Kishinev (Chisinau)                   Moldova

Kithira Strait                        Atlantic Ocean

Kodiak Island                         United States

Kola Peninsula (Kol'skiy Poluostrov)  Russia

Kolonia [US Embassy]                  Micronesia, Federated States of

Korea Bay                             Pacific Ocean

Korea, Democratic People's            Korea, North
  Republic of

Korea, Republic of                    Korea, South

Korea Strait                          Pacific Ocean

Koror [US Liaison Office]             Pacific Islands, Trust Territory of

Kosovo                                Serbia and Montenegro

Kowloon                               Hong Kong

Krakow [US Consulate General]         Poland

Kuala Lumpur [US Embassy]             Malaysia

Kunashiri (Kunashir)                  Russia [de facto]

Kuril Islands                         Russia [de facto]

Kuwait [US Embassy]                   Kuwait

Kwajalein Atoll                       Marshall Islands

Kyushu                                Japan

Kyyiv (Kiev)                          Ukraine

L
Labrador                              Canada

Laccadive Islands                     India

Laccadive Sea                         Indian Ocean

Lagos [US Embassy]                    Nigeria

Lahore [US Consulate General]         Pakistan

Lakshadweep                           India

La Paz [US Embassy]                   Bolivia

La Perouse Strait                     Pacific Ocean

Laptev Sea                            Arctic Ocean

Las Palmas [US Consular Agency]       Spain

Lau Group                             Fiji

Leipzig [US Consulate General]        Germany

Leningrad (see Saint Petersburg)      Russia

Lesser Sunda Islands                  Indonesia

Leyte                                 Philippines

Liancourt Rocks [claimed by Japan]    Korea, South

Libreville [US Embassy]               Gabon

Ligurian Sea                          Atlantic Ocean

Lilongwe [US Embassy]                 Malawi

Lima [US Embassy]                     Peru

Lincoln Sea                           Arctic Ocean

Line Islands                          Kiribati; Palmyra Atoll

Lisbon [US Embassy]                   Portugal

Ljubljana [US Embassy]                Slovenia

Lobamba                               Swaziland

Lombok Strait                         Indian Ocean

Lome [US Embassy]                     Togo

London [US Embassy]                   United Kingdom

Longyearbyen                          Svalbard

Lord Howe Island                      Australia

Louisiade Archipelago                 Papua New Guinea

Loyalty Islands (Iles Loyaute)        New Caledonia

Luanda [US Embassy]                   Angola

Lusaka [US Embassy]                   Zambia

Luxembourg [US Embassy]               Luxembourg

Luzon                                 Philippines

Luzon Strait                          Pacific Ocean

M
Macao                                 Macau

Macedonia                             The Former Yugoslav Republic
                                        of Macedonia

Macquarie Island                      Australia

Madeira Islands                       Portugal

Madras [US Consulate General]         India

Madrid [US Embassy]                   Spain

Magellan, Strait of                   Atlantic Ocean

Maghreb                               Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco,
                                        Tunisia

Mahe Island                           Seychelles

Maiz, Islas del (Corn Islands)        Nicaragua

Majorca (Mallorca)                    Spain

Majuro [US Embassy]                   Marshall Islands

Makassar Strait                       Pacific Ocean

Malabo [US Embassy]                   Equatorial Guinea

Malacca, Strait of                    Indian Ocean

Malagasy Republic                     Madagascar

Male [US Consular Agency]             Maldives

Mallorca (Majorca)                    Spain

Malpelo, Isla de                      Colombia

Malta Channel                         Atlantic Ocean

Malvinas, Islas                       Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

Mamoutzou                             Mayotte

Managua [US Embassy]                  Nicaragua

Manama [US Embassy]                   Bahrain

Manaus [US Consular Agency]           Brazil

Manchukuo                             China

Manchuria                             China

Manila [US Embassy]                   Philippines

Manipa Strait                         Pacific Ocean

Mannar, Gulf of                       Indian Ocean

Manua Islands                         American Samoa

Maputo [US Embassy]                   Mozambique

Marcus Island (Minami-tori-shima)     Japan

Mariana Islands                       Guam; Northern Mariana Islands

Marion Island                         South Africa

Marmara, Sea of                       Atlantic Ocean

Marquesas Islands (Iles Marquises)    French Polynesia

Marseille [US Consulate General]      France

Martin Vaz, Ilhas                     Brazil

Mas a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe         Chile
  Island)

Mascarene Islands                     Mauritius; Reunion

Maseru [US Embassy]                   Lesotho

Matamoros [US Consulate]              Mexico

Mata-Utu                              Wallis and Futuna

Mazatlan [US Consulate closed         Mexico
  May 1993]

Mbabane [US Embassy]                  Swaziland

McDonald Islands                      Heard Island and McDonald Islands

Medan [US Consulate]                  Indonesia

Mediterranean Sea                     Atlantic Ocean

Melbourne [US Consulate General]      Australia

Melilla                               Spain

Merida [US Consulate                  Mexico

Messina, Strait of                    Atlantic Ocean

Mexico [US Embassy]                   Mexico

Mexico, Gulf of                       Atlantic Ocean

Milan [US Consulate General]          Italy

Minami-tori-shima                     Japan

Mindanao                              Philippines

Mindoro Strait                        Pacific Ocean

Minicoy Island                        India

Minsk [US Embassy]                    Belarus

Mogadishu [US Liaison Office]         Somalia

Moldavia                              Moldova

Mombasa [US Consulate closed          Kenya
  May 1993]

Mona Passage                          Atlantic Ocean

Monrovia [US Embassy]                 Liberia

Montenegro                            Serbia and Montenegro

Monterrey [US Consulate General]      Mexico

Montevideo [US Embassy]               Uruguay

Montreal [US Consulate General, US    Canada
  Mission to the International Civil
  Aviation Organization (ICAO)]

Moravian Gate                         Czech Republic

Moroni [US Embassy]                   Comoros

Mortlock Islands                      Micronesia, Federated States of

Moscow [US Embassy]                   Russia

Mozambique Channel                    Indian Ocean

Munich [US Consulate General]         Germany

Musandam Peninsula                    Oman; United Arab Emirates

Muscat [US Embassy]                   Oman

Muscat and Oman                       Oman

Myanma, Myanmar                       Burma

N
Naha [US Consulate General]           Japan

Nairobi [US Embassy]                  Kenya

Nampo-shoto                           Japan

Naples [US Consulate General]         Italy

Nassau [US Embassy]                   Bahamas, The

Natuna Besar Islands                  Indonesia

N'Djamena [US Embassy]                Chad

Netherlands East Indies               Indonesia

Netherlands Guiana                    Suriname

Nevis                                 Saint Kitts and Nevis

New Delhi [US Embassy]                India

Newfoundland                          Canada

New Guinea                            Indonesia; Papua New Guinea

New Hebrides                          Vanuatu

New Siberian Islands                  Russia

New Territories                       Hong Kong

New York, New York [US Mission to     United States
  the United Nations (USUN)]

