, who struck their shields and sang
_assamenta_ as they danced. The practice reappeared in the early church,
special provision being made for dancing in the choir. Scaliger, who
astonished Charles V. by his dancing powers, says the bishops were
called _Praesules_, because they led the dance on feast days. According
to some of the fathers, the angels are always dancing, and the glorious
company of the apostles is really a _chorus_ of dancers. Dancing,
however, fell into discredit with the feast of the _Agapae_. St
Augustine says, "Melius est fodere quam saltare"; and the practice was
generally prohibited for some time. No church or sect has raged so
fiercely against the cardinal sin of dancing as the Albigenses of
Languedoc and the Waldenses, who agreed in calling it the devil's
procession. After the middle of the 18th century there were still traces
of religious dancing in the cathedrals of Spain, Portugal and
Roussillon--especially in the Mozarabic Mass of Toledo. An account of
the numerous secular dances, public and private, of Greece and Rome will
be found in the classical histories, and in J. Weaver's _Essay towards a
History of Dancing_, (London, 1712), which, however, must be revised by
more recent authorities. The Pyrrhic (derived from the Memphitic) in all
its local varieties, the Bacchanalia and the Hymenaea were among the
more important. The name of Lycurgus is also associated with the
Trichoria. Among the stage dances of the Athenians, which formed
interludes to the regular drama, one of the oldest was the Delian dance
of the Labyrinth, ascribed to Theseus, and called [Greek: Geranos], from
its resemblance to the flight of cranes, and one of the most powerful
was the dance of the Eumenides. A further development of the art took
place at Rome, under Augustus, when Pylades and Bathyllus brought
serious and comic pantomime to great perfection. The subjects chosen
were such as the labours of Hercules, and the surprise of Venus and Mars
by Vulcan. The state of public feeling on the subject is well shown in
Lucian's amusing dialogue _De Saltatione_. Before this Rome had only
very inferior buffoons, who attended dinner parties, and whose art
traditions belonged not to Greece, but to Etruria.[4] Apparently,
however, the Romans, though fond of ceremony and of the theatre, were by
temperament not great dancers in private. Cicero says: "Nemo fere saltat
sobrius, nisi forte insanit." But the Italic dance of the imperial
theatre, supported by music and splendid dresses, supplanted for a time
the older dramas. It was the policy of Augustus to cultivate other than
political interests for the people; and he passed laws for the
protection and privilege of the pantomimists. They were freed from the
_jus virgarum_, and they used their freedom against the peace of the
city. Tiberius and Domitian oppressed and banished them; Trajan and
Aurelius gave them such titles as decurions and priests of Apollo; but
the pantomime stage soon yielded to the general corruption of the
empire.

_Modern Dancing._--In modern civilized countries dancing has developed
as an art and pastime, as an entertainment. Its direct application to
arouse emotion or religious feeling tends to be obscured and finally
dropped out.

Italy, in the 15th century, saw the renaissance of dancing, and France
may be said to have been the nursery of the modern art, though
comparatively few modern dances are really French in origin. The
national dances of other countries were brought to France, studied
systematically, and made perfect there. An English or a Bohemian dance,
practised only amongst peasants, would be taken to France, polished and
perfected, and would at last find its way back to its own country, no
more recognizable than a piece of elegant cloth when it returns from the
printer to the place from which as "grey" material it was sent. The fact
that the terminology of dancing is almost entirely French is a
sufficient indication of the origin of the rules that govern it. The
earliest dances that bear any relation to the modern art are probably
the _danses basses_ and _danses hautes_ of the 16th century. The _danse
basse_ was the dance of the court of Charles IX. and of good society,
the steps being very grave and dignified, not to say solemn, and the
accompaniment a psalm tune. The _danses hautes_ or _baladines_ had a
skipping step, and were practised only by clowns and country people.
More lively dances, such as the _Gaillarde_ and _Volta_, were introduced
into France from Italy by Catherine de' Medici, but even in these the
interest was chiefly spectacular. Other dances of the same period were
the _Branle_ (afterwards corrupted to _Braule_, and known in England as
the Brawle)--a kind of generic dance which was capable of an almost
infinite amount of variety. Thus there were imitative dances--_Branles
mimés_, such as the _Branles des Ermites_, _Branles des flambeaux_ and
the _Branles des lavandières_. The _Branle_ in its original form had
steps like the _Allemande_. Perhaps the most famous and stately dance of
this period was the _Pavane_ (of Spanish origin), which is very fully
described in Tabouret's _Orchésographie_, the earliest work in which a
dance is found minutely described. The _Pavane_, which was really more a
procession than a dance, must have been a very gorgeous and noble sight,
and it was perfectly suited to the dress of the period, the stiff
brocades of the ladies and the swords and heavily-plumed hats of the
gentlemen being displayed in its simple and dignified measures to great
advantage. The dancers in the time of Henry III. of France usually
sang, while performing the _Pavane_, a _chanson_, of which this is one
of the verses:

  "Approche donc, ma belle,
       Approche-toi, mon bien;
   Ne me sois plus rebelle,
       Puisque mon coeur est tien;
   Pour mon âme apaiser,
   Donne-moi un baiser."

