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 ANECDOTES

 OF

 PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS

 Sculptors and Architects,

 AND

 CURIOSITIES OF ART.

 BY

 S. SPOONER, M. D.,

 AUTHOR OF "A BIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE FINE ARTS."

 IN THREE VOLUMES.

 VOL. III.

 NEW YORK: R. WORTHINGTON, PUBLISHER, 770 Broadway.

 COPYRIGHT, S. SPOONER, 1853.

 Reëntered, G. B., 1880.

  CONTENTS.

  Egyptian Art,                                                        1
  Ancient Thebes,                                                      2
  The Temple of Carnac,                                                5
  Temple of Luxor,                                                     5
  The Statues of Memnon,                                               6
  Heliopolis,                                                          7
  Memphis,                                                             8
  Lake Moeris,                                                         9
  The Colossal Sphinx,                                                10
  The Labyrinth of Egypt,                                             11
  The Catacombs of Egypt,                                             12
  The Pyramids of Egypt,                                              19
  Perilous Ascent of the Pyramid of Cephren,                          27
  Egyptian Obelisks,                                                  30
  Removal of an Obelisk by Fontana,                                   33
  Removal of an Obelisk from Thebes to Paris,                         40
  Carburi's Base for the Equestrian Statue of Peter the Great,        42
  Comparative Skill of the Ancients and Moderns in Mechanics,         45
  The Britannia Tubular Railway Bridge,                               46
  The Tubes,                                                          47
  Construction of the Tubes,                                          49
  Floating the Tubes,                                                 50
  Raising the Tubes,                                                  52
  Glory of Ancient Rome,                                              57
  The Capitol,                                                        59
  Modern Rome,                                                        60
  The Foundation of Venice,                                           72
  Theodoric the Great, and his Love of the Fine Arts,                 73
  Archimedes,                                                         77
  The Trials of Genius--Filippo Brunelleschi,                         80
  Brunelleschi's Enthusiasm,                                         122
  Brunelleschi and Donatello,                                        123
  Donatello,                                                         125
  Donatello and the Merchant,                                        126
  Donatello and his Kinsmen,                                         127
  Death of Donatello,                                                128
  Donatello and Michael Angelo Compared,                             128
  Sofonisba Anguisciola's Early Distinction,                         129
  Sofonisba's Visit to Rome,                                         130
  Sofonisba's Marriages,                                             131
  Sofonisba's Residence at Genoa, and her Intercourse with Vandyck,  132
  Carriera Rosalba,                                                  133
  Rosalba's Modesty,                                                 133
  Rosalba's Knowledge of Tempers,                                    133
  Elizabeth Sirani,                                                  134
  Death of Elizabeth Sirani,                                         135
  Rachel Ruysch,                                                     135
  Sir Anthony Vandyck,                                               136
  Vandyck's Visit to Italy,                                          138
  Vandyck's Return to Antwerp,                                       139
  Vandyck's Visit to England,                                        141
  William van de Velde the Elder,                                    143
  Van de Velde and Charles II.,                                      144
  William van de Velde the Younger,                                  145
  The Younger van de Velde's Works,                                  146
  Nicholas Poussin,                                                  148
  Poussin's first Celebrity,                                         149
  Poussin's first Visit to Rome,                                     150
  Poussin's Distress at Rome,                                        151
  Poussin's Success at Rome,                                         152
  Poussin's Invitation to Paris,                                     153
  Poussin's Return to Rome,                                          154
  Sir Joshua Reynolds' Critique on Poussin,                          156
  Poussin's Views of his Art,                                        157
  Poussin's Works,                                                   158
  Marino and Poussin,                                                159
  Poussin Romanized,                                                 160
  Poussin's Habits of Study,                                         161
  Poussin's Old Age,                                                 162
  Poussin's Last Work and Death,                                     163
  Poussin's Ideas of Painting,                                       164
  Poussin and the Nobleman,                                          165
  Poussin and Mengs,                                                 165
  Poussin and Domenichino,                                           166
  Poussin and Salvator Rosa,                                         166
  Poussin, Angelo, and Raffaelle Compared,                           168
  Rembrandt,                                                         170
  Rembrandt's Works,                                                 173
  Rembrandt as an Engraver,                                          174
  Anecdote of Schwarts,                                              175
  Jacques Callot,                                                    176
  Callot's Patriotism,                                               177
  Ingenuity of Artists,                                              178
  A Hint to Jewelers,                                                179
  Curious Paintings,                                                 180
  The Oldest Oil Painting Extant,                                    181
  Curious Representations of the Harpies,                            181
  Adrian Brower,                                                     182
  Brower, the Duke d'Aremberg, and Rubens,                           183
  Death of Brower,                                                   184
  Brower's Works,                                                    185
  Rosa da Tivoli,                                                    185
  Rosa da Tivoli's Works,                                            186
  Rosa da Tivoli's Facility of Execution,                            186
  Rosa da Tivoli's Habits,                                           187
  Luca Cambiaso's Facility in Painting,                              187
  Cambiaso's Works in Spain,                                         188
  Cambiaso's Artistic Merits,                                        190
  Rarity of Female Portraits in Spain,                               191
  Murillo's Pictures in Spanish America,                             192
  Murillo's "Virgin of the Napkin,"                                  193
  Anecdote of an Altar-Piece by Murillo,                             194
  Murillo and his slave Gomez,                                       195
  An Artist's Love of Romance,                                       195
  Estéban March's Strange Method of Study,                           198
  March's Adventure of the Fish, fried in Linseed Oil,               199
  A Painter's Rebuke,                                                200
  A Painter's Retort Courteous,                                      201
  Ardemans and Bocanegra--A Trial of Skill,                          201
  A Painter's Artifice to "Keep up Appearances,"                     202
  A Good Natured Criticism,                                          203
  Alonso Cano and the Intendant of the Bishop of Malaga,             203
  Cano's Love of Sculpture,                                          204
  Castillo's Sarcasm on Alfaro,                                      204
  Torres' Imitations of Caravaggio,                                  205
  Pantoja and the Eagle,                                             205
  The Painter Methodius and the King of Bulgaria,                    206
  John C. Vermeyen and Charles V.,                                   206
  Blas de Prado and the Emperor of Morocco,                          207
  Don Juan Carreño,                                                  208
  Carreño's Copy of Titian's St. Margaret,                           208
  Carreño's Abstraction of Mind,                                     209
  Anecdote of Cespedes' Last Supper,                                 209
  Zuccaro's Compliment to Cespedes,                                  210
  Dona Barbara Maria de Hueva,                                       210
  The Miraculous Picture of the Virgin,                              211
  The Chair of St. Peter,                                            213
  The Sagro Catino, or Emerald Dish,                                 215
  The "Painter of Florence,"                                         217
  Legend of the Painter-Friar, the Devil, and the Virgin,            220
  Gerard Douw,                                                       222
  Douw's Style,                                                      224
  Douw's Method of Painting,                                         225
  Douw's Works,                                                      226
  Albert Durer,                                                      228
  Durer's Works as a Painter,                                        229
  Durer's Works as an Engraver,                                      231
  Durer's Fame and Death,                                            233
  Durer's Habits and Literary Works,                                 234
  Ludolph Backhuysen,                                                235
  John Baptist Weenix the Elder,                                     236
  Weenix's Facility of Hand,                                         236
  John Baptist Weenix the Younger,                                   237
  Jan Steen,                                                         238
  Jan Steen's Works,                                                 238
  Kugler's Critique on the Works of Jan Steen,                       240
  Frolics of Mieris and Jan Steen,                                   241
  Sir Anthony More,                                                  242
  Sir Anthony More and Philip II.,                                   243
  More's Success and Works,                                          243
  Perilous Adventure of a Painter,                                   245
  Anecdote of John de Mabuse,                                        246
  Capugnano and Lionello Spada,                                      247
  Michael Angelo Caravaggio--His Quarrelsome Disposition,            248
  Jacopo Amiconi,                                                    249
  Painting the Dead,                                                 250
  Taddeo Zuccaro,                                                    250
  Zuccaro's Resentment,                                              251
  Royal Criticism,                                                   252
  Pietro da Cortona,                                                 253
  "Know Thyself,"                                                    254
  Benvenuto Cellini,                                                 255
  Fracanzani and Salvator Rosa,                                      256
  Pope Urban VIII. and Bernini,                                      256
  Emulation and Rivalry in the Fine Arts,                            257
  The Nótte of Correggio,                                            259
  The Dresden Gallery,                                               262
  Painting among the Egyptians,                                      263
  Painting among the Greeks,                                         265
  Numismatics,                                                       269
  Restoring Ancient Edifices,                                        274
  Napoleon's Love of Art,                                            274
  Napoleon's Works at Paris,                                         276
  The Napoleon Medals,                                               281
  The Elephant Fountain,                                             286
  Interesting Drawing,                                               287
  Sévre China,                                                       288
  Dismantling of the Louvre,                                         289
  Removal of the Venetian Horses from Paris,                         296
  Removal of the Statue of Napoleon from the Place Vendôme,          301
  The Musée Français and the Musée Royal,                            302
  Boydell's Shakspeare Gallery,                                      305
  Brief Sketch of a Plan for an American National Gallery of Art,    307

ANECDOTES

OF

PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, AND ARCHITECTS.

EGYPTIAN ART.

Champollion, the famous explorer of Egyptian antiquities, holds the
following language at the end of his fifteenth letter, dated at Thebes.
"It is evident to me, as it must be to all who have thoroughly examined
Egypt or have an accurate knowledge of the Egyptian monuments existing
in Europe, that the arts commenced in Greece by a servile imitation of
the arts in Egypt, much more advanced than is vulgarly believed, at the
period when the Egyptian colonies came in contact with the savage
inhabitants of Attica or the Peloponnesus. Without Egypt, Greece would
probably never have become the classical land of the fine arts. Such is
my entire belief on this great problem. I write these lines almost in
the presence of bas-reliefs which the Egyptians executed, with the most
elegant delicacy of workmanship, seventeen hundred years before the
Christian era. What were the Greeks then doing?"

The sculptures of the monument of El Asaffif are ascertained to be more
than three thousand five hundred years old.

ANCIENT THEBES.

Thebes, an ancient city and capital of Egypt, and the oldest city in the
world, was situated in Upper Egypt, on both sides of the Nile, about two
hundred and sixty miles south of Cairo. Thebes is "the city of a hundred
gates," the theme and admiration of ancient poets and historians, and
the wonder of travelers--"that venerable city," in the language of Dr.
Pocoke, "the date of whose destruction is older than the foundation of
other cities, and the extent of whose ruins, and the immensity of whose
colossal fragments still offer so many astonishing objects, that one is
riveted to the spot, unable to decide whither to direct the step, or fix
the attention." These ruins extend about eight miles along the Nile,
from each bank to the sides of the enclosing mountains, and describe a
circuit of twenty-seven miles. The most remarkable objects on the
eastern side are the temples of Carnac and Luxor; and on the western
side are the Memnonium or palace of Memnon, two colossal statues, the
sepulchres of the kings, and the temple of Medinet Abu. The glory of
Thebes belongs to a period prior to the commencement of authentic
history. It is recorded only in the dim lights of poetry and tradition,
which might be suspected of fable, did not such mighty witnesses remain
to attest their truth. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus described Thebes
under the name of _Diospolis_ (the city of God), and gave such
magnificent descriptions of its monuments as caused the fidelity of
those writers to be called in question, till the observations of modern
travelers proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. At
the time of the Persian invasion under Cambyses, Memphis had supplanted
Thebes; and the Ptolemys afterwards removed the seat of empire to
Alexandria. At present, its site presents only a few scattered villages,
consisting of miserable cottages built in the courts of the temples. The
ancient structures, however, remain in a state of wonderful
preservation. Almost the whole extent of eight miles along the river is
covered with magnificent portals, obelisks decorated with most beautiful
sculptures, forests of columns, and long avenues of sphynxes and
colossal statues. The most remarkable monuments, the ruins of which
remain, are the temples of Carnac, Luxor, the Memnonium or temple of
Memnon, and the temple of Medinet Abu. The tomb of Osymandyas, the
temple of Iris, the Labyrinth, and the Catacombs lie on the western
side of the Nile. In the interior of the mountains which rise behind
these monuments, are found objects less imposing and magnificent indeed,
but not less interesting--the tombs of the kings of Thebes. Several of
these were opened by Belzoni, and were found in great preservation, with
mummies in the sarcophagi, as well as dispersed through the chambers.

Such was ancient Thebes--a city so populous that, according to ancient
writers, in times of war 10,000 soldiers issued from each of her hundred
gates, forming an army of 1,000,000 men. That these magnificent ruins
are the remains of "the city of an hundred gates,"--"the earliest
capital in the world," cannot be doubted. According to the measurements
made by the French, their distance from the sea on the north, is 680,000
metres (850 miles), and from Elephantine on the south, 180,000 metres
(225 miles)--corresponding exactly with the 6,800 and 1,800 stadia of
Herodotus. The circumference of the ruins is about 15,000 metres (17½
miles), agreeing with the 140 stadia given by Diodorus as the
circumference of Thebes. The origin of the name of this celebrated city,
as well as the date of its foundation, is unknown. According to
Champollion, who deciphered many of the inscriptions on these ruins, the
Egyptian name was _Thbaki-antepi-Amoun_ (City of the Most High), of
which the _No-Ammon_ of the Hebrews and _Diospolis_ of the Greeks are
mere translations; _Thebæ_, of the Greeks is also perhaps derived from
the Egyptian _Thbaki_ (the city).