Niamey [US Embassy]                   Niger

Nicobar Islands                       India

Nicosia [US Embassy]                  Cyprus

Nightingale Island                    Saint Helena

North Atlantic Ocean                  Atlantic Ocean

North Channel                         Atlantic Ocean

Northeast Providence Channel          Atlantic Ocean

Northern Epirus                       Albania; Greece

Northern Grenadines                   Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Northern Ireland                      United Kingdom

Northern Rhodesia                     Zambia

North Island                          New Zealand

North Korea                           Korea, North

North Pacific Ocean                   Pacific Ocean

North Sea                             Atlantic Ocean

North Vietnam                         Vietnam

Northwest Passages                    Arctic Ocean

North Yemen (Yemen Arab Republic)     Yemen

Norwegian Sea                         Atlantic Ocean

Nouakchott [US Embassy]               Mauritania

Noumea                                New Caledonia

Novaya Zemlya                         Russia

Nuku'alofa                            Tonga

Nuevo Laredo [US Consulate]           Mexico

Nuuk (Godthab)                        Greenland

Nyasaland                             Malawi

O
Oahu                                  United States

Ocean Island (Banaba)                 Kiribati

Ocean Island (Kure Island)            United States

Ogaden                                Ethiopia; Somalia

Oil Islands (Chagos Archipelago)      British Indian Ocean Territory

Okhotsk, Sea of                       Pacific Ocean

Okinawa                               Japan

Oman, Gulf of                         Indian Ocean

Ombai Strait                          Pacific Ocean

Oran [US Consulate]                   Algeria

Oranjestad                            Aruba

Oresund (The Sound)                   Atlantic Ocean

Orkney Islands                        United Kingdom

Osaka-Kobe [US Consulate General]     Japan

Oslo [US Embassy]                     Norway

Otranto, Strait of                    Atlantic Ocean

Ottawa [US Embassy]                   Canada

Ouagadougou [US Embassy]              Burkina

Outer Mongolia                        Mongolia

P
Pagan                                 Northern Mariana Islands

Pago Pago                             American Samoa

Palau                                 Pacific Islands, Trust Territory
                                        of the

Palawan                               Philippines

Palermo [US Consulate General]        Italy

Palk Strait                           Indian Ocean

Pamirs                                China; Tajikistan

Panama [US Embassy]                   Panama

Panama Canal                          Panama

Panama, Gulf of                       Pacific Ocean

Papeete                               French Polynesia

Paramaribo [US Embassy]               Suriname

Parece Vela                           Japan

Paris [US Embassy, US Mission to the  France
  Organization for Economic
  Cooperation and Development (OECD),
  US Observer Mission at the UN
  Educational, Scientific, and
  Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]

Pascua, Isla de (Easter Island)       Chile

Passion, Ile de la                    Clipperton Island

Pashtunistan                          Afghanistan; Pakistan

Peking (Beijing)                      China

Pemba Island                          Tanzania

Pentland Firth                        Atlantic Ocean

Perim                                 Yemen

Perouse Strait, La                    Pacific Ocean

Persian Gulf                          Indian Ocean

Perth [US Consulate General]          Australia

Pescadores                            Taiwan

Peshawar [US Consulate]               Pakistan

Peter I Island                        Antarctica

Philip Island                         Norfolk Island

Philippine Sea                        Pacific Ocean

Phnom Penh [US Embassy]               Cambodia

Phoenix Islands                       Kiribati

Pines, Isle of (Isla de la Juventud)  Cuba

Pleasant Island                       Nauru

Plymouth                              Montserrat

Ponape (Pohnpei)                      Micronesia

Ponta Delgada [US Consulate]          Portugal

Port-au-Prince [US Embassy]           Haiti

Port Louis [US Embassy]               Mauritius

Port Moresby [US Embassy]             Papua New Guinea

Porto Alegre [US Consulate]           Brazil

Port-of-Spain [US Embassy]            Trinidad and Tobago

Porto-Novo                            Benin

Portuguese Guinea                     Guinea-Bissau

Portuguese Timor (East Timor)         Indonesia

Port-Vila                             Vanuatu

Poznan [US Consulate General]         Poland

Prague [US Embassy]                   Czech Republic

Praia [US Embassy]                    Cape Verde

Pretoria [US Embassy]                 South Africa

Pribilof Islands                      United States

Prince Edward Island                  Canada

Prince Edward Islands                 South Africa

Prince Patrick Island                 Canada

Principe                              Sao Tome and Principe

Pusan [US Consulate]                  Korea, South

P'yongyang                            Korea, North

Q
Quebec [US Consulate General]         Canada

Queen Charlotte Islands               Canada

Queen Elizabeth Islands               Canada

Queen Maud Land [claimed by Norway]   Antarctica

Quito [US Embassy]                    Ecuador

R
Rabat [US Embassy]                    Morocco

Ralik Chain                           Marshall Islands

Rangoon [US Embassy]                  Burma

Ratak Chain                           Marshall Islands

Recife [US Consulate]                 Brazil

Redonda                               Antigua and Barbuda

Red Sea                               Indian Ocean

Revillagigedo Island                  United States

Revillagigedo Islands                 Mexico

Reykjavik [US Embassy]                Iceland

Rhodes                                Greece

Rhodesia                              Zimbabwe

Rhodesia, Northern                    Zambia

Rhodesia, Southern                    Zimbabwe

Riga [US Embassy]                     Latvia

Rio de Janeiro [US Consulate          Brazil
  General]

Rio de Oro                            Western Sahara

Rio Muni                              Equatorial Guinea

Riyadh [US Embassy]                   Saudi Arabia

Road Town                             British Virgin Islands

Robinson Crusoe Island (Mas           Chile
  a Tierra)

Rocas, Atol das                       Brazil

Rockall [disputed]                    United Kingdom

Rodrigues                             Mauritius

Rome [US Embassy, US Mission to the   Italy
  UN Agencies for Food and
  Agriculture (FODAG)]

Roncador Cay                          Colombia

Roosevelt Island                      Antarctica

Roseau                                Dominica

Ross Dependency [claimed by           Antarctica
  New Zealand]

Ross Island                           Antarctica

Ross Sea                              Antarctica

Rota                                  Northern Mariana Islands

Rotuma                                Fiji

Ryukyu Islands                        Japan

S
Saba                                  Netherlands Antilles

Sabah                                 Malaysia

Sable Island                          Canada

Sahel                                 Burkina, Cape Verde, Chad,
                                        The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali,
                                        Mauritania, Niger, Senegal

Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City)             Vietnam

Saint Brandon                         Mauritius

Saint Christopher and Nevis           Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint-Denis                           Reunion

Saint George's [US Embassy]           Grenada

Saint George's Channel                Atlantic Ocean

Saint Helier                          Jersey

Saint John's [US Embassy]             Antigua and Barbuda

Saint Lawrence, Gulf of               Atlantic Ocean

Saint Lawrence Island                 United States

Saint Lawrence Seaway                 Atlantic Ocean

Saint Martin                          Guadeloupe

Saint Martin (Sint Maarten)           Netherlands Antilles

Saint Paul Island                     Canada

Saint Paul Island                     United States

Saint Paul Island (Ile Saint-Paul)    French Southern and Antarctic Lands

Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks      Brazil
  (Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo)