In the _Pavane_ and _Branle_, and in nearly all the dances of the 17th
and 18th centuries, the practice of kissing formed a not unimportant
part, and seems to have added greatly to the popularity of the pastime.
Another extremely popular dance was the _Saraband_, which, however, died
out after the 17th century. It was originally a Spanish dance, but
enjoyed an enormous success for a time in France. Every dance at that
time had its own tune or tunes, which were called by its own name, and
of the _Saraband_ the chevalier de Grammont wrote that "it either
charmed or annoyed everyone, for all the guitarists of the court began
to learn it, and God only knows the universal twanging that followed."
Vauquelin des Yveteaux, in his eightieth year, desired to die to the
tune of the _Saraband_, "so that his soul might pass away sweetly."
After the _Pavane_ came the _Courante_, a court dance performed on
tiptoe with slightly jumping steps and many bows and curtseys. The
_Courante_ is one of the most important of the strictly modern dances.
The minuet and the waltz were both in some degree derived from it, and
it had much in common with the famous _Seguidilla_ of Spain. It was a
favourite dance of Louis XIV., who was an adept in the art, and it was
regarded in his time as of such importance that a nobleman's education
could hardly have been said to be begun until he had mastered the
_Courante_.

The dance which the French brought to the greatest perfection--which
many, indeed, regard as the fine flower of the art--was the _Minuet_.
Its origin, as a rustic dance, is not less antique than that of the
other dances from which the modern art has been evolved. It was
originally a _branle_ of Poitou, derived from the _Courante_. It came to
Paris in 1650, and was first set to music by Lully. It was at first a
gay and lively dance, but on being brought to court it soon lost its
sportive character and became grave and dignified. It is mentioned by
Beauchamps, the father of dancing-masters, who flourished in Louis
XIV.'s reign, and also by Blondy, his pupil; but it was Pécour who
really gave the minuet its popularity, and although it was improved and
made perfect by Dauberval, Gardel, Marcel and Vestris, it was in Louis
XV.'s reign that it saw its golden age. It was then a dance for two in
moderate triple time, and was generally followed by the gavotte.
Afterwards the minuet was considerably developed, and with the gavotte
became chiefly a stage dance and a means of display; but it should be
remembered that the minuets which are now danced on the stage are
generally highly elaborated with a view to their spectacular effect, and
have imported into them steps and figures which do not belong to the
minuet at all, but are borrowed from all kinds of other dances. The
original court minuet was a grave and simple dance, although it did not
retain its simplicity for long. But when it became elaborated it was
glorified and moulded into a perfect expression of an age in which
deportment was most sedulously cultivated and most brilliantly polished.
The "languishing eye and smiling mouth" had their due effect in the
minuet; it was a school for chivalry, courtesy and ceremony; the hundred
slow graceful movements and curtseys, the pauses which had to be filled
by neatly-turned compliments, the beauty and bravery of attire--all were
eloquent of graces and outward refinements which we cannot boast now.
The fact that the measure of the minuet has become incorporated in the
structure of the symphony shows how important was its place in the
polite world. The _Gavotte_, which was often danced as a pendant to the
minuet, was also originally a peasant's dance, a _danse des Gavots_, and
consisted chiefly of kissing and capering. It also became stiff and
artificial, and in the later and more prudish half of the 18th century
the ladies received bouquets instead of kisses in dancing the gavotte.
It rapidly became a stage dance, and it has never been restored to the
ballroom. Grétry attempted to revive it, but his arrangement never
became popular. Other dances which were naturalized in France were the
_Écossaise_, popular in 1760; the _Cotillon_, fashionable under Charles
X., derived from the peasant _branles_ and danced by ladies in short
skirts; the _Galop_, imported from Germany; the _Lancers_, invented by
Laborde in 1836; the _Polka_, brought by a dancing-master from Prague in
1840; the _Schottische_, also Bohemian, first introduced in 1844; the
_Bourrée_, or French clog-dance; the _Quadrille_, known in the 18th
century as the _Contre-danse_; and the _Waltz_, which was danced as a
_volte_ by Henry III. of France, but only became popular in the
beginning of the 19th century. We shall return to the history of some of
these later dances in discussing the dances at present in use.

