Inbask, _olgen_, _olen_
  Pumpokolsk, _hang_
  Assan, _ang_
  Yukahiri, _yongul_, _iongioula_.

  _English_, tongue
  Assan, _alûp_
  Kott, _alûp_
  Arinzi, _alyap_
  Yukahiri, _andzhub_

  _English_, ear
  Assan, _kologan_, _klokan_
  Kott, _kalogan_
  Yukahiri, _golondzhi_

  _English_, man
  Inbask, _çet_, _blet_
  Pumpokolsk, _ilset_
  Kott, _hatket_
  Yukahiri, _yadu_

  _English_, dog
  Inbask, _tsip_, _tip_
  Yukahiri, _tabaha_

  _English_, thunder
  Arinzi, _esbath-yantu_
  Yukahiri, _yendu_

  _English_, lightning
  Inbask, _yakene-bok_
  Yukahiri, _bug-onshe_

  _English_, egg
  Inbask, _onge_
  Arinze, _ang_
  Pumpokolsk, _tanyangeeg_
  Yukahiri, _langdzhango_

  _English_, leaf
  Assan, _yepan_
  Kott, _dipang_
  Yukahiri, _yipan_

  _English_, eat
  Assan, _rayali_
  Yukahiri, _lagul_

  _English_, yellow
  Kott, _shuiga_
  Yukahiri, _tshakatonni_

  _English_, moon
  Pumpokolsk, _tui_
  Arinzi, _shui_
  Yukahiri, _kinin-shi_

                                  B.

    _The Yeniseian_ _of the Asia Polyglotta, and the Samöeid of the
                           Asia Polyglotta_.

  _English_, arm
  Arinzi, _khinang_
  Mangaseia, _kannamunne_

  _English_, finger
  Inbask, _tokan_
  Pumpokolsk, _tok_
  Tawgi, _fyaaka_
  Yurass, _tarka_

  _English_, flesh
  Arinzi, _is_
  Assan, _iç_, _içi_
  Pumpokolsk, _ziç_
  Mangaseia, _osa_
  Turuchansk, _odzha_
  Narym, &c., _ueç_
  Karass, _hueç_

  _English_, fir-tree
  Inbask, _ei_
  Arinzi, _aya_
  Obdorsk, _ye_

  _English_, egg
  Inbask, _ong_
  Arinzi, _ang_
  Pumpokolsk, _eg_
  Tas, _iga_

  _English_, egg
  Assan, _shulei_
  Kott, _shulei_
  Motorian, _shlok_

  _English_, tree
  Assan, _atsh_
  Kott, &c., _açshe_
  Motorian, &c., _cha_

  _English_, brother
  Assan, _pobesh_
  Koibal, _pabim_=_younger_

  _English_, butter
  Assan, &c., _kayak_
  Motorian, _chayak_

  _English_, moon
  Assan, _shui_
  Koibal, _kui_

  _English_, sun
  Assan, &c., _ega_
  Motorian, _kaye_

  _English_, stone
  Inbask, _çijgs_, _tyes_
  Pumpokolsk, _çys_, _kit_
  Assan, _shish_
  Kott, _shish_
  Arinzi, _khes_
  Motorian, _dagia_

  _English_, summer
  Assan, _shega_
  Kott, _chushshega_
  Arinzi, _shei_
  Motor, _daghan_
  Koibal, _taga_

  _English_, they
  Assan, _hatin_
  Arinzi, _itang_
  Motor, _tin_

  _English_, woman
  Inbask, _bgim_
  Arinzi, _byk-hamalte_
  Obdorsk, _pug-utsu_
  Pustoserk, _pug-iça_

  _English_, river
  Denka, _chuge_
  Pustoserk, _yaga_

  _English_, great
  Assan, _paça_
  Arinzi, _birkha_
  Pustoserk, _pirçe_

  _English_, evening
  Inbask, _bis_
  Pumpokolsk, _biçidin_
  Assan, _pidziga_
  Yurass, _pausema_
  Obdorsk, _paus-emya_
  Pustoserk, _paus-emye_

  _English_, hill
  Inbask, &c., _chai_
  Samöeid, _syeo_, _ko_

  _English_, bed
  Inbask, _chodzha_
  Obdorsk, _choba_
  Tawgi, _kufu_

  _English_, birch-tree
  Inbask, _uusya_
  Assan, _uça_
  Kott, _uça_
  Pustoserk, _chu_
  Tawgi, &c., _kuie_
  Ket, _tiue_

  _English_, leaf
  Yeniseian, _yp-an_
  Pumpokolsk, _efig_
  Pustoserk, _wyba_
  Obdorsk, _wiibe_
  Yurass, _newe_
  Tomsk, _tyaba_
  Narym, _çabe_
  Kamash, _dzhaba_

Nevertheless, the present class is provisional. All that is at present
asserted, is that the three divisions which it contains, are not
sufficiently distinct to be separated. Whether, however, the whole
section may not, hereafter, become a sub-division of either the
Turanian, or the Peninsular Mongolidæ, is doubtful. Most probably it
will.

FOOTNOTES:

[87] Mammarum summitates apud Samöeidas nigerrimæ. Sic apud authores
reperi; quos, suspicor, aut gravidas, aut viragines fusciores vidisse.
Idem de Lapponibus traditur. Præcox, quoque, pro borealibus, puellarum
Venus; catameniis ante duodecimum annum accedentibus.

E.

PENINSULAR MONGOLIDÆ.

This division comprises tribes which, I believe, have not hitherto
been thrown in the same class, tribes separated from each other by
considerable breaks in the geographical, and even in the ethnological
continuity. Some of these lie within the Arctic Circle; others as far
south as 26° north latitude. Not less distant are the two extremes of
their social development; one section of the group partaking of the
civilization of China, another exhibiting the rudeness of the Samöeid,
and Yeniseian.

PENINSULAR NATIONS AND TRIBES.

    _Physical conformation._--Mongol.

    _Languages._--Agglutinate. In some cases excessively
    _poly_-syllabic.

    _Area._--Islands and peninsulas of the north-eastern coast of
    Asia.

    _Divisions._--1. The Koreans. 2. The Japanese. 3. The Aino. 4.
    The Koriaks. 5. The Kamskadales.

After indicating the points of difference, it is necessary to justify
the present classification by showing in what way the divisions of the
Peninsular Mongolidæ agree.

1. They agree in their land and water relations--being, as is expressed
by the epithet applied to them, the inhabitants of either _peninsulas_
or of islands that form an extension of them; a fact wherein we have,
to a certain extent, common conditions in the way of physical, and
common conditions in the way of social development.

2. They lie within a few degrees of the same _longitude_. This,
however, is a mere consequence of their position on the same side of
the same continent.

3. They are more maritime in locality than in habit; the Japanese being
the chief navigators of the group. Compared, however, with the Chinese
and Malays, the Japanese are but moderate navigators.

4. Although at present interrupted, there is good reason for believing
that the original area was continuous. The parts that are broken are
the tracts between Korea and the mouth of the Amur, and the south-west
coast of the sea of Okhotsk. Now this interval is filled up by the
Tungusian tribes; tribes whose area has certainly been an _encroaching_
one.

5. As compared with the Chinese, the Japanese and Korean languages are
_not_ monosyllabic.

6. As compared with the Yakut Turk, and the Lamut Tungusian, the
Kamskadale and Koriak are not Turanian.

7. What applies to the language of the Peninsular tribes applies to
their physical appearance also.

All this, however, may be the case without affording the least proof
of a true ethnological connection, _i.e._ of a connection in the way
of descent and affiliation; since even the similarity of physical
appearance, which, making allowance for differences of latitude and
civilization, is, from all accounts, very close, may merely be the
effect of common climatologic conditions, wholly independent of
relationship.

To prove this a fresh set of facts is required. Nor are they wanting.

1. The Peninsular languages have a general _glossarial_ connection
with each other; the _grammatical_ structure of only one of them (the
Japanese) being known.

2. The Peninsular languages have a general glossarial connection with a
third class.

In the opinion of the present writer the Peninsular languages agree
in the general fact of being more closely akin to those of _America_
than any other; and this, of itself, he considers to be a sufficient
reason for placing them in a separate division. It also, to a certain
extent, removes the evidence of their mutual affinity to another part
of the work, _i.e._ that which treats of the origin of the American
population; inasmuch as the same tables which connect the American
languages with the Peninsular ones, connect these last with each other.
In a series of monographs these proofs could have been given separate;
in a systematic work, however, it is necessary to economise space by
making the same lists prove two points at once. Hence, they will appear
in the sequel.

THE KOREANS.

    _Locality._--The peninsula of Korea; in Chinese, Kao-li.

    _Political relations._--Subject to China.

    _Religion._--That of Fo, modified.

    _Alphabet._--Not rhæmatographic.

    _Chief foreign influences._--Chinese, Mantshu, and Japanese; in
    the thirteenth century, Mongolian.

    _Physical appearance._--"The Kooraïan is superior in stature
    to the Japanese; yet his height seldom exceeds five-and-a-half
    Parisian feet: he is of strong, vigorous make, his figure
    well-proportioned, active, and full of life. The shape of his
    features bears in general the impress of the Mongolian race:
    the coarse broad countenance; the projecting cheek-bones; the
    strong under-jaw; the nose depressed at the root or upper
    part, and broadly-spread alæ; the large mouth, with broad
    lips; the peculiar position of the eyes, apparently angular
    in the direction of their opening; the rough, thick, black
    hair of the head, often inclined to a red brown colour; thick
    eyebrows; thin beard; with a reddish-yellow, wheat-coloured
    (_weitzen-farbich_), or straw-coloured complexion, announce
    him at once and at the first look, as an inhabitant of the
    north-eastern parts of Asia. This type is common to most of the
    Kooraïans observed by us, and they recognise it as that which
    is most distinctive of their nation."--SIEBOLD.[88]

The political relations towards China, the great amount of Chinese
influences upon the civilization of Korea, and the physical likeness
between the Koreans and the Chinese have had, in many instances,
the effect of diverting the attention of ethnologists from the true
affinities of this division of the Peninsular Mongolidæ; and it
should be added that the last of the three facts just enumerated is a
legitimate ground for looking, in the first instance, to China.