THE TEMPLE OF CARNAC.

The largest of the temples of Thebes, and of any in Egypt, is that of
Carnac, on the site of the ancient Diospolis. Diodorus describes it as
thirteen stadia, or about a mile and a half in circumference, which
nearly agrees with the admeasurements of Denon. It has twelve principal
entrances; and the body of the temple, which is preceded by a large
court, consists of a prodigious hall or portico, the roof of which is
supported by one hundred and thirty-four columns, some twenty-six, and
others thirty feet in circumference; four beautiful obelisks then mark
the entrance to the shrine, which consists of three apartments, built
entirely of granite.

TEMPLE OF LUXOR.

The temple of Luxor is about one and a fourth mile above that of Carnac,
and though it is of smaller dimensions it is in a superior style of
architecture, and in more complete preservation. The entrance is thought
to surpass everything else that Egypt presents. In front are the two
finest obelisks in the world, formed of rose-colored granite, and
rising, as Denon supposes, after allowing for the portion buried in the
ground, to the height of one hundred feet. But the objects which most
attract attention, are the sculptures which cover the east wing of the
northern front. They represent on a grand scale, a victory gained by one
of the ancient kings of Egypt over their Asiatic enemies, consisting of
multitudes of figures, horses, and chariots, executed in the best style
of Egyptian art; the number of human figures introduced exceeds fifteen
hundred, five hundred of which are on foot, and the rest in chariots.

THE STATUES OF MEMNON.

There were many colossal statues of Memnon in Egypt, but the most
remarkable were the two in the Memnonium or palace of Memnon, at Thebes.
The largest is of rose-colored granite, and stood in the centre of the
principal court; its height was sixty-four feet, and its remains are
scattered forty feet around it. Rigaud, one of the French savans, says,
"the excavations are still visible where the wedges were placed which
divided the monument when it was thrown down by Cambyses." The trunk is
broke off at the waist, and the upper part lies prostrate on the back;
it measures six feet ten inches over the front of the head, and
sixty-two feet round the shoulders. At the entrance of the gate which
leads from the second court to the palace, is the famous colossal
sounding statue, which, according to Herodotus, Strabo, and Pausanias,
uttered a joyful sound when the sun rose, and a mournful one when it
set. It is also related that it shed tears, and gave out oracular
responses in seven verses, and that these sounds were heard till the
fourth century after Christ. These phenomena, attested by many ancient
and modern writers, are variously accounted for by the learned, as
priestcraft, peculiar construction, escape of rarified air, &c. This
statue is in excellent preservation. The head is of rose-colored
granite, and the rest of a kind of black stone. Two other colossal
statues, about fifty feet high, are seated on the plain.

HELIOPOLIS.

The name of Heliopolis, or City of the Sun, was given by the Greeks to
the Egyptian _City of On_. It was situated a little to the north of
Memphis, was one of the largest cities of Egypt during the reign of the
Pharaohs, and so adorned with statues as to be esteemed one of the first
sacred cities in the kingdom. The temple dedicated to Re, was a
magnificent building, having in front an avenue of sphynxes, celebrated
in history, and adorned with several obelisks, raised by Sethosis
Rameses, B.C. 1900. By means of lakes and canals, the town, though built
on an artificial eminence, communicated with the Nile, and during the
flourishing ages of the Egyptian monarchy, the priests and scholars
acquired and taught the elements of learning within the precincts of its
temples. At the time of Strabo who visited this town about A. D. 45,
the apartments were still shown in which, four centuries before, Eudoxus
and Plato had labored to learn the philosophy of Egypt. Here Joseph and
Mary are said to have rested with our Saviour. A miserable village,
called _Metarea_, now stands on the site of this once magnificent city.
Near the village is the _Pillar of On_, a famous obelisk, supposed to be
the oldest monument of the kind existing. Its height is 67½ feet, and
its breadth at the base 6 feet. It is one single shaft of reddish
granite (Sienite), and hieroglyphical characters are rudely sculptured
upon it.

MEMPHIS.

The very situation of this famous ancient city of Egypt had long been a
subject of learned dispute, till it was accurately ascertained by the
French expedition to Egypt. Numerous heaps of rubbish, of blocks of
granite covered with hieroglyphics and sculptures, of colossal
fragments, scattered over a space three or four leagues in
circumference, marks its site, a few miles south of Metarea or
Heliopolis, at a village called Moniet-Rahinet. According to Herodotus,
the foundation of Memphis was ascribed to Menes, the first king of
Egypt. It was a large, rich, and splendid city, and the second capital
of Egypt. Among its buildings were several magnificent temples, as those
of Phtha, Osiris, Serapis, etc.; its palaces were also remarkable. In
Strabo's time, it was next to Alexandria in size and population.
Edrisi, who visited Memphis in the 12th century, thus describes its
remains then existing: "Notwithstanding the vast extent of this city,
the remote period at which it was built, the attempts made by various
nations to destroy it and to obliterate every trace of it, by removing
the materials of which it was constructed, combined with the decay of
4,000 years, there are yet in it works so wonderful as to confound the
reflecting, and such as the most eloquent could not adequately
describe." Among the works specified by him, are a monolithic temple of
granite, thirteen and a half feet high, twelve long, and seven broad,
entirely covered, within and without, with inscriptions; and colossal
statues of great beauty, one of which was forty-five feet high, carved
out of a single block of red granite. These ruins then extended about
nine miles in every direction.

LAKE MOERIS.

This famous lake, according to Herodotus, with whose account Diodorus
Siculus and Mela agree, was entirely an artificial excavation, made by
king Moeris, to carry off the overflowing waters of the Nile, and
reserve them for the purposes of irrigation. It was, in the time of
Herodotus, 3,600 stadia or 450 miles in circumference, and 300 feet
deep, with innumerable canals and reservoirs. Denon, Belzoni, and other
modern travelers, describe it at the present time as a natural basin,
thirty or forty miles long, and six broad. The works, therefore, which
Herodotus attributes to King Moeris, must have been the mounds, dams,
canals, and sluices which rendered it subservient to the purposes of
irrigation. These, also, would give it the appearance of being entirely
the product of human industry.

THE COLOSSAL SPHINX.

The Egyptian Sphinx is represented by a human head on the body of a
lion; it is always in a recumbent position with the fore paws stretched
forward, and a head dress resembling an old-fashioned wig. The features
are like those of the ancient Egyptians, as represented on their
monuments. The colossal Sphinx, near the group of pyramids at Jizeh,
which lay half buried in the sand, was uncovered and measured by
Caviglia. It is about 150 feet long, and 63 feet high. The body is made
out of a single stone; but the paws, which are thrown out about fifty
feet in front, are constructed of masonry. The Sphinx of Sais, formed of
a block of red granite, twenty-two feet long, is now in the Egyptian
Museum in the Louvre. There has been much speculation among the learned,
concerning the signification of these figures. Winckelmann observes that
they have the head of a female, and the body of a male, which has led to
the conjecture that they are intended as emblems of the generative
powers of nature, which the old mythologies are accustomed to indicate
by the mystical union of the two sexes in one individual; they were
doubtless of a sacred character, as they guarded the entrance of
temples, and often formed long avenues leading up to them.

THE LABYRINTH OF EGYPT

A labyrinth, with the ancients, was a building containing a great number
of chambers and galleries, running into one another in such a manner as
to make it very difficult to find the way through the edifice. The most
famous was the Egyptian labyrinth, situated in Central Egypt, above Lake
Moeris, not far from Crocodilopolis, in the country now called _Fejoom_.
Herodotus, who visited and examined this edifice with great attention,
affirms that it far surpassed everything he had conceived of it. It is
very uncertain when, by whom, and for what purpose it was built, though
in all probability it was for a royal sepulchre. The building, half
above and half below the ground, was one of the finest in the world, and
is said to have contained 3,000 apartments. The arrangements of the work
and the distribution of the parts were remarkable. It was divided into
sixteen principal regions, each containing a number of spacious
buildings, which taken together, might be defined an assemblage of
palaces. There were also as many temples as there were gods in Egypt,
the number of which was prodigious, besides various other sacred
edifices, and four lofty pyramids at the angles of the walls. The
entrance was by vast halls, followed by saloons, which conducted to
grand porticos, the ascent to which was by a flight of ninety steps. The
interior was decorated with columns of porphyry and colossal statues of
Egyptian gods. The whole was surrounded by a wall, but the passages were
so intricate that no stranger could find the way without a guide. The
substructions of this famous labyrinth still exist, and Milizia says,
"as they were not arched, it is wonderful that they should have been so
long preserved, with so many stupendous edifices above them." The Cretan
labyrinth was built by Dædalus on the model of the Egyptian, but it was
only a hundredth part the size; yet, according to Diodorus Siculus, it
was a spacious and magnificent edifice, divided into a great number of
apartments, and surrounded entirely by a wall. What would the ancients
say, could they see our modern imitations of their labyrinths?

THE CATACOMBS OF EGYPT.

There are numerous catacombs in Egypt, the principal of which are at
Alexandria; at Sakkara, near Cairo; at Siut, near the ancient Lycopolis
or City of the Wolf; at Gebel Silsilis, on the banks of the Nile between
Etfu and Ombos, the site of one of the principal quarries of ancient
Egypt; and at Thebes. Many of these are of vast extent, and were
doubtless formed by quarrying the rocks and mountains for building
materials. They consist of grottos, galleries, and chambers, penetrating
often to a considerable distance, the superincumbent mass being
supported by huge pillars of rock; or the galleries running parallel,
with masses of solid rock intervening for supports. Many of these
chambers and grottos contained multitudes of mummies, probably the
bodies of the less wealthy; many were evidently private family tombs of
wealthy individuals, some of which are of great magnificence, adorned
with sculptures, paintings, and hieroglyphics. The Arabs for centuries
have been plundering these abodes of the dead, and great numbers of the
mummies have been destroyed for fuel, and for the linen, rosin, and
asphaltum they contain, which is sold to advantage at Cairo. An immense
number of them have been found in the plain of Sakkara, near Memphis,
consisting not only of human bodies, but of various sacred animals, as
bulls, crocodiles, apes, ibises, fish, &c.; hence it is called _The
Plain of the Mummies_. Numerous caves or grottos, with contents of the
same kind, are found in the two mountainous ridges which run nearly
parallel with the Nile, from Cairo to Syene. Many of these tombs and
mummies are two or three thousand years old, and some of them perhaps
older.

Among all the wonderful subterranean monuments of Egypt, the Catacombs
of Thebes are the most extraordinary and magnificent. These consist of
the Necropolis, or city of the dead, on the west bank of the Nile (which
was the common burial-place of the people), and the Tombs of the Kings.
The latter lie to the northwest of the city, at some distance in the
Desert. Having passed the Necropolis, the traveler enters a narrow and
rugged valley, flanked with perpendicular rocks, and ascending a narrow,
steep passage about ten feet high, which seems to have been broken down
through the rock, the ancient passage being from the Memnonium under the
hills, he comes to a kind of amphitheatre about 100 yards wide, which is
called Bab-il-Meluke--that is, the gate or court of the kings--being the
sepulchres of the kings of Thebes. In this court there are signs of
about eighteen excavations; but only nine can be entered. The hills on
each side are high, steep rocks, and the whole plain is covered with
rough stones that seem to have rolled down from them.

The grottos present externally no other ornaments than a door in a
simple square frame, with an oval in the centre of the upper part, on
which are inscribed the hieroglyphical figures of a beetle, a man with a
hawk's head, and beyond the circle two figures on their knees, in the
act of adoration. Having passed the first gate, long arched galleries
are discovered, about twelve feet wide and twenty feet high, cased with
stucco, sculptured and painted; the vaults, of an elegant elliptical
figure, are covered with innumerable hieroglyphics, disposed with so
much taste, that notwithstanding the singular grotesqueness of the
forms, and the total absence of demi-tint or aërial perspective, the
ceilings make an agreeable whole, a rich and harmonious association of
colors. Four of five of these galleries, one within the other, generally
lead to a spacious room, containing the sarcophagus of the king,
composed of a single block of granite, about twelve feet long by eight
in breadth, ornamented with hieroglyphics, both within and without; they
are square at one end, and rounded at the other, like the splendid
sarcophagus deposited in the British Museum, and supposed by Dr. Clarke
to have contained the body of Alexander. They are covered with a lid of
the same material, and of enormous thickness, shutting with a groove;
but neither this precaution, nor these vast blocks of stone, brought
from such a distance with immense labor, have been able to preserve the
relics of the sovereigns from the attempts of avarice; all these tombs
have been violated. The figure of the king appears to have been
sculptured and painted at full length on the lid of each sarcophagus.