If France has been the nursery and school of the art of dancing, Spain is
its true home. There it is part of the national life, the inevitable
expression of the gay, contented, irresponsible, sunburnt nature of the
people. The form of Spanish dances has hardly changed; some of them are
of great antiquity, and may be traced back with hardly a break to the
performances in ancient Rome of the famous dancing-girls of Cadiz. The
connexion is lost during the period of the Arab invasion, but the art was
not neglected, and Jovellanos suggests that it took refuge in the
Asturias. At any rate, dances of the 10th and 12th centuries have been
preserved uncorrupted. The earliest dances known were the _Turdion_, the
_Gibidana_, the _Pié-de-gibao_, and (later) the _Madama Orleans_, the
_Alemana_ and the _Pavana_. Under Philip IV. theatrical dancing was in
high popularity, and ballets were organized with extraordinary
magnificence of decoration and costume. They supplanted the national
dances, and the _Zarabanda_ and _Chacona_ were practically extinct in the
18th century. It is at this period that the famous modern Spanish dances,
the _Bolero_, _Seguidilla_ and the _Fandango_, first appear. Of these the
_Fandango_ is the most important. It is danced by two people in 6-8 time,
beginning slowly and tenderly, the rhythm marked by the click of
castanets, the snapping of the fingers and the stamping of feet, and the
speed gradually increasing until a whirl of exaltation is reached. A
feature of the _Fandango_ and also of the _Seguidilla_ is a sudden pause
of the music towards the end of each measure, upon which the dancers
stand rigid in the attitudes in which the stopping of the music found
them, and only move again when the music is resumed. M. Vuillier, in his
_History of Dancing_, gives the following description of the
_Fandango_:--"Like an electric shock, the notes of the Fandango animate
all hearts. Men and women, young and old, acknowledge the power of this
air over the ears and soul of every Spaniard. The young men spring to
their places, rattling castanets or imitating their sound by snapping
their fingers. The girls are remarkable for the willowy languor and
lightness of their movements, the voluptuousness of their
attitudes--beating the exactest time with tapping heels. Partners tease
and entreat and pursue each other by turns. Suddenly the music stops, and
each dancer shows his skill by remaining absolutely motionless, bounding
again into the full life of the Fandango as the orchestra strikes up. The
sound of the guitar, the violin, the rapid tic-tac of heels (_taconeos_),
the crack of fingers and castanets, the supple swaying of the dancers,
fill the spectator with ecstasy. The measure whirls along in a rapid
triple time. Spangles glitter; the sharp clank of ivory and ebony
castanets beats out the cadence of strange, throbbing, deepening
notes--assonances unknown to music, but curiously characteristic,
effective and intoxicating. Amidst the rustle of silks, smiles gleam over
white teeth, dark eyes sparkle and droop and flash up again in flame. All
is flutter and glitter, grace and animation--quivering, sonorous,
passionate, seductive."

The _Bolero_ is a comparatively modern dance, having been invented by
Sebastian Cerezo, a celebrated dancer of the time of King Charles III.
It is remarkable for the free use made in it of the arms, and is said to
be derived from the ancient _Zarabanda_, a violent and licentious dance,
which has entirely disappeared, and with which the later Saraband has
practically nothing in common. The step of the _Bolero_ is low and
gliding but well marked. It is danced by one or more couples. The
_Seguidilla_ is hardly less ancient than the _Fandango_, which it
resembles. Every province in Spain has its own _Seguidilla_, and the
dance is accompanied by _coplas_, or verses, which are sung either to
traditional melodies or to the tunes of local composers; indeed, the
national music of Spain consists largely of these coplas. Baron
Davillier, among several specimens of _Seguidillas_, gives this one

  "Mi corazon volando
   Se fué á tu pecho;
   Le cortaste las alas,
       Y quédo dentro.
       Por atrevido
   Se quedará por siempre
       En el metido."[5]

M. Vuillier quotes a _copla_ which he heard at Polenza, in the Balearic
Islands. This verse is formed on the rhythm of the _Malagueña_:

  "Una estrella se ha pardida
     En el ciel y no parece;
   En tu cara se ha metido;
     Y en tu frente resplandece."[6]

The _Jota_ is the national dance of Aragon, a lively and splendid, but
withal dignified and reticent, dance derived from the 16th-century
_Passacaille_. It is still used as a religious dance. The _Cachuca_ is a
light and graceful dance in triple time. It is performed by a single
dancer of either sex. The head and shoulders play an important part in
the movements of this dance. Other provincial dances now in existence
are the _Jaleo de Jerez_, a whirling measure performed by gipsies, the
_Palotéa_, the _Polo_, the _Gallegada_, the _Muyneria_, the _Habas
Verdes_, the _Zapateado_, the _Zorongo_, the _Vito_, the _Tirano_ and
the _Tripola Trapola_. Most of these dances are named either after the
places where they are danced or after the composers who have invented
tunes for them. Many of them are but slight variations from the
_Fandango_ and _Seguidilla_.