Saint Peter Port                      Guernsey

Saint Petersburg [US Consulate]       Russia

Saint-Pierre                          Saint Pierre and Miquelon

Saint Vincent Passage                 Atlantic Ocean

Saipan                                Northern Mariana Islands

Sakhalin Island (Ostrov Sakhalin)     Russia

Sala y Gomez, Isla                    Chile

Salisbury (Harare)                    Zimbabwe

Salvador de Bahia [US Consular        Brazil
  Agency]

Salzburg [US Consulate General]       Austria

Sanaa [US Embassy]                    Yemen

San Ambrosio                          Chile

San Andres y Providencia,             Colombia
  Archipielago

San Bernardino Strait                 Pacific Ocean

San Felix, Isla                       Chile

San Jose [US Embassy]                 Costa Rica

San Juan                              Puerto Rico

San Luis Potosi [US Consular Agency]  Mexico

San Marino                            San Marino

San Salvador [US Embassy]             El Salvador

Santa Cruz [US Consular Agency]       Bolivia

Santa Cruz Islands                    Solomon Islands

Santiago [US Embassy]                 Chile

Santo Domingo [US Embassy]            Dominican Republic

Sao Paulo [US Consulate General]      Brazil

Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo, Penedos de     Brazil

Sao Tome                              Sao Tome and Principe

Sapporo [US Consulate General]        Japan

Sapudi Strait                         Pacific Ocean

Sarajevo [US Embassy]                 Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sarawak                               Malaysia

Sardinia                              Italy

Sargasso Sea                          Atlantic Ocean

Sark                                  Guernsey

Scotia Sea                            Atlantic Ocean

Scotland                              United Kingdom

Scott Island                          Antarctica

Senyavin Islands                      Micronesia, Federated States of

Seoul [US Embassy]                    Korea, South

Serbia                                Serbia and Montenegro

Serrana Bank                          Colombia

Serranilla Bank                       Colombia

Settlement, The                       Christmas Island

Severnaya Zemlya (Northland)          Russia

Shag Island                           Heard Island and McDonald Islands

Shag Rocks                            Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

Shanghai [US Consulate General]       China

Shenyang [US Consulate General]       China

Shetland Islands                      United Kingdom

Shikoku                               Japan

Shikotan (Shikotan-to)                Japan

Siam                                  Thailand

Sibutu Passage                        Pacific Ocean

Sicily                                Italy

Sicily, Strait of                     Atlantic Ocean

Sikkim                                India

Sinai                                 Egypt

Singapore [US Embassy]                Singapore

Singapore Strait                      Pacific Ocean

Sinkiang (Xinjiang)                   China

Sint Eustatius                        Netherlands Antilles

Sint Maarten (Saint Martin)           Netherlands Antilles

Skagerrak                             Atlantic Ocean

Skopje                                The Former Yugoslav Republic of
                                        Macedonia

Society Islands (Iles de la Societe)  French Polynesia

Socotra                               Yemen

Sofia [US Embassy]                    Bulgaria

Solomon Islands, northern             Papua New Guinea

Solomon Islands, southern             Solomon Islands

Solomon Sea                           Pacific Ocean

Songkhla [US Consulate]               Thailand

Sound, The (Oresund)                  Atlantic Ocean

South Atlantic Ocean                  Atlantic Ocean

South China Sea                       Pacific Ocean

Southern Grenadines                   Grenada

Southern Rhodesia                     Zimbabwe

South Georgia                         South Georgia and the South Sandwich
                                        Islands

South Island                          New Zealand

South Korea                           Korea, South

South Orkney Islands                  Antarctica

South Pacific Ocean                   Pacific Ocean

South Sandwich Islands                South Georgia and the South Sandwich
                                        Islands

South Shetland Islands                Antarctica

South Tyrol                           Italy

South Vietnam                         Vietnam

South-West Africa                     Namibia

South Yemen (People's Democratic      Yemen
  Republic of Yemen)

Soviet Union                          Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
                                        Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
                                        Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
                                        Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
                                        Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan

Spanish Guinea                        Equatorial Guinea

Spanish Sahara                        Western Sahara

Spitsbergen                           Svalbard

Stanley                               Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

Stockholm [US Embassy]                Sweden

Strasbourg [US Consulate General]     France

Stuttgart [US Consulate General]      Germany

Suez, Gulf of                         Indian Ocean

Sulu Archipelago                      Philippines

Sulu Sea                              Pacific Ocean

Sumatra                               Indonesia

Sumba                                 Indonesia

Sunda Islands (Soenda Isles)          Indonesia; Malaysia

Sunda Strait                          Indian Ocean

Surabaya [US Consulate]               Indonesia

Surigao Strait                        Pacific Ocean

Surinam                               Suriname

Suva [US Embassy]                     Fiji

Swains Island                         American Samoa

Swan Islands                          Honduras

Sydney [US Consulate General]         Australia

T
Tahiti                                French Polynesia

Taipei                                Taiwan

Taiwan Strait                         Pacific Ocean

Tallinn [US Embassy]                  Estonia

Tanganyika                            Tanzania

Tangier                               Morocco

Tarawa                                Kiribati

Tartar Strait                         Pacific Ocean

Tashkent [US Embassy]                 Uzbekistan

Tasmania                              Australia

Tasman Sea                            Pacific Ocean

Taymyr Peninsula (Poluostrov Taymyra) Russia

T'bilisi [US Embassy]                 Georgia

Tegucigalpa [US Embassy]              Honduras

Tehran [US post not maintained;       Iran
  representation by Swiss Embassy]

Tel Aviv [US Embassy]                 Israel

Terre Adelie (Adelie Land)            Antarctica
  [claimed by France]

Thailand, Gulf of                     Pacific Ocean

Thessaloniki [US Consulate General]   Greece

Thimphu                               Bhutan

Thurston Island                       Antarctica

Tibet (Xizang)                        China

Tibilisi (see T'bilisi)               Georgia

Tierra del Fuego                      Argentina; Chile

Tijuana [US Consulate General]        Mexico

Timor                                 Indonesia

Timor Sea                             Pacific Ocean

Tinian                                Northern Mariana Islands

Tiran, Strait of                      Indian Ocean

Tirane [US Embassy]                   Albania

Tobago                                Trinidad and Tobago

Tokyo [US Embassy]                    Japan

Tonkin, Gulf of                       Pacific Ocean

Toronto [US Consulate General]        Canada

Torres Strait                         Pacific Ocean

Torshavn                              Faroe Islands

Toshkent (Tashkent)                   Uzbekistan

Transjordan                           Jordan

Transkei                              South Africa

Transylvania                          Romania

Trindade, Ilha de                     Brazil

Tripoli [US post not maintained;      Libya
  representation by Belgian Embassy]

Tristan da Cunha Group                Saint Helena

Trobriand Islands                     Papua New Guinea

Trucial States                        United Arab Emirates

Truk Islands                          Micronesia

Tsugaru Strait                        Pacific Ocean

Tuamotu Islands (Iles Tuamotu)        French Polynesia

Tubuai Islands (Iles Tubuai)          French Polynesia

Tunis [US Embassy]                    Tunisia

Turin                                 Italy

Turkish Straits                       Atlantic Ocean

Turkmeniya                            Turkmenistan

Turks Island Passage                  Atlantic Ocean

Tyrol, South                          Italy

Tyrrhenian Sea                        Atlantic Ocean

U
Udorn (Udon Thani) [US Consulate]     Thailand

Ulaanbaatar [US Embassy]              Mongolia

Ullung-do                             Korea, South

Unimak Pass [strait]                  Pacific Ocean

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics   Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
                                        Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
                                        Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
                                        Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
                                        Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan

