[Illustration: Ludwig van Beethoven]

     MUSICAL
     MYTHS AND FACTS

     BY

     CARL ENGEL.

     IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOL. I.

     LONDON:
     NOVELLO, EWER & CO.,
     1, BERNERS STREET (W.), AND 80 & 81, QUEEN STREET, CHEAPSIDE (E. C.)
     NEW YORK: J. L. PETERS, 843, BROADWAY.

     MDCCCLXXVI.

     [All rights reserved.]

     NOVELLO, EWER AND CO.,
     TYPOGRAPHICAL MUSIC AND GENERAL PRINTERS,
     1, BERNERS STREET, LONDON.

PREFACE.

An idealized portrait of Beethoven, representing him as, in the opinion
of many of his admirers, he must have looked in his moments of
inspiration, would undoubtedly have made a handsomer frontispiece to
this little work, than his figure roughly sketched by an artist who
happened to see the composer rambling through the fields in the vicinity
of Vienna.

The faithful sketch from life, however, indicates precisely the chief
object of the present contribution to musical literature, which is
simply to set forth the truth.

Whatever may be the short-comings of the essays, they will be of some
use should they impress upon musical pedants the truth of Gˆthe's
dictum:

     "Grau, theurer Freund, ist alle Theorie,
     Und gr¸n des Lebens goldner Baum."

For the sake of correctness, one or two statements occurring in this
volume require a word of explanation.

On page 5, the comprehensive 'EncyclopÊdia of Music,' by J. W. Moore,
Boston, United States, 1854, should perhaps not have been left
unnoticed; it is, however, too superficial a compilation to be of
essential use for reference. Dr. Stainer's 'Dictionary of Musical Terms'
was not published until the sheet containing page 5 had gone through the
press.

The poem, on page 175, ascribed to Shakespeare, "If music and sweet
poetry agree," is by some recent inquirers claimed for Richard
Barnfield, a contemporary of Shakespeare.

On page 218, _Sovter Liedekens_, the title of a Dutch book published in
the year 1556, is incorrectly translated. _Sovter_, an obsolete Dutch
word, means "Psalter," just like the English _Sauter_ mentioned in
Halliwell's 'Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words.' _Liedekens_
should have been rendered "Little Songs."

In Volume II., the compositions of Henry Purcell noticed on page 202
form only a small portion of the works of this distinguished English
musician. The Prospectus issued by the 'Purcell Society,' which has
recently been founded for the purpose of publishing all his works,
enumerates forty-five Operas and Dramas, besides many Odes, Hymns,
Anthems, and other sacred music, instrumental pieces, &c., most of which
exist only in manuscript, and which ought long since to have been in the
hands of the lovers of music.

Should the reader disapprove of the easy tone in which the Myths are
told, he will perhaps derive some satisfaction from the carefulness with
which I have endeavoured to state the Facts.

     CARL ENGEL.
     _Kensington._

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

                                                            PAGE

     A MUSICAL LIBRARY                                         1

     ELSASS-LOTHRINGEN                                         8

     MUSIC AND ETHNOLOGY                                      23

     COLLECTIONS OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS                       32

     MUSICAL MYTHS AND FOLK-LORE                              74

         Curious Coincidences                                 77
         Hindu Traditions                                     79
         Celestial Quarrels                                   80
         Al-Farabi                                            82
         Trusty Ferdinand                                     84
         The Wild Huntsman                                    85
         The Bold German Baron                                87
         Prophetic Calls of Birds                             89
         Whistling                                            91

     THE STUDIES OF OUR GREAT COMPOSERS                       94

     SUPERSTITIONS CONCERNING BELLS                          129

         Protective Bell-ringing                             130
         Significant Sounds of Bells                         131
         Baptised Bells                                      134
         Inscriptions on Church Bells                        136
         The Church Bells banishing the Mountain Dwarfs      137
         The Expulsion of Paganism in Sweden                 139

     CURIOSITIES IN MUSICAL LITERATURE                       141

     THE ENGLISH INSTRUMENTALISTS                            166

     MUSICAL FAIRIES AND THEIR KINSFOLK                      187

         The Fairies of the Maories                          187
         Adventures in the Highlands                         189
         The Importunate Elves                               191
         Bad Spirits                                         192
         The Musician and the Dwarfs                         193
         The Little Folks                                    195
         Macruimean's Bagpipe                                196
         The Gygur Family                                    197
         Linus, the King's Son                               197
         Necks                                               202
         The Christian Neck                                  204
         Maurice Connor                                      205
         Water Lilies                                        206
         Ignis Fatuus                                        207
         The Fairy Music of our Composers                    208

     SACRED SONGS OF CHRISTIAN SECTS                         210

A MUSICAL LIBRARY.

If we cast a retrospective glance at the cultivation of music in England
during the last twenty or thirty years, we cannot but be struck with the
extraordinary progress which, during this short period, has been made in
the diffusion of musical knowledge. The prosperity of England
facilitates grand and expensive performances of the best musical works,
and is continually drawing the most accomplished artists from all parts
of the world to this country. The foreign musicians, in combination with
some distinguished native talent, have achieved so much, that there are
now, perhaps, more excellent performances of excellent music to be heard
in England than in any other country.

Taking these facts into consideration, it appears surprising that
England does not yet possess a musical library adequate to the wealth
and love for music of the nation. True, there is in the British Museum a
musical library, the catalogue of which comprises above one hundred
thick folio volumes; but anyone expecting to find in this library the
necessary aids to the study of some particular branch of music is almost
sure to be disappointed. The plan observed in the construction of the
catalogue is the same as that of the new General Catalogue of the
Library in the British Museum. The titles of the works are written on
slips of thin paper, and fastened, at a considerable distance from each
other, down the pages, so that space is reserved for future entries. The
musical catalogue contains only two entries upon the one side of a leaf
and three upon the other. Each volume has about one hundred and ten
leaves. The whole catalogue contains about 60,000 titles of musical
compositions and literary works on the subject of music. The British
Museum possesses, besides, a collection of musical compositions and
treatises in manuscript, of which a small catalogue was printed in the
year 1842. It contains about 250 different works, some of which are
valuable.

Even a hasty inspection of the written catalogue must convince the
student that it contains principally entries of compositions possessing
no value whatever. Every quadrille, ballad, and polka which has been
published in England during the last fifty years appears to have a place
here, and occupies just as ample space as Gluck's 'Alceste,' or Burney's
'History of Music.' This is perhaps unavoidable. If works of merit only
were to find admission, who would be competent to draw the line between
these and such as ought to be rejected? In no other art, perhaps, do the
opinions of connoisseurs respecting the merit of any work differ so much
as in music. Since music appeals more directly and more exclusively to
the heart than other arts, its beauties are less capable of
demonstration, and, in fact, do not exist for those who have no feeling
for them. There are even at the present day musicians who cannot
appreciate the compositions of J. Sebastian Bach. Forkel, the well-known
musical historian, has written a long dissertation, in which he
endeavours to prove that Gluck's operas are execrable.[1] Again, among
the adherents of a certain modern school despising distinctness of form
and melody may be found men who speak with enthusiasm of the works of
Handel, Gluck, Mozart, and other classical composers, although these
works are especially characterised by clearness of form and melodious
expression. Besides, it must be borne in mind that even our classical
composers have now and then produced works of inferior merit, which are
nevertheless interesting, inasmuch as they afford us an insight into the
gradual development of their powers.

In short, in a musical library for the use of a nation, every musical
composition which has been published ought necessarily to be included.
In the Musical Library of the British Museum it unfortunately happens,
however, that many of those works are wanting which are almost
universally acknowledged to be of importance. Indeed, it would require
far less space to enumerate the works of this kind which it contains
than those which it does not, but ought to, contain.

Again, the student must be prepared for disappointment, should he have
to consult any of our scientific treatises on music. However, there may
be more works relating to the science of music in the Library of the
British Museum than would appear from the catalogue of music. Several
have evidently been entered in the new General Catalogue. Would it not
be advisable to have all the books relating to music entered in the
musical catalogue? Even the most important dissertations on musical
subjects which are found in various scientific works might with
advantage be noticed in this catalogue. Take, for instance, the essays
in the 'Asiatic Researches,' in the works of Sir W. Jones and Sir W.
Ouseley, in 'Description de l'Egypte,' in the 'Philosophical
Transactions.'

Thus much respecting the Musical Library in the British Museum. Let us
now consider how a national musical library ought to be constituted.
Premising that it is intended as much for the use of musical people who
resort to it for reference, as for those who are engaged in a continued
study of some particular branch of the art, the following kinds of works
ought to form, it would appear, the basis of its constitution.

1. _The Scores of the Classical Operas, Oratorios, and similar Vocal
Compositions, with Orchestral Accompaniments._--Many of these scores
have not appeared in print, but are obtainable in carefully revised
manuscript copies.

2. _The Scores of Symphonies, Overtures, and similar Orchestral
Compositions._--The editions which have been revised by the composers
themselves are the most desirable. The same remark applies to the scores
of operas, oratorios, etc.

3. _Vocal Music in Score._--The sacred compositions _Alla Cappella_, and
the madrigals of the old Flemish, Italian, and other continental
schools, as well as those of the celebrated old English composers. The
choruses of the Greek Church in Russia, etc.

4. _Quartets, Quintets, and similar Compositions in Score._--The study
of these works of our great masters is so essential to the musician,
that special care should be taken to secure the best editions. The
classical trios for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello, and some other
compositions of this kind, originally published in parts, have more
recently been issued in score. The latter editions are greatly
preferable to those in which the part for each instrument is only
printed separately. The same remark applies to the concertos of Mozart,
Beethoven, and other masters, which have been published with the
orchestral accompaniment in score, as well as with the orchestral
accompaniment arranged for the pianoforte or for some other instruments.

5. _Sonatas, Fantasias, Fugues, etc._--Of all the classical works
composed for a single instrument, the original editions, generally
revised by the composers themselves, are indispensable. Besides these,
the most important subsequent editions of the same works would be
required. Beethoven's pianoforte sonatas, for instance, have been
re-edited by several eminent pianists. It is instructive to examine the
readings of these musicians, which differ in many points from each
other.

6. _Arrangements._--Those of operas, oratorios, masses, and other
elaborate compositions with orchestral accompaniment, must necessarily
be confined to the instrumental portion, otherwise they are useless
either for study or reference. Those arrangements are greatly preferable
which have been made by the composers themselves, or under their
superintendence.

7. _National Music._--All the collections of national songs and dances
which have been published in different countries. The advantage which
the musician might derive from a careful study of them is not yet so
fully appreciated as it deserves; but it would probably soon be better
understood, if these treasures were made more easily accessible.

8. _Books of Instruction for Vocal and Instrumental Practice._--The best
books for every instrument, as well as for the voice, which have been
published in different countries and languages.

9. _Works on the Theory and History of Music._--All the standard works
ought to be found in the library, not only in the languages in which
they were originally written, but also in translations, if any such
exist. Many of the latter are valuable, on account of the explanations
and other additions by the translators. This is, for instance, the case
with some English books which have been translated into German; as
Brown's 'Dissertation on the Rise, Union, and Power of Music,'
translated by Eschenburg; 'Handel's Life,' by Mainwaring, translated by
Mattheson, etc. It need scarcely be added that the biographies of
celebrated musicians ought also to be included among the desirable
requisites.

10. _Works on Sciences intimately connected with the Theory of
Music._--Treatises on acoustics, on the construction of musical
instruments, on Êsthetics, etc.

11. _Musical Journals._--All the principal ones published in different
countries and languages. To these might advantageously be added the most
important literary journals containing critical and other dissertations
on music.

12. _Dictionaries, Catalogues, etc._--The English language possesses no
musical dictionary, technical, biographical, or bibliographical, similar
to the French and German works by FÈtis, Schilling, Gerber, Koch,
Rousseau, and others, which are indispensable for the library. With
these may be classed the useful works on the Literature of Music
compiled by Forkel, Lichtenthal, and Becker, as well as Hofmeister's
comprehensive 'Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur.' The collection of
catalogues should comprise all those of the principal public musical
libraries on the Continent and in England; those of large and valuable
private libraries, several of which have appeared in print,--as, for
instance, Kiesewetter's 'Sammlung alter Musik,' Becker's 'Tonwerke des
XVI. und XVII. Jahrhunderts,' and others; those of the principal
music-publishers, and those of important musical libraries which have
been disposed of at public auctions.

There is no necessity for extending this list any further, as it will
suffice to indicate the plan which, in my opinion, ought to be pursued
in the formation of a national musical library. I shall therefore only
observe further that there are, besides the above mentioned, several
kinds of works which can scarcely be considered as of secondary
importance, such as musical travels, novels, and entertaining as well as
instructive musical essays; librettos of operas, and the poetry of other
elaborate vocal compositions; drawings illustrating the construction of
musical instruments,--as, for instance, of the most celebrated organs,
of the various improvements in the pianoforte, etc.; engravings from the
best portraits of celebrated musicians; faithful sketches from
sculptures and paintings of nations of antiquity in which musical
instruments and performances are represented, etc.

There remains yet another point which requires a moment's
consideration,--namely, the daily increasing difficulty of forming such
a library as has just been planned. The interest in the study of
classical works relating to music is no longer confined to the
professional musician, but is spreading among amateurs and men of
science. Their libraries now absorb many of the old and scarce works
which formerly were almost exclusively in the hands of musicians.
Moreover, the English colonies have already drawn upon our limited
supply of the old standard works, and there is every reason to suppose
that the demand for them will continue to increase. Many of these works
have evidently been published in an edition of only a small number of
copies. Still it is not likely that they will be republished. In a few
instances where a new edition has been made, it has not apparently
affected the price of the original edition, because the latter is justly
considered preferable. To note one instance: the new edition of Hawkins'
'History of Music' has not lessened the value of the first edition, the
price of which is still, as formerly, on a par with the price of
Burney's 'History of Music' of which no new edition has been published.
About ten years ago it was possible to procure the original scores of
our old classical operas, and other works of the kind, at half the price
which they fetch now, and there is a probability that they will become
every year more expensive. Indeed, whatever may be the intrinsic value
of any such work, the circumstance of its being old and scarce seems
sufficient, at least in England, to ensure it a high price.