The history of court dancing in Great Britain is practically the same as
that of France, and need not occupy much of our attention here. But
there are strictly national dances still in existence which are quite
peculiar to the country, and may be traced back to the dances and games
of the Saxon gleemen. The Egg dance and the Carole were both Saxon
dances, the Carole being a Yule-tide festivity, of which the present-day
Christmas carol is a remnant. The oldest dances which remain unchanged
in England are the Morris dances, which were introduced in the time of
Edward III. The name Morris or Moorish refers to the origin of these
dances, which are said to have been brought back by John of Gaunt from
his travels in Spain. The Morris dances are associated with May-day, and
are danced round a maypole to a lively and capering step, some of the
performers having bells fastened to their knees in the Moorish manner.
They are dressed as characters of old English tradition, such as Robin
Hood, Maid Marian, Friar Tuck, Little John and Tom the Piper. All the
true country dances of Great Britain are of an active and lively
measure; they may all, indeed, be said to be founded on the jig; and the
hornpipe, which is a kind of jig, is the national dance of England.
Captain Cook, on his voyages, made his sailors dance hornpipes in calm
weather to keep them in good health. A characteristic of English dances
was that they partook to a great extent of the nature of games; there
was little variety in the steps, which were nearly all those of the jig
or hornpipe, but these were incorporated into various games or plays, of
which the Morris dances were the most elaborate. Richard Baxter wrote
that "sometimes the Morris dancers would come into the church in all
their linen and scarves and antic dresses, with Morris bells jingling at
their legs; and as soon as Common Prayer was read, did haste and
presently to their play again." May-day has always been celebrated in
England with rustic dances and festivities. Before the Reformation there
were no really national dances in use at court; but in the reign of
Elizabeth the homely, domestic style of dancing reached the height of
its popularity. Remnants of many of these dances remain to-day in the
games played by children and country people; "Hunt the Slipper," "Kiss
in the Ring," "Here we go round the Mulberry Bush," are examples. All
the Tudor dances were kissing dances, and must have been the occasion of
a great deal of merriment. Mrs Groves gives the following description of
the Cushion dance:--"The dance is begun by a single person, man or
woman, who, taking a cushion in hand, dances about the room, and at the
end of a short time stops and sings: 'This dance it will no farther go,'
to which the musician answers: 'I pray you, good sir, why say so?'
'Because Joan Sanderson will not come to.' 'She must come to whether she
will or no,' returns the musician, and then the dancer lays the cushion
before a woman; she kneels and he kisses her, singing 'Welcome, Joan
Sanderson.' Then she rises, takes up the cushion, and both dance and
sing 'Prinkum prankum is a fine dance, and shall we go dance it over
again?' Afterwards the woman takes the cushion and does as the man did."
Other popular dances--generally adapted to the tunes of popular songs,
the nature of some of which may be guessed from their titles--were the
Trenchmore, Omnium-gatherum, Tolly-polly, Hoite cum toite, Dull Sir
John, Faine I would, Sillinger, All in a Garden Green, An Old Man's a
Bed Full of Bones, If All the World were Paper, John, Come Kiss Me Now,
Cuckholds All Awry, Green Sleeves and Pudding Pies, Lumps of Pudding,
Under and Over, Up Tails All, The Slaughter House, Rub her Down with
Straw, Have at thy Coat Old Woman, The Happy Marriage, Dissembling Love,
Sweet Kate, Once I Loved a Maiden Fair. Dancing practically disappeared
during the Puritan _régime_, but with the Restoration it again became
popular. It underwent no considerable developments, however, until the
reign of Queen Anne, when the glories of Bath were revived in the
beginning of the 18th century, and Beau Nash drew up his famous codes of
rules for the regulation of dress and manners, and founded the balls in
which the polite French dances completely eclipsed the simpler English
ones. An account of a dancing lesson witnessed by a fond parent at this
time is worth quoting, as it shows how far the writer (but not his
daughter) had departed from the jolly, romping traditions of the old
English dances:--"As the best institutions are liable to corruption, so,
sir, I must acquaint you that very great abuses are crept into this
entertainment. I was amazed to see my girl handed by and handing young
fellows with so much familiarity, and I could not have thought it had
been my child. They very often made use of a most impudent and
lascivious step called _setting_ to partners, which I know not how to
describe to you but by telling you that it is the very reverse of _back_
to _back_. At last an impudent young dog bid the fiddlers play a dance
called _Moll Patley_, and, after having made two or three capers, ran to
his partner, locked his arms in hers, and whisked her round cleverly
above ground in such a manner that I, who sat upon one of the lowest
benches, saw farther above her shoe than I can think fit to acquaint you
with. I could no longer endure these enormities, wherefore, just as my
girl was going to be made a whirligig, I ran in, seized my child and
carried her home." What we may call polite dancing, when it became
fashionable, soon invaded London, its first home being Madame Cornely's
famous Carlisle House in Soho Square. Ranelagh and Vauxhall and Almack's
were all extensively patronized, and the rage for magnificent
entertainment and dancing culminated in the erection of the palatial
Pantheon in Oxford Street--a place so universally patronized that even
Dr Johnson was to be found there. White's and Boodle's were also famous
assembly rooms, but the most exclusive of all these establishments was
Almack's, the original of Brooks's Club.

The only true national dances of Scotland are reels, strathspeys and
flings, while in Ireland there is but one dance--the jig, which is
there, however, found in many varieties and expressive of many shades of
emotion, from the maddest gaiety to the wildest lament. Curiously
enough, although the Welsh dance often, they have no strictly national
dances.

Dancing in present-day society is a comparatively simple affair, as
five-sixths of almost all ball programmes consists of waltzes. The
origin of the waltz is a much-debated subject, the French, Italians and
Bavarians each claiming for their respective countries the honour of
having given birth to it. As a matter of fact the waltz, as it is now
danced, comes from Germany; but it is equally true that its real origin
is French, since it is a development of the _Volte_, which in its turn
came from the _Lavolta_ of Provence, one of the most ancient of French
dances. The _Lavolta_ was fashionable in the 16th century and was the
delight of the Valois court. The _Volte_ danced by Henry III. was really
a _Valse à deux pas_; and Castil-Blaze says that "the waltz which we
took again from the Germans in 1795 had been a French dance for four
hundred years." The change, it is true, came upon it during its visit to
Germany, hence the theory of its German origin. The first German waltz
tune is dated 1770--"Ach! du lieber Augustin." It was first danced at
the Paris opera in 1793, in Gardel's ballet _La Dansomanie_. It was
introduced to English ballrooms in 1812, when it roused a storm of
ridicule and opposition, but it became popular when danced at Almack's
by the emperor Alexander in 1816. The waltz _à trois temps_ has a
sliding step in which the movements of the knees play an important part.
The _tempo_ is moderate, so as to allow three distinct movements on the
three beats of each bar; and the waltz is written in 3-4 time and in
eight-bar sentences. Walking up and down the room and occasionally
breaking into the step of the dance is not true waltzing, and the habit
of pushing one's partner backwards along the room is an entirely English
one. But the dancer must be able to waltz equally well in all
directions, pivoting and crossing the feet when necessary in the reverse
turn. It need hardly be said that the feet should never leave the floor
in the true waltz. Gungl, Waldteufel and the Strauss family may be said
to have moulded the modern waltz to its present form by their rhythmical
and agreeable compositions. There are variations which include hopping
and lurching steps; these are degradations, and foreign to the spirit of
the true waltz.