United Arab Republic                  Egypt; Syria

Upper Volta                           Burkina

USSR                                  Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
                                        Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
                                        Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
                                        Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
                                        Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan

V
Vaduz [US post not maintained;        Liechtenstein
  representation from Zurich,
  Switzerland]

Vakhan (Wakhan Corridor)              Afghanistan

Valletta [US Embassy]                 Malta

Valley, The                           Anguilla

Vancouver [US Consulate General]      Canada

Vancouver Island                      Canada

Van Diemen Strait                     Pacific Ocean

Vatican City [US Embassy]             Holy See

Velez de la Gomera, Penon de          Spain

Venda                                 South Africa

Verde Island Passage                  Pacific Ocean

Victoria                              Hong Kong

Victoria [US Embassy]                 Seychelles

Vienna [US Embassy, US Mission to     Austria
  International Organizations in
  Vienna (UNVIE)]

Vientiane [US Embassy]                Laos

Vilnius [US Embassy]                  Lithuania

Vladivostok [US Consulate]            Russia

Volcano Islands                       Japan

Vostok Island                         Kiribati

Vrangelya, Ostrov (Wrangel Island)    Russia

W
Wakhan Corridor (now Vakhan)          Afghanistan

Wales                                 United Kingdom

Walvis Bay                            Namibia

Warsaw [US Embassy]                   Poland

Washington, DC [The Permanent Mission United States
  of the US to the Organization of
  American States (OAS)]

Weddell Sea                           Atlantic Ocean

Wellington [US Embassy]               New Zealand

Western Channel (West Korea Strait)   Pacific Ocean

West Germany (Federal Republic of     Germany
  Germany)

West Island                           Cocos (Keeling) Islands

West Korea Strait (Western Channel)   Pacific Ocean

West Pakistan                         Pakistan

Wetar Strait                          Pacific Ocean

White Sea                             Arctic Ocean

Willemstad                            Netherlands Antilles

Windhoek [US Embassy]                 Namibia

Windward Passage                      Atlantic Ocean

Wrangel Island (Ostrov Vrangelya)     Russia [de facto]

Y
Yamoussoukro                          Cote d'Ivoire

Yaounde [US Embassy]                  Cameroon

Yap Islands                           Micronesia

Yaren                                 Nauru

Yellow Sea                            Pacific Ocean

Yemen (Aden) [People's Democratic     Yemen
  Republic of Yemen]

Yemen Arab Republic                   Yemen

Yemen, North [Yemen Arab Republic]    Yemen

Yemen (Sanaa) [Yemen Arab Republic]   Yemen

Yemen, People's Democratic            Yemen
  Republic of

Yemen, South [People's Democratic     Yemen
  Republic of Yemen]

Yerevan [US Embassy]                  Armenia

Youth, Isle of (Isla de la Juventud)  Cuba

Yucatan Channel                       Atlantic Ocean

Yugoslavia                            Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,
                                        Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia,
                                        The Former Yugoslav Republic of
                                        Macedonia

Z
Zagreb [US Embassy]                   Croatia

Zanzibar                              Tanzania

Zurich [US Consulate General]         Switzerland


Produced by Meredith Bach and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was

HOW THE PIANO CAME TO BE

[Illustration: UPRIGHT HARPSICHORD

(_From the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City_)]

      HOW THE PIANO
       CAME TO BE

           BY

   ELLYE HOWELL GLOVER

       ILLUSTRATED

         CHICAGO
 BROWNE & HOWELL COMPANY
          1913

  COPYRIGHT, 1913
  BY BROWNE & HOWELL COMPANY

  PUBLISHED, OCTOBER, 1913

  THE·PLIMPTON·PRESS
  NORWOOD·MASS·U·S·A

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 Upright Harpsichord                          _Frontispiece_

 Clavicytherium or Upright Spinet           _Facing page_ 12

 Clavichord                                               12

 Spinet                                                   16

 Queen Elizabeth's Virginal                               16

 Double Spinet or Virginal made by Ludovicus
 Grovvelus                                                20

 Clavichord made by John Christopher Jesse                24

 Dulcimer                                                 28

 Christofori Piano                                        32

 Piano made by Matthäus Andreas Stein                     40

 Piano made by Benjamin Crehore                           48

 Piano made by Charles Albrecht                           50

 Piano, Primitive German Action                           52

 A Stodart Piano                                          56

HOW THE PIANO CAME TO BE

How the Piano Came To Be

From the dried sinews stretched across the shell of a dead tortoise to
the concert-grand piano of the present day is a far flight. Yet to this
primitive source, it is said, may be traced the evolution of the
stringed instrument which reached its culmination in the piano. The
latter has been aptly called "the household orchestra," and in tracing
its origin one must go far back into the annals of the past. If we
accept the Bible as history, and it is the greatest of all histories,
the stringed instrument is of very ancient date. It is recorded that the
ambassadors who came to the court of Saul played upon their _nebels_,
and that David, the sweet singer of Israel, wooed the king from his
sadness by singing to his harp. We must go back to the civilization of
ancient Egypt, more than five hundred years before that morning nearly
two thousand years ago when, it is written, the angelic choir chanted
above the historic manger the glorious message, "Peace on earth, good
will to men," and the morning stars sang together.

In the olden times the Greeks laid claim to everything which bespoke
culture and progress. The pages of ancient history record no other one
thing so persistently as "the glory that was Greece." And so they tell
of the time when--

    "Music, heavenly maid, was young,
    And yet in ancient Greece she sung!"

It is now generally conceded, however, that it was not in Greece but in
ancient Egypt that art, music, and the sciences in general were born.
That the Egyptians had stringed instruments is unquestionable. Away back
in the year 525 B.C. Cambyses subdued the land. He overthrew the temples
in the ruins of which have been found the records of musical instruments
dating from the very earliest times. But the priests who guarded the
temples were slain, and every vestige of what might have helped to
determine the origin of the stringed instrument, out of which, later,
the piano was evolved, as well as the names of those who wrought and
endeavored to construct instruments which would give forth music, was
forever lost.

[Illustration: Clavicytherium or Upright Spinet]

[Illustration: Clavichord]

For lack of written authority, then, one must turn back to tradition for
light upon the origin of the piano. Tradition says that Ham, or one of
his sons, led the first colony into Egypt. In fact there is a legend
that Noah himself once dwelt there and some historians have identified
him with the great deity of the Egyptians, Osiris. To Hermes, or
Mercury, the secretary of Osiris, is ascribed the invention of the first
stringed instrument. The story is that Hermes was walking one day along
the banks of the Nile. It was just after one of the great inundations.
The Nile had overflowed its banks and the land had been submerged.
But now the water had subsided, and as Hermes walked along the shore,
his foot struck accidentally against the shell of a dead tortoise.
Across the inside of the shell the dried sinews were tightly stretched.
Hermes picked it up and touched the sinews with his fingers. He was
amazed to hear the sweet tones which the picking of the strings
produced. He set to work to make a musical instrument, using the shell
of a tortoise for the body and placing strings across it. In
substantiation of this legend we find in examining the lyre of the
ancient Greeks that almost every one was ornamented with a tortoise. We
find also in the records of the Hindus, the Chinese, the Persians, and
the Hebrews that these people had stringed musical instruments at a
very early date and that the most common among them was the lyre in its
various modifications.