If, therefore, the acquisition of such a national musical library as I
have endeavoured to sketch is thought desirable, no time ought to be
lost in commencing its formation.

[1] _Vide_ 'Musikalisch-Kritische Bibliothek,' Band I., Gotha, 1778.

ELSASS-LOTHRINGEN.

Whatever may be thought of the value of the well-known aphorism, "_Let
me make a nation's Ballads; who will may make their Laws_"--it can
hardly be denied that through the popular songs of a country we
ascertain to a great extent the characteristic views and sentiments of
the inhabitants.

The villagers of Alsace recently may not have been in the mood for
singing their old cherished songs; otherwise the German soldiers must
have been struck by recognizing among the ditties old familiar friends
slightly disguised by the peculiar dialect of the district. Take, for
instance, the cradle songs, or initiatory lessons as they might be
called. Here is one as sung by the countrywomen of Alsace:--

     "Schlof, Kindele, schlof!
     Dien Vadder hied die Schof,
     Dien Muedder hied die L‰mmele,
     Drum schlof du guldi's Engele;
     Schlof, Kindele, schlof!"

     (Sleep, darling, sleep!
     Thy father tends the sheep,
     Thy mother tends the lambkins dear,
     Sleep then, my precious angel, here;
     Sleep, darling, sleep!)

And another:--

     "Aie Bubbaie was rasselt im Stroh?
     D'G‰nsle gehn baarfuesz, sie han keen Schueh;
     Der Schuester het's Leder, keen Leiste derzue."

     (Hush-a-bye baby, what rustles the straw?
     Poor goslings go barefoot, they have not a shoe;
     The souter has leather, no last that will do.)

Making allowance for the pronunciation of the words, which sounds odd to
the North-German ear, these are the identical lullabies with which the
mothers in the villages near Hanover sing their babies to sleep. Some
of the old ballads, legends, fairy-tales, and proverbs, popular in
Alsace, are current throughout almost the whole of Germany. Then we have
the old-fashioned invitation to the wedding feast, stiff and formal, as
it is observed especially in Lower Alsace, and likewise in the villages
of Hanover and other districts of North Germany. In Alsace the weddings
take place on a Tuesday, because, they say, we read in the Bible: "And
the third day there was a marriage in Cana of Galilee." In sacred poetry
Alsace can pride herself upon having produced some of the most
distinguished German writers. The oldest known of these is Ottfried von
Weissenburg, who lived about the middle of the ninth century. Gottfried
von Strassburg, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, was renowned
as a writer of hymns as well as of _Minnelieder_. The first sacred songs
of a popular character recorded in Alsace date from about the middle of
the fourteenth century. But it is especially since the time of the
Reformation that this branch of sacred poetry has been much cultivated
here as in other parts of Germany. The authors of sacred poetry were
generally either theologians or musicians. The latter often composed the
words as well as the airs. Music and poetry were not cultivated so
separately as is the case in our day. Of the musicians, deserves to be
mentioned Wolfgang Dachstein, who, in the beginning of the sixteenth
century, was organist in Strassburg, first at the Cathedral, and
afterwards, when he become a Protestant, at the Thomas Church. His hymn
_An Wasserfl¸ssen Babylon_ is still to be found in most chorale books of
the German Protestants.

The secular songs of the villagers are not all in the peculiar dialect
of the province. Some are in High German, and there are several in which
High German is mixed with the dialect. Occasionally we meet with a word
which has become obsolete in other German districts; for instance,
_Pfiffholder_ for "Schmetterling," Low German "Buttervogel," English
"butterfly;" _Irten_ (Old German _Urt_, _Uirthe_) for "Zeche," English
"score." Of the lyric poets of the present century, Hebel is, perhaps,
the most popular in Alsace. His "Allemannische Gedichte" used to be
sung especially in the southern district, which, until recently, formed
the French department of Haut-Rhin. The people of this district have a
less soft pronunciation than those of Bas-Rhin.

As regards the popular songs of Lorraine, those which have been
collected and published are, almost all of them, from the French
districts of the province.

The SociÈtÈ d'ArchÈologie Lorraine has published a collection, entitled
'PoÈsies populaires de la Lorraine, Nancy, 1854;' and R. Grosjean,
organist of the Cathedral of Saint-DiÈ-des-Vosges, has edited a number
of old Christmas Carols, arranged for the organ or harmonium, and
published under the title of 'Air des NoÎls Lorrains, Saint-DiÈ, 1862.'
In the German villages we meet with songs in a peculiar dialect, not
unfrequently interspersed with French words. The following example is
from the neighbourhood of Saarlouis:--

     "Of de Bam senge de Viglen bei Daa ond Naat,
     D'M‰nntcher peife hibsch on rufe: ti-ti-pi-pi,
     On d'Weibcher saan: pi-pi-zi-zi.
     Se senge luschtig on peife _du haut en bas_.
     Berjer, Buwe on Baure d'iwrall her,
     Die _plassire_ sich recht _‡ leur aise_.
     Se senge _ensemble_ hibsch on fein.
     D'grˆscht _Pl‰sirn_ hot mer van de Welt
     Dat mer saan kann am grine Bam;
     Dat esch wohr, dat esch keen Dram."

     (On the tree sing the birds by day and night,
     They pipe and call, ti-ti-pi-pi;
     Their mates reply, pi-pi-zi-zi.
     They cheerfully chirp _du haut en bas_,
     High life and low life, from all around,
     _Placent_ themselves quite _‡ leur aise_.
     They sing _ensemble_ sweet and fine.
     No greater _plaisir_ earth can give
     Than the sight of a greenwood tree;
     That's truth, no idle dream.)

Thus much about the words of the popular songs. As regards the airs,
those which have been traditionally preserved by the villagers of
Alsace exhibit the characteristics of the German national music. That
the construction of the airs has not altered much in the course of a
century is evident from the specimens of songs and dance-tunes which
Laborde gives in his 'Essai sur la Musique,' published in the year 1780.
Still earlier, about two hundred years ago, the French composers adopted
from Alsace a German tune of a peculiar construction, the _Allemande_.
This happened at the time of the invention of the _Suite_, a composition
which consists of a series of short pieces written in the style of
popular tunes of various countries. The Allemande, which generally
formed the introductory movement to the series, is more dignified than
the sprightly Courante, Gavotte, and BourrÈe, originally obtained from
different provinces of France.

Particularly interesting is the music of the peasant of Kochersberg. The
mountain called Kochersberg is situated in the vicinity of the town of
Zabern in Upper Alsace. The district immediately surrounding the
mountain is also called Kochersberg. The villagers of this district are
considered by the French as rather rude in manner, but as honest,
straightforward, and trustworthy. They have several old favourite
dances, as for instance, _Der Scharrer_ ("The Scraper"), _Der Z‰uner_
("The Fence Dance"), _Der Morisken_ (evidently the "Morrice" or Moorish
Dance, formerly also popular in England, and originally derived from the
Moors in Spain), _Der Hahnentanz_ ("The Cock Dance"). The last-named
dance, which is also popular in other districts of Alsace, and, with
some modifications, in the Black Forest of Germany, is generally
performed in a large barn. On a cross-beam is affixed a dish, in which
is placed a fine large cock (called _Guller_). The cock is ornamented
with ribands of various colours. Near the dish hangs a tallow-candle,
through which a string is drawn horizontally. To one end of the string
is attached a leaden ball. The dancers arrange themselves in pairs, one
behind the other. As soon as the musicians strike up, the candle is
lighted, and the first pair receive a nosegay, which they have to hold
as long as they continue dancing. When they are tired, and stop to
rest, they must give the nosegay to the next following pair, and so on.
The pair which have possession of the nosegay at the moment when the
candle burns the string, and the ball falls into the dish, win the cock.
The _Hammeltanz_ of the Kochersberg peasants is likewise known in Baden.
In this dance a fat wether is the prize of the lucky pair who happen to
be dancing when a glass suspended by a burning match-cord becomes
detached and falls to the ground. Some of the dancers are accompanied
with singing; for instance, the _Bloue Storken_, in which the song
begins with the words:--

     "Hon err de bloue Storken nit g's‰hn?"
     (Have you not seen the blue storks?)

The _Bloue Storken_ is one of the oldest national dances of the Alsatian
peasants. It is danced by one person only. At the commencement his
performance resembles that of the slow and grave minuet; after awhile it
becomes more animated.

However, in a musical point of view, the most interesting of these
dances is the _Kochersberger Tanz_, which is mentioned by Reicha and
other musical theorists on account of its peculiar rhythm. According to
Reicha's notation it is in 5/8 time. Perhaps it would have been as
correctly written in 3/8 and 2/8 alternately, like _Der Zwiefache_, or
_Gerad und Ungerad_ ("Even and Uneven"), of the villagers in the Upper
Palatinate of Bavaria, to which it bears altogether a strong
resemblance. The musical bands attending the villagers at dances and
other rural pastimes are, as might be expected, very simple--a clarionet
and one or two brass instruments generally constituting the whole
orchestra.

In Alsace a certain musical instrument is still to be found which, about
three centuries ago, was popular in Germany. Some of the works on music
published in the beginning of the seventeenth century contain drawings
of it. Its German name is _Scheidholt_, and its French name is _b˚che_.
It consists of an oblong square box of wood, upon which are stretched
about half-a-dozen wire-strings. Some of the strings run over a
finger-board provided with iron frets. These strings are used for
playing the melody. The others are at the side of the finger-board, and
serve for the accompaniment. The strings are twanged with a plectrum.
The _Scheidholt_ may be considered as the prototype of the horizontal
cither which, in the present century, has come much in vogue in Bavaria
and Austria, and which has recently been introduced also into England.

Formerly, the professional musicians of Alsace formed a guild, the
origin of which dates from the time of the _Minnes‰nger_, when players
on musical instruments wandered from castle to castle to entertain the
knights with their minstrelsy. In the year 1400 a Roman imperial diploma
was granted to Count Rappoltstein constituting him protector of the
guild. The musicians were called _Pfeiffer_, and Count Rappoltstein and
his successors had the title of _Pfeiffer-Kˆnig_ ("King of the Pipers").
In the seventeenth century the _Pfeiffer_ held annually a musical
festival at Bischweiler, a small town near Strassburg. Having gradually
fallen into decay, this old guild died out in the year 1789.

Considering the influence which the principal town of a country usually
exercises upon the taste of the rural population, a few remarks relating
to the cultivation of music in Strassburg may find here a place.
Strassburg possesses, indeed, valuable relics illustrative of the
history of music as well as of the other fine arts. Unfortunately,
several of these treasures were injured at the recent bombardment. The
town library, which was burnt, contained some valuable musical
manuscripts; for instance, the _Gesellschaftsbuch der Meisters‰nger_
from the year 1490 to 1768, and an historic treatise on the music and
the _Meisters‰nger_ of Strassburg written in the year 1598, by M.
Cyriacus Spangenberg. To antiquarians who deplore the loss of these
relics it may afford consolation to know that the town library of
Colmar, in Alsace, possesses a manuscript collection of more than 1,000
old Minne-songs and Meister-songs, which originally belonged to the
guild of shoemakers of Colmar. It must be remembered that in the
beginning of the fourteenth century, after the _Minnes‰nger_ of the
Middle Ages, like the old chivalry with which they were associated, had
become obsolete, there sprang up in Germany a corporation of poets and
singers constituted of citizens, and known as the Meisters‰nger.
Strassburg was one of the first among the German towns in which the
Meisters‰nger flourished. An old sculpture of a Meisters‰nger,
life-size, placed under the celebrated organ of the cathedral, testifies
to the popular esteem enjoyed by this corporation. The town library
possessed two curious oil-paintings on panel, dating from about the year
1600, which belonged to the Meisters‰nger of Strassburg, who used to
place them one at each side of the entrance to their hall of assembly. A
collection of antiquated musical instruments, which, probably,
originally belonged to the Meisters‰nger, was formerly in a public
building called Pfenningthurm, from which, in the year 1745, it was
removed to the town library, where it was reduced to ashes.

However, the most interesting musical instrument in Strassburg is the
organ of the cathedral made by Andreas Silbermann. Notwithstanding the
care exercised by the beleaguerers to prevent damage to the cathedral, a
shell found its way right through the centre of the organ, and must have
greatly injured this work of art. Andreas Silbermann was no mere
handicraftman, but an artist like Amati or Stradivari. He was born in
Saxony, settled in Strassburg in the year 1701, and built the organ of
the cathedral in 1715. His brother, Gottfried Silbermann of Saxony, was
likewise a distinguished maker, not only of organs, but also of
clavichords, and an improver of the pianoforte soon after its invention,
in the beginning of the eighteenth century. Almost all the organs built
during the eighteenth century for the churches of Strassburg are by
Andreas Silbermann and his sons. Among the latter, Johann Andreas is
noteworthy on account of his antiquarian pursuits. He wrote, besides
other works, a 'History of the Town of Strassburg,' which was published
in folio, with engravings, in the year 1775. His collection of sketches
drawn by himself of the most remarkable scenery, and of old castles and
other interesting buildings of Alsace, and likewise his collection of
the old coins of Strassburg, were preserved in the town library, and
are, it is to be feared, now lost. As even the catalogue of the library
has, it is said, been burnt, it may be worth while to notice some of
the losses. With the irreparable ones must be recorded a copy of the
first hymn book of the Protestant Church, of which no other copy is
known to be extant. It was published at Erfurt in the year 1524, and
contains twenty-five songs, eighteen of which are by Luther. Its title
is _Enchiridion, oder eyn Handbuchlein eynem yetzlichen Christen fast
nutzlich bey sich zu haben, zur stetter vbung vnd trachtung geystlicher
gesenge und Psalmen, Rechtschaffen vnd Kunstlich vertheutscht_.
("Enchiridion, or a little Hand-book, very useful for a Christian at the
present time to have by him for the constant practice and contemplation
of spiritual songs and psalms, judiciously and carefully put into
German.") The musical notation is given with the words. It is believed
that Luther gave the manuscript of his own songs, and most likely also
of the other songs, and of the musical notation, into the hands of the
publisher;--that, in fact, the "Enchiridion" emanated directly from
Luther. A _fac-simile_ of this book was published in Erfurt in the year
1848. Only three chorales are known with certainty to be of Luther's
composition.