The paintings found in these sepulchres are among the most curious and
interesting remains of Egyptian art; and they are in wonderful
preservation, the colors being as fresh as when first executed. Some of
these figures were copied by Bruce; and Denon, a member of the French
Commission sent by Napoleon to examine the antiquities of Egypt, has
published a most valuable collection which have all the appearance of
spirited and characteristic resemblances. "I discovered," says he, "some
little chambers, on the walls of which were represented all kinds of
arms, such as panoplies, coats of mail, tigers' skins, bows, arrows,
quivers, pikes, javelins, sabres, helmets, and whips: in another was a
collection of household utensils, such as caskets, chests of drawers,
chairs, sofas, and beds, all of exquisite forms, and such as might well
grace the apartments of modern luxury. As these were probably accurate
representations of the objects themselves, it is almost a proof that the
ancient Egyptians employed for their furniture Indian wood, carved and
gilt, which they covered with embroidery. Besides these, were
represented various smaller articles, as vases, coffee-pots, ewers with
their basins, a tea-pot and basket. Another chamber was consecrated to
agriculture, in which were represented all its various instruments--a
sledge similar to those in use at present, a man sowing grain by the
side of a canal, from the borders of which the inundation is beginning
to retire, a field of corn reaped with a sickle, and fields of rice with
men watching them. In a fourth chamber was a figure clothed in white,
playing on a richly ornamented harp, with eleven strings."

Denon observed everything with the eye of an artist. Speaking of the
Necropolis, which consists of numerous double galleries of grottos,
excavated in the solid rock for nearly a mile and a half square, he
observes, "I was convinced by the magnificence both of the paintings and
sculptures, that I was among the tombs of great men and heros. The
sculpture in all is incomparably more labored and higher finished than
any I had seen in the temples; and I stood in astonishment at the high
perfection of the art, and its singular destiny to be devoted to places
of such silence and obscurity. In working these galleries, beds of a
very fine calcareous clay have occasionally been crossed, and here the
lines of the hieroglyphics have been cut with a firmness of touch and a
precision, of which marble offers but few examples. The figures have
elegance and correctness of contour, of which I never thought Egyptian
sculpture susceptible. Here, too, I could judge of the style of this
people in subjects which had neither hieroglyphic, nor historical, nor
scientific; for there were representations of small scenes taken from
nature, in which the stiff profile outlines, so common with Egyptian
artists, were exchanged for supple and natural attitudes; groups of
persons were given in perspective, and cut in deeper relief than I
should have supposed anything but metal could have been worked."

The Sepulchres of the Kings of Thebes are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus
as wonderful works, and such as could never be exceeded by anything
afterwards executed in this kind. He says that forty-seven of them were
mentioned in their history; that only seventeen of them remained to the
time of Ptolemy Lagus; adding that most of them were destroyed in his
time. Strabo says, that above the Memnonium, the precise locality of
Denon's description, were the sepulchres of the kings of Thebes, in
grottos cut out of the rock, being about forty in number, wonderfully
executed and worthy to be seen. In these, he says, were obelisks with
inscriptions on them, setting forth the riches, power, and empire of
these kings, as far as Scythia, Bactria, India, and Ionia, their great
revenues, and their immense armies, consisting of one million of men.

In Egypt, the honors paid to the dead partook of the nature of a
religious homage. By the process of embalming, they endeavored to
preserve the body from the common laws of nature; and they provided
those magnificent and durable habitations for the dead--sublime
monuments of human folly--which have not preserved but buried the memory
of their founders. By a singular fatality, the well-adapted punishment
of pride, the extraordinary precautions by which it seemed in a manner
to triumph over death, have only led to a more humiliating
disappointment. The splendor of the tomb has but attracted the violence
of rapine; the sarcophagus has been violated; and while other bodies
have quietly returned to their native dust in the bosom of their mother
earth, the Egyptian, converted into a mummy, has been preserved only to
the insults of curiosity, or avarice, or barbarism.

THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT.

The pyramids of Egypt, especially the two largest of the group of Jizeh
or Gize, are the most stupendous masses of buildings in stone that human
labor has ever been known to accomplish, and have been the wonder of
ancient and modern times.--The number of the Egyptian pyramids, large
and small, is very considerable; they are situated on the west bank of
the Nile, and extend in an irregular line, and in groups at some
distance from each other, from the neighborhood of Jizeh, in 30° N.
Latitude, as far as sixty or seventy miles south of that place. The
pyramids of Jizeh are nearly opposite Cairo. They stand on a plateau or
terrace of limestone, which is a projection of the Lybian
mountain-chain. The surface of the terrace is barren and irregular, and
is covered with sand and small fragments of rock; its height, at the
base of the great pyramid, is one hundred and sixty four feet above the
ordinary level of the Nile, from which it is distant about five miles.
There are in this group three large pyramids, and several small ones.
Herodotus, who was born B.C. 484, visited these pyramids. He was
informed by the priests of Memphis, that the great pyramid was built by
Cheops, king of Egypt, about B.C. 900, and that one hundred thousand
workmen were employed twenty years in building it, and that the body of
Cheops was placed in a room beneath the bottom, surrounded by a vault,
to which the waters of the Nile were conveyed through a subterranean
tunnel. A chamber has been discovered under the centre of the pyramid,
but it is about fifty-six feet above the low-water mark of the Nile. The
second pyramid, Herodotus says, was built by Cephren or Cephrenes, the
brother and successor of Cheops, and the third by Mycerinus, the son of
Cheops. Herodotus also says that the two largest pyramids are wholly
covered with white marble; Diodorus and Pliny, that they are built of
this costly material. The account of Herodotus is confirmed by present
appearances. Denon, who accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, was
commissioned by Buonaparte to examine the great pyramid of Jizeh; three
hundred persons were appointed to this duty. They approached the borders
of the desert in boats, to within half a league of the pyramid, by means
of the canals from the Nile. Denon says, "the first impression made on
me by the sight of the pyramids, did not equal my expectations, for I
had no object with which to compare them; but on approaching them, and
seeing men at their base, their gigantic size became evident." When
Savary first visited these pyramids, he left Jizeh at one o'clock in the
morning, and soon reached them. The full moon illuminated their summits,
and they appeared to him "like rough, craggy peaks piercing the
clouds." Herodotus gives 800 feet as the height of the great pyramid,
and says this is likewise the length of its base, on each side; Strabo
makes it 625, and Diodorus 600. Modern measurements agree most nearly
with the latter.

The pyramid of Cheops consists of a series of platforms, each of which
is smaller than the one on which it rests, and consequently presents the
appearance of steps which diminish in length from the bottom to the top.
There are 203 of these steps, and the height of them decreases, but not
regularly, the greatest height being about four feet eight inches, and
the least about one foot eight inches. The horizontal lines of the
platforms are perfectly straight, the stones are cut and fitted to each
other with the greatest accuracy, and joined with a cement of lime, with
little or no sand in it. It has been ascertained that a bed has been cut
in the solid rock, eight inches deep, to receive the lowest external
course of stones. The vertical height, measured from this base in the
rock to the top of the highest platform now remaining, is 456 feet. This
last platform is thirty two feet eight inches square, and if to this
were added what is necessary to complete the pyramid, the total height
would be 479 feet. Each side of the base, measured round the stones let
into the rock, is 763 feet 5 inches, and the perimeter of the base is
about 3,053 feet. The measurements of travelers differ somewhat, but
the above are very nearly correct. The area of the base is 64,753
square yards, or about 13-1/3 acres. The surface of each face, not
including the base, is 25,493 square yards; and that of the four faces
is consequently 101,972 square yards, or more than 21 acres. The solid
contents of the pyramid, without making deductions for the small
interior chambers, is 3,394,307 cubic yards. Reckoning the total height
at 479 feet, the pyramid would be 15 feet higher than St. Peter's at
Rome, and 119 higher than St. Paul's, London. The entrance to the great
pyramid is on the north face, 47½ feet above the base, and on the level
of the fifteenth step from the foundation. The entrance is easily
reached by the mass of rubbish which has fallen or been thrown down from
the top. The passage to which this opening leads is 3 feet 7½ inches
square, with a downward inclination of about 26°. It is lined with slabs
of limestone, accurately joined together. This passage leads to another,
which has an ascending inclination of 27°. The descending passage is 73
feet long, to the place where it meets the ascending one, which is 109
feet long; at the top of this is a platform, where is the opening of a
well or shaft, which goes down into the body of the pyramid, and the
commencement of a horizontal gallery 127 feet long which leads to the
Queen's chamber, an apartment 17 feet long, 14 wide, and 12 high.
Another gallery, 132 feet long, 26½ high, and 7 wide, commences also at
this platform, and is continued in the same line as the former
ascending passage, till it reaches a landing place, from which a short
passage leads to a small chamber or vestibule, whence another short
passage leads to the King's chamber, which as well as the vestibule and
intermediate passage, is lined with large blocks of granite, well
worked. The king's chamber is 34½ feet long, 17 wide, and 19¾ high.
The roof is formed of nine slabs of granite, reaching from side to side;
the slabs are therefore more than 17 feet long by 3 feet 9½ inches wide.
This chamber contains a sarcophagus of red granite; the cover is gone,
having probably been broken and carried away. The sarcophagus is 7 feet
6½ inches long, 3 feet 3 inches wide, 3 feet 8½ inches high on the
outside, the bottom being 7½ inches thick. There are no hieroglyphics
upon it. Several other chambers have been discovered above the king's
chamber, but as they are not more than three or four feet high, they
were probably intended to lessen and break the weight of the mass above,
which would otherwise fall on the King's chamber.

In 1816, Captain Caviglia discovered that the entrance passage did not
terminate at the bottom of the ascending passage, but was continued
downwards in the same inclined plane of 26°, 200 feet further, and by a
short horizontal passage, opened on what appeared to be the bottom of
the well. The passage, however, continued in the same direction 23 feet
farther; then became narrower, and was continued horizontally 28 feet
more, where it opened into a large chamber cut out of the rock below
and under the centre of the pyramid. This chamber is about 26 by 27
feet. Another passage leads from this chamber 55 feet, where it appears
to terminate abruptly.

The well, which appeared to Mr. Davidson and Capt. Caviglia to descend
no lower than where it was intersected by the descending passage, its
depth there being 155 feet, was afterwards cleared out by the French to
the depth of near 208 feet, of which 145 feet are in the solid rock; so
that the base of the pyramid being 164 feet above the low water level of
the Nile, the present bottom of the well is 19 feet above the Nile; but
the actual bottom does not appear to have been reached. The temperature
within the body of the pyramid was found to be 81° 5', Farenheit, and in
the well it was still higher. Herodotus was informed that the chambers
cut in the solid rock, were made before the building of the pyramid was
commenced. It is evident it was intended that the pyramid should not be
entered after the body or bodies were deposited in it, as blocks of
granite were fixed in the entrances to the principal passages, in such a
manner as not only to close them, but to conceal them.--There are
evidences, however, that this pyramid was entered both by the Roman and
Arab conquerors of Egypt.

The materials of all the pyramids are limestone, and, according to
Herodotus, were brought from the mountains near Cairo, where there are
ancient quarries of vast extent; but Belzoni is of opinion that a part
of them, for the second pyramid at least, was procured immediately on
the spot; others think that the greatest part of the materials came from
the west side of the Nile. The granite which forms the roofing of the
chambers, etc., was brought down the Nile from Syene. The stones of
which it is built, rarely exceed 9 feet in length, and 6½ in breadth;
the thickness has already been stated.

The ascent to the great pyramid, though not without difficulty and
danger, is frequently accomplished, even by females.

The pyramid of Cephren, the second in size, according to Belzoni, has
the following dimensions:

  Side of the base,                     684 feet.
  Vertical height,                      456  "
  Perpendicular, bisecting the face of
    the pyramid,                        568  "
  Coating from the top, to where it
    ends,                               140  "

Belzoni, after great exertion, succeeded in opening the second pyramid,
and after traversing passages similar to those already described in the
great pyramid, reached the main chamber, which is cut in the solid rock,
and is 46 feet 3 inches long, 16 feet 3 inches wide, and 23 feet 6
inches high. The covering is made of blocks of limestone, which meet in
an angular point, forming a roof, of the same slope as the pyramid. The
chamber contained a sarcophagus, formed of granite, 8 feet long, 3 feet
6 inches wide, and 2 feet 3 inches deep, on the inside. There were no
hieroglyphics on it. Some bones were found in it, which were sent to
London, and proved to be those of a bull or an ox. From an Arabic
inscription on the wall of the chamber, it appears that some of the Arab
rulers of Egypt had entered the pyramid, and closed it again. Belzoni
also discovered another chamber in this pyramid.

The pyramid of Mycernius, the third in size of the Jizeh group, is about
330 feet square at the base, and 174 feet high. This pyramid has never
been opened.

There are some large pyramids at Sakkârah, one of which is next in
dimensions to the pyramid of Cheops, each side of the base being 656
feet, and the height 339 feet. At Dashour there are also some large
pyramids, one of which has a base of 700 feet on each side, and a
perpendicular height of 343 feet; and it has 154 steps or platforms.
Another pyramid, almost as large at the base as the preceding, is
remarkable. It rises to the height of 184 feet at an angle of 70°, when
the plane of the side is changed, to one of less inclination, which
completes the pyramid. At Thebes, there are some small pyramids of sun
dried bricks. Herodotus says, "About the middle of Lake Moeris, there
are two pyramids, each rising about 300 feet above the water. The part
that is under the water is just the same height." It is probable that
these pyramids were built on an island in the lake, and that Herodotus
was misinformed as to the depth of the water. There are numerous
pyramids in Nubia--eighty or more--but they are generally small.