The _Quadrille_ is of some antiquity, and a dance of this kind was first
brought to England from Normandy by William the Conqueror, and was
common all over Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term
quadrille means a kind of card game, and the dance is supposed to be in
some way connected with the game. A species of quadrille appeared in a
French ballet in 1745, and since that time the dance has gone by that
name. Like many other dances, it came from Paris to Almack's in 1815,
and in its modern form was danced in England for the first time by Lady
Jersey, Lady Harriet Butler, Lady Susan Ryder and Miss Montgomery, with
Count Aldegarde, Mr Montgomery, Mr Harley and Mr Montague. It
immediately became popular. It then consisted of very elaborate steps,
which in England have been simplified until the degenerate practice has
become common of walking through the dance. The quadrille, properly
danced, has many of the graces of the minuet. It is often stated that
the square dance is of modern French origin. This is incorrect, and
probably arises from a mistaken identification of the terms quadrille
and square dance. "Dull Sir John" and "Faine I would" were square dances
popular in England three hundred years ago.

An account of the country-dance, with the names of some of the old
dance-tunes, has been given above. The word is not, as has been
supposed, an adaptation of the French _contre-danse_, neither is the
dance itself French in origin. According to the _New English
Dictionary_, _contre-danse_ is a corruption of "country-dance," possibly
due to a peculiar feature of many of such dances, like Sir Roger de
Coverley, where the partners are drawn up in lines opposite to each
other. The earliest appearance of the French word is in its application
to English dances, which are contrasted with the French; thus in the
_Memoirs of Grammont_, Hamilton says: "On quitta les danses françaises
pour se mettre aux contre-danses." The English "country-dances" were
introduced into France in the early part of the 18th century and became
popular; later French modifications were brought back to England under
the French form of the name, and this, no doubt, caused the
long-accepted but confused derivation.

The _Lancers_ were invented by Laborde in Paris in 1836. They were
brought over to England in 1850, and were made fashionable by Madame
Sacré at her classes in Hanover Square Rooms. The first four ladies to
dance the lancers in England were Lady Georgina Lygon, Lady Jane
Fielding, Mdlle. Olga de Lechner and Miss Berkeley.

The _Polka_, the chief of the Bohemian national dances, was adopted by
Society in 1835 at Prague. Josef Neruda had seen a peasant girl dancing
and singing the polka, and had noted down the tune and the steps. From
Prague it readily spread to Vienna, and was introduced to Paris by
Cellarius, a dancing-master, who gave it at the Odéon in 1840. It took
the public by storm, and spread like an infection through England and
America. Everything was named after the polka, from public-houses to
articles of dress. Mr Punch exerted his wit on the subject weekly, and
even _The Times_ complained that its French correspondence was
interrupted, since the polka had taken the place of politics in Paris.
The true polka has three slightly jumping steps, danced on the first
three beats of a four-quaver bar, the last beat of which is employed as
a rest while the toe of the unemployed foot is drawn up against the heel
of the other.

The _Galop_ is strictly speaking a Hungarian dance, which became popular
in Paris in 1830. But some kind of a dance corresponding to the galop
was always indulged in after _Voltes_ and _Contre-danses_, as a relief
from their grave and constrained measures.

The _Washington Post_ and several varieties of _Barn-dance_ are of
American origin, and became fashionable towards the end of the 19th
century.

The _Polka-Mazurka_ is extremely popular in Vienna and Budapest, and is
a favourite theme with Hungarian composers. The six movements of this
dance occupy two bars of 3-4 time, and consist of a mazurka step joined
to the polka. It is of Polish origin.

The _Polonaise_ and _Mazurka_ are both Polish dances, and are still
fashionable in Russia and Poland. Every State ball in Russia is opened
with the ceremonious Polonaise.

The _Schottische_, a kind of modified polka, was "created" by Markowski,
who was the proprietor of a famous dancing academy in 1850. The
_Highland Schottische_ is a fling. The Fling and Reel are Celtic dances,
and form the national dances of Scotland and Denmark. They are
complicated measures of a studied and classical order, in which free use
is made of the arms and of cries and stampings. The _Strathspey_ is a
slow and grandiose modification of the Reel.

_Sir Roger de Coverley_ is the only one of the old English social dances
which has survived to the present day, and it is frequently danced at
the conclusion of the less formal sort of balls. It is a merry and
lively game in which all the company take part, men and women facing
each other in two long rows. The dancers are constantly changing places
in such a way that if the dance is carried to its conclusion everyone
will have danced with everyone else. The music was first printed in
1685, and is sometimes written in 2-4 time, sometimes in 6-8 time, and
sometimes in 3-9 time.