With the musical relics of the olden time preserved in Strassburg must
be classed the so-called Astronomic Clock. This curious piece of
mechanism, which is in the cathedral, was, in the year 1570, substituted
for one which dated from the year 1354. Having been out of repair since
the year 1789, it was restored about thirty years ago. The cylinders of
the old mechanism of 1354, which act upon a carillon of ten bells, have
been retained. The old tonal system exhibited in the arrangement of the
cylinders, which produce hymn tunes, cannot but be interesting to
musical antiquarians. Also, the wonderful mechanical cock, which, at the
end of a tune, flapped its wings, stretched out its neck, and crowed
twice--a relic of the work of 1354--is still extant; but whether it
continues to perform its functions, I cannot say.

Let us now refer for a moment to the theatrical performances patronised
by the burghers. Some interesting records relating to the history of the
opera in Strassburg have been published by G. F. Lobstein, in his
'Beitr‰ge zur Geschichte der Musik im Elsass, Strassburg, 1840.' The
oldest theatrical representations in Strassburg are of the sixteenth
century. They consisted of sacred and historical pieces, and likewise of
dramas of the Greek and Latin classics. The actors were scholars, or
academicians, and the performances were called _Dramata theatralia_,
_Actiones comicae_ or _tragicae_, _Comoediae academicae_. About the year
1600 also the Meisters‰nger occasionally engaged in dramatic
performances, or, as they called it, in _Comˆdien von Gl¸ck und Ungl¸ck_
("Comedies treating of Happiness and Unhappiness") and they continued to
act such pieces in public until towards the end of the seventeenth
century. In the year 1601 we find, the first time, mention made of the
English comedians who, like the Meisters‰nger, evidently introduced
music into their dramatic performances. Respecting the companies of
English comedians who visited Germany at the time of Shakespeare, much
has been written by Shakespearean scholars; but little attention has,
however, been given by them to the musical accomplishments of these
strollers. The old records which have recently been brought to light in
Germany relating to the history of the theatres of the principal German
towns, contain some interesting notices of "English instrumentalists"
who formed part of the companies of English comedians. Indeed, most of
the so-called English comedians appear to have been musicians and
dancers (or rather tumblers) as well as actors. Probably it was more the
novelty of their performances than any superiority of skill which
rendered these odd foreigners temporarily attractive in Germany.
Howbeit, to the musical historian they are interesting.

The invention of the opera, it must be remembered, dates from the year
1580, when, at Florence, the Count of Vernio formed at his palace a
society for the revival of the ancient Greek musical declamation in the
drama. This endeavour resulted in the production of the operas 'Dafne'
and 'Orfeo ed Euridice,' composed by Peri and Caccini. The first German
opera was performed in Dresden, in the year 1627. It was the libretto of
'Dafne,' just mentioned, written by Rinuccini, which was translated into
German, and anew set to music by Heinrich von Sch¸tz, Kapellmeister of
the Elector of Saxony. In France the first composer of an opera was
Robert Cambert, in the year 1647. He called his production 'La
Pastorale, premiËre comÈdie franÁaise en musique.' This composition was,
however, performed only at Court. The first public performance of an
opera in France occurred not earlier than the year 1671.[2] However,
before the invention of the opera, strolling actors, such as the English
comedians, and the Italian companies, which were popular in Strassburg,
used to intersperse their performances with songs, accompanied by
musical instruments such as the lute, theorbo, viol, etc. The first
operatic representations, properly so called, in Strassburg, took place
in the year 1701, and the operas were German, performed by German
companies. Later, Italian companies made their appearance, and still
later, French ones. In the year 1750 the French comic opera 'Le Devin du
Village,' by J. J. Rousseau, was much admired. However, even during the
eighteenth century the German operas and dramas enjoyed greater
popularity in Strassburg than the French, notwithstanding the protection
which the French companies received from the Government officials of the
town. Indeed, the theatrical taste of the burghers has never become
thoroughly French, if we may rely on G. F. Lobstein, who says, "The
diminished interest evinced by the inhabitants of Strassburg at the
present day" [about the year 1840] "in theatrical performances dates
from the time when the French melodramas and vaudevilles made their
appearance. The hideous melodramatic exhibitions, and the frivolous
subjects, unsuitable for our town, and often incomprehensible to
us--depicting Parisian daily occurrences and habits not unfrequently
highly indecent--have, since their introduction on our stage, scared
away those families which formerly visited the theatre regularly. They
now come only occasionally, when something better is offered."

As regards the musical institutions and periodical concerts of
Strassburg, suffice it to state that the local government has always
encouraged the cultivation of music; it is, therefore, not surprising,
considering the love for music evinced by the Alsatians, that Strassburg
has been during the last three centuries one of the chief nurseries of
this art on the Continent. Until the year 1681, when Strassburg was
ceded to France, it possessed an institution called Collegium Musicum,
which enjoyed the special patronage of the local government. An AcadÈmie
de Musique, instituted in the year 1731 by the French Governor of the
town, was dissolved, after twenty years' existence, in 1751. At the
present day the musical societies are not less numerous in Strassburg
than in most large towns of Germany. An enumeration of the various kinds
of concerts would perhaps only interest some musicians.

But Pleyel's Republican Hymn of the year 1792 is too characteristic of
French taste at the time of the great events which it was intended to
celebrate to be left unnoticed. Ignaz Pleyel, the well-known musician,
was born in a village near Vienna, in the year 1757. On visiting
Strassburg, after a sojourn in Italy, in the year 1789, he was made
Kapellmeister of the cathedral. Unfortunately for him, soon his
political opinions were regarded with suspicion by the National
Assembly, especially from his being a native of Austria. He found
himself in peril of losing his liberty, if not his life. Anxious to save
himself, he conceived the happy idea of writing a brilliant musical
composition in glorification of the Revolution. He communicated his
intention to the National Assembly; it found approval, and he was
ordered to write, under the surveillance of a gendarme, a grand vocal
and orchestral piece, entitled 'La RÈvolution du 10 Ao˚t (1792) ou le
Tocsin allÈgorique.' The manuscript score of this singular composition
was, until recently, preserved in Strassburg, but has now probably
perished. A short analysis of its construction will convince the reader
that the monster orchestra which Hector Berlioz has planned for the
music of the future, and of which he says in prophetic raptures: "Its
repose would be majestic as the slumber of the ocean; its agitation
would recall the tempest of the tropics; its explosions, the outbursts
of volcanoes," was already anticipated by Pleyel nearly a hundred years
ago. Pleyel required for his orchestra not only a number of large
field-guns, but also several alarm-bells. The financial condition of
France at that period, and the abolition of divine worship, induced the
National Assembly to decree the delivering up of all the church-bells in
Alsace. About 900 bells were consequently sent to Strassburg. Pleyel
selected from them seven for the performance of his work; and all the
others were either converted into cannon, or coined into money--mostly
one-sol and two-sol pieces.

The _Introduzione_ of Pleyel's composition is intended to depict the
rising of the people. The stringed instruments begin _piano_. After a
little while a low murmuring noise mingles with the soft strains,
sounding at first as if from a great distance, and approaching gradually
nearer and nearer. Now the wind-instruments fall in, and soon the
blowing is as furious as if it were intended to represent the most
terrific storm. It is, however, meant to represent the storming of the
Tuileries. Fortunately the awful noise soon passes over, and only some
sharp skirmishes are occasionally heard. After about a hundred bars of
this descriptive fiddling and blowing, the alarm-bells begin--first one,
then another, and now all in rapid succession. Suddenly they are
silenced by a loud trumpet signal, responded to by a number of drums and
fifes. The fanfare leads to a new confusion, through which the melody of
some old French military march is faintly discernible. The excitement
gradually subsides, and after awhile the stringed instruments alone are
engaged, softly expressing the sighs of the wounded and dying. Presently
the Royalists make themselves heard with the song, "_O Richard, Ù mon
roi_" (from 'Richard Coeur de Lion') which, after some more confusion,
is followed by the air, "_O˘ peut-on Ítre mieux?_" at the end of which
discharges of cannon commence. Another general confusion, depicted by
the whole orchestra with the addition of cannon and alarm-bells.
Suddenly a flourish of trumpets, with kettle-drums, announces victory,
and forms the introduction to a jubilant chorus with full orchestral
accompaniment: "_La victoire est ‡ nous, le peuple est sauvÈ!_" This
again, after some more instrumental interluding, is followed by a chorus
with orchestral accompaniment founded on the tune "_«a ira, Áa ira_," a
patriotic song which was, during the time of the Revolution, very
popular with the French soldiers. The remaining portion of the
composition consists of a few songs for single voices alternating with
choruses. As the words are not only musically but also historically
interesting, they may find a place here.

     "_Chorus._

     "Nous t'offrons les dÈbris d'un trÙne,
     Sur ces autels, Ù Sainte LibertÈ!
     De l'Èternelle vÈritÈ.
     Ce jour enfin, qui nous environne,
     Rend tout ce peuple ‡ la fÈlicitÈ;
     Par sa vertu, par sa fiertÈ,
     Il conquiert l'ÈgalitÈ.
     Parmis nos hÈros la foudre qui tonne
     L'annonce au loin ‡ l'humanitÈ.

     "_A Woman._ (_Solo._)

     "Mon fils vient d'expirer,
     Mais je n'ai plus de rois!

     "_Romance._

     "Il fut ‡ son pays avant que d'Ítre ‡ moi,
     Et j'Ètais citoyenne avant que d'Ítre mËre.
     Mon fils! par tes vertus j'honore ta poussiËre.

     "_Chorus._

     "Nous t'offrons les dÈbris d'un trÙne, etc., etc.

     "_Solo._ (_Soprano._)

     "Ah! pÈrisse l'idolatrie
     Qu'on voue ‡ la royautÈ.
     Terre ne sois qu'une patrie,
     Qu'un seul temple ‡ l'humanitÈ,
     Que l'homme venge son injure
     Brise, en bravant, le faux devoir,
     Et le piÈdestal du pouvoir         { _Repeated by_
     Et les autels de l'imposture,      { _the Chorus._
     Rois, pontifs! Ù ligue impure
     Dans ton impuissant dÈsespoir
     Contemple aux pieds de la nature
     Le diadËme et l'encensoir!
     Versailles et la fourbe Rome
     Ont perdu leurs adulateurs.
     Les vertus seront les grandeurs,          { _Repeated by_
     Les palais sont les toits de chaume.      { _the Chorus._

     "_Solo._ (_Tenore._)

     "Les FranÁais qu'on forme ‡ la guerre
     Appellent contre les tyrans
     Les reprÈsailles de la terre,
     Du haut des palais fumans.
     Des bords du Gange ‡ ceux du Tibre
     Dieu! rends bientÙt selon nos voeux
     Tout homme un citoyen heureux,            { _Repeated by_
     Le genre humain un peuple libre.          { _the Chorus._

     "_Solo Recit._ (_Basso._)

     "Nous finirons son esclavage
     Ce grand jour en est le prÈsage!
         "_Chorus_ (_concluding with a brilliant orchestral Coda_).
     "Nous t'offrons les dÈbris d'un trÙne," etc., etc.

This curious composition was performed in the Cathedral of Strassburg,
and created great sensation. Everyone declared that only an ardent
patriot could have produced such a stirring work. Nevertheless Pleyel,
after having been set free, thought it advisable to leave Strassburg for
London as soon as possible.

Besides those already mentioned, several other distinguished musicians
could be named who were born or who lived in Strassburg. Ottomarus
Luscinius, a priest, whose proper German name was Nachtigall, published
in the year 1536, in Strassburg, his 'Musurgia, seu Praxis MusicÊ,' a
work much coveted by musical antiquarians. Sebastian Brossard, who,
about the year 1700, was Kapellmeister at the Strassburg Cathedral, is
the author of a well-known musical dictionary. Sebastian Erard, the
inventor of the repetition-action and other improvements in the
pianoforte, as well as of the double-action in the harp, was born at
Strassburg in the year 1752.

In short, Elsass-Lothringen has been the cradle of many men
distinguished in arts and sciences. The prominent feature of the
national character of the inhabitants, revealed in their popular songs
and usages, is a staidness which is not conspicuous among the pleasant
qualities of the French. This innate staidness accounts for the
reluctance recently shown by them to being separated from France, just
as it accounts for their former disinclination to become French
subjects. Moreover it will probably, now that they are reunited to their
kinsmen, gradually make them as patriotic Germans as they originally
were. That they require time to transfer their attachment redounds to
their honour.

[2] The opera was introduced into England from Italy about the year
1660.

MUSIC AND ETHNOLOGY.

The following scheme devised for obtaining accurate information
respecting the music of different nations is probably without precedent.