The object of the Egyptians in building these pyramids, is not known.
Some writers maintain that they were as memorials, pillars, or altars
consecrated to the sun; others, that they served as a kind of gnomon for
astronomical observations; that they were built to gratify the vanity
and tyranny of kings, or for the celebration of religious mysteries;
according to Diderot, for the transmission and preservation of
historical information; and to others, for sepulchres for the
kings,--which last was the common opinion of the ancients. Some suppose
that they were intended as places for secret meetings, magazines for
corn, or lighthouses; but their structure, and great distance from the
sea, are sufficient refutations of these absurd hypotheses.

PERILOUS ASCENT OF THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN.

The upper part of this pyramid is still covered with the original
polished coating of marble, to the distance of 140 feet from the top
towards the base, which makes the ascent extremely difficult and
dangerous. Mr. Wilde, in his "Narrative of a Voyage to Madeira,
Teneriffe, and along the shore of the Mediterranean," published in 1840,
made the ascent to the top, and thus describes the adventure:

"I engaged two Arabs to conduct me to the summit of the pyramid--one an
old man, and the other about forty, both of a mould, which for
combination of strength and agility, I never saw surpassed. We soon
turned to the north, and finally reached the outer casing on the west
side. All this was very laborious to be sure, though not very dangerous;
but here was an obstacle that I knew not how the Arabs themselves could
surmount, much less how I could possibly master--for above our heads
jutted out, like an eave or coping, the lower stones of the coating,
which still remain and retain a smooth, polished surface. As
considerable precaution was necessary, the men made me take off my hat,
coat, and shoes at this place; the younger then placed his raised and
extended hands against the projecting edge of the lower stone, which
reached above his chin; and the elder, taking me up in his arms as I
would a child, placed my feet on the other's shoulders, and my body flat
on the smooth surface of the stone. In this position, we formed an angle
with each other; and here I remained for upwards of two minutes, till
the older man went round, and by some other means, contrived to get over
the projection, when, creeping along the line of junction of the casing,
he took my hands, drew me up to where he was above me, and then letting
down his girdle, assisted to mount up the younger, but less daring and
less active of the two. We then proceeded much as follows. One of them
got on the shoulders of the other, and so gained the joining of the
stone above. The upper man then helped me in a similar action, while the
lower pushed me up by the feet. Having gained this row, we had after to
creep to some distance along the joining, to where another opportunity
of ascending was offered. In this way we proceeded to the summit; and
some idea may be formed of my feelings, when it is recollected that all
of these stones of such a span are highly polished, are set on an angle
of little less than 45°, and that the places we had to grip with our
hands and feet were often not more than two inches wide, and their
height above the ground more than 400 feet. A single slip of the foot,
and we all three must have been dashed to atoms long before we reached
the bottom. (This actually happened to an English traveler in 1850.) On
gaining the top, my guides gave vent to sundry demonstrations of
satisfaction, clapping me on the back, patting me on the head, and
kissing my hands. From this I began to suspect that something wonderful
had been achieved; and some idea of my perilous situation broke upon me,
when I saw some of my friends beneath, waving their handkerchiefs and
looking up with astonishment, as we sat perched upon the top, which is
not more than six feet square. The apex stone is off, and it now
consists of four outer slabs, and one in the centre, which is raised up
on the end and leans to the eastward. I do not think human hands could
have raised it from its bed, on account of its size, and the confined
space they would have to work in. I am inclined to think the top was
struck by lightning, and the position of the stone thus altered by it.
The three of us had just room to sit upon the place. The descent, as
might be expected, was much more dangerous, though not so difficult. The
guides tied a long sash under my arms, and so let me slide down from
course to course of these coverings of stones, which are of a yellowish
limestone, somewhat different from the material of which the steps are
composed, and totally distinct from the rock at the base, or the coating
of the passages."

EGYPTIAN OBELISKS.

Obelisks belong to the oldest and most simple monuments of Egyptian
architecture, and are high four-sided pillars, diminishing as they
ascend, and terminating in a small pyramid. Herodotus speaks of them,
and Pliny gives a particular account of them. The latter mentions king
Mesphres, or Mestres, of Thebes, as the first builder of obelisks, but
does not give the time; nor is this king noticed either by Herodotus or
Diodorus. It is probable that these monuments were first built before
the time of Moses, at least two centuries before the Trojan war. There
are still several obelisks in Egypt; there is one erect, and another
fallen at Alexandria, between the new city and the light-house; one at
Matarea, among the ruins of old Heliopolis; one in the territory of
Fayoum, near ancient Arsinoë; eight or ten among the ruins of Thebes;
the two finest at Luxor, at the entrance of the temple, &c. These
obelisks, exclusively of the pedestals, are mostly from 50 to 100 feet
high, and of a red polished granite (sienite); a few of the later ones
are of white marble and other kinds of stone. At their base, they
commonly occupy a space of from 4½ to 12 feet square, and often more.
Some are adorned on all sides, and some on fewer, with hieroglyphics cut
in them, sometimes to the depth of two inches, divided into little
squares and sections, and filled with paint: sometimes they are striped
with various colors. Some are entirely plain and without hieroglyphics.
The foot of the obelisk stands upon a quadrangular base, commonly two or
three feet broader than the obelisk, with a socket, in which it rests.
They were commonly hewn out of a single stone, in the quarries of Upper
Egypt, and brought on canals, fed by the Nile, to the place of their
erection.

The Romans carried many of them from Egypt to Rome, Arles, and
Constantinople, most of which were afterwards overturned, but have been
put together and replaced in modern times. Augustus, for instance, had
two large obelisks brought from Heliopolis to Rome, one of which he
placed in the Campus Martius. The other stood upon the Spina, in the
Circus Maximus, and is said to have been the same which king
Semneserteus (according to Pliny) erected. At the sack of Rome by the
barbarians, it was thrown down, and remained, broken in three pieces,
amidst the rubbish, until, in 1589, Sixtus V. had it restored by the
architect Domenico Fontana, and placed near the church Madonna del
Popolo. Under Caligula, another large obelisk was brought from
Heliopolis to Rome, and placed in the Circus Vaticanus. It has stood,
since 1586, before St. Peter's church: it is without hieroglyphics; and,
with the cross and pedestal, measures 126 feet in height. It is the only
one in Rome which has remained entire. Its weight is estimated at 10,000
cwt. Claudius had two obelisks brought from Egypt, which stood before
the entrance of the Mausoleum of Augustus, and one of which was restored
in 1567, and placed near the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Caracalla
also procured an Egyptian obelisk for his circus, and for the Appian
Way. The largest obelisk (probably erected by Rameses) was placed by
Constantius II., in the Circus Maximus at Rome. In the fifth century, it
was thrown down by the barbarians, and lay in pieces upon the ground,
until Sixtus V., in 1588, had it raised upon the square, before St.
John's church of the Lateran, thence called the _Lateran obelisk_. It is
beautifully adorned with sculpture; its weight is 13,000 cwt.; its
height, exclusive of the pedestal, 140 feet; with the pedestal, 179
feet. Several others have been erected by succeeding popes.

REMOVAL OF AN OBELISK BY FONTANA.

The following curious account of the removal of the obelisk in the
Circus Vaticanus to the centre of St. Peter's square, by Domenico
Fontana, is extracted from Milizia's life of that famous architect. It
shows plainly that the Egyptians must have attained great skill and
perfection in mechanics and engineering, to have been able to quarry out
obelisks at least a third larger, and convey them often several hundred
miles, to the places where they erected them.

"Sixtus V. was now desirous of raising in the centre of the square of
St. Peter's the only obelisk which remained standing, but partly
interred, near the wall of the Sacristy, where was formerly the Circus
of Nero. Other pontiffs had had the same wish, but the difficulty of the
enterprise had prevented the execution.

"This obelisk, or pyramid, is of red granite, called by the ancient
Romans, Marmor Thebanum (Theban marble), on account of having been
worked near Thebes, in Egypt, whence it was transported to Rome in the
time of Cæsar. Of the immense number in Rome, this is the only one
remaining entire; it is without hieroglyphics, 84 feet high, 8 feet 6
inches wide at the base, and 5 feet 6 inches at the top. One cubic foot
of this granite weighs about 160 pounds; so that the whole weight of the
obelisk must be somewhat less than 759,000 lbs. Of the manner in which
the Egyptians and Romans moved these enormous masses we have no idea,
and so many centuries having elapsed since such a thing had been done,
this proposition of Sixtus V. was considered so novel, that a general
assembly was called of all the mathematicians, engineers, and learned
men from various parts of Europe; and, in a congress held by the pope,
more than 500 persons presented themselves, bringing with them their
inventions; some with drawings, some with models, others with writings
or arguments.

"The greater number were for removing it by means of an iron carriage
and thirty-two levers. Others invented a half wheel, on which the
obelisk was to be raised by degrees. Some proposed screws, and others
thought of carrying it upon slings.

"Bartolomeo Ammanati, a Florentine architect and sculptor, sent
expressly by the grand duke, presented himself before the pope, without
either models or designs, and requested a year to consider it; for this
he was most severely reprimanded by the pontiff. Fontana exhibited his
wooden model, with a leaden pyramid, which, by means of a windlass and
crane, was raised and lowered with the greatest facility; he explained
the nature of these machines and movements, and gave a practical proof
of their capability by raising a small pyramid in the mausoleum of
Augustus, which was in a ruinous condition. After many disputes,
Fontana's invention was approved; but, as he had not yet acquired a name
of sufficient importance, the execution of it was committed to two
architects of renown, Giacomo della Porta and Bartolomeo
Ammanati.--These immediately commenced a scaffold in the centre of the
square where the obelisk was to stand.

"Fontana being justly displeased that his own discovery should not be
entrusted to his execution, went to the pope, and respectfully
represented to him, that no one could so properly execute a design as
the inventor. Sixtus was persuaded, and committed the entire direction
of it to him. The architect then commenced his work with the utmost
celerity. He dug a square hole of 44 feet, in the piazza, 24 feet deep,
and finding the soil watery and chalky, he made it firm by strong and
massive piles. At the same time he had ropes made, three inches in
diameter, 1500 feet long, an immense quantity of cords, large iron rods
to strengthen the obelisk, and other pieces of iron for the cases of the
cranes, pins, circles, pivots, and instruments of every kind. The iron
to secure the obelisk alone amounted to 40,000 lbs., and was made in the
manufactories of Rome, Ronciglione, and Subbiaco. The beams, taken from
the woods of Nettuno, were of such a prodigious size, that each was
drawn by seven pair of buffalos. From Terracina, elm was brought, for
the caseing, and Holm oak for the shafts of windlass; and to prevent the
ground from giving way, it being soft and marshy, in consequence of the
great weight, he made a bed with two layers of timber, crossing each
other in a contrary direction. On this foundation he placed the castle
or carriage, which had eight columns: each of these columns was composed
of so many thick planks, that they measured 13 feet in circumference.
These were united together by thick cords, without screws, in order to
be done and undone with greater quickness. The height of the beams was
required to be 90 feet; and not any being of that length, they were
placed one on the other, and united by iron bands. These columns were
strengthened by forty-eight braces, and tied together on all sides. The
obelisk was entirely covered with double mats, to prevent its being
injured; it was then surrounded by planks, over which were placed large
rods of iron, and these embracing the thick part underneath, came
directly over the four faces of the mass, which thus became totally
encircled with these coverings. The whole pyramid thus weighed one
million and a half pounds. Fontana calculated that every windlass, with
good ropes and cranes, would be able to move 20,000 lbs. weight; and
consequently forty would move 800,000, and he gained the rest by five
levers of thick beams 52 feet long.

"So novel an apparatus excited the curiosity of all Rome, and of
foreigners also, who came from distant countries to see what effect
would be produced by this mass of beams, mingled with ropes, windlasses,
levers, and pulleys. In order to prevent confusion, Sixtus V. issued one
of his mandates, that on the day of its being worked, no one, except the
workmen, should enter the enclosure, on pain of death, and that no one
should make the least noise, nor even speak loud. Accordingly, on the
30th of April, 1586, the first to enter the barrier was the chief
justice and his officers, and the executioner to plant the gibbet, not
merely as a matter of ceremony. Fontana went to receive the benediction
of the pope, who, after having bestowed it, told him to be cautious of
what he did, for a failure would certainly cost him his head. On this
occasion, Sixtus felt the difference between his regard for his own
glory, and his affection for the architect. Fontana, in terror, secretly
placed horses at every gate, ready to convey him from the papal anger,
in case of an accident. At the dawn of day, two masses of the Holy Ghost
were celebrated; all the artificers made their communion, and received
the papal benediction, and before the rising of the sun all entered the
barrier. The concourse of spectators was such, that the tops of the
houses were covered, and the streets crowded. The nobility and prelates
were at the barriers, between the Swiss guards and the cavalry: all were
fixed and attentive to the proceedings; and, terrified at the sight of
the inexorable gibbet, every one was silent.