The famous sepulcher of Rameses III is elaborately ornamented with
harps. Specimens of this instrument have been found also in excavations
made in comparatively recent years. In 1823 Sir J. G. Wilkinson
discovered in an old Egyptian tomb a harp which, despite the fact that
three thousand years had gone by since it had been put to sleep beside
its royal master, was in an excellent state of preservation. The strings
were of cat-gut and were in marvelously good condition. The custom which
the Egyptians had of portraying their daily life upon their city walls,
their temples, and tombs has been of incalculable value to the
antiquarians in search of authentic information. From the pictures which
ornament these temples and tombs we have learned that the harp and the
lyre were the favorite instruments of the Egyptians, and these carvings
alone furnish indisputable proof of their use by these people.

But all the research which man, thus far, has been able to make has not
revealed just who it was that first discovered music in a lifeless
instrument. This fact will always be deeply veiled in mystery. All
attempts to unravel the threads have failed. None knows yet just who
they were who first

    "Struck the chorded shell,
    And, wondering, on their faces fell
    To worship the celestial sounds.
    Less than a God they thought there scarce could dwell
    Within the hollow of that shell
    That spoke so sweetly and so well."

Just how many strings Hermes had on his tortoise-shell instrument is a
much disputed question. Some say there were but three and that they
represented the three seasons--spring, summer, and winter--into which it
was the custom of the Greeks to divide their year. Some authorities
claim that the strings numbered four. Others say there were seven. No
one knows. The Greek harp was played by picking the strings with the
fingers or with a plectrum. The latter was a small piece of bone or
metal, held in the fingers, with which the strings were snapped.
Sometimes a short piece of wood was used to strike the strings.

[Illustration: Spinet]

[Illustration: Queen Elizabeth's Virginal]

A step forward in the evolution of the stringed instrument was made
during the Middle Ages when the psaltery became popular. It consisted of
a box with strings across it, and records for us the first attempt at a
sounding board. This was followed by the dulcimer, which closely
resembled it but was somewhat larger. A plectrum was used to play them
both.

A very good idea of the psaltery and dulcimer may be obtained from the
xylophone. This instrument has bars of wood or metal which are struck
with a wooden mallet. The keyboard was invented in the eleventh century.
It was applied first to an instrument called a clavier and later to the
organ. The first stringed instrument to which this new device was
applied was the clavicytherium, or keyed cithara. It had a box with a
cover and strings of cat-gut, arranged in the form of a half triangle.
It was made to sound by means of a quill plectrum attached in a rude way
to the end of the keys. This was the progress the piano of today had
made in the thirteenth century.

Next in order of development comes the monochord, clarichord, or
clavichord, the latter being the name by which it is generally known. As
it was the instrument most used during the six centuries which followed,
it is worthy of close study. In shape it much resembled a small square
piano without frame or legs. The strings were of brass, struck by a
wedge made of the same metal which was called a tangent. It was capable
of soft tones only, but they were very sweet and melancholy. The elder
Bach loved this instrument. He did not take kindly to the piano which
was about to supplant his beloved clavichord. One regrets that he could
not have lived to have seen it perfected. In playing the music written
by Bach we must remember that he wrote entirely for the clavichord. The
instrument he used was, without doubt, the product of Italy, as during
this time the Italians led all Europe in the arts. At a later period the
clavichord was copied by the Germans and Belgians. It was used by them
for centuries on account of its simple construction and low price.
Mozart always carried one with him as part of his baggage when
traveling. The virginal, spinet, and harpsichord followed the clavichord
in rapid succession, considering that the last named instrument had been
in favor for such a long time, with seemingly no attempt at improvement.
All of these three instruments had strings of brass, with quill plectra
attached to pieces of wood. These were called "jacks"--a name still used
today in making up the action of the piano.

[Illustration: Double Spinet or Virginal made by Ludovicus Grovvelus
Flanders, 1600]

The virginal and spinet were almost identical with each other, but the
harpsichord was larger and occasionally was built with two keyboards.
There are several explanations as to why the virginal was so called.
One is that it got its name from its association with hymns to the
Virgin. Another is that it was thus called in honor of Elizabeth, the
Virgin Queen. We may accept whichever theory best suits us, but history
records that both Elizabeth and Mary of Scotland were proficient in its
use and that it was the favorite instrument of Henry VIII. Items for
repairs and for instruction in playing the virginal appear frequently in
the royal expense book, showing conclusively that His Majesty was not
unmindful of such accomplishments. Four octaves was the range of these
old instruments, from the second added line below in the bass to the
second added line above in the treble. There was but one string to each
note, and one can well understand why a writer of that period describes
the tone as "a _scratch_ with a _sound_ at the end of it." Queen
Elizabeth's virginal is still preserved at Worcestershire. It is a most
elaborate creation, having a cedar case ornately covered with crimson
velvet and lined with yellow silk. Its weight is only twenty-four
pounds. Gold plate covers the front. Thirty of its fifty keys are of
ebony with tips of gold. The semitone keys are inlaid with silver,
ivory, and various woods, each key being composed of two hundred and
fifty pieces. The royal arms are emblazoned upon the case. The Queen's
virginal instruction book is also carefully kept, one of the many silent
records of the accomplishments of this gifted and brilliant woman.

The instrument which belonged, once upon a time, to Mary Queen of Scots
was not quite so gorgeous. Its case was of oak inlaid with cedar, but it
was ornamented with gold and had rare paintings on the case. It was
customary to employ the best artists to decorate these instruments, as
this greatly enhanced their value. There is a story that Salvatore Rosa,
on a wager, made his almost valueless harpsichord worth a thousand scudi
by painting a landscape with figures upon the lid.

In July of the year 1701 the London _Post_ had an article relating to
virginals which reads: "This week a most curious pair of virginals,
reckoned to be the finest in England, was shipped off for the Grand
Seigneur's seraglio."

Old Pepys, in his diary, gives a description of the great fire in London
which occurred in 1666, in which he says: "The river was full of
lighters and boats, taking in goods, _good_ goods swimming in the water;
and only I observed that hardly one lighter or boat but that there was a
pair of virginals on it." The word "pair" as it is used then had no more
meaning than when we now say "a pair of scissors." This extract shows
that the instrument must have been almost as commonly used as the piano
of our day. In Shakespeare's time it was customary to have a virginal in
a barber shop for the entertainment of customers, probably to beguile
the weary moments while they waited for the barber to say "next."