It is one which the present writer has no wish to conceal. The
question, however, must be viewed in all its bearings; in which case
we meet with the important fact that the Korean language is anything
rather than monosyllabic. Siebold, as I learn from Prichard, thought
that he perceived some analogies between the Japanese, the Korean, and
the Aino. He might have done more. He might have been sure of their
existence--and that to an extent sufficient to throw the three tongues
in the same category.

According to Klaproth,[89] speaking on the authority of Chinese
writers, the present inhabitants of Korea represent the mixture of
two separate populations; the true aborigines being the Koreans of
the south, called by the Chinese, the _Sam Han_=_the three tribes of
Han_. The northern are a people who came originally from a country
lying to the northward of the Chinese province of Tshy-li, called by
the Chinese writers _Sian-pi_. Whether this mixture, supposing it to
be real, represents the juxtaposition of tribes, widely different or
different in little more than name, is uncertain. Prichard, however,
has truly remarked that the physical characters of both must have been
nearly alike, inasmuch as they were each within the region where the
Turanian type prevails. It may also be added that no traces of a second
philological element in the difference between the Northern and the
Southern Korean dialects have yet been pointed out. In a language,
however, so imperfectly understood, this is not saying much.

In regard to the physical difference between different Korean
individuals no such negative statement can be made. Dr. Siebold[90]
writes as follows:--"In the countenances of the Kooraïans we may
recognise the characteristics of two different races of people. The
nose pressed down near the inner angle of the orbit and expanding
itself into broad alæ; the eyes obliquely placed, with the inner
angles widely separated from each other; the greater projection of
the cheek-bones; are marks of the race first described. But when
the root of the nose is more raised and the nose more straight,
the configuration of the countenance approaches to the stamp of
the Caucasian type, and the form of the eyes is more like that of
Europeans; the cheek-bones, too, are less prominent, and the sharp
profile, which is wanting to the Mongolian race, now makes its
appearance. The more the countenance belongs to the former cast the
less beard does it display, whereas, in persons of a sharp profile,
the beard is often rather strong. The skull is in these instances less
compressed, the forehead, which elsewhere retreats, is straight, and
the whole aspect of the countenance displays a certain noble expression
which is looked for in vain in the rough traits of the Mongolian type."

As evidence, however, to the presence of a foreign element of the kind
implied in the Chinese account, this is imperfect--indeed I have no
reason to believe that it is meant to be such--since it is not said by
Dr. Siebold that this difference of feature coincides with the northern
and southern portions of the population.

THE JAPANESE.

    _Localities._--From south to north--the Lú Chú Islands, Kiúsiú,
    Sikoko, Nipon, the southern part of Jesso.

    _Political relations._--Independent.

    _Alphabet._--Not rhæmatographic.

    _Religion._--_a._ Of Chinese origin--1. That of Fo, modified;
    2. The philosophical system of Confucius, modified.

    _b._ The original Paganism.

    _Physical Appearance._--"The people of this nation are well
    made, active, free, and easy in their motions, with stout
    limbs, although their strength is not to be compared with
    that of the northern inhabitants of Europe. The men are of
    the middling size, and in general not very corpulent; yet I
    have seen some that were fat. They are of a yellowish colour
    all over, sometimes bordering on brown, and sometimes on
    white. The lower class of people, who in summer, when at work,
    lay bare the upper part of their bodies, are sun-burnt, and
    consequently brown. Ladies of distinction, who seldom go out
    in the open air without being covered, are perfectly white.
    It is by their eyes that, like the Chinese, these people are
    distinguishable. These organs have not that rotundity, which
    those of other nations exhibit, but are oblong, small, and are
    sunk deeper in the head, in consequence of which these people
    have almost the appearance of being pink-eyed. Their eyes are
    dark-brown, or rather black, and the eyelids form in the great
    angle of the eye a deep furrow, which makes the Japanese look
    as if they were sharp-sighted, and discriminates them from
    other nations. The eyebrows are also placed somewhat higher.
    Their heads are in general large, and their necks short; their
    hair black, thick, and shining, from the use they make of
    oils. Their noses, although not flat, are yet rather thick and
    short."--THUNBERG.[91]

    "The population of Fizen, as well as that of the whole island
    of Kiúsiú, is divided between the dwellers on the coast,
    and those of the interior and of the towns, who differ from
    each other in their physical aspect, language, manners, and
    character.

    "The coasts, and the numberless islands which border on them,
    are inhabited by fishers and seafaring people, men small
    but vigorous, of a deeper colour than those of the other
    classes. Their hair, more frequently black than of a red brown
    colour,--_brun-rougeâtre_,†--is crisped in some individuals
    who have also the facial angle strongly marked,--_très
    prononcée_,--their lips puffed,--_enflées_,--the nose small,
    slightly aquiline, and depressed at the root,--_renfoncée à la
    racine_.

    "Address, perseverance, boldness, a frankness which never
    amounts to effrontery, a natural benevolence and a complaisance
    which approaches to the abject; such are the characteristic
    qualities of the sea-coast people.

    "The natives of the interior of Kiúsiú, who devote themselves
    chiefly to agriculture, are a larger race, and are
    distinguishable by a broad and flattened countenance; by the
    prominence of their cheek-bones, and the distance between
    the inner canthi; by their broad and very flat nose, their
    large mouth; by their hair, which is of a deep brown colour,
    inclining to red-brown, _tirant sur le brun-rougeâtre_,--and by
    the clearer colour of their skin. Among the cultivators, who
    are perpetually exposed to the air and sun, the skin becomes
    red: the women, who protect themselves from the influence of
    the atmosphere, have generally a fine and white skin, and the
    cheeks of the young girls display a blooming carnation.

    "This agricultural race is laborious, sober, pious, cordial,
    and consequently hospitable. The savage nature, tempered from
    infancy by the constant observance of the forms of politeness
    and the etiquette of the country, does not exclude a certain
    nobility, and never degenerates into grossness as among the
    peasantry of Europe. The husbandmen of Fizen are even too
    ceremonious."--SIEBOLD.[92]

    Of the nobles of Japan, Kæmpfer says, they "are somewhat more
    majestic in their shape and countenance than the generality,
    and are more like Europeans."[93]

The notices of tribes darker in colour than the dominant part of
the population, of which we have seen so much in the oceanic area,
re-appear in the history of Japan. They are stated to belong to either
the interior or to the southern portion of the empire. This, however,
may be the case without involving the necessity of assuming a second
source for the population; at the same time such a second source is no
ethnological improbability. The darker Amphinesians of Formosa, may
possibly have tended farther northward.

The Japanese Alphabet is of Chinese origin; changed from a
rhæmatographic to a syllabic form. Indeed the great civilizing
influence in Japan has been from China. This, according to the doubts
expressed in a previous[94] part of the present work, limits the
antiquity of the Japanese history, and the value of the Japanese
traditions.

The original paganism of Japan is probably to be studied in the Kurile
Islands. Siebold's notice of it (extracted from Prichard)[95], is as
follows:--

"The Kamis or gods of the original Japanese, were, according to a
collection of the national traditions, not eternal. The first five gods
originated at the separation of elements in which the world began:
they are the Amatsukami. A bud, similar to that of the _Asi_, the
_Erianthus Japonicus_, expanded itself between heaven and earth and
produced _Kuni-soko-tatsino-mi-koto_, or the 'Maker of the dry land,'
who governed the world, as yet unfashioned, during an immeasurable
space of time, which was more than a hundred thousand millions of
years. This kami had many successors whose reigns were nearly as long.
Their temples are still places of worship in Oomi and Ise, districts
of Japan. There were seven dynasties of celestial gods. The last,
Iza-na-gi, standing on a bridge that floated between heaven and earth,
said to his wife, Iza-na-mi, 'Come on; there must be some habitable
land: let us try to find it.' He dipped his pike, ornamented with
precious stones, into the surrounding waters and agitated the waves:
the drops which fell from his pike when he raised it thickened and
formed an island, named 'Ono-koro-sima.' On this island Iza-na-gi
and his wife descended, and made the other provinces of the Japanese
empire. From them descended the five dynasties or reigns of earthly
gods. From the last of these originated Zin-moo-teu-woo, the ruler
of men, who, as above mentioned, founded the empire of Japan, and
conquered the aboriginal tribes. From Zin-moo's reign is dated the
first year of the epoch of Japanese chronology, coinciding with the
seventh year of the Chinese emperor Hoéï-wâng, B. C. 660. Such is the
cosmogony of the Japanese. Their highest adoration is given to the
deity of the sun, offspring of Iza-na-gi and Iza-na-mi: to him are
subordinate all the genii or demons which govern the elements and all
the operations of nature, as well as the souls of men, who after death
go to the gods or to an infernal place of punishment, according to
their actions on earth. Sacred festivals are held at certain seasons
of the year and at changes of the moon. The whole number of kamis or
gods worshipped by the Japanese amounts to three thousand one hundred
and thirty-two. These gods are worshipped in different temples without
idols."

THE LÚ-CHÚ ISLANDS.