"The architect gave an order that, at the sound of the trumpet, each
should begin working, and at that of the bell, placed in the castle of
wood, each should desist; there were more than 900 workmen, and 75
horses. The trumpet sounded, and in an instant, men, horses, windlasses,
cranes, and levers were all in motion. The ground trembled, the castle
cracked, all the planks bent from the enormous weight, and the pyramid,
which inclined a foot towards the choir of St. Peter, was raised
perpendicularly. The commencement having prospered so well, the bell
sounded a rest. In twelve more movements the pyramid was raised almost
two feet from the ground, in such a situation that it could be placed on
the rollers, and it remained firmly fixed by means of wedges of iron and
wood. At this happy event the castle of St. Angelo discharged all its
artillery, and a universal joy pervaded the whole city.

"Fontana was now convinced that the ropes were better than iron bands,
these being most broken or distorted, or expanded by the weight. On the
7th of May the pyramid was placed on the sledge--a more difficult and
tedious operation than that of raising it, it being necessary to convey
it over the piazza to the situation intended for it, which was 115 rods
from where it then stood. The level of the piazza being about 30 feet
lower, it was necessary to throw up an earthen embankment from one place
to the other, well secured by piles, &c. This being done, on the 13th
of June, by means of four windlasses, the pyramid was removed with the
greatest facility on the rollers, to the place of its destination. The
pope deferred its erection to the next autumn, lest the summer heats
should injure the workmen and spectators.

"In the meantime the pedestal, which was interred 30 feet, was removed:
it was composed of two parts, the ogee and basement being of the same
mass, and the plinth of white marble. All the preparations were made for
this last operation on the 10th of September, with the same solemnities;
140 horses and 800 men were employed. The pope selected this day for the
solemn entrance of the duke of Luxembourg, ambassador of ceremony from
Henry III. of France, and caused the procession to enter by the Porta
Angelica, instead of the Porta del Popolo. When this nobleman crossed
the Piazza of St. Peter's, he stopped to observe the concourse of
workmen in the midst of a forest of machines, and saw, admiring, Rome
rising again by the hand of Sixtus V. In fifty-two movements the pyramid
was raised, and at the setting of the sun it was placed firm upon its
pedestal. The castle disappeared, and the artificers, intoxicated with
joy, carried Fontana on their shoulders in triumph to his own house,
amidst the sound of drums and trumpets, and the plaudits of an immense
crowd.

"In placing it upright on the pedestal, Fontana considered the method
adopted by the ancients as the least difficult; which was to rest one
end on two globes, then draw the point round, raising it at the same
time, afterwards letting it fall perpendicularly on the pedestal. It is
conjectured that this was the practice adopted by the ancients, because
two dies alone were always covered with lead for a foot or more, and
were moreover crushed at the extremities. Sixtus V. placed a cross 7
feet high at the top of the obelisk, which was carried in procession,
and which made the whole height 132 feet.

"For this undertaking, Fontana was created a knight of the Golden Spur,
and a Roman nobleman; he had a pension of 2000 crowns, transferable to
his heirs, ten knighthoods, 5000 crowns of gold in ready money, and
every description of material used in the work, which was valued at more
than 20,000 crowns. Two bronze medals of him were struck; and the
following inscription was placed on the base of the pyramid by order of
the pope:--"

                 Dominicvs Fontana,
             Ex. Pago. Agri. Novocomensis.
                Transtvlit. Et. Erexit.

REMOVAL OF AN OBELISK FROM THEBES TO PARIS.

In 1833, the French removed the smallest of the two obelisks which stood
before the propylon of the temple of Luxor to Paris, and elevated it in
the Place de la Concorde. The shaft is 76 feet high, and eight feet
wide on the broadest side of the base; the pedestal is 10 feet square by
16 feet high. Permission for the removal of both the obelisks having
been granted to the French government by the Viceroy of Egypt, a vessel
constructed for the purpose was sent out in March, 1831, under M. Lebas,
an eminent engineer, to whom the undertaking was confided, it being
previously determined to bring away only one, and M. Lebas found it
sufficiently difficult to bring away the smallest of the two. After
three months' labor with 800 men, the obelisk was removed on an inclined
plane into the vessel, through a hole made in the end for the purpose.
It arrived safely up the Seine to Paris, Dec. 23d, 1833. An inclined
plane of solid masonry was then constructed, leading from the river up
to a platform, also of rough masonry, level with the top of the
pedestal. The obelisk, having been placed on a kind of timber car or
sledge, was drawn up by means of ropes and capstans. One edge of the
base having been brought to its place on the pedestal, it was raised to
a perpendicular position by ropes and pulleys attached to the heads of
ten masts, five on each side. When all was ready, the obelisk was
elevated to its place under the direction of M. Lebas, in three hours,
without the least accident, Oct. 25th, 1836. It is said that Lebas had
provided himself with loaded pistols, in the firm determination to blow
out his brains in case of an accident!

In 1820, the Viceroy of Egypt presented to the English government the
monolith lying on the ground at Alexandria, one of the two obelisks
called Cleopatra's Needles; the other is still standing. The project of
removing it to London and erecting it in Waterloo Square, was
entertained for some time by the English government, but seems to have
been long abandoned; recently, however, an expedition is being fitted
out for the purpose.

CARBURI'S BASE FOR THE EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT.

Milizia gives the following interesting account of the removal of the
immense mass of granite, which forms the pedestal or base of the
equestrian statue of Peter the Great, from the bogs of the Neva to St.
Petersburg, a distance of about fourteen miles. He also cites it as an
instance of extraordinary ingenuity and skill in mechanics. It is,
however, a much easier task to move a ponderous mass of rough, unhewn
rock, than a brittle obelisk, an hundred feet or so in length, requiring
the greatest care to preserve it from injury. It is also worthy of
mention, that in widening streets in New York, it is no uncommon thing
to see a three-story brick house set back ten or fifteen feet, and even
moved across the street, and raised an extra story into the bargain--the
story being added to the _bottom_ instead of the _top_ of the building.
Thus the large free stone and brick school-house in the First Ward, an
edifice of four lofty stories, 50 by 70 feet, and basement walls 2½ feet
thick, has been raised six feet, to make it correspond with the new
grade in the lower part of Greenwich-street. It is also no uncommon
thing to see a ship of a thousand tons, with her cargo on board, raised
out of the water at the Hydraulic Dock, to stop a leak, or make some
unexpected but necessary repairs.

"In 1769, the Count Marino Carburi, of Cephalonia, moved a mass of
granite, weighing three million pounds, to St. Petersburg, to serve as a
base for the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, to be erected in the
square of that city, after the design of M. Falconet, who discarded the
common mode of placing an equestrian statue on a pedestal, where,
properly speaking, it never could be; and suggested a rock, on which the
hero was to have the appearance of galloping, but suddenly be arrested
at the sight of an enormous serpent, which, with other obstacles, he
overcomes for the happiness of the Muscovites. None but a Catherine II.,
who so gloriously accomplished all the great ideas of that hero, could
have brought to perfection this extraordinary one of the artist. An
immense mass was accidentally found buried 15 feet in a bog, four miles
and a half from the river Neva and fourteen from St. Petersburg. It was
also casually that Carburi was at the city to undertake the removal of
it. Nature alone sometimes forms a mechanic, as she does a sovereign, a
general, a painter, a philosopher. The expense of this removal was only
70,000 rubles and the materials left after the operation were worth
two-thirds of that sum. The obstacles surmounted do honor to the human
understanding. The rock was 37 feet long, 22 high, and 21 broad, in the
form of a parallelopipedon. It was cleft by a blast, the middle part
taken away, and in the cavity was constructed a forge for the wants of
the journey. Carburi did not use cylindrical rollers for his
undertaking, these causing an attrition sufficient to break the
strongest cables. Instead of rollers he used balls composed of brass,
tin, and calamina, which rolled with their burden under a species of
boat 180 feet long, and 66 wide. This extraordinary spectacle was
witnessed by the whole court, and by Prince Henry of Prussia, a branch
from the great Frederick. Two drums at the top sounded the march; forty
stone-cutters were continually at work on the mass during the journey,
to give it the proposed form--a singularly ingenious idea. The forge was
always at work: a number of other men were also in attendance to keep
the balls at proper distances, of which there were thirty, of the
diameter of five inches. The mountain was moved by four windlasses, and
sometimes by two; each required thirty-two men: it was raised and
lowered by screws, to remove the balls and put them on the other side.
When the road was even, the machine moved 60 feet in the hour. The
mechanic, although continually ill from the dampness of the air, was
still indefatigable in regulating the arrangements; and in six weeks the
whole arrived at the river. It was embarked, and safely landed. Carburi
then placed the mass in the square of St. Peter's, to the honor of
Peter, Falconet, Carburi, and of Catherine, who may always, from her
actions, be classed among illustrious men. It is to be observed, that in
this operation the moss and straw that was placed underneath the rock,
became by compression so compact, that it almost equalled in hardness
the ball of a musket. Similar mechanical operations of the ancients have
been wonderfully exaggerated by their poets."

COMPARATIVE SKILL OF THE ANCIENTS AND MODERNS IN MECHANICS.

Many persons suppose, and maintain, that the grandeur of the monuments
of the ancients, and the great size of the stones they employed for
building purposes, prove that they understood mechanics better than the
moderns. The least knowledge in mechanics, however, will show this
opinion to be erroneous. The moderns possess powers which were unknown
to the ancients, as the screw, and the hydraulic press, the power of
which last is only limited by the strength of the machinery. The works
of the ancients show that they expended a vast deal of power and labor
to gratify the pride and ambition of kings; but the moderns can do all
these things much easier, and in far less time, whenever they deem it
proper. There was nothing in ancient times to be compared with that
daring, ingenious, and stupendous monument of engineering skill--the
Britannia Tubular Bridge, across the Menai straits--projected, designed,
and built by Robert Stephenson, the famous English engineer. He had
previously built a similar but smaller structure--the Conway Tubular
Bridge.

THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR RAILWAY BRIDGE.

Had this stupendous fabric existed in ancient times, it would have been
regarded as the _first_ of the seven wonders of the world. Greater and
more expensive structures have been raised, but none displaying more
science, skill, and ingenuity, and none requiring such tremendous
mechanical power to execute.

The Britannia Tubular Bridge was built to conduct the Chester and
Holyhead Railway across the Menai Straits, to the island of Anglesea, in
the Irish Sea.

The difficulties which the engineer had to overcome, were greatly
augmented by the peculiar form and situation of the straits. Sir Francis
Head says, "The point of the straits which it was desired to cross,
although broader than that about a mile distant; preoccupied by Mr.
Telford's suspension bridge--was of course one of the narrowest that
could be selected, in consequence of which the ebbing and flowing
torrent rushes through it with such violence, that, except where there
is back water, it is often impossible for a small boat to pull against
it; besides which, the gusts of wind which come over the tops, down the
ravines, and round the sides of the neighboring mountains, are so
sudden, and occasionally so violent, that it is as dangerous to sail as
it is difficult to row; in short, the wind and the water, sometimes
playfully and sometimes angrily, seem to vie with each other--like some
of Shakspeare's fairies--in exhibiting before the stranger the utmost
variety of fantastic changes which it is in the power of each to
assume." The Menai Straits are about twelve miles long, through which,
imprisoned between the precipitous shores, the waters of the Irish Sea
and St. George's Channel are not only everlastingly vibrating, backwards
and forwards, but at the same time and from the same causes, are
progressively rising and falling 20 to 25 feet, with each successive
tide, which, varying its period of high water, every day forms
altogether an endless succession of aqueous changes.

THE TUBES.

The tubes forming the viaducts, rest upon two abutments and three piers,
called respectively the Anglesea abutment and pier, the Carnarvon
abutment and pier, and the Britannia or central pier, built upon the
Britannia rock in the middle of the straits, which gives name to the
bridge. The Anglesea abutment is 143 feet 6 inches high, 55 feet wide,
and 175 feet long to the end of the wings, which terminate in pedestals,
supporting colossal lions on either side, 25 feet 6 inches in length, 12
feet 6 inches high, and 8 feet broad, carved out of a single block of
Anglesea marble. The space between the Anglesea abutment and pier is 230
feet. This pier is 196 feet high, 55 feet wide, and 32 feet long. The
Carnarvon abutment and pier are of the same dimensions as those above
described, on the opposite shore. The Britannia pier is 240 feet high,
55 feet wide, and 45 feet long. This pier is 460 feet clear of each of
the two side piers. The bottom of the tubes are 124 feet above low water
mark, so that large ships can pass under them, under full sail.

There are two tubes, to accommodate a double track (one would have done
in this country, but in England they do nothing by halves), and each is
1513 feet long. The total length of the bridge is 1841 feet. These tubes
are not round or oval, but nearly square at the termini; the bridge
being constructed on the principle of the arch. A section of one of the
tubes at the Britannia pier is in the form of a parallelogram, where it
is 30 feet high, gradually diminishing towards each end to 20 feet. The
tubes are riveted together into continuous hollow beams; they are of
the uniform width of 14 feet 8 inches throughout; they are constructed
entirely of iron, and weigh about 12,000 tons, each tube containing 5000
tons of wrought iron, and about 1000 tons of cast iron. The tubes were
constructed each in four sections; the sections extending from the
abutments to their corresponding piers, each 250 feet long, were built
_in situ_, on immense scaffolding, made of heavy timbers for the
purpose, even with the railway; but the middle sections, each 470 feet
long, were built on piers on the Carnarvonshire shore, then floated into
the stream, and elevated to their position; each of these sections
weighed 1800 tons.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUBES.