In the year 1874 the British Association for the Advancement of Science
resolved to issue a book of instructions for the guidance of travellers
and residents in uncivilized countries, to enable them to collect such
information as might be of use to those who make special study of the
various subjects enumerated in the book.[3] The subjects relate to
manners and customs, arts, sciences, religion, war, social life,--in
fact, to everything which throws light upon the stage of civilization
attained by the people, and which the ethnologist may desire to
ascertain. The book is for this purpose divided into a number of
sections, each on a certain subject, on which it contains a number of
questions. These are preceded by a short note explanatory of the
subject. In order to render the questions as effective as possible,
especial care has been taken that they should enter into all necessary
details.[4]

Having been requested to undertake the section headed "Music," and to
draw up a list of numbered questions in accordance with the plan adopted
by the committee, I have endeavoured to direct the attention of those
for whom the book is intended to the musical investigations which, in my
opinion, are especially desirable; and I have occasionally interspersed
among the questions a hint which may assist the investigator. It
appeared to me unnecessary to give definitions of musical terms made use
of in the questions--such as _interval_, _melody_, _harmony_,
etc.--which are to be found in every dictionary of the English language.
Some terms, however, required an explanation to render them fully
intelligible to those travellers who are but little acquainted with
music. Of this kind are, for instance, the names of the different
musical scales. The English missionaries, traders, merchants, consuls,
and other residents in foreign countries, seldom possess any available
knowledge of music. Still, among the questions here submitted to them
are many which they may be able to answer satisfactorily; while, on the
other hand, it must be admitted, not a few can be properly replied to
only by men of musical education and experience. However, what one
person is unable to investigate another may do; and thus, perhaps, we
may hope, in the course of time, to be supplied with reliable and
instructive answers to most of the questions from different parts of the
world.

Some of the questions may appear, at a first glance, to be of but little
importance; it is, however, just those facts to which they refer which
ought to be clearly ascertained before we can expect to discern exactly
the characteristics of the music of a nation or tribe.

It will be observed that certain questions pre-suppose a somewhat
advanced state of civilization--as, for instance, those referring to
musical notation, instruction, literature, etc. There are several
extra-European nations--as the Japanese, Chinese, Hindus, etc.--which
have advanced so far in the cultivation of music as to render these
questions necessary; and it would be very desirable to possess more
detailed information concerning the method pursued by these nations in
the cultivation of the art than is at present available.

The present scheme is quite as interesting to the musician, or even more
so, than it is to the ethnologist. Professional musicians in general
are, however, not likely to become acquainted with the instructions for
musical researches published together with various other scientific
inquiries by the British Association. It is for this reason that they
are here inserted, since the present work has a better chance of coming
into the hands of professional musicians than the anthropological
publication. Howbeit, years must elapse before it leads to a practical
result. The originator of the questions may never enjoy the advantage of
receiving the answers; but he has, at least, the pleasure of preparing
the way for an accumulation of well-ascertained facts which intelligent
musicians of a future generation will know how to turn to good account.

"(_Section LXVIII._) _Music._

"The music of every nation has certain characteristics of its own. The
progressions of intervals, the modulations, embellishments, rhythmical
effects, etc., occurring in the music of extra-European nations, are not
unfrequently too peculiar to be accurately indicated by means of our
musical notation. Some additional explanation is, therefore, required
with the notation. In writing down the popular tunes of foreign
countries, on hearing them sung or played by the natives, no attempt
should be made to rectify anything which may appear incorrect to the
European ear. The more faithfully the apparent defects are preserved the
more valuable is the notation. Collections of popular tunes (with the
words of the airs) are very desirable. Likewise, drawings of musical
instruments with explanations respecting the construction, dimensions,
capabilities, and employment of the instruments represented.

"_Vocal Music:_--

"1. Are the people fond of music?

"2. Is their ear acute for discerning small musical intervals?

"3. Can they easily hit a tone which is sung or played to them?

"4. Is their voice flexible?

"5. What is the quality of the voice? is it loud or soft, clear or
rough, steady or tremulous?

"6. What is the usual compass of the voice?

"7. Which is the prevailing male voice--tenor, baritone or bass?

"8. Which is the prevailing female voice--soprano or alto?

"9. Do the people generally sing without instrumental accompaniment?

"10. Have they songs performed in chorus by men only, or by women only,
or by both sexes together?

"11. When they sing together, do they sing in unison, or in harmony, or
with the occasional introduction of some drone accompaniment of the
voice?

"12. Is their singing in regular time, or does it partake of the
character of the recitative?

"13. Have they songs for solo and chorus,--or, with an air for a single
voice, and a burden (or refrain) for a number of voices?

"14. Describe the different kinds of songs which they have (such as
sacred songs, war-songs, love-songs, nursery-songs, etc.), with remarks
on the poetry.

"_Instruments:_--

"15. What are their instruments of percussion (such as drums, castanets,
rattles, cymbals, gongs, bells, etc.)?

"16. Have they instruments of percussion containing sonorous plates of
wood, glass, stone, metal, etc., upon which tunes can be played? and if
so, write down in notation, or in letters, the tones emitted by the
slabs.

"17. Have they drums with cords, or some other contrivance by means of
which the parchment can be tightened or slackened at pleasure?

"18. Have they drums with definite tones (like our kettle-drums)? and,
if so, what are the tones in which they are tuned when two or more are
played together?

"19. Any open hand-drums with one parchment only (like our tambourine)?

"20. Are the drums beaten with sticks or with the hands?

"21. What wind-instruments (trumpets, flutes, etc.) have they?

"22. Any trumpets with sliding tubes (like the trombone)?

"23. How are the flutes sounded? is there a plug in the mouth-hole?

"24. Any nose-flutes?

"25. What is the number and the position of the finger-holes on the
flutes?

"26. What tones do the flutes yield if the finger-holes are closed in
regular succession upwards or downwards?

"27. If the people have the syrinx (or Pandean pipe), ascertain the
series of musical intervals yielded by its tubes.

"28. Do the people construct wind-instruments with a vibrating reed, or
some similar contrivance, inserted in the mouth-hole?

"29. If they have a reed wind-instrument, observe whether the reed is
_single_ (like that of the clarionet) or _double_ (like that of the
oboe.)

"30. Have they a kind of bagpipe?

"31. What musical instruments have they which are not used by them in
musical performances, but merely for conveying signals and for such like
purposes?

"32. Have they stringed instruments the strings of which are sounded by
being twanged with the fingers?

"33. Any stringed instruments twanged with a plectrum?

"34. Any stringed instruments beaten with sticks or hammers (like the
dulcimer)?

"35. Any stringed instruments played with a bow?

"36. If there are stringed instruments with frets on the neck (as is the
case with our guitar), note down the intervals produced by the frets in
regular succession.

"37. What are the substances of which the strings are made?

"38. Is there any peculiar contrivance on some of the instruments in the
arrangement and situation of the strings?

"39. Are there stringed instruments with sympathetic strings (_i.e._,
strings placed under those strings which are played upon. The
sympathetic strings merely serve to increase the sonorousness)?

"40. What are the musical intervals in which the stringed instruments
are tuned?

"41. Do the people possess any musical instrument of a very peculiar
construction? If so, describe it minutely.

"42. Give the name of each instrument in the language of the country.

"43. Describe each instrument, and give illustrations, if possible.

"44. Give some account of the makers of musical instruments; of the
woods, metals, hide, gut, hair, and other materials they use; of their
tools, etc.

"45. What are the usual adornments and appendages of the musical
instruments?

"_Compositions:_--

"46. On what order of intervals is the music of the people founded? Is
it the Diatonic Major Scale (like _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _a_, _b_,
_c_)? Or the Diatonic Minor Scale (in which the third is flat; like _c_,
_d_, _e flat_, _f_, _g_, _a_, _b_, _c_)? Or the Pentatonic Scale (in
which the fourth and the seventh are omitted, thus _c_, _d_, _e_, _g_,
_a_, _c_)? Or some other order of intervals?

"47. Is the seventh used sharp (_c_-_b_), or flat (_c_-_b flat_)?

"48. Does the superfluous second occur in the scale? (In
the example _c_, _d_, _e flat_, _f sharp_, _g_, _a flat_, _b_, _c_,
                          |__________|              |______|
the steps from the third to the fourth, and from the sixth to the
seventh, are superfluous seconds.)

"49. Does the music contain progressions in semitones, or chromatic
intervals?

"50. Are there smaller intervals than semitones, such as 1/3 tones, 1/4
tones?

"51. Are there peculiar progressions in certain intervals which are of
frequent occurrence in the tunes? If so, what are they?

"52. Do the tunes usually conclude on the tonic (the key-note, or the
first interval of the scale), or, if not, on what other interval?

"53. Do the tunes contain modulations from one key into another? If so,
describe the usual modulations.

"54. Are there certain rhythmical peculiarities predominant in the
music? If so, what are they?

"55. Is the time of the music generally common time, triple time, or
irregular?

"56. Are there phrases or passages in the melodies which are of frequent
re-occurrence?

"57. Have the airs of the songs re-occurrences of musical phrases which
are traceable to the form of the poetry?

"58. Have the people musical compositions which they regard as very old?
and do these compositions exhibit the same characteristics which are
found in the modern ones?

"59. Are the compositions generally lively or grave?

"60. Describe the form of the various kinds of musical compositions.

"_Performances:_--

"61. Have the people musical bands or orchestras?

"62. Which are the instruments generally used in combination?

"63. Which are the instruments commonly used singly?

"64. What is the number of performers in a properly constituted band?

"65. Is there a leader of the band? How does he direct the performers?

"66. Does the band play in unison or in harmony?

"67. If vocal music is combined with instrumental music performed by the
band, is the instrumental accompaniment in unison (or in octaves) with
the voice, or has it something of its own?

"68. Is the _tempo_ generally fast or slow?

"69. Are there sudden or gradual changes in the _tempo_?

"70. Are there changes in the degree of loudness?

"71. Do the musicians, on repeating a piece, introduce alterations, or
variations of the theme?

"72. Do they introduce embellishments _ad libitum_?

"73. Mention the occasions (religious ceremonies, social and public
amusements, celebrations, processions, etc.) on which musical
performances take place.

"74. Are there military bands? and how are they constituted?

"75. Is music employed to facilitate manual labour?

"76. Are there songs or instrumental compositions appertaining to
particular occupations or trades?

"77. Have the people a national hymn or an instrumental composition
which they perform in honour of their sovereign or in commemoration of
some political event?

"78. Describe minutely the musical performances in religious worship, if
there are any.

"79. Have they sacred dances performed in religious ceremonies, at
funerals, etc.?

"80. Any war-dances, dances of defiance, etc.?

"81. Any dances in which they imitate the peculiar movements and habits
of certain animals?

"82. Are there dances accompanied by musical instruments, by singing, or
merely by rhythmical sounds such as clapping of hands, snapping of
fingers, reiterated vociferation, etc.?

"83. Give a list of all the dances.

"84. Endeavour to ascertain whether the rhythm of the music accompanying
the dance is suggested by the steps of the dancers, or _vice vers‚_.

"_Cultivation:_--

"85. Do the people easily learn a melody by ear?

"86. Have they a good musical memory?

"87. Are the children taught music? and if so, how is it done?

"88. Are there professional musicians?

"89. Any performers who evince much talent?

"90. Any minstrels, bards, reciters of old ballads?

"91. Any professional improvisators?

"92. Are there professional musicians of different grades?

"93. Who composes the music?

"94. Do the musicians follow other professions besides music?

"95. Are the ministers of religion also musicians and medical men?

"96. Have the people some kind of musical notation?

"97. Have they written signs for raising or lowering the voice in
singing, for giving emphasis to certain words or phrases, or for similar
purposes? If so, describe the signs.

"98. Do they possess treatises on the history, theory, etc., of music;
instruction books for singing, and for playing musical instruments,
etc.? If so, give a detailed account of their musical literature.

"99. Have they musical institutions? Give an account of them.

"100. How do the people appreciate their own music?

"101. What impression does the music of foreign nations produce upon
them?

"_Traditions:_--

"102. Are there popular traditions respecting the origin of music?

"103. Any myths about a musical deity, or some superhuman musician?

"104. Any legends or fairy-tales in which allusion to music is made? If
so, what are they?

"105. Any tradition about the invention of certain favourite musical
instruments?

"106. Any tradition or historical record respecting the antiquity of
stringed instruments played with a bow?

"107. Any records respecting their sacred music?

"108. Is music believed to possess the power of curing certain
illnesses?

"109. The power of enticing and taming wild animals?

"110. Are there popular tunes, or certain rhythmical figures in the
tunes, which, according to tradition, have been suggested by the songs
of birds?

"111. If there is anything noteworthy about music which has not been
alluded to in the preceding questions, notice it."

[3] 'Notes and Queries on Anthropology, for the Use of Travellers and
Residents in Uncivilized Lands. Drawn up by a Committee appointed by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science. London, 1874.'

[4] The book contains the note: "The Council of the Anthropological
Institute of Great Britain and Ireland will be glad to receive any
communications relating to the queries contained in this volume.
Communications to be addressed to the Secretary, 4, St. Martin's Place,
Trafalgar Square, London." It is understood that a certain number of
copies of the book will be gratuitously distributed by the committee to
English consular agents, naval officers, missionaries, and others who
are likely to turn them to good account.

COLLECTIONS OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

In Thibet, and other Asiatic countries in which the Buddhist religion is
established, variously-constructed musical instruments are generally
deposited in a certain part of the temple, to be at hand for the priests
when required in ceremonies and processions. In examining the Assyrian
bas-reliefs in the British Museum, we are led to surmise that a similar
custom prevailed in Western Asia before the Christian era. At any rate,
it appears probable that the various instruments represented in the
hands of musicians who assisted in religious rites observed by the king
were usually deposited in a room appropriated to their reception. The
same appears to have been the case in the Temple of Jerusalem. King
David had, it is recorded, musical instruments made of a wood called
_berosh_, which afterwards, under the reign of Solomon, were made of
_algum_, or _almug_, a more precious wood imported from foreign
districts. King Solomon, being in possession of superior instruments,
probably preserved the inferior ones of his father as venerated
memorials; and the _kinnor_ upon which David played before Saul may have
been as carefully guarded by King Solomon as the Emperor of Germany
guards in his cabinet of curiosities the flute of Frederick the Great.