[Illustration: Clavichord made by John Christopher Jesse, Germany, 1765]

In shape the spinet resembled the harp placed horizontally in the
framework. A very good example may be seen at the South Kensington
Museum in London. It was made by Rossi, a celebrated manufacturer. The
Metropolitan Museum in New York has rare specimens of the harp which
were given by the late Mr. Drexel, of Philadelphia, who purchased them
in Europe. There are two theories as to the origin of the name "spinet."
One is, that it was taken from Spinetti, a Venetian who invented the
oblong form of the case. The other is that the strings were made to
vibrate by the points of a quill, and that the word "spinet" came from
thorn or point.

In tone the spinet was usually a fifth higher than that of the
harpsichord, which came into favor during the eighteenth century. The
latter was almost exactly like our grand piano, only very much smaller.
To Italy has been accorded the honor of its origin, also, away back in
the fifteenth century. It was not commonly used, however, until about
1702. A harpsichord on exhibition at the South Kensington Museum in
London bears the date of 1521. A step towards the present-day
construction of the piano is shown by the fact that there were always
two wire strings to each note and sometimes three or four, and that it
had a keyboard covering five octaves. It was like an organ in that it
had register stops and sometimes a double keyboard.

Hans Ruckers, of Antwerp, was the most celebrated maker of the
harpsichord in those days. One of his best specimens belongs to the
Drexel collection in New York. Handel delighted in his Ruckers
harpsichord and gave it preference over all others, which is adequate
proof of its superiority. It was his pleasure to play upon it long after
his failing eyesight forbade the use of notes. He had to improvise
entirely, but was so expert that the orchestra with whom he played was
often diverted by his wonderful accompaniments. This partiality was
resented by the soloists and one of them told Handel that if he ever
played him such a trick while he was singing, he would jump down on his
harpsichord and smash it. This amused Handel immensely and he exclaimed,
"You vill jump, vill you? Varey well, sare. Be so kind und tell me ven
you vill jump, und I vill advertise it in der bills." We are told that
every key of Handel's instrument was hollowed like the bowl of a spoon,
so incessant was his practice. One very lovely harpsichord still in
existence has its history veiled in mystery, but the supposition is that
it once belonged to Marie Antoinette.

[Illustration: Dulcimer]

Clementi had one of the last harpsichords made. The date upon the case
was 1802. Beethoven's famous "Moonlight Sonata" was written for either
harpsichord or piano. It was published in 1802. Hummel played on the
harpsichord as late as 1805, but it had to give way, though most
reluctantly, to the new invention called the pianoforte. Just how slow
the public was in accepting the innovation and improvement upon the
instruments mentioned, the following quotation from a folio gotten out
by Thomas Mace, who was one of the clerks of Trinity College, at the
University of Cambridge, testifies. He was pleased to call his booklet
"Musick's Monument," and it was printed in 1676 in London.

He scorned the new invention but warmly upheld the lute and viol. He
explained that the lute was once considered difficult to play because it
had too few strings, only ten to fourteen, while at the time of his
writing it had sixteen to twenty-six. He makes the statement that he
never spent more than a shilling a quarter for strings. The care of a
lute he describes quaintly:

"And that you may know how to shelter your lute in the worst of ill
weathers (which is moist) you shall do well, ever when you lay it by in
the day time, to put It into a Bed that is constantly used, between the
Rug and Blanket, but never between the Sheets, because, they may be
moist. This is the most absolute and best place to keep It in always, by
which doing, you will find many Great Conveniences. Therefore, a Bed
will secure from all these inconveniences and keep your Glew as Hard as
Glass and all safe and sure; only to be excepted, that no Person be so
inconsiderate as to Tumble down upon the Bed whilst the lute is there,
for I have known several Good lutes spoiled with such a Trick."

Again we are indebted to Italy for the invention and name of the
pianoforte. It is a strange fact that, entirely unknown to one another,
three men were working out the same principle--namely, the hammer
action--at the same time. Marius in France, Schroeter in Germany, and
Bartolomeo Christofori (often called Christofali) in Italy worked
secretly and simultaneously, and for a long time it was undecided to
whom the honor really belonged. A careful examination of all records,
however, establishes beyond a doubt the priority of Christofori's
claim. The hammer action was what all previous instruments lacked, and
it seems strange that it took nearly two thousand years for this
principle to be discovered and applied. Many times the inventors
appeared to be almost upon it. They worked all around it, but the idea
seemed illusive and they never grasped it.

[Illustration: Christofori Piano from the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York City]

At this point it might be well to enumerate in order the instruments
which preceded the piano, if only to fasten them clearly in memory: the
lyre and harp of the ancients; the dulcimer, played by means of the
plectra and to which, as the hand could use but one plectrum, there was
a keyboard added to use all the fingers, thus moving the plectra faster;
the clavichord, with tangents of brass to strike the strings; the
virginal and the spinet, in reality the same; the harpsichord, with its
crow quills to half rub, half strike the strings, still far away from
the hammer action of the present-day piano. It seems almost
unaccountable that the manufacturers who so greatly improved the
mechanism of the harpsichord at this stage failed to discover the hammer
action. But at last, after the quest of centuries, the quill, thorn, and
ivory were discarded and a small hammer struck the string, giving a
clear, precise, but delicate tone hitherto unheard. The "scratch with a
sound at the end" was gone forever. The harpsichord had been changed
into an instrument of percussion, and it only remained for man to
perfect that primitive creation into the superb piano of today.

Although Italy gave the invention to the world, it remained for northern
Europe and England to take up the idea and improve it. Christofori
solved three important problems: first, the construction of thicker
strings to withstand the hammer action; second, a way to compensate for
the weakness caused by the opening in the tuning-pin block; third, the
mechanical control of the rebound of the hammer from the strings, so
that the hammer should not block against the latter and prevent
vibration.

The first Christofori instrument was brought out in 1709. Marius did not
come forth with his claim until 1716, and Schroeter not until the next
year. The name "pianoforte" is traced clearly to the year 1598 and is
said to have been originated by an Italian named Paliarino. In some of
his manuscripts he mentions an instrument called _piano e forte_. The
English put in a claim for a monk living in Rome who had made an
instrument resembling Christofori's in 1711 and had brought it to
England, where it created a profound sensation. This may have been true,
but England did little to develop even the harpsichord until long after
Continental makers had achieved marked success in the business. In 1760
German workmen to the number of twelve went to London. They were known
as the Twelve Apostles, and it is their descendants who became
identified with the successful development of the piano down to the
present time.

Very few of the first Christofori pianos have been preserved. One, in
excellent repair, is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. Two are in
Florence, dated 1720 and 1726. They show, beyond a doubt, that he had
anticipated the plan of escapement and hammer checking. Like many other
pioneer inventors, this man died in comparative poverty. Schroeter, the
German claimant, became a famous maker of instruments. He succeeded in
improving the piano to a large extent. But his life was made miserable
fighting the claims of other manufacturers who sprang up and immediately
went into business. Marius met the same fate, being driven to
distraction by competitors, some of whom turned out instruments far
superior to his.