The sides, bottom, and top of these gigantic tubes are formed of oblong
wrought iron plates, varying in length, width, and thickness, according
to circumstances, but of amazing size and weight. They are so arranged
as to obtain the greatest possible strength, the whole being riveted
together in the strongest manner. In addition to the 1600 tons of
wrought iron in each of the four large pieces, an additional 200 tons
was used to form lifting frames, and cast iron beams for the purpose of
attaching the tube to those huge chains by which they were elevated. The
construction of the tubes is thus described in the London Illustrated
News, from which this account is derived:

"In order to carry out this vast work (the construction of the tubes),
eighty houses have been erected for the accommodation of the workmen,
which, being whitewashed, have a peculiarly neat and picturesque
appearance; among them are seen butcher's, grocer's, and tobacconist's
shops, supplying the wants of a numerous population. A day school,
Sunday school, and meeting-house also conspicuously figure. Workshops,
steam-engines, store-houses, offices, and other buildings meet the eye
at every turn; one is led to conclude that a considerable time has
elapsed since the works were commenced, yet it is little more than two
years ago. A stranger, on coming to the ground, is struck with wonder
when for the first time he obtains a near view of the vast piles of
masonry towering majestically above all the surrounding objects--strong
as the pillars of Hercules, and apparently as endurable--his eyes wander
instinctively to the ponderous tubes, those masterpieces of engineering
constructiveness and mathematical adjustment; he shrinks into himself as
he gazes, and is astonished when he thinks that the whole is the
developed idea of one man, and carried out, too, in the face of
difficulties which few would have dared to encounter."

FLOATING OF THE TUBES.

The tubes were floated to the places whence they were elevated to their
positions on eight huge pontoons, fitted with valves and pumps to
exhaust the water from them, when all was ready to float the prodigious
iron beams. These pontoons or boxes were each 90 feet long, 25 feet
wide, and 15 feet deep. The pontoons having been placed under one of the
tubes (sections), the floating was easily effected, and the operation is
thus described by the "Assistant Engineer."

"The operation of floating the tubes (the four sections, and one only at
a time), will be commenced by closing the valves in the pontoons at low
water; as the tide rises, the pontoons will begin to float, and shortly
afterwards to bear the weight of the tube, which will at last be raised
by them entirely off its temporary supporting piers; about an hour and a
half before high water, the current running about four miles an hour, it
will be dragged out into the middle of the stream, by powerful capstans
and hawsers, reaching from the pontoons at each end, to the opposite
shore. In order to guide it into its place with the greatest possible
certainty, three large hawsers will be laid down the stream, one end of
two of them being made fast to the towers (piers) between which the tube
is intended to rest, and the other to strong fixed points on the two
shores, near to and opposite the further end of the tube platforms; in
their course, they will pass over and rest upon the pontoons, being
taken through 'cable-stoppers' which are contrivances for embracing and
gripping the hawser extended across the stream, and thereby retarding,
or if necessary entirely destroying, the speed induced by the current."

RAISING THE TUBES

The tubes of the Britannia bridge were raised by means of three
hydraulic presses of the most prodigious size, strength, weight, and
power; two of which were placed in the Britannia pier, above the points
where the tubes rest, and the other alternately on the Anglesea and
Carnarvon piers.

In order that all who read these pages may understand this curious
operation, it is necessary to describe the principle of the hydraulic
press. If a tube be screwed into a cask or vessel filled with water, and
then water poured into the tube, the pressure on the bottom and sides of
the vessel will not be the contents of the vessel and tube, but that of
a column of water equal to the length of the tube and the depth of the
vessel. This law of pressure in fluids is rendered very striking in the
experiment of bursting a strong cask by the action of a few ounces of
water. This law, so extraordinary and startling of belief to those who
do not understand the reasoning upon which it is founded, has been
called the _Hydrostatic paradox_, though there is nothing in reality
more paradoxical in it, than that one pound at the long end of a lever,
should balance ten pounds at the short end. This principle has been
applied to the construction of the Hydrostatic or Hydraulic press,
whose power is only limited by the strength of the materials of which it
is made. Thus, with a hydraulic press no larger than a common tea-pot, a
bar of iron may be cut as easily as a slip of pasteboard. The exertion
of a single man, with a short lever, will produce a pressure of 1500
atmospheres, or 22,500 pounds on every square inch of surface inside the
cylinder. By means of hydraulic presses, ships of a thousand tons
burthen, with cargo on board, are lifted out of the water for repairs,
and the heaviest bodies raised and moved, without any other expense of
human labor beyond the management of the engine.

The tubes on the Anglesea side were raised first. The presses in the
Britannia tower were each capable of raising a weight of 1250 tons; that
in the Anglesea tower, larger than the others, 1800 tons, or the whole
weight of the tube. These presses were worked by two steam engines of 40
horse power each, which forced the water into the cylinders, through a
tube half an inch in diameter. These steam engines were placed in the
Britannia and Anglesea piers. The press in the Anglesea pier is thus
described, the others being constructed in the same manner. The
hydraulic press stands on massive beams of wrought iron plates
constructed on the principle of the arch, placed in the tower above the
points where the tubes rest. The press consists of a huge cylinder, 9
feet 2 inches in length, 3 feet 6 inches outside diameter, and the ram 1
foot 8 inches in diameter, making the sides and bottom of the cylinder
11 inches thick; it was calculated that it would resist a pressure of
8000 or 9000 pounds to the square inch. The ram or piston was attached
to an exceedingly thick and heavy beam of cast iron, called the
cross-head, strengthened with bars of wrought iron. To the cross-head
were attached the huge chains that descended to the tubes far below, to
which they were secured, so that, as the ram was forced up 6 feet at
each stroke, the tube was raised the same distance. "The power of the
press is exerted on the tube by aid of chains, the links of which are 6
feet in length, bolted together in sets of eight or nine links
alternately.--The ram raises the cross-head 6 feet at each stroke, and
with it the tube, when that height is attained, a lower set of chains on
the beams grip the next set of links, and thus prevent them from
slipping down, whilst the clamps on the cross-heads are unscrewed, the
upper links taken off, and the ram and cross-head lowered to take
another stroke." To guard against all chances of injury to the tubes in
case of accident to the machinery, a contrivance was adopted by which
the tubes were followed up with wedges. The importance of this
precaution was fully proved on the very first attempt to raise the tube
on the Anglesea side, when the huge cylinder broke, almost at the
commencement of the operations. The following is the engineer's
interesting report of the accident:

"On Friday last (August 17, 1849), at a quarter to twelve o'clock, we
commenced lifting the tube at the Anglesea end, intending to raise it
six feet, and afterwards to have raised the opposite end the same
height.

"The tube rose steadily to the height of two feet six inches, being
closely followed up by inch wooden boards packed beneath it, when
suddenly, and without any warning, the bottom of the hydraulic press
gave way, separating completely from the body of the press.

"The ram, cross-head, and chains descended violently on the press, with
a tremendous noise, the tube sinking down upon the wooden packing
beneath it. The bottom of the press, weighing nearly two tons and a
half, fell on the top of the tube, a depth of eighty feet.

"A sailor, named Owen Parry, was ascending a rope ladder at the time,
from the top of the tube into the tower; the broken piece of press in
its descent struck the ladder and shook him off; he fell on to the tube,
a height of fifty feet, receiving a contusion of the skull, and other
injuries, of so serious a nature that he died the same evening. He was
not engaged in the raising, and had only chosen to cross the tube, as
being the nearest road from one tower to the other. An inquest was held
on the following day, and a verdict of accidental death returned. No one
actually engaged in the operation was injured, although Mr. Edwin
Clark, who was superintending the operation, on the top of the
cross-head, and his brother, Mr. L. Clark, who was standing beneath it,
had both a very narrow escape.

"The tube is not at all injured, but some portions of the cast iron
lifting frames are broken, and require repairing; some weeks must elapse
before a new cylinder is made, and the operation continued."

Sir Francis Head, when he saw one of the tubes raised, and in its place,
observed, "It seemed surprising to us that by any arrangement of
materials, it could possibly be made strong enough to support even
itself,--much less heavily laden trains of passengers and goods, flying
through it, and actually passing each other in the air at railway speed.
And the more we called reason and reflection to our assistance, the more
incomprehensible did the mystery practically appear; for the plate iron
of which the aërial gallery is composed is literally _not so thick_ as
the lid, sides, and bottom which, by heartless contract, are _required_
for an elm coffin 6½ feet long, 2¼ wide, and 2 deep, of strength
merely sufficient to carry the corpse of an emaciated pauper from the
workhouse to his grave! The covering of this iron passage, 1841 feet in
length, is literally not thicker than the hide of an elephant; lastly,
it is scarcely thicker than the bark of the good old English oak,--and
if this noble sovereign, notwithstanding 'the heart' and interior
substance of which it boasts, is, even in the well-protected park in
which it has been born and bred, often prostrated by the storm, how
difficult is it to conceive that an attenuated aërial hollow beam, no
thicker than its mere rind, should, by human science, be constructed
strong enough to withstand, besides the weights rushing through it, the
natural gales and artificial squalls of wind to which, throughout its
entire length, and at its fearful height, it is permanently to be
exposed."

Notwithstanding these "incomprehensible" speculations, the tubes are
abundantly strong to sustain the pressure of the heaviest trains, even
were they to stand still in the middle of the bridge. It is calculated
that each tube, in its weakest part, would sustain a pressure of four or
five thousand tons, "support a line of battle ship, with all her
munitions and stores on board," and "bear a line of locomotives covering
the entire bridge." The bridge was completed, and the first train passed
through it March 5th, 1850. The total cost of this gigantic structure
was only £601,865.

GLORY OF ANCIENT ROME.

Ancient Rome was built upon seven hills, which are now scarcely
discoverable on account of the vast quantities of rubbish with which the
valleys are filled. Pliny estimates the circumference of the city in his
time at 13,000 paces (which nearly agrees with modern measurements), and
the population at 3,000,000. Rome was filled with magnificent public
edifices, temples, theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, naumachiæ,
porticos, basilicæ, baths, gardens, triumphal arches, columns, sewers,
aqueducts, sepulchres, public and private palaces, etc.

In the time of the Cæsars, fourteen magnificent aqueducts, supported by
immense arches, conducted whole rivers into Rome, from a distance of
many miles, and supplied one hundred and fifty public fountains, one
hundred and eighteen large public baths, the artificial seas in which
naval combats were represented in the Colosseum, and the golden palace
of Nero, besides the water necessary to supply the daily use of the
inhabitants. One hundred thousand marble and bronze statues ornamented
the public squares, the temples, the streets, and the houses of the
nobility: ninety colossal statues raised on pedestals; and forty-eight
Egyptian obelisks of red granite, some of the largest size, also adorned
the city.

Such was ancient Rome, "the Eternal City." Although visited for more
than a thousand years by various calamities, she is still the most
majestic of cities; the charm of beauty, dignity, and grandeur still
lingers around the ruins of ancient, as well as the splendid structures
of modern Rome, and brilliant recollections of every age are connected
with the monuments which the passing traveler meets at every step.

THE CAPITOL.

The Capitol or Citadel of ancient Rome stood on the Capitoline hill, the
smallest of the seven hills of Rome, called the _Saturnine_ and
_Tarpeian rock_. It was begun B.C. 614, by Tarquinius Priscus, but was
not completed till after the expulsion of the kings. After being thrice
destroyed by fire and civil commotion, it was rebuilt by Domitian, who
instituted there the Capitoline games. Dionysius says the temple, with
the exterior palaces, was 200 feet long, and 185 broad. The whole
building consisted of three temples, which were dedicated to Jupiter,
Juno, and Minerva, and separated from one another by walls. In the wide
portico, triumphal banquets were given to the people. The statue of
Jupiter, in the Capitol, represented the god sitting on a throne of
ivory and gold, and consisted in the earliest times of clay painted red;
under Trajan, it was formed of gold. The roof of the temple was made of
bronze; it was gilded by Q. Catulus. The doors were of the same metal.
Splendor and expense were profusely lavished upon the whole edifice. The
gilding alone cost 12,000 talents (about $12,000,000), for which reason
the Romans called it the _Golden Capitol_. On the pediment stood a
chariot drawn by four horses, at first of clay, and afterwards of brass
gilded. The temple itself contained an immense quantity of the most
magnificent presents. The most important state papers, and particularly
the Sibylline books were preserved in it. A few pillars and some ruins
are all that now remain of the magnificent temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus. Its site is mostly occupied by the church of the
Franciscans, and partly by the modern capitol called the _Campidoglio_,
which was erected after the design of Michael Angelo, consisting of
three buildings. From the summit of the middle one, the spectator has a
splendid view of one of the most remarkable regions in the world--the
Campagna, up to the mountains. For a description of the Colosseum, see
vol ii, page 29, of this work.