Howbeit, Josephus records that Solomon had made for the musical
performances at the dedication of the Temple a large number of stringed
instruments and trumpets, all of which were kept together in the Temple
with the treasures. It is not likely that at so early a period
collections of antiquated instruments were formed for any scientific
purpose; the art of music was too much in its infancy to suggest the
preservation of evidences elucidating its gradual development.

The collections of ancient and scarce musical instruments which, in
modern time, have been made in several European countries are very
interesting to the lover of music, although they have, in most
instances, evidently been formed less with the object of illustrating
the history of the art of music than for the purpose of preserving
curious and tasteful relics of bygone time, or of exhibiting
characteristic contrivances of foreign nations.

In Italy some of the Conservatories of Music possess antiquated
instruments of great rarity. Curious old spinets, lutes, mandolines, and
guitars, are said to be found dispersed among private families and in
convents, especially in Naples and its vicinity. In the Liceo Comunale
di Musica, at Bologna, are deposited above fifty instruments, among
which are an Italian cither (_cetera_) of the beginning of the sixteenth
century; an archlute by "Hieronymus Brensius, Bonon" (Bologna); a
chitarrone, by "Matteo Selles, alla Corona in Venetia, 1639;" a
chitarrone inscribed "In Padova Uvendelio Veneto, 1609;" a theorbo by
"Hans Frei in Bologna, 1597;" a lute by "Magno Stegher in Venetia." A
lute, "Magno Dieffopruchar a Venetia, 1612." This lute has fourteen
strings arranged in seven pairs, each pair being tuned in unison.
Several marine trumpets, one of which bears the inscription, "Pieter
Rombouts, Amsterdam, 17." A viola da gamba, inscribed "Antonius
Bononiensis." A sordino, or pochette, by "Baptista Bressano," supposed
to date from the end of the fifteenth century. Its shape is peculiar,
somewhat resembling that of the Portuguese _machÍte_, representing a
fish. A viola d'amore, with the inscription "Mattias Grieser, Lauten and
Geigenmacher in Insbrugg, Anno 1727;" two curious old harps; an old
tenor flute, measuring in length about three feet; some curious double
flutes; cornetti, or zinken, of different dimensions. An archicembalo.
This is a kind of harpsichord with four rows of keys, made after the
invention of Nicolo Vicentino, and described in his work "L'Antica
Musica ridotta alla moderna prattica. Rome, 1555." The compass of this
archicembalo comprises only four octaves; but each octave is divided
into thirty-one intervals, forming in all one hundred and twenty-five
keys. It was made by Vito Trasuntino, a Venetian, who lived towards the
end of the sixteenth century, and who added a _tetracordo_ to it, to
facilitate the tuning of its minute intervals. However, the archicembalo
was probably not the first instrument of the harpsichord kind which
contained an enharmonic arrangement of intervals. The clavicymbalum
perfectum, or Universal-clavicymbel, which PrÊtorius states he saw in
Prague, and which was likewise made in the sixteenth century, was of a
similar construction. One of the most singular instruments in the
collection of the Liceo Comunale de Musica at Bologna is the
_cornamusa_, which consists of five pipes inserted into a cross-tube,
through which they are sounded. Four of the pipes serve as drones; and
the fifth, which is the largest, is provided with finger-holes, like the
chanter of a bagpipe. The instrument has, however, no bag, although it
is probably the predecessor of the species of bagpipe called
_cornamusa_.

Instruments played with a bow of the celebrated Cremona makers are at
the present day more likely to be met with in England than in Italy. In
the beginning of the present century Luigi Tarisio, an Italian by birth,
and a great connoisseur and collector of old violins, hunted over all
Italy and other European countries for old fiddles. To avoid the high
custom dues which he would have had to pay on the old instruments, he
took them all to pieces, as small as possible, and carried the bits
about him in his pockets and in a bag under his arm. So thoroughly was
he acquainted with his acquisitions that, having arrived at the place of
his destination, he soon restored them to their former condition,
assigning to each fragment its original position. Tarisio made his first
appearance in Paris, in the year 1827, with a bag full of valuable
_dÈbris_ from Italy; and he continued his searches for nearly thirty
years. During this time he imported into France most of the beautiful
violins by Antonius Stradiuarius, Joseph Guarnerius, Bergonzi,
Montagnana, and Ruggeri, which are of highest repute, and the greater
number of which have afterwards found their way into England.

In Germany we meet with several collections of interest. The Museum of
Antiquities, at Berlin, contains, among other musical curiosities,
well-preserved lyres which have been found in tombs of the ancient
Egyptians. The Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde ("Society of Lovers of
Music"), at Vienna, possesses a collection of antiquated instruments,
among which are noteworthy: a viola di bardone by Jacobus Stainer, 1660;
a viola di bardone by Magnus Feldlen, Vienna, 1556; a viola di bardone
by H. Kramer, Vienna, 1717; a viola d'amore by Weigert, Linz, 1721; a
viola d'amore by Joannes Schorn, Salzburg, 1699; a tromba marina (marine
trumpet) by J. Fischer, Landshut, 1722; a lute by Leonardo
Tieffenbrucker, Padua, 1587; a theorbo by Wenger, Padua, 1622; a theorbo
by Bassiano, Rome, 1666; a Polish cither by J. Schorn, Salzburg, 1696; a
large flute made in the year 1501; an old German schalmey (English
_shalm_ or _shawm_) by Sebastian Koch; an old German trumpet by
Schnitzer, N¸rnberg, 1598; an oboe d'amore, made about the year 1770,
etc.

A curious assemblage of scarce relics of this kind is also to be found
in the Museum of the Germanic Society at N¸rnberg. The most noteworthy
specimens in this collection are: two marine trumpets, fifteenth
century; a German cither with a double neck (bijuga-cither) sixteenth
century; a German dulcimer (_hackbret_), sixteenth century; a lute by
Michael Harton, Padua, 1602; a viola da gamba by Paul Hiltz, N¸rnberg,
1656; a viola d'amore, with five catgut strings, and eight sympathetic
wire strings, seventeenth century; an arpanetta (_harpanetta_, German
_spitzharfe_) mounted on one side with brass wire, and on the opposite
side with steel wire, sixteenth century; a clavecin with finely painted
cover, by Martinus van der Biest, Antwerp, 1580; two German zinken
(_cornetti_) sixteenth century; two specimens of the bombardo, viz., a
German alt-pommer and tenor-pommer, by J. C. Denner, seventeenth century;
some specimens of the cormorne (German _krummhorn_) of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries; a trumpet made by J. C. Kodisch, N¸rnberg, anno
1690; a splendid brass trombone (German bass-posaune) ornamented with
the German eagle and imperial crown, made by Friedrich Ehe, in
N¸rnberg, anno 1612; a Polish bagpipe, seventeenth century; a syrinx of
reeds covered with black leather, sixteenth century; eight military
pipes, made by H. F. Kynsker, in N¸rnberg, seventeenth century; a small
portable organ (_regal_) with two rows of keys, sixteenth century. The
regal has become very scarce. There are only a few specimens known to be
in existence; one, of the sixteenth century, is in the possession of the
Chanoinesses de Berlaimont, at Brussels; another, made about the middle
of the seventeenth century, belongs to the Duke of Athol, and is at
Blair Athol, in Scotland; another, which belongs to Mr. Wyndham S.
Portal, Malshanger, Basingstoke, is in the shape of a book, and its
pipes have reeds, or vibrating tongues of metal. This regal, which
probably dates from the sixteenth century, is of the kind which was
called in German _Bibelregal_, because it resembles a Bible in
appearance.

Old musical instruments are generally so fragile, and were formerly
thought so little of when they came out of use, that it is perhaps not
surprising to find of those dating from a period earlier than the
sixteenth century very few specimens, and these have generally been
altered, and it is seldom that they have been properly restored to their
original condition. As an instance how valuable specimens are gradually
becoming more and more scarce, may be mentioned the interesting
collection of obsolete German harps, pipes, and trumpets, dating from a
period anterior to the year 1600, which was preserved in the Town
Library of Strassburg, and which, at the recent bombardment of the town,
was reduced to ashes. It contained, among other curiosities: a cornetto
curvo; some specimens of the cornetto dritto; a flauto dolce. Several
specimens of the bombardone, the predecessor of the bassoon; a dulcinum
fagotto; two specimens of the cormorne, an oddly-shaped wind instrument
belonging to the shalm or oboe family. An arpanetta. This instrument,
called in German _spitzharfe_ or _drathharfe_, is especially
interesting, inasmuch as it resembles the old Irish harp called
_keirnine_, which was of a similar form, and which was also strung with
wire instead of catgut. There is such a harp extant in the museum of the
Society of Lovers of Music, at Vienna, before-mentioned.

If the lumber-rooms of old castles and mansions in Germany were
ransacked for the purpose, some interesting relics of the kind would
probably be brought to light. In the year 1872 Dr. E. Schebeck, of
Prague, was requested by Prince Moriz Lobkowitz to examine the musical
instruments preserved in Eisenberg, a castle of the Prince, situated at
the foot of the Erzgebirge, in Bohemia. Most of them had formerly been
used in the private orchestra kept by Prince Josef Franz Maximilian
Lobkowitz, the well-known patron of Beethoven, to whom the composer has
dedicated some of his great works. The present Prince Lobkowitz, who
seems to have inherited his parent's love for music, wished to have an
examination of the instruments, with the object of making a selection of
the most interesting ones for the great Vienna Exhibition in 1873. Dr.
Schebeck found, among other rarities, violins by Gaspar di Salo, Amati,
Grancino, Techler, Stainer, and Albani; a violoncello by Andreas
Guarnerius; a scarce specimen of a double-bass by Jacobus Stainer; two
precious old lutes by Laux Maler, who lived at Bologna during the first
half of the fifteenth century; a lute, highly finished, and apparently
as old as those of Laux Maler, with the inscription in the inside "Marx
Unverdorben a Venetia;" a lute, with the inscription "Magno
Dieffoprukhar a Venetia, 1607." There can be no doubt that we have here
the Italianised name of the German Magnus Tieffenbrucker, who lived in
Italy.[5]

Fortunately for musical antiquarians the collection of rare instruments
in the Conservatoire de Musique at Paris has been preserved uninjured
during the recent disasters in that city. Among the instruments may be
noticed, a small and beautiful musette with drones of ivory and gold,
which belonged to Louis XIII.; a German regal, or portable organ,
sixteenth century; a pochette by Stradiuarius; a _courtaud_, an early
kind of bassoon, dating from the fifteenth century; several
bass-flutes, and other rare old wind instruments; BoÔeldieu's
pianoforte; GrÈtry's clavichord; a "Trumpet of Honour," which was made
by order of Napoleon I., and which has the name of "T. Harper" engraven
on its silver rim. M. Victor Schoelcher has presented to the
Conservatoire de Musique about twenty rather primitive instruments of
uncivilised nations obtained by him during his travels in Western Africa
and South America, among which may be noted several Negro contrivances
of the harp and guitar kind.

An interesting catalogue of the instruments in the MusÈe du
Conservatoire National de Musique has recently been published by Gustave
Chouquet, the curator of the museum. It comprises 630 instruments, or
portions of instruments, each fiddle-bow, mute, etc., being separately
numbered. On the whole, the Paris collection, though large, is far less
valuable than that of the South Kensington Museum.

One of the most valuable private collections ever formed of ancient
musical instruments was that of M. Louis Clapisson in Paris. During a
course of more than twenty years M. Louis Clapisson succeeded in
procuring a considerable number of scarce and highly decorated specimens
of instruments of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The collection
has been dispersed since the death of its owner; a large portion of it
is now incorporated with the collection of the Conservatoire de Musique
at Paris, and some of its most valuable specimens were secured for the
South Kensington Museum. It was, however, so unique that the following
short survey of its contents will probably be welcome to the
archÊological musician.