The _Cotillon_ is a modern development of the French dance of the same
name referred to above. It is an extremely elaborate dance, in which a
great many toys and accessories are employed; hundreds of figures may be
contrived for it, in which presents, toys, lighted tapers, biscuits,
air-balloons and hurdles are used.

_Ballet, &c._--The modern ballet (q.v.) seems to have been first
produced on a considerable scale in 1489 at Tortona, before Duke
Galeazzo of Milan. It soon became a common amusement on great occasions
at the European courts. The ordinary length was five acts, each
containing several _entrées_, and each _entrée_ containing several
quadrilles. The accessories of painting, sculpture and movable scenery
were employed, and the representation often took place at night. The
allegorical, moral and ludicrous ballets were introduced to France by
Baïf in the time of Catherine de' Medici. The complex nature of these
exhibitions may be gathered from the title of one played at Turin in
1634--_La verità nemica della apparenza, sollevata dal tempo._ Of the
ludicrous, one of the best known was the Venetian ballet of _I a veritá
raminga_. Now and then, however, a high political aim may be discovered,
as in the "Prosperity of the Arms of France," danced before Richelieu in
1641, or "Religion uniting Great Britain to the rest of the World,"
danced at London on the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to the elector
Frederick. Outside the theatre, the Portuguese revived an ambulatory
ballet which was played on the canonization of Carlo Borromeo, and to
which they gave the name of the Tyrrhenic Pomp. During this time also
the ceremonial ball (with all its elaborate detail of _courante_, minuet
and saraband) was cultivated. The fathers of the church assembled at
Trent gave a ball in which they took a part. Masked balls, too,
resembling in some respects the Roman Saturnalia, became common towards
the end of the 17th century. In France a ball was sometimes diversified
by a masquerade, carried on by a limited number of persons in
character-costume. Two of the most famous were named "au Sauvage" and
"des Sorciers." In 1715 the regent of France started a system of public
balls in the opera-house, which did not succeed. Dancing, also, formed a
leading element in the Opéra Français introduced by Quinault. His
subjects were chiefly marvellous, drawn from the classical mythologies;
and the choral dancing was not merely _divertissement_, but was intended
to assist and enrich the dramatic action of the whole piece.

_Musical Gymnastics._--Dancing is an important branch of physical
education. Long ago Locke pointed out (_Education_, §§ 67, 196) that the
effects of dancing are not confined to the body; it gives to children,
he says, not mere outward gracefulness of motion, but manly thoughts and
a becoming confidence. Only lately, however, has the advantage been
recognized of making gymnastics attractive by connecting it with what
Homer calls "the sweetest and most perfect of human enjoyments." The
practical principle against heavy weights and intense monotonous
exertion of particular muscles was thus stated by Samuel Smiles
(_Physical Education_, p. 148):--"The greatest benefit is derived from
that exercise which calls into action the greatest number of muscles,
and in which the action of these is intermitted at the shortest
intervals." It required only one further step to see how, if light and
changing movements were desirable, music would prove a powerful stimulus
to gymnastics. It touches the play-impulse, and substitutes a
spontaneous flow of energy for the mechanical effort of the will. The
force of imitation or contagion, one of the most valuable forces in
education, is also much increased by the state of exhilaration into
which dancing puts the system. This idea was embodied by Froebel in his
_Kindergarten_ plan, and was developed by Jahn and Schreber in Germany,
by Dio Lewis in the United States, and by Ling (the author of the
_Swedish Cure Movement_) in Sweden.

  AUTHORITIES.--For the old division of the _Ars Gymnastica_ into
  _palaestrica_ and _saltatoria_, and of the latter into _cubistica_,
  _sphaeristica_ and _orchestica_, see the learned work of Hieronymus
  Mercurialis, _De arte Gymnastica_ (Amsterdam, 1572). Cubistic was the
  art of throwing somersaults, and is described minutely by Tuccaro in
  his _Trois Dialogues_ (Paris, 1599). Sphaeristic included several
  complex games at ball and tilting--the Greek [Greek: kôrukos], and the
  Roman _trigonalis_ and _paganica_. Orchestic, divided by Plutarch into
  _latio_, _figura_ and _indicatio_, was really imitative dancing, the
  "silent poetry" of Simonides. The importance of the [Greek:
  cheironomia] or hand-movement is indicated by Ovid:--"Si vox est,
  canta; si mollia brachia, salta." For further information as to modern
  dancing, see Rameau's _Le maître à danser_ (1726); Querlon's _Le
  triomphe des grâces_ (1774); Cahousac, _La danse ancienne et moderne_
  (1754); Vuillier, _History of Dancing_ (Eng. trans., 1897); Giraudet,
  _Traité de la danse_ (1900).     (W. C. S.; A. B. F. Y.)

FOOTNOTES:

  [1] Compare the Chica of South America, the Fandango of Spain, and
    the Angrismene or la Fachée of modern Greece. See also _Romaunt de la
    rose_, v. 776.

  [2] The Greek [Greek: karpaia] represented the surprise by robbers of
    a warrior ploughing a field. The gymnopaedic dances imitated the
    sterner sports of the palaestra.

  [3] The Greek Lenaea and Dionysia had a distinct reference to the
    seasons.

  [4] The Pantomimus was an outgrowth from the _canticum_ or choral
    singing of the older comedies and _fabulae Atellanae_.