MODERN ROME.

Modern Rome is about thirteen miles in circuit, and is divided by the
Tiber into two parts. In 1830, Rome contained 144,542 inhabitants,
35,900 houses, 346 churches, 30 monasteries, and upwards of 120 palaces.
The view of the majestic ruins; the solemn grandeur of the churches and
palaces; the recollections of the past; the religious customs; the magic
and almost melancholy tranquillity which pervades the city; the
enjoyment of the endless treasures of art--all conspire to raise the
mind of the traveler to a high state of excitement. The churches,
palaces, villas, squares, streets, fountains, aqueducts, antiquities,
ruins--in short, everything proclaims the ancient majesty and the
present greatness of Rome. Almost every church, palace, and villa is a
treasury of art. Among the churches, St. Peter's is the most
conspicuous, and is, perhaps, the most beautiful building in the world.
Bramante began it; Sangallo and Peruzzi succeeded him; but Michael
Angelo, who erected its immense dome, which is four hundred and fifty
feet high to the top of the cross, designed the greatest part. Many
other architects were often employed upon it; Maderno finished the front
and the two towers. The erection of this edifice, from 1506 to 1614,
cost 45,000,000 Roman crowns. Before we arrive at this grand temple, the
eye is attracted by the beautiful square in front of it, surrounded by a
magnificent colonnade by Bernini, and ornamented by an Egyptian obelisk,
together with two splendid fountains. Upon entering the vestibule,
Giotto's mosaic, la Navicella, is seen. Under the portico, opposite the
great door, is Bernini's great bas relief representing Christ commanding
Peter to feed his sheep; and at the ends of the portico are the
equestrian statues of Constantine by Bernini, and of Charlemagne by
Cornachini. The union of these masterpieces has an indescribable effect.
The harmony and proportion which prevail in the interior of this august
temple are such, that, immense as it is, the eye distinguishes all the
parts without confusion or difficulty. When each object is minutely
examined, we are astonished at its magnitude, so much more considerable
than appears at first sight. The immense canopy of the high altar,
supported by four bronze pillars of 120 feet in height, particularly
attracts the attention. The dome is the boldest work of modern
architecture. The cross thereon is 450 feet above the pavement. The
lantern affords the most beautiful prospect of the city and the
surrounding country. The splendid mosaics, tombs, paintings, frescos,
works in marble, gilded bronze and stucco, the new sacristy--a beautiful
piece of architecture, but not in unison with the rest--deserve separate
consideration. The two most beautiful churches in Rome next to St.
Peter's are the St. John's of the Lateran, and the Santa Maria Maggiore.
The former, built by Constantine the Great, is the parochial church of
the pope; it therefore takes precedence of all others, and is called
_Omnium urbis el orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput_ (the head and mother
of all churches of the city and the world). In it is celebrated the
coronation of the popes. It contains several pillars of granite, _verde
antico_, and gilt bronze; the twelve apostles by Rusconi and Legros; and
the beautiful chapel of Corsini, which is unequalled in its proportions,
built by Alexander Galilei. The altar-piece is a mosaic from a painting
by Guido, and the beautiful porphyry sarcophagus, which is under the
statue of Clement XII., was found in the Pantheon, and is supposed to
have contained the ashes of M. Agrippa. The nave of the church of Santa
Maria Maggiore is supported by forty Ionic pillars of Grecian marble,
which were taken from a temple of Juno Lucina: the ceiling was gilded
with the first gold brought from Peru. We are here struck with
admiration at the mosaics; the high altar, consisting of an antique
porphyry sarcophagus; the chapel of Sixtus V., built from the designs of
Fontana, and richly ornamented; the chapel of Paul V., adorned with
marble and precious stones; the chapel of Sforza, by Michael Angelo; and
the sepulchres of Guglielmo della Porta and Algardi. In the square
before the front is a Corinthian column, which is considered a
masterpiece of its kind. The largest church in Rome next to St. Peter's
was the Basilica di San Paolo fuori delle Mura, on the road to Ostia,
burnt a few years since. The church of S. Lorenzo, without the city,
possesses some rare monuments of antiquity. The church of San Pietro in
Vincola contains the celebrated statue of Moses, by Michael Angelo. The
church of St. Agnes, in the place Navona, begun by Rainaldi and
completed by Borromini, is one of the most highly ornamented,
particularly with modern sculpture. Here is the admirable relief of
Algardi, representing St. Agnes deprived of her clothes, and covered
only with her hair. The Basilica of St. Sebastian, before the Porta
Capena, contains the statue of the dying saint, by Giorgetti, a pupil of
Algardi, and the master of Bernini. Under these churches are the
catacombs, which formerly served as places of burial. In the church of
St. Agnes, before the Porta Pia, among many other beautiful columns are
four of porphyry, belonging to the high altar, and considered the most
beautiful in Rome. In a small chapel is a bust of the Savior by Michael
Angelo--a masterpiece. In the church of St. Augustine, there is a
picture by Raphael representing the prophet Isaiah, and an Ascension by
Lanfranco. The monastery has a rich library, called the Angelica, and
increased by the library of cardinal Passionei. The following churches
also deserve to be mentioned, on account of their architecture and works
of art; the churches of St. Ignatius, St. Cecilia, S. Andrea della
Valle, S. Andrea del Noviziato, the Pantheon (also called la Rotonda),
in which Raffaelle, Annibale Caracci, Mengs, etc., are interred. All the
364 churches of Rome contain monuments of art or antiquity. Among the
palaces, the principal is the Vatican, an immense pile, in which the
most valuable monuments of antiquity, and the works of the greatest
modern masters are preserved. Here are the museum Pio-Clementinum,
established by Clement XIV., and enlarged by Pius VI., and the
celebrated library of the Vatican. The treasures carried away by the
French have been restored. Among the paintings of this palace, the most
beautiful are Raffaelle's frescos in the _stanze_ and _loggie_. The
principal oil paintings are in the _appartamento_ Borgia, which also
contains the Transfiguration, by Raphael. In the Sistine chapel is the
Last Judgment by Michael Angelo. The popes have chosen the palace of
Monte Cavallo, or the Quirinal palace, with its extensive and beautiful
gardens, for their usual residence, on account of its healthy air and
fine prospect. The Lateran palace, which Sixtus V. had rebuilt by
Fontana, was changed, in 1693, into an alms-house. Besides these, the
following are celebrated: the palace della Cancellario, the palace de'
Conservatori, the palace of St. Mark, the buildings of the Academy, etc.
Among the private palaces, the Barberini is the largest; it was built by
Bernini, in a beautiful style. Here are the Magdalen of Guido, one of
the finest works of Caravaggio, the Paintings of the great hall, a
masterpiece of Pietro da Cortona, and other valuable paintings. Of works
of sculpture, the Sleeping Fawn, now in Munich, was formerly here; the
masterly group representing Atalanta and Meleager, a Juno, a sick Satyr
by Bernini, the bust of Cardinal Barberini by the same artist, and the
busts of Marius, Sylla, and Scipio Africanus, are in this palace. The
library is calculated to contain 60,000 printed books, and 9000
manuscripts; a cabinet of medals, bronzes, and precious stones, is also
connected with the library. The Borghese palace, erected by Bramante, is
extensive, and in a beautiful style; the colonnade of the court is
splendid. This palace contains a large collection of paintings, rare
works of sculpture, valuable tables, and utensils of rich workmanship,
of red porphyry, alabaster, and other materials. The upper hall is
unrivalled; the great landscapes of Vernet, with which it is adorned,
are so true to nature, that, upon entering, one imagines himself
transported into real scenes. The palace Albani, the situation of which
is remarkably fine, possesses a valuable library, a great number of
paintings, and a collection of designs by Caracci, Polidoro, Lanfranco,
Spagnoletto, Cignani, and others. The palace Altieri, one of the largest
in Rome, is in a simple style of architecture, and contains rare
manuscripts, medals, paintings, etc., and valuable furniture. In the
palace Colonna there is a rich collection of paintings by the first
masters; all the rooms are decorated with them, and particularly the
gallery, which is one of the finest in Europe. In the gardens are the
ruins of the baths of Constantine and those of the temple of Sol. The
Aldobrandini palace contains the proudest monument of ancient
painting--the Aldobrandine Wedding, a fresco purchased by Pius VII., in
1818, in which the design is admirable. The great Farnese palace, begun
from the designs of Sangallo, and completed under the direction of
Michael Angelo, is celebrated both for its beauty and its treasures of
art. The Caracci and Domenichino have immortalized themselves by their
frescos in its gallery. The Farnese Hercules, the masterly Flora, and
the urn of Cæcilia Metella, formerly adorned the court; and in the
palace itself was the beautiful group of the Farnese bull. But when the
king of Naples inherited the Farnese estate, these statues, with other
works of art, were carried to Naples, where they now adorn the palace
degli Studi. Not far off is the palace Corsini, where queen Christina
lived and died in 1689. It contains a valuable library and gallery. The
palace Giustiniani also had a gallery adorned with numerous valuable
statues and works of sculpture; its principal ornaments were the
celebrated statue of Minerva, the finest of that goddess now known, and
the bas-relief of Amalthæa suckling Jupiter. These treasures were
nominally bought by Napoleon, and are now in Paris. The paintings are
chiefly in the possession of the king of Prussia. In the palace Spada is
the statue of Pompey, at the foot of which Cæsar fell under the daggers
of his murderers. We have yet to mention the palace Costaguti, on
account of its fine frescos; Chigi, for its beautiful architecture, its
paintings and library; Mattei, for its numerous statues, reliefs, and
ancient inscriptions; the palace of Pamfili, built by Borromini, for its
splendid paintings and internal magnificence; that of Pamfili in the
square of Navona, with a library and gallery; Rospigliosi, upon the
Quirinal hill, etc. Among the palaces of Rome, which bear the name of
_villas_, is the Villa Medici, on the Pincian mount, on which were
formerly situated the splendid gardens of Lucullus: it once contained a
vast number of masterpieces of every kind; but the grand dukes Leopold
and Ferdinand have removed the finest works (among them, the group of
Niobe, by Scopas) to Florence. This palace, however, is yet worthy of
being visited. Under the portico of the Villa Negroni are the two fine
statues of Sylla and Marius, seated on the _sella curulis_. In the
extensive garden, which is three miles in circuit, some beautiful fresco
paintings have been found in the ruins of some of the houses. The Villa
Mattei, on the Coelian mount, contains a splendid collection of
statues. The Villa Ludovisi, on the Pincian mount, not far from the
ruins of the circus and the gardens of Sallust, is one and a half miles
in circuit, and contains valuable monuments of art, particularly the
Aurora of Guercino, an ancient group of the senator Papirius and his
mother (or rather of Phædra and Hippolytus), another of Arria and Pætus,
and Bernini's rape of Proserpine. The Villa Borghese, near Rome, has a
fine but an unhealthy situation. The greatest part of the city, and the
environs as far as Frascati and Tivoli, are visible from it. It has a
garden, with a park three miles in circuit. This palace was ornamented
in its interior, and furnished with so much richness and elegance, that
it might have been considered the first edifice in Rome, next to the
capitol, particularly for its fine collection of statues. The most
remarkable among them were the Fighting Gladiator; Silenus and a Faun;
Seneca, in black marble, or rather a slave at the baths; Camillus; the
Hermaphrodite; the Centaur and Cupid; two Fauns, playing on the flute;
Ceres; an Egyptian; a statue of the younger Nero; the busts of Lucius
Verus, Alexander, Faustina and Verus; various relievos, among which was
one representing Curtius; an urn, on which was represented the festival
of Bacchus; another supported by the Graces; two horns of plenty, etc.
The greatest part of these has not been restored from Paris. The
exterior is ornamented with ancient reliefs. The Villa Pamfili, before
the Porta di San Pancrazio, also called Belrespiro, has an agreeable
situation, and is seven miles in circumference. The architecture is by
Algardi, but has been censured by connoisseurs. In the interior there
are some fine specimens of sculpture. Full descriptions of this and of
the Villa Borghese have been published. The Villa Albani, upon an
eminence which commands Tivoli and the Sabina, is an edifice of taste
and splendor. The cardinal Alexander Albani expended immense sums upon
it, and, during the space of fifty years, collected a splendid cabinet.
The ceiling of the gallery was painted by Mengs, and is a model of
elegance. The Villa Lante and the Villa Corsini deserve to be mentioned
on account of their fine prospects. The Villa Doria (formerly Algiati),
in which Raffaelle lived, contains three fresco paintings of this great
master. The Villa Farnese contains the remains of the palace of the
Roman emperors. The capitol contains so many and such magnificent
objects of every description, that it is impossible to enumerate them
here. We must be satisfied with mentioning the equestrian statue of
Marcus Aurelius, before the palace; the Captive Kings, in the court;
the _columna rostrata_; and within, the colossal statue of Pyrrhus; the
tomb of Severus; the Centaurs, of basalt; the beautiful alabaster
pillars; the masterpiece in mosaic, which once belonged to cardinal
Furietti, representing three doves on the edge of a vessel filled with
water, which is described by Pliny. The fountains are among the
principal ornaments of the squares in Rome. The fountain in the Piazza
Navona, the most splendid of them all, has been particularly admired; it
is surmounted by an obelisk, and ornamented by four colossal statues,
which represent the four principal rivers in the world. The fountain of
Paul V., near the church di San Pietro in Montorio, is in bad taste, but
furnishes such a body of water, that several mills are carried by it.
The fountain di Termini is adorned with three reliefs, representing
Moses striking water from the rock, and with a colossal statue of that
prophet, and two Egyptian lions in basalt. The splendid fountain of
Trevi supplies the best water, which it receives through an ancient
aqueduct. Among the streets, the Strada Felice and the Strada Pia, which
cross each other, are the most remarkable; among the bridges, that of
St. Angelo (formerly Pons Ælius), 300 feet in length; and among the
gates the Porta del Popolo (formerly Porta Flaminia). Of ancient
monuments, the following yet remain: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the
column of Trajan, that of Antonine, the amphitheatre of Vespasian; the
mausoleum of Augustus, the mausoleum of Adrian (now the fortress of St.
Angelo); the triumphal arches of Severus, Titus, Constantine, Janus,
Nero, and Drusus; the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Stator, of Jupiter
Tonans, of Concordia, of Pax, of Antoninus and Faustina, of the sun and
moon, of Romulus, of Romulus and Remus, of Pallas, of Fortuna Virilis,
of Fortuna Muliebris, of Virtue, of Bacchus, of Vesta, of Minerva
Medica, and of Venus and Cupid; the remains of the baths of Dioclesian,
of Caracalla and Titus, etc.; the ruins of the theatre of Pompey, near
the Curia Pompeii, where Cæsar was murdered, and those of the theatre of
Marcellus; the ruins of the old forum (now called Campo Vaccino); the
remains of the old bridges; the circus Maximus; the circus of Caracalla;
the house of Cicero; the Curia Hostilia; the trophies of Marius; the
portico of Philip and Octavius; the country house and tower of Mæcenas;
the Claudian aqueduct; the monuments of the family of Aruns, of the
Scipios, of Metella (called Capo di Bove); the prison of Jugurtha
(Carcero Mamertino), in which St. Peter was imprisoned; the monument of
Caius Cestius, which is entirely uninjured, in form of a pyramid, near
which the Protestants are buried; the Cloaca Maxima, built by Tarquin,
etc. Besides the obelisk near the Porta del Popolo, that raised in the
pontificate of Pius VI., on mount Cavallo, is deserving of notice. The
principal collections of literature and the arts have already been
noticed; but the Museo Kircheliano deserves to be particularly
mentioned; there are, besides, many private collections and monastic
libraries, which contain many valuable works. Such treasures, especially
in the arts, make Rome the great school of painters, statuaries, and
architects, and a place of pilgrimage to all lovers of the arts; and
there are here innumerable _studios_ of painters and sculptors. Roman
art seems to have received a new impulse. The academy of San Luca was
established solely for the art of painting. There are also many literary
institutions in the city.