Clapisson's collection comprised (according to the catalogue of its
contents which was published in French, and which is now scarce) 167
instruments. Among them are especially noteworthy:--A clavecin (or
harpsichord) with two rows of keys, dated 1612; embellished with
paintings which date from the time of Louis XIV. In front is a painting
by Teniers, and in the inside are some fine paintings by Paul Brill. An
Italian spinet of the time of Louis XIV., embellished with paintings of
garlands of flowers, cupids, etc., attributed to Poussin. The fine
carving and the ornamentation of engraved amber on this spinet give it a
stamp of originality. An Italian spinet, bearing the inscription
"Francisci di Portalvpis Veronen opus, 1523," of ebony inlaid with
ivory. An Italian spinet of the sixteenth century, ornamented with
marquetry of various coloured woods. The corners of the key-board are
adorned with caryatides finely carved in box-wood. A travelling spinet
made in the shape of a mail-trunk dating from the time of Henri II. It
is signed "Marins," which is the name of a celebrated manufacturer of
that period. A clavecin made in France in the year 1657, ornamented with
paintings and with marquetry of ivory, with the arms of the family of
Pierre di Dreux (called Mauclere), Duke of Bretagne, who lived about the
year 1250. An Italian dulcimer of wood carved and gilt, dating from the
seventeenth century. It is tastefully inlaid with slips of silvered
glass. A French dulcimer of the time of Louis XIV., with twisted columns
of wood carved and gilt, and with paintings of flowers and birds. A
French dulcimer, or timpanon, of the time of Louis XIII., ornamented
with roses neatly carved in wood. The instrument is in a case, which is
ornamented with paintings and inlaid slips of silvered glass. A French
dulcimer of carved wood, ornamented with slips of engraved Venetian
glass, with turquoises, and with paintings on _Vernis Martin_. A
sonorous stone from China, in the form of a fish. A French harp, of the
time of Louis XV., gilt and carved with flowers and paintings in relief.
A harp of the time of Louis XVI., having belonged to the Princesse de
Lamballe, whose name is engraven on it. It is finely painted with
medallions on _Vernis Martin_. A theorbo of the time of Louis XIII.,
inlaid with designs in ivory. Engraven on it is the coat of arms of the
House of Austria; also a portrait, and the device _Non omnes_. A French
guitar made, according to an inscription, by Voboam, a celebrated
lute-maker at the court of Louis XIV. It is made in the figure of a
tortoise, the body being of tortoise-shell, and the head, feet and tail
of coloured enamel. A French guitar of the time of Louis XIII., inlaid
with ivory, on which are engraven subjects of the chase. A French guitar
of the time of Louis XIII., inlaid with ivory engraved with mythological
subjects. An Italian mandoline of citron-wood inlaid with
mother-of-pearl, engraven with figures. An Italian mandoline, ornamented
with marquetry, mother-of-pearl, and carving; assigned to Stradiuarius.
A French mandoline of the time of Louis XVI., with the arms of the
Dauphin inlaid with mother-of-pearl. A small Italian mandoline with
three strings. A mandora of the time of Henri II., inlaid with broad
strips of ivory, and with _fleurs de lys_ in ebony. A French hurdy-gurdy
(or _vielle_) of the time of Louis XIV., made of box-wood and
citron-wood, carved, and ornamented with medallions of mother-of-pearl
and with turquoises; formerly the property of Madame AdelaÔde. A French
hurdy-gurdy by Louvet, dated 1750; tastefully ornamented. A small
hurdy-gurdy for the use of ladies, made in France during the period of
Louis XVI. This _vielle_, elegant in form and tastefully inlaid with
ivory, bears the inscription "Delaunay." A Hungarian violin, made in
Presburg, inlaid with marquetry of various coloured woods. A small
violin by Jacobus Stainer, inlaid with ornaments in silver, including
the coat of arms of France; with a finely-carved head of a faun. A
French _quinton_, or five-stringed viol, made by Guersan, in 1755. A
viola da gamba, with a finely-carved head representing an angel
bandaging the eyes of a female. A small viola da gamba of the kind on
which the French ladies used to play at the time of Louis XIII. A
pochette by Stradiuarius, known to be genuine. A pochette of the
sixteenth century, of engraved ivory and ebony, inlaid with precious
stones. A pochette of ivory and coloured woods, dating from the period
of Louis XIII., and bearing the inscription "Marins." A crystal flute,
the invention of Laurent; silver keys enriched with amethysts. A small
Italian double-flute of ivory, made by Anciuti in Milan, anno 1722. An
oboe of ivory, carved by Anciuti in Milan, beginning of the eighteenth
century. A French oboe of ebony, inlaid with ivory, tortoise-shell, and
enriched with gold and precious stones; of the time of Louis XIII. A
small French oboe of the time of Louis XIV., made of ivory, with three
silver keys. A French _musette_ (a species of bagpipe with bellows); the
pipes of ivory; twenty-one silver keys; the bag ornamented with
embroidery in gold. This fine _musette_ dates from the period of Louis
XV. A small French _musette_ of ivory, with silver keys, having belonged
to the painter Vanloo. A _cornemuse bretonne_ (bagpipe of Brittany) of
the time of Louis XIII. A trumpet of the time of Henri IV., ornamented
with embossed _fleurs de lys_ and with the portrait of Henri IV.,
surrounded by butterflies. A serpent of the sixteenth century, made of
wood, with the carved head of a demon finely executed.

Turning to Belgium, we again meet with some interesting collections. M.
FÈtis, the well-known musician, had a number of Eastern instruments
procured from Egypt, to enable him to familiarise himself with the
Arabic tonal system, which essentially differs from our own, but which
undoubtedly is of much higher antiquity, and therefore of particular
interest to the musical historian. After the death of FÈtis, his
collection was purchased by the Belgian Government. Dr. Burney, who
visited Antwerp in the year 1772, records in his journal that he saw in
a public edifice of the town, called Oosters Huys, a large number of
wind instruments of a peculiar construction. "There are," he says,
"between thirty and forty of the common flute kind, but different in
some particulars--having, as they increase in length, keys and crooks,
like hautbois and bassoons. They were made at Hamburg, and all of one
sort of wood, and by one maker, 'Casper Ravchs Scratenbach,' was
engraved on a brass ring or plate, which encircled most of these
instruments. The large ones have brass plates pierced, and some with
human figures well engraved on them. These last are longer than a
bassoon would be if unfolded. The inhabitants say that it is more than a
hundred years since these instruments were used, and that there is no
musician at present in the town who knows how to play on any one of
them, as they are quite different from those now [in the year 1772] in
common use. In times when commerce flourished in this city these
instruments used to be played on every day by a band of musicians, who
attended the merchants trading to the Hanse Towns in procession to the
Exchange."

No doubt there are some curious old harpsichords and lutes still to be
found in Belgium and in the Netherlands--countries in former times
distinguished for the cultivation of the art of music. Besides, the
connection of the Netherlands with Asia has facilitated the acquisition
of curious instruments from the East, a number of which may be seen
deposited in the Museum at the Hague.

A glance at a collection made by a musical amateur, during the
seventeenth century, is sure to interest the musical antiquarian. The
collector, Jean-Baptiste Dandeleu, a man of position and property in
Brussels, died in the year 1667. Among his effects were the following
instruments, the list of which is here literally transcribed as it was
written at the time of his decease:--"Une orgue, que l'on dit avoir
appertenu ‡ feu l'archiduq (de glorieuse mÈmoire), et couste trois
milles florins.--Une espinette organisÈe.--Un coffre dans lequel y a
neuf violes de gambes d'accord.--Encor une vieille viole de gambes.--Six
corps de luths ou thiorbes dans des vieilles caisses.--Une mandore aussy
dans sa caisse.--Une autre petit instrument en forme de poire avec le
col rompu, ou decollÈ.--Une caisse doublÈe de baye rouge, dans la quelle
y a six fluttes rares d'accord, qui sont de bouys, avec leurs escorces
et noeuds.--Une cornette noire de musique.--Encore une fl˚te de bouys de
la longueur d'environ un pied dans une caisse noire.--Trois caisses avec
diverses fl˚tes de bouys grandes et petites d'accord, entre les quelles
aucunes manquent.--Encor six fl˚tes semblables, que l'on croid estre
celles qui manquent cy-dessus.--Encor une grande fl˚te, ou pippe
noire.--Un violon dans sa caisse.--Un cistre aussy dans sa caisse.--Un
instrument rare pour sa structure ‡ mËtre les livres des musiciens
dessus pour un concert de musique.--Cincq petits lesseniers."

Most of the instruments in this collection were undoubtedly manufactured
about the period in which they are mentioned. However, as regards lutes
and viols, preference was given already as early as the seventeenth
century to old ones, if they were the work of good makers. Thus, the
lutes of Laux Maler, dating from the beginning of the fifteenth
century--"pittifull old, batter'd, crack'd things," as Thomas Mace calls
them in his 'Musick's Monument,' London, 1676--fetched as much as a
hundred pounds apiece. "I have often seen," Mace remarks, "lutes of
three or four pounds price far more illustrious and taking to a common
eye.... First know that an old lute is better than a new one." Thus also
with viols: "We chiefly value old instruments before new; for by
experience they are found to be far the best." The improvement by age he
reasonably attributes to the circumstance that "the pores of the wood
have a more and free liberty to move, stir, or secretly vibrate; by
which means the air--which is the life of all things, both animate and
inanimate--has a more free and easie recourse to pass and repass."

An interesting collection of antiquated musical instruments has been
made by M. CÈsar Snoeck, of Renaix, in Belgium. It comprises among other
rarities:--A small virginal bearing the inscription: "Paulus Steinicke
me fecit, Anno 1657." A harpanetta, seventeenth century. A _cetera_ or
Italian cither, seventeenth century. The top terminates in a
finely-carved figure, and the body is flattened towards the lower end.
This interesting instrument is of the kind which the Italian
_improvisatori_ used for accompanying the voice. An assemblage of
specimens, varying in size, of the German, or perhaps Dutch, zinken.
These quaint-looking flute-trumpets, although blown through a mouth-tube
somewhat similar to that of the trumpet, have finger-holes like a flute.
They probably were made about the year 1700. A tenor-flute and three
bass-flutes, probably of the seventeenth century.

The municipality of Ghent, in Belgium, possesses silver trumpets which
were made in the fifteenth century. It will be remembered from the
biblical records (Numbers, x., 2) that Moses constructed two trumpets
entirely of silver. Neither was the use of the trumpet for strategical
purposes unknown to the Hebrews, as is evidenced by Gideon's employment
of the instrument (Judges, vii.). There is an old German treatise,
quaintly entitled 'Versuch einer Anleitung zur heroisch-musikalischen
Trompeter-und Pauker-Kunst' ("An Attempt at a Guide to the
heroic-musical Art of the Trumpeter and the Kettle-Drummer"), written by
Johann Ernst Altenburg, Halle, 1795, which contains some interesting
accounts concerning the various occasions on which the trumpet was
formerly used in different European countries, at Court ceremonies and
public festivities, as well as in war. Altenburg, who himself was a
distinguished military trumpeter, and, no doubt, also a brave warrior,
remarks: "Awful and terrible is the sound of the trumpet when it
announces the near approach of the enemy; or when the enemy demands by
trumpet-signal the surrender of a beleaguered town; or when he storms
and enters the town with the blare of the trumpet of war! Likewise, the
signal of alarm produces an uneasy impression upon a weaker corps when
surprised and surrounded by a stronger corps. However, by means of this
uncommon music, which has been made use of by many as a stratagem in
olden time and at the present day, often important conquests have also
resulted. During the Seven Years' War, in which I took part, it happened
during a dark night that a large body of the enemy's troops nearly
succeeded in surprising and cutting off one of our corps which was much
smaller and weaker; but we, modifying the signals of our trumpets so as
to make them appear to come from different quarters and from long
distances, succeeded in intimidating the enemy, so that he suddenly
turned and fled, believing that we were receiving succour."

This may be the place to notice a fine collection of old trumpets in the
possession of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. They were made
by Johann Leonard Ehe, in N¸rnberg; Hieronymus Stark, in N¸rnberg, anno
1669; Christopher Frank, Magnus Wolf, Wilhelm Haas, anno 1688.

Passing over the Royal Museum of Northern Antiquities at Copenhagen,
which contains highly curious specimens of the old Scandinavian brass
trumpet called _lure_--especially interesting if compared with the
bronze trumpets of mediÊval time excavated from bogs or mosses in
Ireland, and now preserved in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy at
Dublin--we now proceed to a cursory survey of the musical antiquities in
the museums of London.

The British Museum possesses several instruments, or fragments of
instruments, of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and old
Celtic trumpets which have been found in Ireland. In the ethnological
department of the British Museum are particularly noteworthy:--The
specimens of Chinese instruments brought over to England by Mr.
Tradescant Lay; those from Siam, obtained by Sir John Bowring; those
from Java, obtained by Sir Stamford Raffles; a considerable number of
flutes, including nose-flutes, and of trumpets, from Otaheite,
Tongataboo, and New Zealand; well-preserved drums from the Polynesian
Islands; serpent-headed drums of the natives of New Guinea; Negro
instruments from Western Africa, etc.

The Museum of the East India House, in London, contains upwards of 120
musical instruments, mostly from Hindustan and Burmah, some of which are
very fine, but many are out of repair. An assemblage of curious pipes,
trumpets, and drums of the Polynesians, as well as fiddles of the
Hottentots and Kafirs in Southern Africa, may be seen in the Museum of
the London Missionary Society. Furthermore, the Botanical Museum at Kew
possesses several interesting contrivances of this kind, made of
peculiar species of wood by Indian tribes in South America.

The collection of musical instruments belonging to the South Kensington
Museum is now, as far as is known, the most comprehensive in existence.
The latest edition of its catalogue, published in the year 1874,
describes 353 instruments, of which 246 belong to the Museum, and 107
are on loan. The catalogue contains 143 wood-engravings and six
photographs of instruments, and is preceded by an essay on the history
of musical instruments. A glance at its comprehensive index will perhaps
convey to the reader the impression that it takes cognizance of almost
every musical instrument in the world. This is, however, by no means the
case. Even an account of all our own instruments in use at the present
day would fill a large volume. But, endeavour has been made to render
the catalogue as comprehensive as is consistent with its object, and the
reader will find in it illustrations and descriptions of most of the
instruments mentioned in the present essay.

There have been some curious lists preserved of musical instruments
which belonged to English amateur musicians, and which were sold, after
the death of the owner, at public auctions.

The collection of musical instruments which belonged to King Henry VIII.
appears to have been remarkably comprehensive and valuable. An inventory
of its contents was compiled by Philip van Wilder, a Dutch lute-player
in the service of the king. The manuscript of this inventory is
preserved in the British Museum. Among the instruments entered are:--Two
paier of clavicordes.--A payre of new long virginalls made harp-fashion,
of Cipres, with keys of ivory, having the King's arms crowned and
supported by His Grace's beastes within a garter gilt, standing over the
keys.--Gitterons which are called Spanish vialles.--Flutes called
Pilgrims' staves.--A great base recorder. Two base recorders of walnut.
Pipes of ivory or wood, called cornets.

In 'The History and Antiquities of Hengrave, Suffolk, by John Gage,
London, 1822,' are recorded among the effects of Sir Thomas Kytson of
Hengrave Hall, about the year 1600:--Six viols in a chest. Six violins
in a chest. Lutes. Citterns. Bandoras. Seven recorders in a case.
Hautboys. A curtall. Cornets. A lezarden. A pair of little virginals. A
pair of double virginals. A wind-instrument like a virginal. A pair of
double organs.