    _Name._--Chinese, Lieou-Khieou. Native, Oghii.

    _Religion._--Buddhism.

    _Political relations._--Tribute paid both to China and Japan.

    _Language._--Akin to the Japanese.

    _Alphabets._--Chinese and Japanese.

    _Physical appearance._--"Their hair, which is of a glossy
    black, is shaved off the crown. Their beards and mustachios
    are allowed to grow. They are rather low in stature, but
    are well formed, and have an easy, graceful carriage. Their
    colour is not good, some being very dark, and others nearly
    white, but in most instances they are of a deep copper. This
    is fully compensated by the sweetness and intelligence of
    their countenance. Their eyes, which are black, have a placid
    expression."[96]

THE AINO.

    _Locality._--_a._ On the Continent.--1. The mouth of the Amur.
    2. The southernmost extremity of Kamskatka. _b._ The Kurile
    Islands, and the northern part of Jesso. _c._ The island, or
    peninsula of Saghalin.

    _Political relations._--Subject to China, Russia, and Japan.

    _Religion._--Imperfect Buddhism. The doctrine of Siúdú.
    Paganism.

    _Physical appearance._--Skin darker than that of the Japanese,
    but, probably (from the iris being lighter) this is through
    being more exposed.

An Aino tribe occupying the banks of the Amur, and noticed by
Timkowski,[97] under the name of Kileng, or Kilerzi, is probably the
same with the Gilacken[98] of Von Middendorf. Of these the appearance
is varied, sometimes Japanese, sometimes Caucasian.

The moral character of the Aino has generally been described in highly
favourable terms. Their religion is probably allied to the original
paganism of Japan.

"The sun, the moon, the sea, and other striking objects of nature, are
the divinities of the Aino: they represent them under rude symbols and
offer sacrifices to them. The men of Karafto burn upon the shore the
heads of animals which they have caught, as a gift to the sea. Daily
the Aino addresses the following words to the divinity who protects
his cabin:--'We thank thee,[99] Kamoï, for having dwelt here in our
coast and watched for us,' and he repeats after the prayer, 'Kamoï ever
take care of us.' They believe likewise that there is a God of heaven
and of hell; this is the residence of Nitsul Kamoï. They have also
little wooden temples containing images of their idols carved in wood.
Yearly they have a festival termed Omsia, when all the family regale
themselves with _saké_ and bear's flesh. In their marriages the Aino
are careful to avoid too near relationship. In Karafto, the inhabitants
of the north take wives from the southern part. The chief of the
village confirms the marriage, which is concluded on the dowry or price
being paid to the father of the betrothed. The women are free, and in
Karafto rule their husbands.

"Before funerals the Aino puts on a new coat made of fine bark. The
Smerenkow burns the body and collects the ashes which are kept in a
little chapel, makes offerings to the presiding idol, and covers with
branches the spot where the body was consumed. They erect stakes in
honour of the defunct, from the wood of the house, which is always
pulled down. Bodies of the rich receive honours of a different kind:
they are embalmed, filled with odoriferous herbs, and dried during a
year, then placed in a sepulchre, where they are annually visited by
their relatives. Yet the Aino have no calendar and reckon time by the
fall of the leaf. They have neither letters nor money. They apply two
remedies in case of all sickness, a '_boletus laricis_' and the root
_ikeme_, supposed to be a sort of _asclepias_."[100]

Two statements have been made concerning the Aino, which are curious
if true.

1. That of all men they are the most covered with hair; even their
backs being covered with it. I am inclined to class this with the tails
of the Nicobar islanders.

2. That they ride upon bears; which the females suckle when young,
and so tame; a fact, when verified, of equal novelty in zoology and
ethnography.

The Peninsula of Sagalin, and the island of Jesso are the probable
lines by which Japan was peopled; at least so far as the simple
land-and-water conditions are concerned. And I know nothing that
counteracts them.

_The Kachhall._--This is a tribe mentioned by Von Middenorf as
inhabiting the south bank of the Amur. He knows it, however, only from
the description given by the Ainos. Their stature is short; the lower
extremities disproportionately so.

THE KORIAKS.

    _Present area._--The parts between the Omolon, an eastern
    branch of the Kolyma, the Arctic Ocean, Behring's Straits, and
    the Gulf of Anadyr, except only a tract of coast in the two
    latter localities, inhabited by the _Namollos_. Southwards, to
    the middle of the Peninsula of Kamskatka, across the northern
    portion of which it extends. The head of the Gulf of Penjinsk,
    in the Sea of Okhotsk. Conterminous with the Yukahiri, Lamut
    Tungusians, Kamskadales, and Namollos.

    _Supposed ancient area._--As far west as the Kolyma, possibly
    farther. Probably also farther south. On the other hand, _not_
    so far east as at present; the Namollos being believed to have
    extended so far as Shelagskoi Noss.

    _Divisions._--_a._ Northern Koriaks, or Tshuktshi; _b._
    Southern Koriaks, or Koræki. The two divisions separated by the
    river Anadyr.

    _Habits._--Nomadic. _Kora_, which is said to mean a rein-deer,
    is held to be the root of the term Koræki, a name which, for
    the southern Koriaks, is stated to be indigenous.

    _Religion._--Shamanism. In some cases an imperfect Christianity.

    _Political relations._--The Southern Koriaks tributary to
    Russia; the Northern, (or Tshuktshi) independent.

    _Physical appearance._--The Koræki are taller, and with eyes
    less sunken, and noses less depressed than the Kamskadales;
    differential points which are still more marked in the
    Tshuktshi.

The southern Koriaks have probably encroached upon the Kamskadales,
and been encroached upon by the Lamut Tungusians. The Tshuktshi have,
in like manner, receded in one quarter and encroached in another.
Before the Russians they have retreated towards the east and north.
The Yukahiri tribes, however, they have displaced and, in some cases,
exterminated. They still hold their independence.

This, in some measure, accounts for our imperfect knowledge of them,
little being ascertained except their uncivilized, nomadic character,
their political independence, the Shamanistic nature of their religion,
and their general resemblance in respect to physical conformation to
the _American_ Indians.

Polygamy is general amongst them, and according to Von Matiushkin,
the chief authority upon the subject, the women, although certainly
slaves, are allowed more influence, and are subjected to less labour
than is the case amongst most other rude tribes. Deformed children are
destroyed, and so are those which, for other reasons, are likely to
become difficult to rear. So also are such aged and infirm persons, as
have become unfit for wear and tear of a nomadic life within the Arctic
circle.

So great is the influence of the Shamans, or so low is the value set
upon human life, that in 1814, after a terrible storm, followed by a
fatal epidemic, and by a murrain among the cattle, the result of a
general consultation having been, that one of the most respected of the
chiefs, named Kotshen, must be sacrificed, to appease the irritated
spirits, the sacrifice took place accordingly. In the first instance,
indeed, the commands of the Shamans were rejected. The plague, however,
continued, when Kotshen at last declared his willingness to submit. No
one, however, could be found to be his executioner; until his own son
plunged a knife in his heart, and gave his body to the Shamans.

The Tshuktshi habitations consist of an outer and larger tent, under
which are two or three smaller ones; these last being made of skins
stretched over laths, and so low, that the persons inside can only sit
upon the ground. It has no opening for air or light, and is entered by
an aperture barely large enough for the body of the owner. An earthen
vessel filled with train oil, and with a wick of moss, serves as a lamp
rather as a fire; and so close is the atmosphere, that the heat which
it affords is sufficient. Here the family sit, during the intense cold
of an Arctic winter, either wholly naked, or with the very scantiest
clothing.

They call themselves _Tshekto_=_people_. "They are distinguished from
the other Asiatic races, by their stature and physiognomy, which
appears to me to _resemble that of the Americans_,[101] but the
language is different."

THE KAMSKADALES.

    _Locality._--The southern half (or third) of the Peninsula
    of Kamskatka, with the exception of the extreme point of the
    peninsula; which is inhabited by the Aino.

    _Native name._--Itülmen.

    _Dialects._--Four. That of Tigil, so much mixed with Koriak, as
    to be sometimes quoted as the Koriak of Tigil.

    _Physical appearance._--Undersized Mongols, with little beard,
    sunken eyes and depressed noses.

The true Kamskadales are a nearly extinct race. Amongst the causes of
their rapid diminution a kind of death, rare amongst savage nations, is
enumerated--suicide.

"According to Steller, the Kamtschatkans have no idea of a Supreme
Being, but this must have been true only in some peculiar sense of
the expression, for he adds an account of their mythology, which in
part contradicts the above statement. They believe, as he says, in
the immortality of souls. All creatures, even to the smallest fly,
are destined, as they believe, to another eternal life under the
earth, where they are to meet with similar adventures to those of
their present state of existence, but never to suffer hunger. In that
world there is no punishment of crimes, which, in the opinion of the
Kamskadales, meet their chastisement in the present life, but the rich
are destined to become poor and the poor here are to be enriched. The
sky and stars existed before the earth, which was made by Katchu, or,
as others say, brought by Katchu and his sister Katligith with them
from heaven and fastened upon the sea. After Katchu had made the earth
he left heaven and came to dwell in Kamtschatka. He had a son, Tigil,
and a daughter, Sidanka, who married and became parents of offspring:
the latter clothed themselves with the leaves of trees and fed upon
the bark, for beasts were not yet made, and the gods knew not how to
catch fish. When Katchu went to drink, the hills and valleys were
formed under his feet, for the earth had till then been a flat surface.
Tigil finding his family increase invented nets and betook himself to
fishing. The Kamtschatkans have, like other pagans, images of their
gods."[102]

Now _Tigil_ is the name of the chief river of Kamskatka; the one which
divides the Kamskadales from the Korki; so that, in Tigil the god, we
have the _eponymus_ of what in the Bodo, as in many other countries
besides, is a common object of reverence.[103]

FOOTNOTES:

[88] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 522-3.