THE FOUNDATION OF VENICE.

It is recorded in the archives of Padua, says Milizia, that when
Rhadagasius entered Italy, and the cruelties exercised by the Visigoths
obliged the people to seek refuge in various places, an architect of
Candia, named Eutinopus, was the first to retire to the fens of the
Adriatic, where he built a house, which remained the only one there for
several years. At length, when Alaric continued to desolate the country,
others sought an asylum in the same marshes, and built twenty-four
houses, which formed the germ of Venice. The security of the place now
induced people to settle there rapidly, and Venice soon sprung up a city
and gradually rose to be mistress of the seas. The Venetian historians
inform us that the house of Eutinopus, during a dreadful conflagration,
was miraculously saved by a shower of rain, at the prayer of the
architect, who made a vow to convert it into a church; he did this, and
dedicated it to St. James, the magistrates and inhabitants contributing
to build and ornament the edifice. The church is still standing, in the
quarter of the Rialto, which is universally considered the oldest part
of Venice.

THEODORIC THE GREAT, AND HIS LOVE OF THE FINE ARTS.

Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and afterwards also king of Italy,
was born at Amali, near Vienna, in 455, and died in 526. Though a Goth,
he was so far from delighting in the destruction of public monuments,
and works of art, that he issued edicts for their preservation at Rome
and throughout Italy, and assigned revenues for the repair of the public
edifices, for which purpose he employed the most skillful and learned
architects, particularly Aloïsius, Boëtius, and Symmachus. According to
Cassiodorus (lib. ii. Varior. Epist. xxxix.), Theodoric said: "It is
glorious to preserve the works of antiquity; and it is our duty to
restore the most useful and the most beautiful." Symmachus had the
direction of the buildings constructed or rebuilt at Rome. The king thus
wrote to him: "You have constructed fine edifices; you have, moreover,
disposed of them with so much wisdom that they equal those of antiquity,
and serve as examples to the moderns; and all you show us is a perfect
image of the excellence of your mind, because it is not possible to
build correctly without good sense and a well cultivated understanding."

In his directions to the Prefect of Rome, on the architecture of the
public edifices, Theodoric thus wrote:

"The beauty of the Roman buildings requires a skillful overseer, in
order that such a wonderful forest of edifices should be preserved with
constant care, and the new ones properly constructed, both internally
and externally. Therefore we direct our generosity not only to the
preservation of ancient things, but to the investing the new ones with
the glories of antiquity. Be it known, therefore, to your illustrious
person, that for this end an architect of the Roman walls is appointed.
And because the study of the arts requires assistance, we desire that he
may have every reasonable accommodation that his predecessors have
enjoyed. He will certainly see things superior to what he has read of,
and more beautiful than he could ever have imagined. The statues still
feel their renowned authors, and appear to live: he will observe
expressed in the bronze, the veins, the muscles swollen by exertion, the
nerves gradually stretched, and the figure expressing those feelings
which act on a living subject.

"It is said that the first artists in Italy were the Etruscans, and thus
posterity has given to them, as well as to Rome, almost the power of
creating man. How wonderful are the horses, so full of spirit, with
their fiery nostrils, their sparkling eyes, their easy and graceful
limbs;--they would move, if not of metal. And what shall we say of those
lofty, slender, and finely fluted columns, which appear a part of the
sublime structure they support? That appears wax, which is hard and
elegant metal; the joints in the marble being like natural veins. The
beauty of art is to deceive the eye. Ancient historians acquaint us with
only seven wonders in the world: the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus; the
magnificent sepulchre of the king Mausolus, from whence is derived the
word mausoleum; the bronze Colossus of the Sun, in Rhodes; the statue of
Jupiter Olympius, of gold and ivory, formed by the masterly hand of
Phidias, the first of architects; the palace of Cyrus, King of Media,
built by Memnon of stones united by gold; the walls of Babylon,
constructed by Semiramis of brick, pitch, and iron; the pyramids of
Egypt, the shadows of which do not extend beyond the space of their
construction. But who can any longer consider these as wonders, after
having seen so many in Rome? Those were famous because they preceded us;
it is natural that the new productions of the then barbarous ages should
be renowned. It may truly be said that all Rome is wonderful. We have
therefore selected a man clever in the arts, who, in seeing so many
ingenious things of antiquity, instead of remaining merely enchanted
with them, has set himself to work to investigate the reason, study
their books, and instruct himself, that he may become as learned as
those in the place of whom he is to consider himself appointed."

Milizia says of Theodoric, "Is this the language of a Gothic barbarian,
the destroyer of good taste? Pericles, Alexander, Adrian, or one of the
Medici could not have reasoned better." And again, "Can these Goths be
the inventors of that architecture vulgarly called Gothic? and are these
the barbarians said to have been the destroyers of the beautiful
monuments of antiquity? Ecclesiastical history gives to the good
Christians and the jealous ecclesiastics the honor of having dismantled
temples, and disfigured statues in Italy, Greece, Asia, and Egypt. *  *  *
It is clear that the Goths were not the authors of that architecture
called Gothic. The Goths and barbarians who overran Italy had not any
characteristic architecture, good or bad. They brought with them neither
architects, painters, nor poets. They were all soldiers, and when fixed
in Italy employed Italian artists; but as in that country, good taste
was much on the decline, it now became more debased, notwithstanding the
efforts made by the Goths to revive it."

ARCHIMEDES.

This wonderful genius was of royal descent, and born at Syracuse about
B.C. 287. He was a relative of king Hiero, who held him in the highest
esteem and favor, though he does not appear to have held any public
office, preferring to devote himself entirely to science. Such was his
enthusiasm, that he appears at times to have been so completely absorbed
in contemplation and calculations, as to be totally unconscious of what
was passing around him. We cannot fully estimate his services to
mathematics, for want of an acquaintance with the previous state of
science; still we know that he enriched it with discoveries of the
highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their
admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Euclid, in his
elements, considers only the relations of some of these magnitudes to
each other, but does not compare them with surfaces and solids bounded
by straight lines. Archimedes developed the proportions necessary for
effecting this comparison, in his treatises on the sphere and cylinder,
the spheroid and conoid, and in his work on the measure of the circle.
He rose to still more abstruse considerations in his treatise on the
spiral. Archimedes is also the only one of the ancients who has left us
anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics and hydrostatics. He
first taught the principle "that a body immersed in a fluid, loses as
much in weight, as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid." He
discovered this while bathing, which is said to have caused him so much
joy that he ran home from the bath undressed, exclaiming, "I have found
it; I have found it!" By means of this principle, he determined how much
alloy a goldsmith had added to a crown which king Hiero had ordered of
pure gold. Archimedes had a profound knowledge of mechanics, and in a
moment of enthusiasm, with which the extraordinary performances of his
machines had inspired him, he exclaimed that he "could move the earth
with ease, by means of his machines placed on a fixed point near it." He
was the inventor of the compound pulley, and probably of the endless
screw which bears his name. He invented many surprising engines and
machines. Some suppose that he visited Egypt, and raised the sites of
the towns and villages of Egypt, and begun those mounds of earth by
means of which communication was kept up from town to town, during the
inundations of the Nile. When Marcellus, the Roman consul, besieged
Syracuse, he devoted all his talents to the defense of his native
country. He constructed machines which suddenly raised up in the air the
ships of the enemy in the bay before the city, and then let them fall
with such violence into the water that they sunk; he also set them on
fire with his burning glasses. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch speak in
detail, with wonder and admiration, of the machines with which he
repelled the attacks of the Romans. When the town was taken and given up
to pillage, the Roman general gave strict orders to his soldiers not to
hurt Archimedes, and even offered a reward to him who should bring him
alive and safe to his presence. All these precautions proved useless,
for the philosopher was so deeply engaged at the time in solving a
problem, that he was even ignorant that the enemy were in possession of
the city, and when a soldier entered his apartment, and commanded him to
follow him, he exclaimed, according to some, "Disturb not my circle!"
and to others, he begged the soldier not to "kill him till he had solved
his problem"; but the rough warrior, ignorant of the august person
before him, little heeded his request, and struck him down. This
happened B.C. 212, so that Archimedes, at his death, must have been
about 75 years old. Marcellus raised a monument over him, and placed
upon it a cylinder and a sphere, thereby to immortalize his discovery of
their mutual relations, on which he set a particular value; but it
remained long neglected and unknown, till Cicero, during his questorship
of Sicily, found it near one of the gates of Syracuse, and had it
repaired. The story of his burning glasses had always appeared fabulous
to some of the moderns, till the experiments of Buffon demonstrated its
truth and practicability. These celebrated glasses are supposed to have
been reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their effect at
the distance of a bow-shot.

THE TRIALS OF GENIUS.

FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI.

This eminent architect was one of those illustrious men, who, having
conceived and matured a grand design, proceed, cool, calm, and
indefatigable, to put it in execution, undismayed by obstacles that seem
insuperable, by poverty, want, and what is worse, the jeers of men whose
capacities are too limited to comprehend their sublime conceptions. The
world is apt to term such men enthusiasts, madmen, or fools, till their
glorious achievements stamp them almost divinely inspired.

Brunelleschi was nobly descended on his mother's side, she being a
member of the Spini family, which, according to Bottari, became extinct
towards the middle of the last century. His ancestors on his father's
side were also learned and distinguished men--his father was a notary,
his grandfather "a very learned man," and his great-grandfather "a
famous physician in those times." Filippo's father, though poor,
educated him for the legal or medical profession; but such was his
passion for art and mechanics, that his father, greatly against his
will, was compelled to allow him to follow the bent of his genius: he
accordingly placed him, at a proper age, in the Guild of the Goldsmiths,
that he might acquire the art of design. Filippo soon became a
proficient in the setting of precious stones, which he did much better
than any old artists in the vocation. He also wrought in niello, and
executed several figures which were highly commended, particularly two
figures of Prophets, for an altar in the Cathedral of Pistoja. Filippo
next turned his attention to sculpture, and executed works in
basso-relievo, which showed an extraordinary genius. Subsequently,
having made the acquaintance of several learned men, he began to turn
his attention to the computation of the divisions of time, the
adjustment of weights, the movement of wheels, etc. He next bent his
thoughts to the study of perspective, to which, before his time, so
little attention was paid by artists, that the figures often appeared to
be slipping off the canvas, and the buildings had not a true point of
view. He was one of the first who revived the Greek practice of
rendering the precepts of geometry subservient to the painter; for this