  [5] "My heart flew to thy breast. Thou didst cut its wings, so that
    it remained there. And now it has waxed daring, and will stay with
    thee for evermore."

  [6] "A star is lost and appears not in the sky; in thy face it has
    set itself; on thy brow it shines."

DANCOURT, FLORENT CARTON (1661-1725), French dramatist and actor, was
born at Fontainebleau on the 1st of November 1661. He belonged to a
family of rank, and his parents entrusted his education to Père de la
Rue, a Jesuit, who made earnest efforts to induce him to join the order.
But he had no religious vocation and proceeded to study law. He
practised at the bar for some time, but his marriage to the daughter of
the comedian François Lenoir de la Thorillière led him to become an
actor, and in 1685, in spite of the strong opposition of his family, he
appeared at the Théâtre Français. His gifts as a comedian gave him
immediate and marked success, both with the public and with his fellow
actors. He was the spokesman of his company on occasions of state, and
in this capacity he frequently appeared before Louis XIV., who treated
him with great favour. One of his most famous impersonations was Alceste
in the _Misanthrope_ of Molière. His first play, _Le Notaire obligeant_,
produced in 1685, was well received. _La Désolation des joueuses_ (1687)
was still more successful. _Le Chevalier à la mode_ (1687) is generally
regarded as his best work, though his claim to original authorship in
this and some other cases has been disputed. In _Le Chevalier à la mode_
appears the _bourgeoise_ infatuated with the desire to be an aristocrat.
The type is developed in _Les Bourgeoises à la mode_ (1692) and _Les
Bourgeoises de qualité_ (1700). Dancourt was a prolific author, and
produced some sixty plays in all. Some years before his death he
terminated his career both as an actor and as an author by retiring to
his château at Courcelles le Roi, in Berry, where he employed himself in
making a poetical translation of the Psalms and in writing a sacred
tragedy. He died on the 7th of December 1725. The plays of Dancourt are
faithful descriptions of the manners of the time, and as such have real
historical value. The characters are drawn with a realistic touch that
led to his being styled by Charles Palissot the Teniers of comedy. He is
very successful in his delineation of low life, and especially of the
peasantry. The dialogue is sparkling, witty and natural. Many of the
incidents of his plots were derived from actual occurrences in the
"fast" and scandalous life of the period, and several of his characters
were drawn from well-known personages of the day. Most of the plays
incline to the type of farce rather than of pure comedy. Voltaire
defined his talent in the words: "Ce que Regnard était à l'égard de
Molière dans la haute comédie, le comédien Dancourt l'était dans la
farce."

His two daughters, Manon and Marie Anne (Mimi), both obtained success on
the stage of the Théâtre Français.

  The complete works of Dancourt were published in 1760 (12 vols. 12mo).
  An edition of his _Théâtre choisi_, with a preface by F. Sarcey,
  appeared in 1884.

DANDELION (_Taraxacum officinale_), a perennial herb belonging to the
natural order Compositae. The plant has a wide range, being found in
Europe, Central Asia, North America, and the Arctic regions, and also in
the south temperate zone. The leaves form a spreading rosette on the
very short stem; they are smooth, of a bright shining green, sessile,
and tapering downwards. The name dandelion is derived from the French
_dent-de-lion_, an appellation given on account of the tooth-like lobes
of the leaves. The long tap-root has a simple or many-headed rhizome; it
is black externally, and is very difficult of extirpation. The
flower-stalks are smooth, brittle, leafless, hollow, and very numerous.
The flowers bloom from April till August, and remain open from five or
six in the morning to eight or nine at night. The flower-heads are of a
golden yellow, and reach 1½ to 2 in. in width; the florets are all
strap-shaped. The fruits are olive or dull yellow in colour, and are
each surmounted by a long beak, on which rests a pappus of delicate
white hairs, which occasions the ready dispersal of the fruit by the
wind; each fruit contains one seed. The globes formed by the plumed
fruits are nearly two inches in diameter. The involucre consists of an
outer spreading (or reflexed) and an inner and erect row of bracts. In
all parts of the plant a milky juice is contained, which has a somewhat
complex composition. The chief constituent is taraxacin, a neutral
principle. In addition the juice contains taraxacerin (derived from the
former), asparagin, inulin, resins and salts. An extract (dose 5-15
grains), a liquid extract (dose ½-1 drachm) and a succus (dose 1-2
drachms) of the root are all used medicinally. For the purposes formerly
recognized taraxacum is now never used, but it has been shown to possess
definite cholagogue properties, and may therefore be prescribed along
with ammonium chloride in cases of hepatic constipation, which it very
constantly relieves. The root--which is the medicinal product--is most
bitter from March to July, but the milky juice it contains is less
abundant in the summer than in the autumn. For this reason, the extract
and succus are usually prepared during the months of September and
October. After a frost a change takes place in the root, which loses its
bitterness to a large extent. In the dried state the root will not keep
well, being quickly attacked by insects. Externally it is brown and
wrinkled, internally white, with a yellow centre and concentric paler
rings. It is two inches to a foot long, and about a quarter to half an
inch in diameter. The leaves are bitter, but are sometimes eaten as a
salad; they serve as food for silkworms when mulberry leaves are not to
be had. The root is roasted as a substitute for coffee. Several
varieties of the dandelion are recognized by botanists; they differ in
the degree and mode of cutting of the leaf-margin and the erect or
spreading character of the outer series of bracts. The variety
_palustre_, which affects boggy situations, and flowers in late summer
and autumn, has nearly entire leaves, and the outer bracts of its
involucre are erect.