[89] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 497.

[90] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 526.

[91] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 521-2.

[92] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 527-8.

[93] Id. vol. iv. p. 528.

[94] See pp. 55-60.

[95] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 496.

[96] Captain Hall's Voyage to the Great Loo-choo Island, p.
71.--Prichard, vol. iv.

[97] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 451.

[98] Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science for 1846.

[99] _Kami_=_God_ in Japanese.

[100] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 455-6.

[101] Von Matiushkin.

[102] Prichard, vol. iv. p. 449-50.

[103] Apud hanc gentem agarici cujusdam succus potui, inter convivia
inservit. Ebrietatem inducit; quodque magis mirum est, urina ebriorum,
quæ ipsa ab aliis potatur, idem pollet. Neque vim amittit per tertiam
vel quartam vesicam transmissa.

F.

AMERICAN MONGOLIDÆ.

The phænomena which occur in Asiatic ethnology, in Caucasus and High
Asia, prepare us for those of the ethnology of America. In Asia we
found, on one side, the Turk tribes spread over a space nearly as large
as Europe, and that with but little variation--a typical instance of
what constitutes a large ethnological area. Then, on the other hand,
were the fastnesses of Caucasus, where we found, packed up within a
very limited area, a multiplicity of mutually unintelligible languages,
languages that were counted by the dozen and the score--the Circassian,
Georgian, Lesgian, Mizjeji, and their subordinate dialects. So that
within a small geographical range we had, in juxtaposition with each
other, the _maximum_ of extension and the _maximum_ of limitation.

Now this is what we shall find in America--large areas, like the Turk,
in contact with small ones, like the Ossetic.

But, in America, there are two points of difference--

1st. The multiplicity of languages within a limited area is the rule
rather than the exception.

2nd. There is not always so peculiar a class of physical conditions
as is to be found in the mountain fastnesses of Caucasus to account
for it; since in America we find steppes and prairies, like those of
Turkestan and Mongolia, inhabited by tribes as different from each
other as those of the most isolated and isolating mountain-valleys.

Furthermore--when the American languages differ from one another, they
differ in a manner to which Asia has supplied no parallel.

Also--when the American languages agree with one another, they agree in
a manner to which Asia has furnished no parallel. This, however, is at
present only indicated. Its explanation will find place when we have
treated of the Eskimo, Kolúch, and certain other families.

THE ESKIMO.

Unimportant as are the Eskimo in a political and historical view,
their peculiar geographical position gives them an importance in all
questions of ethnology: since one of the highest problems turns upon
the affinities of this family.

It has long been known that the nation which inhabits Greenland and
Labrador is the nation which inhabits the North-western parts of
Russian America as well. It is found on the American side of Behring's
Straits, and it is found on the Asiatic side also. So that the _Eskimo
is the only family common to the Old and New World_; an important fact
in itself, and one made more important still by the Eskimo localities
being the only localities where the two continents come into proximity.

Now, if these facts had stood alone, unmodified by any phænomena that
detracted from their significance, the peopling of America would have
been no more a mystery than the peopling of Europe. Such, however, is
not the case. They neither stand alone, nor stand unmodified.

The reasons that lie against what is, at the first blush, the common
sense answer to the question, _how was America peopled?_ are, chiefly,
as follows--

1. The distance of the north-eastern parts of Asia from any probable
centre of population--_cradle of the human race_--so-called. For these
parts to have been the passage, Kamskatka must have been full to
overflowing before the the Mississippi had been trodden by the foot of
a human being.

2. The physical differences between the Eskimo and the American Indian.

3. The difficulties presented by the Eskimo language.

It is only these two last reasons to which I attribute much validity.
The first of the three I put low in the way of an objection; _i. e._,
not much higher than I put the systems founded upon the Icelandic and
Welsh traditions, the drifting of Japanese junks, and the effects
of winds and currents upon Polynesian canoes. Without, at present,
doubting whether the occurrences here alluded to have happened
_since_ America was peopled by the present race, I limit myself to an
expression of dissent from the doctrine that by any such unsatisfactory
processes the _original_ population found its way: in other words, I
believe that our only choice lies between the doctrine that makes the
American nations to have originated from one or more separate pairs
of progenitors, and the doctrine that either Behring's Straits or the
line of Islands between Kamskatka and the Peninsula of Aliaska, was the
highway between the two worlds--from Asia to America, or _vice versâ_.
I say _vice versâ_, since it by no means follows that, because Asia
and America shall have been peopled by the same race, the original
of that race must, _necessarily_, have arisen in Asia; inasmuch as
the statement that _the descendants of the same pair peopled two
continents_, taken alone, proves nothing as to the particular continent
in which that pair first appeared. Against America, and in favour of
Asia being the birthplace of the Human Race--its unity being assumed--I
know many valid reasons; reasons valid enough and numerous enough to
have made the notion of _New_ World being the oldest of two a paradox.
Nevertheless, I know no absolutely conclusive ones.

Omitting, however, this question, the chief _primâ facie_ objections to
the view that America was peopled from North-eastern Asia, lie in the--

1. _Physical differences between the Eskimo and the American
Indian._--Stunted as he is in stature, the Eskimo is essentially a
Mongol in physiognomy. His nose is flattened, his cheek-bones project,
his eyes are often oblique, and his skin is more yellow and brown than
red or copper-coloured. On the other hand, in his most typical form,
the American Indian is _not_ Mongol in physiognomy. With the same black
straight hair, he has an aquiline nose, a prominent profile, and a skin
more red or copper-coloured than either yellow or brown. Putting this
along with other marked characteristics, moral as well as physical, it
is not surprising that the American should have been taken as the type
and sample of a variety in contrast with the Mongolian.

2. _Philological arguments._--Few languages, equally destitute of
literature, have been better or longer known than the Eskimo. For
this we have to thank the Danish missionaries of Greenland--Egede,
most especially. From the grammar of Fabricius, the Eskimo was soon
known to be a language of long compound words, and of regular, though
remarkable, inflections. It was known, too, to be very unlike the
better-known languages of Europe and Asia. Finally, it has been
admitted to be, in _respect to its grammatical structure at least_,
American.

So much for the ethnographical philology of the Eskimo language as
determined by its grammatical structure; upon which we may notice the
remarkable antagonism of the two tests. Physically, the Eskimo is a
Mongol and Asiatic. Philologically, he is American--at least in respect
to the principles upon which his speech is constructed.

And now we may examine the details of the geographical area occupied by
the Eskimo. Its direction is _double_.

From east to west (or _vice versâ_) it runs along the shores of the
Arctic Sea, in a line of irregular breadth; a line which is either
wholly continuous or else broken at one point only--a point which will
be noticed in the sequel. On the coast of the Atlantic the line widens,
and in Greenland it attains its maximum breadth.

From north to south it equally keeps the line of coast, extending to
irregular distances inland, but rarely very far.

However, between the direction in latitude, and the direction in
longitude, as this distribution of the Eskimo area may be called, there
is a difference which is a very important one. The Eskimos of the
Atlantic are not only easily distinguished from the tribes of American
aborigines which lie to the south or west of them, and with which they
come in contact, but they stand in strong contrast and opposition
to them--a contrast and opposition exhibited equally in appearance,
manners, language, and one which has had full justice done to it by
those who have written on the subject.

It is not so with the Eskimos of Russian America, and the parts that
look upon the Pacific. _These_ are so far from being separated by any
broad and trenchant line of demarcation from the proper Indians or
the so-called Red Race, that they pass gradually into it; and that
in respect to their habits, manner, and appearance, equally. So far
is this the case that he would be a bold man who should venture, in
speaking of the southern tribes of Russian America, to say _here the
Eskimo area ends, and here a different area begins_.

Whenever this has been done, it has been done on the strength of an
undue extension of the phenomena of the Eskimo area on the Atlantic; it
being supposed that as the Eskimo and Indians differ unequivocally on
one side of the continent, they must needs do so on the other also--a
natural, but a hasty and incorrect assumption.

Beginning with the Eskimo of the parts between Asia and America, the
first we meet with are--

_The Aleutians._--The inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands, properly
so-called (_i.e._, of Behring's and Copper Islands), of the
Rat-Islands, of the Andreanowsky Islands, of the Prebülowüni-Islands,
of Unalashka, and of Kadiak, are all Eskimo; a fact which numerous
vocabularies give us full means of ascertaining. In respect to the
difference of speech between particular islands, there is external
evidence that it is considerable. The people of Atcha have a difficulty
in understanding the Unalashkans, and _vice versâ_. Again, the
Kadiak vocabulary, as found in Lisiansky, differs very notably from
the Unalashkan of the same author; indeed, I doubt whether the two
languages are mutually intelligible.

_The Namollos._--These are the Asiatic Eskimo of the Continent. The
distribution is along the coast from Tshuktshi-Noss to the mouth of
the Anadyr; from each of which we have vocabularies in Klaproth's Asia
Polyglotta. In respect to their position in Asia, two views may be
taken.

1. That they are the aborigines of the country which they inhabit,
and, consequently, that they are an _older_ stock than those of
America.--This is favoured by the fact, that habitations of a Namollo
character have been found in the country of Tshuktshi, and even in that
of the Yukahiri.

2. That they are of comparatively recent date as Asiatics, and, as
such, but offsets from the parent stock in America.--This is favoured
by the similarity of language; since the differences between the
Namollo and the American Eskimo are not such as indicate a very long
separation.