England did not accomplish much before the middle of the eighteenth
century. Up to 1760 all pianos were made in what is known as the "grand"
form. Then a German in the employ of the Tschudi's, famous makers of
harpsichords, invented the familiar "square" style. At the beginning of
the nineteenth century, the most noted European makers were the Steins,
Stodart, Broadwood, Pleyel, Erard, and Silberman. Pleyel was
distinguished not only for his fine instruments, but for the fact that
he was the twenty-fourth child born to his mother after she married
Martin Pleyel. She died soon after his birth, whereupon his father took
unto himself another wife and had fourteen more children, making a
family of thirty-eight, thirty-five of whom lived and prospered. Pleyel
was chapel master of Strasburg Cathedral. He was the author of some fine
hymns and other compositions which we know and love today. He lived in
Paris, manufactured splendid pianos, and was, before his death,
proprietor of one of the largest establishments in Europe.

To show against what prejudice the piano had to struggle as compared to
the harpsichord (and even the clavichord), we quote from a musical
critic in Leipzig who said:

"The clavichord stands highest of all instruments, and although on
account of its nature it is excluded from the concert hall, it is the
companion of the recluse. The latter says to himself: 'Here I can
produce the feelings of my heart, can shade fully, drive away care, and
melt away a tone through all its swellings,'" This critic says further:

"The piano is so deficient in its shadings and minor attractions, it is
adapted only for concerts and chamber music." This dissertation closes
as follows: "In order to judge a virtuoso, one must listen to him while
at the clavichord, not while at the piano or harpsichord."

To illustrate the novelty of the piano in the year 1767, we find on an
old English play bill of the Covent Garden Theater a certain Miss
Brickler advertised to sing a favorite song from "Judith," accompanied
by Mr. Dibdin on "a new instrument" called the pianoforte. This was at
the intermission after the first act of "The Beggars" opera.

After Mozart became acquainted with the piano, he gave his preference to
those made by Stein, of Augsburg. Afterwards, however, he transferred
his affection to those made by Anton Walter, of Vienna. His "grand,"
which was but five octaves, with white sharps and black naturals, is now
in the Mozarteum at Salzburg.

[Illustration: Piano made by Matthäus Andreas Stein
Vienna, early Nineteenth Century]

Silberman, the German maker, was finally successful in interesting King
Frederick of Prussia in his new instrument to the extent of persuading
him to purchase outright all he had finished. There were some
fifteen of these, which were placed in the rooms at the palace. This
demonstrates the King's love for music. He was a flute player of
considerable ability. One of the court musicians was Carl Philip Emanuel
Bach, son of the great master, and King Frederick had expressed a desire
to hear the elder Bach play upon the new invention. For some time old
Sebastian was obstinate and tartly declined all invitations. His son at
last cajoled him into acceding to the King's wishes. He arrived most
unexpectedly and excited the King to such an extent that he rushed out
exclaiming: "Gentlemen, old Bach has come."

During the performance he stood behind the musician's chair muttering in
an undertone: "Only one Bach, only one Bach." The King requested the
improvisation of a fugue in six parts, which the master did to the
astonishment of all present. But for the new instrument Bach had little
use. He complimented Silberman on his production, but he found fault
with the unequal tones. He said the high notes were too weak, that it
was too hard to play. Of course this greatly displeased the maker. For a
long time he was very angry. But his better judgment came to the rescue
and at a later date he succeeded in producing an instrument to which the
master gave his approval. Bach, however, was never convinced that any
instrument was equal to his beloved clavichord.

It will be of interest to women to know that Maria Anna Stein,
daughter of Johann Andreas Stein, the piano maker, was a most
successful business woman, carrying on the manufacturing of instruments.
This she continued after her marriage to Herr Streicher. She was a
person of rare refinement and a warm friend of Beethoven, whom she
greatly admired. She was privileged to make his last years more
comfortable than any he had previously experienced. Good servants were
provided to look after his bodily needs and she always had one of her
best pianos at his disposal. In a letter to "Nanette," as she was
called, he wrote: "Perhaps you do not know that though I have not always
had one of your pianos, since 1809 I have invariably preferred them."

As late as 1882 there was a grand piano at Windsor Castle which bore
the name of Nanette Stein, Maker. It belonged to Queen Victoria.

Clementi may be considered the first legitimate writer for the piano.
All the great masters, including Scarlatti, Handel, Bach, and Haydn (in
his first compositions), were written for the clavichord. So when
listening to the classics they have left for us, we must remember the
limitations of the instruments upon which they played and for which they
wrote. Probably no one has realized this fact more keenly than the late
Mr. Morris Steinert, of New Haven, Conn. He spent the best years of his
life (to say nothing of his fortune) in collecting the rare and valuable
instruments which he presented to Yale College.

Mr. Steinert not only searched for these treasures all over Europe, but
he had them restored and played upon them, thus giving to the world the
long-forgotten sounds and showing, by the only method possible, just how
the great masters played. During the World's Fair the Steinert
collection was in the Manufacturers' Building, the center of attraction
for music lovers. His experiences were most interesting in obtaining
some of the rarest specimens. For instance, a harpsichord with the date
1710 on its case was found broken and dust-covered in an attic in
Vienna. It had two keyboards, tortoise-shell naturals and ivory sharps.
It had eight stops, one imitating the lute and one the flute. The
sounding board was elaborately painted with flowers and other
decorative symbols, while the inside lid was ornate with strictly
Japanese art.

The dearly loved "Nanette Stein" piano, Beethoven's much prized
possession, is in Mr. Steinert's collection. America is the home of many
priceless pianos. In this same group we find an instrument once
belonging to Napoleon Bonaparte. To be correct, it is a harpsichord, and
it was given to a French sergeant when the fallen monarch was banished
to St. Helena. The Frenchman came to America and gave the harpsichord to
Simon Bates, of Scituate Harbor Light, Mass., from whose heirs Mr.
Steinert purchased it. Claviers, dulcimers, spinets, and harpsichords,
belonging once upon a time to Bach, Haydn, and Mozart, are in this
famous collection.

Besides the instruments of bygone days, Mr. Steinert has been able to
get original manuscripts, worth their weight in gold. It is a
fascinating character study to examine the scores of the old masters and
note the difference in style and method. For many years this man made
arduous tours with his instruments, giving lectures and illustrating
them with actual performance of the music on the instrument for which it
was composed. His only compensation was that he felt he was furthering
the true spirit of art and music in this the country of his adoption. In
his personal reminiscences published some years ago he says:

[Illustration: Piano made by Benjamin Crehore, Boston Cir. 1800]

"How dealers in pianos of this day must envy the manufacturers of the
good old times when they remember that then the would-be purchaser had
to look up the maker and court his pleasure. He had to sign a written
contract, the terms of which sound droll enough to us. The time limit
for construction was from six to twelve months and the payments were,
generally, so much cash, so many casks of wine, a certain amount of
corn, wheat, and potatoes, while geese, chickens, and turkeys
constituted some of the articles used in payment. Even a few cords of
wood would be acceptable in making up the balance. When the piano was
completed, ready for delivery at the home of the impatient purchaser, a
general festival took place. The maker was the hero of the hour. He
was accompanied by his craftsmen, and apprentices if he had any, and
they followed the gaily decorated wagon and horses which bore the
precious burden to its new home. A band of music headed the procession
and the maker was borne aloft on the shoulders of his assistants.
Musicians, organists, school masters, and other dignitaries marched in
the rear. At the place of destination the procession was received with
joyous shouts of welcome. The minister said a prayer and blessed the
instrument and its maker. Then the mayor or burgomaster delivered an
address, dwelling at length upon the importance of the event to the
whole community, stating that the coming of the new musical instrument
would raise the standing of the place in the eyes of the surrounding
countryside. Speeches followed by the school master, doctor, druggist,
and other officials. The mannechor of the village rendered songs, and
amid the strains from the band the piano was moved into place. A banquet
and dance closed the happy occasion."