The "curtall" was probably the French _courtaud_ mentioned previously,
page 37; and the "lezarden" was probably similar to the _serpent_, an
old wind-instrument mentioned in page 41.

Among the English private collections about two centuries ago deserves
to be noticed one which was formed by Thomas Britton, the small-coal
man. This extraordinary musical amateur, born in the year 1656 of poor
parents in Northamptonshire, set out for London while still a lad to
gain his living. After various vicissitudes he succeeded in his project
by becoming a seller of small-coal. During the day he wandered through
the streets carrying a sack of coals on his back, and crying them for
sale. In the evening he practised his viol, and studied the theory of
music. Moreover, he was as fond of studying chemistry as he was of
making music. The library of books and musical compositions which he
collected from second-hand book-stalls, in his peregrinations through
the streets during a period of thirty-six years, was extensive,
considering his position. A list of his music-books is given in
Hawkins's 'History of Music.' Thomas Britton lived in Aylesbury Street,
Clerkenwell, in a hired stable converted into a dwelling-house. The
ground-floor he used for the repository of his small-coal; and the room
above--a long and narrow space, with a ceiling so low that a tall man
could but just stand upright in it--was his concert-room. Here the best
musicians in London--among them Dr. Pepusch, Matthew Dubourg, the
violinist, who at that time was a little boy, and Handel, during the
last four years of Thomas Britton's life--were glad to perform. The fine
concerts and the estimable character of Thomas Britton became soon more
generally appreciated; his concerts, given gratuitously, attracted a
genteel audience, among whom might be seen dukes, lords, and other
persons of rank and wealth. The musical instruments of this great
small-coal man, which were sold by public auction after his death in
1714, are entered in the catalogue of the sale as follows:--"A fine
guitar in a case. A good dulcimer. Five instruments in the shape of
fish. A curious ivory Kitt and bow in case. A good violin by Ditton.
Another very good one. One said to be a Cremona. An extraordinary
Rayman. Three others ditto. One very beautiful one by Claud Pieray of
Paris, as good as a Cremona. One ditto. Another very good one. Another
ditto. A very good one for a high violin. Another ditto. An excellent
tenor. Another ditto by Mr. Lewis. A fine viol by Baker of Oxford.
Another excellent one, bellied by Mr. Norman. Another, said to be the
neatest and best that Jay ever made. A fine bass violin, new-neck'd and
bellied by Mr. Norman. Another rare good one by Mr. Lewis. A good
harpsichord by Philip Jones. A Rucker's virginal, thought to be the
best in Europe. An organ of five stops, exactly consort pitch, fit for a
room, and with some adornments may serve for any chapel, being a very
good one."

The "five instruments in the shape of fish" were, probably, specimens of
the _machÍte_, a small kind of guitar made in Portugal and Madeira, and
occasionally brought to England as a curiosity. However, the _pochette_
also was sometimes made in the shape of a fish. As regards the
instrument-makers mentioned in Britton's list, suffice it to state that
Jacob Rayman, who lived in Southwark about the year 1640, enjoyed a
reputation especially as a maker of fine violas, and that Edward Lewis,
who lived in London about the year 1700, was a distinguished
violin-maker. Barak Norman in London, Henry Jay in Southwark, and John
Baker in Oxford, were distinguished viol-makers of the seventeenth
century.

Some fine collections made in the present century by English gentlemen
consisted almost entirely of Italian violins, violas and violoncellos.
It is but natural that the possessor of real or supposed works of art
should feel particularly gratified when he finds them admired by persons
whose judgment he has reason to esteem. Louis Spohr, in his
'Autobiography,' describes a visit which he paid to an enthusiastic
musical _dilettante_ and collector of violins, in London, in the year
1820. Spohr had come over from Germany to England to give concerts, and
was unacquainted with the English language. He relates: "One morning a
livery-servant brought me a note containing the words: 'Mr. Spohr is
requested to call upon the undersigned to-day at four o'clock
precisely.' As the name of the writer was unknown to me, I answered in
the same laconic manner: 'I am engaged about that time, and cannot
come.' On the following morning the servant in livery brought another
note, much more politely written: 'Mr. Spohr is requested to favour the
undersigned with the honour of a visit, and to fix himself the time when
it will be convenient for him to come.' The servant had also been
desired to offer me the use of his master's carriage, and as I had
meanwhile ascertained that the gentleman was a celebrated physician who
habitually frequented concerts, and who took special interest in violin
performances, I no longer hesitated to accept his invitation. At the
time fixed by me the carriage arrived, and I drove to his house. A
courteous old man, with gray hair, met me already on the stairs; but now
we discovered that we could not talk together, as he spoke neither
French nor German. We stood for a moment embarrassed face to face, till
he took me by the arm and led me into a large room, on the walls of
which were hung a great number of violins. Other violins had been taken
out of their cases and were placed on the tables. The Doctor gave me a
violin-bow and pointed to the instruments. I now perceived that he
desired to have my opinion as to the value of his fiddles. I, therefore,
began at once to try one after the other, and to arrange them in a
certain order, according to their merit. This was no easy task; for,
there were so many, and the old gentleman brought all of them to me
without missing one. When, after the lapse of an hour, I had selected
the six most valuable ones, and was playing upon these alternately, to
ascertain which was the best, I perceived that the Doctor cast upon one
of them glances especially tender, and that whenever I touched the
strings of this one with the bow his face quite brightened up. I,
therefore, gladly afforded the good old man pleasure by declaring this
instrument to be the most superior one of the whole collection. Highly
delighted with this decision, he fetched a viola d'amore and
extemporised a fantasia upon this instrument, which has long since gone
out of use. I listened with pleasure, because the viola d'amore was at
that time unknown to me, and the Doctor proved a by no means bad player.
Thus ended the visit to our mutual satisfaction. When I took my hat to
leave, the old gentleman, with a kind smile and a deep bow, slipped a
five-pound note into my hand. Surprised, I looked at the money and at
the giver, not understanding at first what he meant by it; but suddenly
it occurred to me that it was intended as a fee for having examined his
violins. I smilingly shook my head, laid the paper on the table, pressed
the Doctor's hand, and descended the stairs. He followed me to the
street-door.... Some months later, when I gave my benefit-concert, the
Doctor procured a ticket, for which he sent me a ten-pound note."

One of the largest private collections of this kind, more recently
formed by an English musical amateur, was sold in London by auction in
the year 1872, after the death of its owner, Mr. Joseph Gillott of
Birmingham. It contained above 150 instruments played with a bow. Among
them were two viola da gambas, by Gaspar di Salo and Barak Norman; a
viola d'amore, by Bertrand, Paris, 1614; violins, violas, and
violoncellos assigned to Gaspar di Salo, Stradiuarius, Amati,
Guarnerius, Testore, Guadagnini, Bergonzi, and other famous makers.

If, as occasionally happens, an amateur who considers himself a good
judge of old violins is overreached by a dealer who professes to have
but little knowledge on the subject, the transaction is simple enough.
However, the purchaser of a "splendid Amati," or an "incomparable
Stradiuarius," obtained by him at a bargain, might remember that the
number of violins manufactured by the famous Cremona makers is limited,
and that the history of the specimens still extant is almost as
traceable as the pedigree of a prince or of a racehorse. As regards the
various lutes, citherns, wind instruments with reeds, etc., which were
popular during the last three centuries, many of them are now so scarce
as to be unknown, even to professional musicians, except to a few with
an archÊological turn of mind.

It may easily be understood, that a reference to books alone does not
ensure so thorough an acquaintance with the instruments as is obtainable
from a careful examination of the actual specimens which are therein
described. Should it interest the musician to restore to its original
condition some dilapidated lute or cithern which he may happen to pick
up, and to learn to play upon it according to the old method taught in
some old book, he will become acquainted with niceties in the
construction of the instrument, such as the peculiar arrangement of its
pegs, frets, bridge, pins, and other contrivances, which are not to be
learnt from books. Such knowledge of details gathered from practical
experience, which at a first glance may appear unimportant, is often of
great use, since it tends to throw light upon questions of more general
interest relating to the history of music. Indeed, in a search after
truth, every well-ascertained fact is of importance, since it serves as
a solid step for progress.

Again, in playing on the lute, harpsichord, or other antiquated
instrument the compositions written for it by our old masters, the
performer is sure to discover certain charms in the music which cannot
be expressed on any modern instrument, and which reveal faithfully the
original conceptions of the composer. Take, for instance, Handel's
'Suites de PiËces,' conceived by him for the harpsichord, with its
different stops and qualities of sound. In playing them on the
pianoforte, the strictly musical beauties can be expressed, and these,
it must be granted, constitute the greater charm of the compositions;
but many additional beauties, calculated upon the characteristics of the
harpsichord, are entirely lost. It does not, of course, therefore follow
that musicians ought to learn the harpsichord, lute, or any other
antiquated instrument, for which good music has been written. Enough, if
these observations convince them that there have been charming musical
instruments, as well as charming compositions, in former times, from
which valuable hints may be derived for further progress in the
inexhaustible art of music.

At all events, it appeared to me advisable to save from oblivion and
decay any such antiquities as I happened to meet with, in England. When
I began to form my collection, in the year 1868, scarcely any musician
in London took interest in the matter; and it was perhaps this
circumstance which enabled me soon to lay a good foundation for my
collection by searches in the old curiosity shops in Wardour Street, and
in similar places. Although the chief object was to obtain specimens of
the various musical instruments used by our forefathers, which are
alluded to by Shakespeare and other classical authors, it appeared to me
desirable, as illustrative of the history of music, to incorporate into
the collection the most interesting of the extra-European contrivances
of the kind, and among these principally such instruments of Asiatic
nations as are the prototypes of certain ones of our own. Moreover, some
of the extra-European acquisitions may be regarded as being antiquated,
since the introduction of Christianity and European civilisation into
some distant islands caused the natives to discontinue the construction
of such instruments as they formerly used in their pagan ceremonies.
About forty Hindu and Burmese instruments were selected from the
comprehensive collection which was sent from Hindustan to the
International Exhibition, London, 1872. They represent the most
characteristic inventions of the kind popular in Hindustan and Burmah,
and are, moreover, in an unimpaired condition, which is seldom the case
with such brittle manufactures tossed about on the sea from distant
lands.

As regards the European curiosities in the collection, their number was
perhaps most advantageously increased by some treasures which formed
part of the museum of Signor Mario in Florence, and which were sold in
London some years ago. Thus the collection has grown so as to comprise
now about two hundred and fifty instruments, some of which are of great
scarcity, and several are of great beauty. I gladly take this
opportunity to supply the musician with a survey of the collection,
since I know from experience how interesting and instructive such a list
is to the archÊological student. About a hundred instruments of the
collection, which are at present exhibited in the South Kensington
Museum, shall be noticed but briefly, since they are described in the
musical catalogue of the Museum, which is easily accessible. Omitting
some unimportant specimens, the collection contains:--

Sancho, a stringed instrument from Senegambia, Western Africa. Valga, a
stringed instrument from Congo, Western Africa. Its five strings are
made of vegetable fibre, and are tuned by being wound round five canes
inserted in the body. Length, 3 feet. The brass-headed buttons with
which the instrument is ornamented may have been derived from England.
It is not unfrequently the case that savages or semi-civilised people in
remote parts of the world adorn their rude works of art with some
acquisitions of European manufacture scarce with them, and therefore
much prized. In fact, European nations often evince a similar
predilection in the ornamentation of their articles of luxury. Five is
the usual number of canes in the valga; but there are also specimens
with ten canes, and consequently with ten strings. The canes are
generally stuck in holes under the body of the valga, and as they can be
inserted more deeply or drawn out at pleasure, this is probably the
method most commonly resorted to for tuning the strings. The valga is
made of different shapes. Some of these are precisely like the
riverboats of the Negroes, of which illustrations are given in Speke's
'Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile.' The valga is,
however, most popular in Western Africa, where it is known by different
names in different districts. Near the Gaboon river it is called
_wambee_; and in Benguela, _kissumba_. Kasso, a species of Negro harp
from Senegambia. Ingomba, a Negro drum from Lower Guinea, made of the
stem of a palm-tree, 6 feet 6 inches in length; covered at both ends
with the skin of an elephant's ear. Negro trumpet from Eastern-central
Africa. Made of the tusk of an animal. With two holes for blowing and
for modulating the sound, perforated towards the thinner end. This
trumpet was brought to England by the African traveller Petherick.
Abyssinian fiddle with bow. The whole instrument is cut out of one block
of wood. The belly is of parchment. Seven catgut strings. The thinnest
string is shorter than the others, and the peg by means of which it is
tuned is placed at the side of the neck close to the body. The
instrument in shape bears some resemblance to the _chikarah_ of the
Hindus. There are some musical instruments to be found on the Eastern
coast of Africa which probably were derived originally from Hindustan.
The present fiddle, which was brought to England by a soldier engaged in
the Abyssinian war, confutes the statement of Bruce and some other
travellers that the Abyssinians possess no instrument of the violin
class. Fiddle of the Zulu Kafirs, South-eastern Africa. A very primitive
contrivance, consisting of an iron basin, over which a skin is
stretched, and of a rudely-made bow. It has three gut-strings. The back
is open, the bottom of the basin having purposely been knocked out. This
instrument was sent by Mr. Alfred J. Topham, from Pieter-Maritzburg, to
the Manchester Exhibition. MarouvanÈ, a bamboo instrument from
Madagascar. Length, 21 inches. Its seven strings are cut out of the bark
of the bamboo and are raised by bridges consisting of little plugs of
wood. The tones produced are

[Music]

but as the position of some of the bridges may have been slightly
altered since the instrument came into the hands of Europeans, not much
reliance is to be placed on the odd arrangement of intervals here
exhibited.