_The Konægi._--Occupants of the Island of Kadiak, and of the Peninsula
of Aliaska.

_The Tshugatsi._--These are the natives of Prince William's Sound,
closely allied to the Kadiaks. According to tradition, they came from
the North.

This is the proper place for noticing an element in the traditions,
or rather in the mythology, of the Eskimo of these parts. All or most
of them agree in deriving their origin from one or two animals--the
_raven_ or _dog_. Now the Tshugatsi take their descent from the _dog_.

The name _Tshugatsi_ is so like that of the northern Koriaks
(Tshuktshi) that it is unlikely that both are native. In which quarter
it is applied correctly, is a point that some future investigator must
decide.

_The Kuskokwim._--Locality from Cape Rodney to the Peninsula of
Aliaska. Numbers, according to Baer, about 7,000.

Such is the direction of the Eskimos of the Asiatic side of America. It
is, however, inconvenient to say that they form the _eastern_ branch of
the stock, because, when we begin with the Atlantic side of America,
we find that they become _western_; indeed, they are either one or the
other, according to the point from which we begin to describe them.

We now take the other extremity of the Eskimo area, which is the
southernmost point of Greenland, Cape Farewell, within a few days' sail
of the European island of Iceland. Doing this, we move from east to
west, and determine where the two divisions meet.

_Greenlanders._--The language of the natives of Greenland, and those
of the coast of Labrador, is mutually intelligible; the similarity in
physical appearances and in manners being equally close.

_Proper Eskimo._--These are the inhabitants of the shores of Hudson's
Bay, and the coast of Labrador. Their dialect is understood at least
as far as the Mackenzie-river, in 137° W. L.; where Captain Franklin's
interpreter, who came from Hudson's Bay, found no difficulty in being
understood by the natives of the parts last mentioned. About three
degrees westward, however, the Eskimo of Greenland and Labrador comes
_to be understood with difficulty at first_. Here, then, it is, where
the two divisions of the Eskimo dialects meet.

THE KOLÚCH.

I adopt this term in deference to the usage of ethnologists, without
professing to give a value to it in the way of classification, since
I think it much more likely that the so-called Kolúch languages form
a sub-division of the Eskimo than a separate substantive class of
their own. _Geographically_, however, the term means the languages
spoken along the coast of the North-Pacific from Cook's Inlet to the
parts immediately north of Queen Charlotte's Islands; languages which
are distinguished from the Eskimo to the north, the Athabascan to
the east, and the Nas and Haidah to the south, and languages which
_politically_ belong to Russian America; since the Tungaas, which
is the southernmost (so-called) Kolúch dialect, is the most northern
with which the traders of the Hudson-Bay Company come in contact. The
extension towards the interior seems limited. The particular Kolúch
dialect best known is that of Sitka, which, in Lisiansky's Voyage, is
compared with the Kenay, Kadiak, and Unalashkan. Now it is a fact upon
which the present author lays considerable stress, that the affinities
between the Sitka and Kenay, which are _both_ considered as Kolúch, are
but little more numerous than those between the Sitka and Kadiak, the
Kenay and Unalashkan, &c., where only _one_ is considered as Kolúch.
The chief Kolúch dialects are as follows:--

_The Kenay of Cook's Inlet._--These are about 460 families strong. They
assert that they are derived from the hills of the interior, whence
they moved coastwards. In the way of mythology, they are descended from
the _raven_.

_The Atna of the Copper River._--Here the reader must be cautioned
against being misled by the name; as it will appear again, applied to
another division of Indians, the Atnas or Shushwap, who are a distinct
people from the Atnas of the Copper River. These last occupy the river
last-named; where they work in iron, as well as in copper, burn their
dead, and derive their descent from the _raven_.

_The Koltshani._--These are the Kolúches of the interior, falling
into two divisions; the language of one of which is intelligible to
the Atnas, and the Kenays equally. The more distant one is savage and
inhospitable, with the credit of indulging in cannibalism. The name
seems to belong to the Atna language; where _Koltshani_=_stranger_.
It also seems the word on which the scientific term, Kolúch, has been
founded.

_The Ugalents, or Ugalyakhmutsi._--About thirty-eight families.
Locality, King William's Sound, and the parts around Mount Elias.--The
Ugalyakhmutsi are conterminous with the Tshugatsi Eskimo, and as (on
the sea-coast at least) the Kenays lie to the north of these last,
there is a partial discontinuity of the Eskimo area. The difference
between the Ugalyakhmutsi, and the Eskimo tongues is exhibited in
the Mithridates. The present writer considers that it is exceedingly
over-rated. Indeed, from the first investigations which he made upon
the subject, where he compared the Ugalyakhmutsi of the Mithridates
with the Sitka, Kenay, Kadiak, and Unalashkan of Lisiansky, he was
inclined to place the Ugalents in the Eskimo class at once--_and
that in its more limited extent_. Nevertheless, the tables of Baer's
Beyträge sufficiently show that it has a closer resemblance to the
Atnah and Kolooch. At all events, its transitional character is
undoubted. In manners and appearance the Ugalentses are Kolúch, and in
their manner of life, migratory nomades and fishers.

_The Sitkans._--Of the Sitka dialect we have numerous vocabularies; one
by Cook, under the name of the Norfolk Sound language. The number who
speak this, is put by Mr. Green, an American missionary, at 6500.

_The Tungaas._--Of this we have only a short vocabulary of Mr. Tolmic,
which is stated by Dr. Scouler, to exhibit affinities with the Sitkan.
This is the case. Whether, however, these affinities with the languages
to the north of the Tungaas localities, are so much greater than
those with the tongues spoken southwards, as to justify us in drawing
a line between the true Kolúch dialects and those that will soon be
enumerated, has yet to be ascertained. Assuming, however, that this is
the case, and, again, insisting upon the conventional character of the
present class, and the transitional nature of the Kolúch languages, I
consider that the undoubted Kolúch dialects end in the neighbourhood of
Queen Charlotte's Islands.

Still there are tribes to the back of those on the coast which have yet
to be noticed:--

_The Inkhuluklait._--Dwelling on the river Chulitna, and allied to the--

_Magimut._--who are allied to the--

_Inkalit._--These, in one village alone, are 700 strong; their language
has been said to be a mixture of the Kenay, _Unalashkan_, and Atna. The
Inkalit are neighbours of the Kuskokwim, with whom they are continually
at war.

It is highly probable that the Inkalit language, when better known,
will present the same phenomenon of transition with the Ugalyakhmutsi.

DOUBTFUL KOLÚCHES.

1. THE DÍGOTHI(?)

    _Synonym._--Loucheux.

    _Locality._--The Peel River, a feeder of the M'Kenzie.

The ethnological position of the _Dígothi_, _Loucheux_, or _Squinters_,
is uncertain. Mr. Isbister, who in 1847 laid before the British
Association for the Advancement of Science a short notice of them,
stated that their language was soon learned by the Eskimo, and _vice
versâ_. It was also soon learned by the Chippewyans, and _vice versâ_.
This was _primâ facie_ evidence of its intermediate or transitional
character. More important, however, is the following short vocabulary;
which is Mr. Isbister's also. Here the closest affinities are with the
_Kenay_, itself a language of so doubtful a position, that although the
present writer considers it to be Kolúch, most others isolate it.

  ENGLISH.               LOUCHEUX.           KENAY.

  _White man_            Manah-gool-ait
  _Indian_               Tenghie[104]        teena=_man_.
  _Eskimo_               nak-high                "
  _Wind_                 etsee                   "
  _Head wind_            newatsee                "
  _Fair wind_            jeatsee                 "
  _Water_                tchon[105]          thun-agalgus.
  _Sun_                  shethie             channoo.
  _Moon_                 shet-sill           tlakannoo.
  _Stars_                kumshaet            ssin.
  _Meat_                 beh                 kutskonna.
  _Deer_                 et-han                 "
  _Head_                 umitly              aissagge.
  _Arm_                  tchiegen            skona.
  _Leg_                  tsethan                "
  _Coat_                 chiegee                "
  _Blanket_              tsthee                 "
  _Knife_                tlay                kissaki.
  _Foot_                 jetly                  "
  _Yes_                  eh                     "
  _No_                   illuck-wha             "
  _Far_                  nee-jah                "
  _Near_                 neak-wha               "
  _Strong_               nehaintah              "
  _Cold_                 kateitlee           ktckchuly.
  _Long_                 kawa                   "
  _Enough_               ekcho, ekatarainyo     "
  _Eat_                  beha                   "
  _Drink_                chidet-leh             "
  _Come_                 chatchoo               "
  _Go away_              eenio                  "
  _I_                    see                 su
  _Thou_                 nin                 nan.
  _(My) father_          (se) tsay           stukta.
  _(My) son_             (se) jay            _ssi_-ja.
  _(My) daughter_        (se) zaa            _ssx_-za.
  _(My) wife_            (te) chiliquah         "
  _(My) brother-in-law_  sundayee               "

In physical appearance the Dígothi are athletic fine-looking men,
considerably above the average stature, most of them above six feet
high, and well-proportioned. They have black hair, fine sparkling eyes,
moderately high cheek-bones, regular teeth, and a fair complexion.
Their countenances are handsome and expressive.