In those days the manufacturer had to make each article by hand that
went into a piano, which is the reason it took so long to finish the
instrument.

[Illustration: Piano made by Charles Albrecht, Philadelphia]

If the early records are reliable, the history of the piano in this
country begins at Philadelphia. In 1775 John Behrend, a German or Swede,
built an instrument in the Quaker city, and up to 1855 it continued to
be the center of trade in musical instruments. When we consider how
much the piano has contributed to the happiness of mankind and to the
promotion of art and culture, the honor conceded to the Pennsylvania
city is by no means a small one. The first spinets and virginals made on
this side of the water were undoubtedly of Philadelphia manufacture.
This was in the year 1742. Along with its musical progress it is said
that the first hand or barrel organs were made there, and of the latter
some one says: "They are the curse and plague of the modern high class
individual." A Scotchman, who settled in Philadelphia near the end of
1785, was the maker of the hand-organ.

To show that the town was progressive in all kinds of instruments, we
find that the historical society of Philadelphia has records of the
first organ built there in 1737 by one Mathew Zimmerman. Local
historians claim it to be the first one built in America. John Clark
built one at Salem, Mass., in 1743, for the Episcopal church at that
place. This puts Massachusetts well to the front in early musical
history. Zimmerman's will, probated the same year he finished the organ,
bequeaths it to his nephew and expresses the hope that he would learn to
play upon it, adding, "If not, it can be sold, owing to its being so
much of a curiosity."

[Illustration: Piano, Primitive German Action. Eighteenth Century]

The story of the first piano to come into this country is truly romantic
and historic. The famous continental frigate "Boston," a
privateer, sailed into port with a British merchant ship as a prize. The
dauntless Captain Tucker was in command. The cargo was sold for the
benefit of the National Treasury, and among other articles was a
pianoforte of London make.

It was not until after the revolutionary period that the spinet and
harpsichord were superseded in this country by the piano. A newspaper of
1791 tells us that there were some twenty-seven pianos among the wealthy
Boston families. All were of English make. In 1840 slow, easy-going ways
crept into Philadelphia and she lost the prestige she once enjoyed of
being the center of musical culture as well as of art and literature.
Boston took the place and has held it ever since. Many of the
distinctive features of the American piano actually originated there,
such as the applying of metal in construction, which idea was first
shown to be practical by Alpheus Babcock and Jonas Chickering. Then
Timothy Gilbert, another Boston man, conceived the upright action which
is in such general use today. There is no doubt but that Chickering was
the first man who dared deviate from a prescribed method in case
building.

Old newspapers contain much of interest concerning these first days in
the musical history of our country. In the Boston _Gazette_, published
in 1770, we are told that an excellent spinet had just been completed
which for goodness of workmanship and harmony of sound was esteemed by
the best judges to be superior to those imported. So much for American
skill and enterprise.

It might be well to mention that Massachusetts is credited with making
the first violins in this country. In 1789, also, there were two
teachers of harp and piano in Boston, one of whom could act as tuner and
repairer if occasion demanded. We find that Boston early supported a
musical magazine. In 1797 Peter Van Hazen left New York for the "Hub"
and there issued the first copy of his publication devoted to topics on
music. He also imported sheet music direct from London. It was about
1800 when Benjamin Crehore, of Milton, Mass., built the first piano
ever made in this country, and he did it in Boston. He was a skilled
workman who knew how to make violins, 'cellos, guitars, drums, and
flutes. Ten or twelve pianos were all he could make in one year and, to
the shame of America be it recorded, he had to put the stamp of _London_
or _Paris_ upon them before he could make a sale, showing that our
forefathers considered the foreign made article superior to those of
home manufacture. All these things are changed, however; the American
instrument now commands the highest price and is shipped to every part
of the world.

[Illustration: A Stodart Piano (Old English)]

The New York newspapers of olden time contain many notices that are
curious enough to us who read them over in this day and generation.
For instance, we find that "Peter Goelet has just gotten in a supply of
goods on the ship 'Earl of Dunmore,' and advertises that he has over
three hundred articles, from masons' trowels to oil paint, skillets and
books, paint-pots, guitars, fiddles, flutes and other musical
instruments, as well as a large box of harpsichord wire and hammers."

This motley collection no doubt found eager customers. Another paper
tells us that "Herman Zedwitz, teacher of the violin, announces to the
public that he has just returned from Europe and will give a concert in
the assembly rooms at the 'Sign of the Golden Spade.'" Later, in 1774,
this same man evidently found that the public did not appreciate him
musically, for the intervals were so long between lessons and
engagements for his violin that he was forced to take up the occupation
of a chimney sweep. From accounts in the paper he must have inaugurated
a sort of trust, for he advertised to take contracts by the year for
"dusting out the sooty interior of flues" and adds, "None but competent
boys employed." Evidently musical culture in New York was temporarily at
a low ebb.

In this story of the evolution of the piano we have seen how, from its
primitive beginning, it has become the one splendid instrument that is
capable of representing the effect of a full orchestra. Before the death
of Beethoven he realized the tremendous power of the piano and
displayed its resources in a manner undreamed of by Haydn. Could these
old masters return today and sit at one of the splendid productions of
the twentieth century they would be dumb with amazement and entirely at
a loss as to how to handle the enormous range of seven and a third
octaves. Best of all, the price is such that some style of modern piano
is within the reach of nearly every one. Music in the home is now the
rule, not the exception.

Leigh Hunt has well expressed the feeling of all piano lovers in these
verses, which are full of sentiment:

    Oh, friend, whom glad or gay we seek,
        Heaven-holding shrine;
    I ope thee, touch thee, hear thee speak,
        And peace is mine.
    No fairy casket full of bliss,
        Outvalues thee;
    Love only, wakened with a kiss
        More sweet may be.

    To thee, when our full hearts o'erflow,
        In griefs or joys
    Unspeakable, emotions owe
        A fitting voice.
    Mirth flees to thee, and loves unrest,
        And memory dear,
    And sorrow, with his tightened breast
        Comes for a tear.

    Oh, since few joys of human mould,
        Thus wait us still,
    Thrice blessed be thine, thou gentle fold
        Of peace at will.
    No change, no sullenness, no cheat
        In thee we find;
    Thy saddest voice is ever sweet,
        Thine answer kind.

  [Transcriber's Note:

   The following typographical errors have been corrected:

   "Stien," "Stiens," and "Stienert" have been changed to "Stein,"
   "Steins," and "Steinert" in a number of places throughout the text.

   The incorrect page number in the list of illustrations for the Charles
   Albrecht piano illustration has been changed.]

End of Project Gutenberg's How the Piano Came to Be, by Ellye Howell Glover