Five nose-flutes, called _vivo_ and _fango-fango_, of the Polynesian
Islanders. Four of these instruments were brought to England by
Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Denham. Two are from the Tonga Islands, and two
from the Fiji Islands. Among the latter is especially noteworthy a large
and fine one, profusely ornamented with designs burnt into the surface,
which was obtained by Sir H. Denham at Angras, one of the Fiji Islands.
The fifth specimen is from Otaheite. Jew's harp, brought by Vice-Admiral
Sir Henry Denham from the Fiji Islands. It is neatly made of a sort of
cane. Three Pandean pipes (one with nine tubes, and two with eleven
tubes) brought by Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Denham from the Fiji Islands.
These neatly-constructed specimens of the syrinx yield the following
tones:--

[Music]

Bone flute of the Caribi Indians, in Guiana, South America. Two rattles
of the Indians of Vancouver Island, brought from Nootka Sound. Of wood,
formed in imitation of a bird and of a fish, and painted with different
colours. These rattles, called _belapella_, contain pebbles, and are
used by the Medicine Men in their incantations. Dancing rattles of the
Indians in the vicinity of the River Amazon, Brazil. Made of a species
of nut, a large number of which are hollowed, and suspended to a cord,
to be hung over the shoulders. By way of embellishment, some bright
feathers and the tail of a quadruped are interspersed between the nuts.
The sound produced by this rattle, when shaken, is soothing and
pleasant, somewhat like the sound caused by the waves over the shingle
on the sea-shore when heard at a distance. At any rate, it is preferable
to some more pretentious musical performances of the present day.
Sakasaka, a rattle of the Negroes of St. Lucia, West Indies. Ornamented
with some rude designs cut on the surface. It contains a number of small
red berries of an oval shape, known as jamboo berries.

Samsien, a Japanese stringed instrument. With a large plectrum of a
white wood. Its three strings are of silk. The body is square, and is
covered in front and at the back with parchment. Koto, a kind of
dulcimer, from Japan, with silken strings and movable bridges. The
present specimen is one of the smallest. Pepa, a Chinese kind of lute,
with four silken strings. Two specimens. Yue-kin, or "Moon-guitar," a
Chinese instrument, with four silken strings. Two specimens. San-heen, a
Chinese stringed instrument. Ur-heen, Chinese fiddle. Two specimens.
Tche, a Chinese stringed instrument, mounted with sixteen thin
wire-strings. Kin, a Chinese instrument, the favourite of the great
Confucius, and called, somewhat inappropriately, "Scholar's Lute." With
its case lacquered and gilt. Yang-kin, Chinese dulcimer, with two little
sticks or wooden hammers of a rather peculiar shape. Ty, Chinese flute.
Cheng, Chinese organ, with seventeen bamboo tubes, containing vibrating
tongues of metal, like our harmonium. Two specimens. Hiuen-tchung,
antique Chinese bell. Two specimens. Chinese kind of tambourine, with a
wooden hammer. Used in Buddhist worship. Chinese wooden castanets called
pan, made in the shape of two spoons combined.

Ranat, a kind of harmonicon from Siam. It has nineteen slabs of sonorous
wood placed over a sound-board resembling a canoe, and tuned
diatonically. Thro, three-stringed fiddle of the Burmese; two specimens.
The top of the finger-board of one of these fiddles is ornamented with
carvings in wood, and with a figure in ivory of a little idol. The
strings are of silk; the head of the other specimen is likewise
elaborately carved. This fiddle probably dates from the eighteenth
century, if not earlier, and is a fine specimen of Burmese art. It was
formerly in Signor Mario's museum. Megyoung, a Burmese stringed
instrument in the form of an alligator, with three silken strings and
eleven small bridges. Osee, a Burmese drum of a very peculiar
construction. Walet khot, Burmese castanets, consisting of a pair of
large split bamboos, 33 inches in length. Keay zoot, a pair of
diminutive castanets of metal, from Burmah; they are in the shape of a
saucer, and measure only an inch in diameter. The silvery tinkling sound
which they produce is pleasant.

Sitar, a Hindu stringed instrument from Nagpoor. Sitar, a fine specimen
with movable brass frets, Hindustan. The strings are of thin wire. Vina,
the principal national instrument of the Hindus, also known as the
Bengalese vina, strung with wire. The present specimen, which is of the
smaller kind, is also called _kinnari_. Been, or Anthara vinai,
Hindustan. This species of vina, is called by some Europeans, "the
Benares vina," while the old national instrument of the Hindus, which is
somewhat different in shape, is called, as we have just seen, "the
Bengalese vina," no doubt on account of their being most popular in the
districts indicated by their names. Rudra vina, from Bombay, a kind of
_been_ with sympathetic wire-strings, placed under the wire-strings
which are sounded by the player. Ta˚s and bow, Hindustan. The ta˚s is a
kind of sitar, the thin wire strings of which are played with a bow. It
is made in the shape of a peacock, hence its name _ta˚s_, which
signifies "peacock." The present specimen, which was sent by the Rajah
of Navha to the International Exhibition, London, 1872, is from the
Punjab. It is richly coloured, and gilt. The crest and the tail of the
bird represented are peacock's feathers, stuck into holes made for the
purpose. Koka, a rude kind of Hindu fiddle, mounted with two wire
strings, from Bombay. The body consists of a large nut. The instrument
bears a strong resemblance to the _gunibry_ of the Barbary States; the
latter is, however, played with the fingers, instead of a bow. Chikarah,
a Hindu instrument of the violin class, from Bombay. It is cut out of a
single block of wood, which, when rubbed or damped, emits a peculiar
aromatic scent. The belly is of parchment. The instrument has three
catgut-strings, beneath which are placed seven thin strings of wire. The
wire-strings are fastened to tuning-pegs situated at the side of the
neck. They merely serve as sympathetic strings, to increase the
sonorousness when the catgut-strings are played upon with the bow.
Sarungi, a Hindu instrument of the violin class, from Bombay. It is
constructed of the same kind of wood as the chikarah before mentioned,
but its shape is different. The belly is of parchment. The four
catgut-strings with which the sarungi is mounted are played with the
bow, and thirteen strings of thin brass wire, which run through little
holes in the ivory bridge, are placed under the catgut-strings to serve
as sympathetic strings. The performer on the sarungi does not press the
catgut-strings down upon the finger-board, but touches them at the side
with his fingers to produce the tones which he desires. He places the
instrument before his breast in a nearly perpendicular direction.
Whatever may be thought of this method of playing, the sarungi is
certainly considered a very effective instrument, not only by the
Hindus, but even by some European listeners. For instance, Colonel
Meadows Taylor ('Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 1865,'
p. 115) remarks: "Its tones are nearer, perhaps, in quality to the human
voice than any other instrument with which I am acquainted." However, he
does not appear to be acquainted with many instruments. Sarinda, a Hindu
violin, with three strings. It is made of a single block of wood,
hollowed, and carved. The upper part of the body is left partially open,
and is partially covered with skin resembling bladder, generally from a
species of gazelle. Sarod, with bow; a Hindu instrument with four
catgut-strings, and underneath them five thin strings of brass. On the
neck are three catgut-frets. The instrument is painted with designs in
various colours. It came from Gwalior. Rabab, a kind of guitar of the
Hindus, played with a plectrum. It resembles the saruda. Toontoonee:
this curious Hindu instrument, with one wire-string, is used by
mendicants and ballad-singers in the Dekhan. Santir, a dulcimer, from
Cashmere. Sarmundal, from Kattyawar, Hindustan; a kind of dulcimer in a
case. This scarce instrument is tastefully ornamented with painted
flowers and fanciful designs. Its wire-strings are twanged with a
plectrum made of wood and glass. Murchang, Jew's harp; two specimens of
a peculiar shape, from Cashmere. Shank, conch trumpet, from Kattyawar,
Hindustan, beautifully ornamented with brasswork. The shank is a sacred
instrument blown by the Brahmin priests. Tootooree, a horn of metal,
from Hindustan. Kombu, a horn of the Hindus, resembling in its
semicircular shape the tootooree, but being smaller and heavier; from
Madras. Bhangull, a very thin and long metal trumpet, from Kattyawar, in
Hindustan. Kurna, a metal trumpet, straight and large, from Hindustan.
Seeng, a large brass trumpet, from Hindustan. Poongee (also called
magoudi and toomeree), the snake-charmer's double pipe, from Hindustan.
Each tube contains a single reed. There are three specimens of the
poongee in the collection, one of which is painted with various designs.
The tubes of the poongee are inserted in a gourd. Mukha, a kind of oboe,
from Madras. Mukhavinai, a small kind of oboe, Hindustan. Ottu, a
species of oboe, somewhat resembling the Arabic zourna, from Janpore, in
Hindustan. Zourna, from Hindustan; made of a dark brown wood, with nine
finger-holes. Buguri, a very peculiar reed wind-instrument, having
finger-holes like a flute, and being at its lower end provided with a
bell like a trumpet, from Madras. Bansee, flute, Hindustan. Double
flageolet, from Hindustan. Nagarah, a drum, from Surat, Hindustan. The
body is of red earthenware, and the parchment is affixed to it by means
of a leathern network, which is tastefully adjusted over the back of the
drum; diameter at the top, 16 inches; height, 6-1/2 inches. Banyan, a
small hand-drum, Hindustan. Davandai, a kind of double drum, or rather a
double darabouka, Hindustan. Kudu Kuduppai, a very diminutive double
darabouka of brass and fish bladder, Hindustan. Ghunta, a small bell
with a handle, used by the Brahmin priests of Hindustan in religious
ceremonies. Jalar, a pair of large castanets of metal, resembling small
cymbals, from Hindustan. The sound of them is remarkably pure and
sustained.

Rebab; a three-stringed fiddle from Persia. The body, cut out of a
single piece of wood, is rudely ornamented with a pattern which is burnt
on it. The strings are of catgut. They run at the top of the neck
through holes, and are fastened at the back to the tuning-pegs. This
_rebab_ is an exact counterpart of the _rebec_ formerly popular in
Western Europe. Kem‚ngeh a'gouz, with bow; from Egypt; a species of
Eastern violoncello, with two strings made of horsehair. The body
consists of the shell of a cocoa-nut, covered at the top with a bladder
and perforated at the back with a number of sound-holes. Tanbour
Baghlama; the eastern mandoline, strung with four thin wire-strings. Two
specimens from Egypt. Gunibry; a rather primitive two-stringed
instrument of the guitar kind, from Morocco; two specimens. Kuitra, a
kind of guitar from the Barbary States. The body is made of a tortoise.
The _kuitra_, or _kitar_, an instrument of the Persians and Arabs, is
evidently the prototype of our guitar. The present specimen is one of
the small kinds of kuitra; the larger kind has eight strings of sheep's
gut arranged in four pairs.

Three English flageolets, made in the beginning of the present century.
An ivory fl˚te ‡ bec, made by Stanesby, junior, London, 1740. An ivory
flauto piccolo with a silver key; English, eighteenth century. An ivory
flauto traverso with one silver key; English, eighteenth century. This
ivory flute and the two preceding ones are handsome instruments. A fl˚te
‡ bec; English, about 1700; of box-wood and ivory; length, 18 inches;
eight finger-holes, and without any key. An English recorder, of wood
stained black; length, 26 inches; it probably dates from the seventeenth
century. Two tenor flutes, German, made about the year 1600. Length, 2
ft. 9 in. Seven finger-holes and one key. These scarce instruments were
formerly in Signor Mario's museum. An English bass flute, made about the
year 1650. Wood and ivory; with a brass tube for blowing the instrument.
Six finger-holes, and one brass key at the upper side, and one
finger-hole for the thumb at the opposite side. Length, 3 ft. 8 in.
Three double flageolets dating from the beginning of the present
century, two of which are made by Bainbridge in London, and the third is
inscribed "Simpson." A triple flageolet, on which harmony in three parts
can be played; made by Bainbridge in London, in the beginning of the
present century. An English horn (oboe da caccia) made of red cedar, by
Thomas Stanesby, junior, in London, about 1740. An English horn (oboe da
caccia), eighteenth century; probably made in England. Wood, stained
black, and ivory. This is the kind of oboe which J. S. Bach has employed
in his 'Passion of St. Matthew.' A dolciano, a small bassoon.
Inscription: "Wood and Ivy, late Gerd Wood, London." A basset horn
(corno di bassetto), probably English. A border bagpipe, from
Northumberland. With bellows, and four drones. A French bagpipe
(cornemuse). An English trumpet in case; made probably in the eighteenth
or in the beginning of the nineteenth century. A small trombone,
English, made by Allen and Pace. A horn, of brass; the bell terminating
in the head of a serpent; English, eighteenth century. A serpent, by
"Gerrock Wolf, in London;" beginning of the present century. Two
alphorns, made by M. von Euw in B¸rgy, Rigi Kulm, Canton Swyz,
Switzerland, of birchwood neatly covered with birch-bark. Length, 8 ft.
1 in. A cither, a specimen of the kind which was commonly found in
England, some centuries ago, in barbers' shops; English, about 1700.[6]
A German cither; end of the seventeenth century. Ornamented with
marquetry. A small English cither, made about the year 1700. The open
strings produce only five tones instead of six. Specimens of this kind
are very scarce. An English cither of the eighteenth century. An English
cither made by Remerus Liessem, London, 1756. The body is of a very
old-fashioned form, having several incurvations at the sides. A small
English cither of the eighteenth century. The sound-hole is ornamented
with a rose made of wood. The rose of the English cither is more usually
made of bronze. Cetera; an Italian cither, made about the year 1680.
This is the most beautiful cither in the collection. The entire
instrument, except the belly, is inlaid with tasteful designs in ivory
and ebony. Also the tone is remarkably fine. A Scotch cither neatly
inlaid with wood ornamentation. At the back is a plate of
mother-of-pearl with the inscription "Rudiman, ABDN, DG." Perhaps this