2. THE NEHANNI.(?)

    _Extract from Mr. Isbister_.--These range the country between
    the Russian settlements on the Stikine River and the Rocky
    Mountains, where they are conterminous with the Carriers of
    New Caledonia on the south, and the Daho-dinnies of M'Kenzie's
    River on the west. They are a brave and warlike race; the
    scourge and terror of the country round. It is a curious
    circumstance, and not the less remarkable from the contrast
    to the general rule in such cases, that this turbulent and
    ungovernable horde were under the direction of a _woman_, who
    ruled them, too, with a rod of iron, and was obeyed with a
    readiness and unanimity truly marvellous. She was certainly a
    remarkable character, and possessed of no ordinary share of
    intelligence. From the fairness of her complexion and hair,
    and the general cast of her features, she was believed to have
    some European blood. Whether through her influence or not,
    the condition of the females among the Nehannies stands much
    higher than among the American Indians generally. The proper
    locality of the Nehanni tribe is the vicinity of the sea-coast,
    where they generally pass the summer. In the winter they range
    the country in the interior for the purpose of bartering, or
    plundering, furs from the inland tribes; acting as middlemen
    between them and the Russian traders. They agree in general
    character with the Koloochians, having light complexions, long
    and lank hair, fine eyes and teeth, and many of them strong
    beards and moustaches. They are not generally tall, but active
    and vigorous, bold and treacherous in disposition; fond of
    music and dancing, and ingenious and tasteful in their habits
    and decorations. They subsist principally on salmon, and evince
    a predilection for a fish diet, which indicates their maritime
    origin. Like all the north-west tribes, they possess numerous
    slaves; inhabitants, it is understood, of some of the numerous
    islands which stud the coast, and either taken in war or bought
    of the neighbouring tribes.[106]

The languages which now follow are known but imperfectly; so that the
classes which they form are all provisional, and of uncertain value. It
is certainly not safe to call them Kolúch, although they all contain a
notable per-centage of Kolúch words; nor yet is it advisable to throw
them all together as members of a separate division--equivalent to,
but distinct from, the Kolúch. For this, they are hardly sufficiently
like each other, and hardly sufficiently unlike those spoken to the
north of them. In other words we are now in one of those difficult
ethnological areas, where we have no broad and trenchant lines of
demarcation, but the phenomena of intermixture instead. This is the
coast and a little beyond the coast of the Pacific, where the common
climatologic conditions presented by a deeply-indented sea-board, make
this arrangement natural as well as convenient.

THE HAIDAH DIALECTS OR LANGUAGES.

    _Locality._--Queen Charlotte's Islands, and the southern
    extremity of the Prince of Wales's Archipelago.

    _Spoken by._--_a_, the Skittegats; _b_, Massets; _c_,
    Kumshahas; _d_, Kyganie.

CHEMMESYAN.

    _Locality._--N.L. 55°, sea-coast and islands.

    _Divisions._--1. Naaskok, inhabiting Observatory Inlet; 2.
    Chemmesyan, in Dundas's Island, and Stephenson's Island; 3, 4,
    Kitshatlah and Kethumish, in Princess Royal Islands.

BILLECHÚLA.

    _Locality._--The mouth of the Salmon River.

    In M'Kenzie's Travels we find a few words from a tribe on
    the Salmon River. Their locality is called by M'Kenzie the
    _Friendly Village_. By the aid of Mr. Tolmie's vocabularies we
    can now place this hitherto unfixed dialect. It belongs to the
    Billechoola tongue.

  ENGLISH.             FRIENDLY VILLAGE.    BILLECHOOLA.

  _Salmon_             zimilk           shimilk.
  _Dog_                watts            watz.
  _House_              zlaachle         shmool.
  _Bark mat_           yemnez              "
  _Cedar-bark blanket_    "             tzummi.
  _Beaver_             couloun          couloun.
  _Stone_              aichts           quilstolomick.
  _Water_              ulkan            kullah.
  _Mat_                gitscom          stuchom.
  _Bonnet_             ilcaette         kayeete.

HAELTZUK AND HAILTSA.

    _Locality._--Sea-coast from Hawkesbury Island to Broughton's
    Archipelago; the northern part of Quadra's and Vancouver's
    Island(?).

    _Tribes._--Hyshalla, Hyhysh, Esleytuk, Weekenoch, Nalatsenoch,
    Quagheuil, Tlatla-Shequilla, Lequeeltoch.

The language of Fitz-Hugh Sound, of which we find the numerals in the
Mithridates, seems to be Hailtsa. On the other hand, the termination,
_-scum_, reappears in the Blackfoot numerals.

  ENGLISH.        _Two_.
  _F. Sound_      malscum.
  _Haeltzuk_      malook.

  English         _three_.
  _F. Sound_      utascum.
  _Haeltzuk_      yootook.

  English         _four_.
  _F. Sound_      moozcum.
  _Haeltzuk_      moak.
  _Billechoola_   moash.

  English         _five_.
  _F. Sound_      thekaescum.
  _Haeltzuk_      skeowk.
  _Billechoola_   tzeiuch.

  English         _six_.
  _F. Sound_      kitliscum.
  _Haeltzuk_      katlowk.

  English         _seven_.
  _F. Sound_      atloopooskum.
  _Haeltzuk_      malthlowsk.

  English         _ten_.
  _F. Sound_      nighioo.
  _Haeltzuk_      aikas.

By Mr. Hales, the Hailtsa, of which he gives a vocabulary, differing in
some several points from the Haeltzuk (although the two words are most
likely the same), is placed, along with the Chemmesyan and Billechúla
in a single section, called the _Nas_ class of languages, and probably
this is the right view. The difficulty, however, in these parts is
not to connect one tongue with another, but to _dis_connect it from
others. The Hailtsa has certainly affinities with the Chemmesyan, &c.,
but whether these are greater than those with the Atna, Skittegat,
or Wakash tongue is doubtful. Probably, however, it is as Mr. Hales'
tables make it.

THE NÚTKANS.

    _Localities._--_a._ The greater portion of Quadra and
    Vancouver's Island; _b._ The parts about Cape Flattery, on the
    continent.

    _Divisions._--_a._ _Insular._ 1. The Naspatle; 2. Proper
    Nutkans; 3. Tlaoquatsh; 4. Nittenat. _b._ _Continental._--1.
    Klasset; 2. Klallems. _General name for the language_.--Wakash.

Such is the line of languages from Behring's Straits to the parts
opposite Quadra and Vancouver's Island, as they are spoken along the
sea-coast as far south as Frazer's River; concerning which it may
also be predicated that they are spoken along the sea-coast almost
exclusively--_i.e._ that none of them extends far inland.

Of those spoken inland, the distribution is very different. It is, at
first, over large areas.

THE ATHABASKANS.

The geographical distribution of the Athabaskans should be studied
along with that of the Eskimo; since, like this last, it has an
east-and-west, or (if the expression may be allowed) a horizontal
extension. It has, however, an extension from north to south, or what
may be called a _vertical_ one as well. As a general rule, the southern
limit of the Eskimo is the northern limit of the Athabaskan area.

ATHABASKANS.

    _Area._--Discontinuous.

    _Divisions._--Northern and southern.

NORTHERN ATHABASKANS.

    _Conterminous_ with the Algonkins on the south-east, the
    Shushwap on the south-west, the Kolúches and Hailtsa west, and
    the Eskimos north.

    _Area._--From Hudson's Bay to about 100 miles from the Pacific
    in 50° 30´ N.L.; on the Misinissi (Churchill) Peace, Fish, and
    M'Kenzie's Rivers; on the _Athabaska_, Slave and Bear Lakes; on
    the northern portion of the Rocky Mountains, and on each side
    of them.

    _Political Relations._--Hudson's Bay Company--Russia(?).

    _Divisions (according to Mr. Isbister)._--1. The Chippewyans
    Proper. 2. The Beaver Indians. 3. The Daho-dinnis. 4. The
    Strong Bows. 5. The Hare Indians. 6. The Dog-ribs. 7. The
    Yellow Knives. 8. The Carriers.

_The Chippewyans Proper._--From Hudson's Bay to the Lake Athabaska;
speaking a harsh and meagre dialect, and calling themselves
_See-eessaw-dinneh_=_Rising Sun Men_. These were the first Athabaskans
known to Europeans. The name _Chippewyan_ is probably misapplied; at
any rate, the _See-eessaw-dinneh_ are a different people from the
Chippeways or Ojibbways. In even the early Chippewyan vocabularies of
Dobbs and M'Kenzie there is a sufficiency of Eskimo words to throw
suspicion over the current doctrine as to the great breadth of the line
of demarcation between the Athabaskans and Eskimos.

_The Beaver Indians._--The valley of the Peace River, from the Lake
Athabaska to the Rocky Mountains. Their dialect is the softest and most
copious of the Athabaskan tongues. It is also most mixed with words
from the Cree dialect of the Algonkin.

_The Daho-dinnis._--Called from their warlike disposition the Mauvais
Monde, and inhabiting the head-water of the Rivière-aux-liards.

_The Strong Bows._--Mountaineers of their upper part of the Rocky
Mountains; slightly differing in dialect from the Daho-dinnis, and
still more slightly from the--

_Hare_, or _Slave Indians_.--Occupants of the valley of the River
M'Kenzie, from Slave Lake to Great Bear Lake. These extend to the
Arctic Circle, and consequently, along with the Dog-ribs, are the most
northern of the Athabaskans. "Their condition is the most wretched and
deplorable that can be imagined. Cannibalism, almost justified by the
extreme necessity of the case, exists to a frightful extent. It is but
just, however, to say, that this practice is looked upon with horror
by the tribe generally; and many, rather than resort to this dreadful
expedient, put an end to their own lives. Instances have been known of
parents destroying their own families, and afterwards themselves, to
avoid this fatal alternative.