[Illustration: Dandelion (_Taraxacum officinale_).

1, Unopened head; 2, ripe head from which all the fruits except two have
been removed; 3, one floret, enlarged; 4, one fruit.]

DANDOLO, the name of one of the most illustrious patrician families of
Venice, of which the earliest recorded member was one of the electors of
the first doge (A.D. 697). The Dandolo gave to Venice four doges; of
these the first and most famous was Enrico Dandolo (c. 1120-1205),
elected on the 1st of January 1193 (_more Veneto_, 1192). He had
distinguished himself in various military enterprises and diplomatic
negotiations in the course of an active career, and although over
seventy years old and of very weak sight (the story that he had been
made blind by the emperor Manuel Comnenus while he was at Constantinople
is a legend), he proved a most energetic and capable ruler. His first
care was to re-establish Venetian authority over the Dalmatians who had
rebelled with the king of Hungary's protection, but he failed to capture
Zara, owing to the arrival of the Pisan fleet, and although the latter
was defeated by the Venetians, the undertaking was suspended. In the
meanwhile the situation in the East was becoming critical. The Eastern
emperor Isaac II. Angelus had been deposed, imprisoned, and blinded by
his brother Alexius, who usurped the throne. The new emperor proved
unfriendly to the Venetians and made difficulties about renewing their
privileges. In the West a new crusade to the Holy Land was in
preparation, and the crusaders sent ambassadors, one of whom was
Villehardouin, the historian of the expedition, to ask the Venetians to
give them passage and means of transport (1201). After much deliberation
the republic agreed to transport 4500 horse and 29,000 foot to Palestine
with provisions for one year, for a sum of 85,000 marks; in addition 50
Venetian galleys would be provided free of charge, while Venice was to
receive half the conquests made by the crusaders. But as the time agreed
upon for the departure approached, it appeared that the crusaders had
not the money to pay the stipulated advance. Dandolo then proposed that
if they helped him to reduce Zara payment might be deferred. Some of the
crusaders disapproved of this attack on a Christian city, but the
majority, only too glad of an opportunity for plunder, willingly agreed.
The expedition sailed on the 8th of October 1202, three hundred sail in
all, with the aged Dandolo himself in command. Zara was taken and
pillaged, for which the Venetians were severely reprimanded by the pope.
But new possibilities of conquest were now opened up at the suggestion
of Alexius, the son of the deposed emperor Isaac. He promised the
crusaders that if they went first to Constantinople and re-instated
Isaac, the latter would maintain them for a year, contribute 10,000 men
and 200,000 marks for the expedition to Egypt, and subject the Eastern
to the Western Church. The proposal was accepted, largely owing to the
influence of Dandolo, who saw in it a means for further extending the
dominions and commerce of the Venetians. After wintering at Zara the
fleet set sail on the 7th of April 1203, and on the 23rd of June
anchored in the Bosporus. After long parleys the city was attacked by
land and sea on the 17th of July (the fleet being commanded by Dandolo)
and taken by storm. The emperor Alexius fled, and Isaac reoccupied the
throne, but, although grateful to the crusaders, he was not disposed to
fulfil the promises made by his son. Tumults between crusaders and
Greeks arose, and the people of the city, excited by a certain Alexis
Murzuphlus, murmured at the new taxes which were imposed on them. A
revolt broke out, and an officer named Nicholas Canabus was placed on
the throne; Prince Alexius was strangled by order of Murzuphlus, Isaac
died of the shock, Murzuphlus imprisoned Canabus and made himself
emperor (Alexius V.). The crusaders thereupon attacked Constantinople a
second time (12th of April 1204), and after a desperate struggle
captured the city, which they subjected to hideous carnage. Immense
booty was secured, the Venetians obtaining among other treasures the
four bronze horses which adorn the façade of St Mark's. The Eastern
empire was abolished, and a feudal Latin empire erected in its stead.
The leaders of the crusaders then met to elect an emperor. Dandolo was
one of the candidates, but Count Baldwin of Flanders was elected and
crowned on the 23rd of May. The Venetians were given Crete and several
other islands and ports in the Levant, which formed an uninterrupted
chain from Venice to the Black Sea, a large part of Constantinople
(whence the doge assumed the title of "lord of a quarter and a half of
Romania"), and many valuable privileges. But hardly had the new state
been established when various provinces rose in rebellion and the
Bulgarians invaded Thrace. A Latin army was defeated by them at
Adrianople (April 1205), and the emperor himself was captured and
killed, the fragments of the force being saved only by Dandolo's
prowess. But he was now old and ill, and on the 23rd of June 1205 he
died. He certainly consolidated Venice's dominion in the East and
increased its commercial prosperity to a very high degree. But the
policy he pursued in turning the crusaders against Constantinople, in
order to promote the interests of the republic, while serving to break
up the Greek empire, created in its place a Latin state that was far too
feeble to withstand the onslaught of Greek national feeling and Orthodox
fanaticism; at the same time the Greeks were greatly weakened and their
power of resisting the Turks consequently lessened. This paved the way
for the Turkish invasion of Europe, which proved an unmixed calamity
for all Christendom, Venice included.