"They are almost entirely clothed in the skins of rabbits, tagged
together after the rudest fashion with the ends of sinew; hence the
name of _Hare Indians_ applied to the tribe. They have neither tents
nor huts of any kind, living all the year round in the open air. As
might be expected, they are a puny and stunted race, and are rapidly
decreasing in numbers, and must soon disappear altogether."

_The Dog-ribs._--Due-east of the Hare Indians.--"They live upon the
rein-deer, which frequent their lands in great numbers, following the
migrations of these animals as closely as if they formed part and
parcel of the herd. They are almost entirely independent of the whites,
and present a marked contrast with their neighbours of the Hare Tribe.
They are well-clothed in the skins of the rein-deer, and have all the
elements of comfort and Indian prosperity within their reach. They are
a healthy, vigorous, but not very active race, of a mild and peaceful
disposition, but very low in the mental scale, and apparently of very
inferior capacity. There is no reason to think that they are decreasing
in numbers. They receive the name of the Dog-ribs, from a tradition
that they are descended from the dog."

_The Yellow Knives._--Called also the Copper Indians, from occupying,
like the Dog-ribs, a portion of the river so called.

_The Carriers, Tahkali, or Taculli._--These occupy the greater portion
of New Caledonia, and, of all the Athabaskans, they are those that are
best known. They are divided into "eleven clans, or minor tribes, whose
names are, beginning at the south, as follows:--(1) the _Taūtin_, or
_Talkótin_; (2) the _Tsilkótin_, or _Chiltokin_; (3) the _Naskótin_;
(4) the _Thetliótin_; (5) the _Tsatsnótin_; (6) the _Nulaáutin_; (7)
the _Ntshaáutin_; (8) the _Natliáutin_; (9) the _Nikozliáutin_; (10)
the _Tatshiáutin_; and (11) the _Babine_ Indians. The number of persons
in these clans varies from fifty to three hundred. All speak the same
language, with some slight dialectical variations. The _Sikani_ (or
_Secunnie_) nation has a language radically the same, but with greater
difference of dialect, passing gradually into that of the _Beaver_ and
_Chippewyan_ Indians.

"The _Tahkali_, though a branch of the great _Chippewyan_ (or
_Athabascan_) stock, have several peculiarities in their customs and
character which distinguish them from other members of that family. In
personal appearance they resemble the tribes on the Upper Columbia,
though, on the whole, a better-looking race. They are rather tall, with
a tendency to grossness in their features and figures, particularly
among the women. They are somewhat lighter in complexion than the
tribes of the south.

"Like all Indians, who live principally upon fish, and who do not
acquire the habits of activity proper to the hunting tribes, they
are excessively indolent and filthy, and, as a natural concomitant,
base and depraved in character. They are fond of unctuous substances,
and drink immense quantities of oil, which they obtain from fish and
wild animals. They also besmear their bodies with grease and coloured
earths. They like their meat putrid, and often leave it until the
stench is, to any but themselves, insupportable. Salmon roes are
sometimes buried in the earth and left for two or three months to
putrefy, in which state they are esteemed a delicacy.

"The natives are prone to sensuality, and chastity among the women is
unknown. At the same time, they seem to be almost devoid of natural
affection. Children are considered by them a burden, and they often
use means to destroy them before birth. Their religious ideas are
very gross and confused. It is not known that they have any distinct
ideas of a God, or of the existence of the soul. They have priests,
or doctors, whose art consists in certain mummeries, intended for
incantations. When a corpse is burned, which is the ordinary mode
of disposing of the dead, the priest, with many gesticulations and
contortions, pretends to receive in his closed hands something, perhaps
the life of the deceased, which he communicates to some living person,
by throwing his hands towards him, and at the same time blowing upon
him. This person then takes the rank of the deceased, and assumes his
name in addition to his own. Of course the priest always understands to
whom this succession is properly due.

"If the deceased had a wife, she is all but burned alive with the
corpse, being compelled to lie upon it while the fire is lighted, and
remain thus till the heat becomes beyond endurance. In former times,
when she attempted to break away, she was pushed back into the flames
by the relations of her husband, and thus often severely injured. When
the corpse is consumed, she collects the ashes and deposits them in a
little basket, which she always carries about with her. At the same
time she becomes the servant and drudge of the relations of her late
husband, who exact of her the severest labour, and treat her with every
indignity. This lasts for two or three years, at the end of which
time a feast is made by all the kindred; and a broad post, fifteen or
twenty feet high, is set up, and covered on the sides with rude daubs,
representing figures of men and animals of various kinds. On the top is
a box in which the ashes of the dead are placed, and allowed to remain
until the post decays. After this ceremony the widow is released from
her state of servitude, and allowed to marry again. The Carriers are
not a warlike people, though they sometimes have quarrels with their
neighbours, particularly the tribes of the coast. But these are usually
appeased without much difficulty."[107]

_The Tsikanni_, or _Sikani_.--The evidence that these are Athabaskan is
taken exclusively from their language. In the United States Exploring
Expedition, the same sentence which speaks to the similarity of tongue,
speaks also to the difference of manners and customs.--

"The _Sikani_, though speaking a language of the same family, differ
widely from the _Tahkali_ in their character and customs. They live
a wandering life, and subsist by the chase. They are a brave, hardy,
and active people, cleanly in their persons and habits, and in general
agreeing nearly with the usual idea of an American Indian. They bury
their dead, and have none of the customs of the _Tahkali_ with respect
to them."

A tabulated vocabulary of Mr. Howse, publishing by the Philological
Society, is further evidence to the Athabaskan character of the
Tsikanni language.

_The Sussees_, or _Sarsees_.--On the head-waters of the Saskatchewan.

It is not certain that the previous list is exhaustive of the northern
Athabaskans. In Gallatin's enumeration we have, besides those
enumerated--

1. The Northern Indians on Hudson's Bay.--As these are mentioned in
addition to the Chippewyans Proper, it is fair to suppose that they
constitute a variety under that division.

2. The Birch-rind Indians, living near the Slave Lake, and probably
most closely akin to the Hare Indians.

3. The Thickwood Hunters.

4. The Sheep Indians.

5. The Brushwood Indians.

6. The Nauscud-dennies of M'Kenzie's River.

7. The Slaoucud-dennies of M'Kenzie's River.

8. The Naotetains to the west of Tacullis.

9. The Nagail, or Chin Indians; are probably Tacullis under another
name.

In the Athabaskan language, _dinne_=_man_; so that we now understand
the prevalence of that termination.

The _Chippewyans Proper_ are called Saweesaw-_dinneh_.

The _Birch-rind_ Indians are called Tan-_tsawhot-dinneh_.

The _Dog-ribs_ are called Thlingeha-_dinneh_.

On the other hand, the Thickwood, Sheep, and Brushwood Indians
are called Edch-_tawoot_, Ambah-_tawoot_, and Tsillaw-_awdoot_,
respectively; whilst the Hare Indians are called _Kancho_.

Lastly, it should be added that, although Mr. Isbister makes the
Nehannies Kolúch, Gallatin places them amongst the Athabaskans. A
vocabulary of their language would probably settle the point. Such,
however, is yet wanting.

SOUTHERN ATHABASKANS.

    _Area._--A narrow strip at the mouth of the river Columbia, and
    along the sea-coast to the river Umkwa.

    _Divisions._--1. Kwalioqwa. 2. Tlatskanai. 3. Umkwa.

    1. The Kwalioqwa, _north_ of the river Columbia, from which,
    and from the Tlatskanai, they are separated by the Tshinúks.
    Number, about 100.

    2. The Tlatskanai, _south_ of the river Columbia, from which,
    and from the Kwalioqwa, they are separated by the Tshinúks.
    Number, about 100.

    3. The Umkwa, occupying the upper part of the river so-called,
    about lat. 43°. Number, about 400.

The first vocabulary of this section (one of the Umkwa language) was
collected by Mr. Tolmie. The notice, however, of its affinities with
the Tlatskanai and Kwalioqwa, and the more important discovery of
its Athabaskan character, is one of many valuable additions made to
Ethnographical Philology by Mr. Hales. I consider, for my own part,
that the following table[108] justifies his classification.

  ENGLISH.   CHIPPEWYAN.         TLATSKANAI.                 UMKWA.

  _Man_       dinnie             khanane                     titsun.
  _Woman_     chequois           tse_u_keia                  ekhe.
  _Father_    _yi_tah (_my_)     mama                        stanli.
  _Mother_    _yi_nah (_my_)     naa                         _u_nla.
  _Son_       _yi_ayay (_my_)    sik_u_te-teints_u_ n_u_sla  shashai.
  _Daughter_  _yi_lengai (_my_)  slk_u_-ts_u_kaisla          éte.
  _Head_      edthie             _khu_st_u_ma                s_u_gha.
  _Hair_      thiegah            _kho_ts_u_sea               zugha.
  _Ear_         "                _kho_tskhe                  tshigha.
  _Eye_       nackhay            _kho_nakhai                 naghe.
  _Nose_        "                _kho_ints_u_s               mintshesh.
  _Mouth_       "                _kho_kwaitshaále            ta.
  _Tongue_    edthu              _kho_tshutkhltshikhltsaha   lásom.
  _Tooth_     goo (_pl_)         _kho_tsiakatatkhltsin       uo.
  _Hand_      law                _kho_láa                    _sh_láa.
  _Fingers_     "                _tkh_lakhakhatesa           schlatsune.
  _Feet_      cuh (_sing._)      _kho_akhastls_u_kai         shke.
  _Blood_     dell               tutkhl                      shtule.
  _House_     cooen              k_un_t_u_kh                 ma.
  _Axe_       thylne             katst_u_n                   sen_u_tl.
  _Knife_     bess               tekhe                       natlmi.
  _Shoes_     kinchee            ke                          khe.
  _Sky_         "                ià                          ishtshi.
  _Sun_       sah                ta_u_se                     sha.
  _Moon_      sah                ta_u_se                     ighaltshi.
  _Star_        "                  "                         khatlatshe.
  _Day_         "                khautkhlkante               shaitltiti.
  _Night_       "                kleak_u_t                   kh_u_tli.
  _Fire_      counn              tkhlkane                    khong.
  _Water_     tone               to                          tkho.
  _Rain_      thinnelsee         natkakh                     natkhlhika.
  _Snow_      yath               yakhs                       tatkhliyitkhl.
  _Earth_       "                neé                         nanee.
  _River_     tesse              taseke                      khanee.
  _Stone_     thaih              tshetse                     seh.
  _Tree_        "                t_u_k_u_n                   sintshunata.
  _Meat_      bid                ts_u_ts_u_n                 isung.
  _Dog_       sliengh            tkhlin                      tkhli.
  _Beaver_    yah                  "                         sha.
  _Bear_      yass               t_u_ls_u_n_u_               shtetkhlshu
                                                               (black).
  _Bird_        "                tsheuse                     naake.
  _Great_     unshaw             wane                        mintshaghe.
  _Cold_      edyah              kwatsakh_u_towa             skais.
  _White_       "                itesina                     hal_u_kai.
  _Black_     dellzin            tkhls_u_ne                  h_u_ldji.
  _Red_       delicouse          tkhltsohwe                  t_u_tkhl.
  _I_         ne                 sik                         shi.
  _Thou_      nee                nann_u_k                    na.
  _He_          "                ian_u_k                     hatake.
  _One_       slachy             tkhlie                      aitkhla.
  _Two_       naghur             nat_u_ke                    nakh_u_k.
  _Three_     taghy              tage                        tak.
  _Four_      dengky             t_u_ntshe                   t_u_ntshik.
  _Five_      sasoulachee        ts_u_kwalae                 shwullak.
  _Six_       alkitarhyy         kw_u_stanahe                w_u_sthane.
  _Seven_         "              shostshita                  hoitahi.
  _Eight_     olkideinghy        tshanivaha                  nakanti.
  _Nine_      cakinahanothna     tkhleweet                   aitkhlanti.
  _Ten_       canothna           kwunéshin                   kwuneza.

We now come to a series of languages which, like the Kolúch, and unlike
the Athabaskan and Eskimo, have no great extension from west to east,
and which are spoken on the _western_ side of Rocky Mountains only.
Hence we get a great geographical line of demarcation; whilst the
river systems with which we deal are those of Frazer's River and the
Columbia, rather than of the Peace, the M'Kenzie, the Saskatchewan, and
the Missinissi rivers.

West of the Rocky Mountains, the ethnological affinities run from north
to south (or _vertically_) until we reach the area of the great Paduca
family; one, in respect to its direction and distribution, of the most
remarkable in America.

The ethnology of the parts between the Pacific, the Rocky Mountains,
the Northern Athabaskan, and the Paduca area, is very nearly the
ethnology of Oregon. Here we find two great families; and by their
sides four or five isolated, or nearly isolated, languages, a
phenomenon for which we are now prepared.

The first of the great divisions is one that is conveniently called--

THE TSIHAILI.

    _Synonym._--Tsihaili-Selish. _Hales._

    _Area._--Discontinuous. Chiefly the lower part of Fraser's
    River, and the parts between that and the Columbia.

    _Divisions._--1. Tribes to the north of the Columbia,
    continuous. 2. Tribes to the south of the Columbia, either
    wholly or nearly isolated.

    _Sub-divisions._--Value of the classification unascertained.
    _a._ Continuous Tsihaili. 1. Shushwap. 2. Salish. 3.
    Skitsuish. 4. Piskwaus. 5. Kawitchen. 6. Skwali. 7. Checheeli.
    8. Kowelits. 9. Noosdalum.

    _b._ Isolated, or nearly isolated, Tsihaili.--The Nsietshawus,
    or Killamucks(?).

    _Conterminous_, with the _a._ Hailtsa, _b._ Nass, _c._
    Athabaskan Taculli and Tsikunni on the north; _d._ Kitunaha,
    on the east; _e._ Sahaptin; _f._ Tshinúk on the south.
    The isolated Tsihaili surrounded by Tshinúks, Tlatskanai
    (discontinous Athabaskans) and Jakons.

The _Shushwap_, or _Atnahs_, are the northernmost of the Tsihaili,
and are conterminous with the Taculli. Their number, according to Mr.
Hales, is about 1200, increased from 400.

_The Salish._--The Salish language falls into three dialects; those of
_a_, the Kullelspelm or Ponderays (Pend' oreilles), _b_, the Spokan,
improperly called Flat-heads (since they have no such habit as the one
suggested by the name), and _c_, the Okanagan.

A fair sample of the Salish traditions is the following. A ceremony
called by them (the Salish) _Sumash_, "deserves notice for the
strangeness of the idea on which it is founded. They regard the
spirit of a man as distinct from the living principle, and hold that
it may be separated for a short time from the body without causing
death, or without the individual being conscious of the loss. It is
necessary, however, in order to prevent fatal consequences, that the
lost spirit should be found and restored as quickly as possible. The
conjuror, or medicineman, learns, in a dream, the name of the person
who has suffered this loss. Generally there are several at the same
time in this condition. He then informs the unhappy individuals, who
immediately employ him to recover their wandering souls. During the
next night they go about the village from one lodge to another singing
and dancing. Towards morning they enter a separate lodge, which is
closed up, so as to be perfectly dark; a small hole is then made in the
roof, through which the conjuror, with a bunch of feathers, brushes in
the spirits in the shape of small bits of bone, and similar substances,
which he receives on a piece of matting. A fire is then lighted, and
the conjuror proceeds to select out from the spirits such as belong
to persons already deceased, of which there are usually several;
and should one of them be assigned by mistake to a living person he
would instantly die. He next selects the particular spirit belonging
to each person, and causing all the men to sit down before him, he
takes the spirit of one (_i.e._, the splinter of bone, shell, or wood,
representing it), and placing it on the owner's head, pats it, with
many contortions and invocations, till it descends into the heart and
resumes its proper place. When all are thus restored the whole party
unite in making a contribution of food, out of which a public feast is
given, and the remainder becomes the perquisite of the conjuror.

"Like the _Sahaptin_, the _Salish_ have many childish traditions
connected with the most remarkable natural features of the country, in
which the prairie-wolf generally bears a conspicuous part. What could
have induced them to confer the honours of divinity upon this animal
cannot be imagined; they do not, however, regard the wolf as an object
of worship, but merely suppose that in former times it was endowed
with preternatural powers, which it exerted after a very whimsical and
capricious fashion. Thus, on one occasion, being desirous of a wife (a
common circumstance with him), the wolf, or the divinity so called,
visited a tribe on the Spokan River and demanded a young woman in
marriage. His request being granted, he promised that thereafter the
salmon should be abundant with them, and he created the rapids which
give them facilities for taking the fish. Proceeding further up, he
made of each tribe on his way the same request, attended with a like
result; at length he arrived at the territory of the Skitsuish (_Cœur
d'alène_); they refused to comply with his demand, and he therefore
called into existence the great falls of the Spokan, which prevent the
fish from ascending to their country."[109]

In the Salish tribes we have the best sample of a true _inland Oregon_
family, a section of the American Indians distinguished by certain
negative as well as positive characters which require notice.

_a._ As contrasted with the Indians to the north of them they have a
milder climate, are south of the true fur-bearing countries, and below
the line of the rein-deer.

_b._ From the islanders and coast tribes of the Pacific they are
distinguished by the necessary absence of maritime habits, and a diet
consisting to a great extent of sea fish.

_c._ To the families on the east of the Rocky Mountains they stand in
the remarkable opposition of being imperfect agriculturists rather
than hunters. In other words, in getting beyond the range of the Rocky
Mountains we get beyond the country of the prairie and the localities
of the buffalo; as a set-off to which, although the botany of the
Oregon is at present but imperfectly known, the whole district is
described as being preeminently productive of edible _roots_; not,
however, in respect to the number of individuals (for the land is
poor), but in respect to the variety of their species.

Oregon, then, at least in its central parts, is the area of an
undeveloped agriculture; and (probably like other tribes besides)
the Salish look to the returning seasons not, as in Siberia, Arctic
America, and the parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, with a view
to the migrations of the buffalo and the rein-deer, but with respect
to the production of their successive vegetable esculents; added to
which their river-system gives them, in its season, a supply of fish.

Upon this point, even if external evidence were wanting, we might find
proof in the Salish names of the seasons (with which the Piskwaus
agree), a list which gives us in the months of the _camass-root_ and
the _exhausted salmon_ the extreme seasons of want and plenty.

                                 MEANING IN
  PISKWAUS.        SALISH.       ENGLISH.               ENGLISH MONTH.

  Skwusús          Siistikwo     ----                   December and Jan.
  Skiniramun       Skwusus       _cold_                 January and Feb.
  Skuputskiltin    Skiniramun    _a certain herb_       February & March.
  Skasulku         Skaputru      _snow gone_            March and April.
  Katsosumptun     Spatlom       _bitter-root_          April and May.
  Stsaok           Stagamawus    _going to root-ground_ May and June.
  Kupukkalotltin   Ittlwa        _camass-root_          June and July.
  Silump           Saanttllkwo   _hot_                  July and August.
  Tshepomtum       Silamp        _gathering berries_    August and Sept.
  Parpattllitlen   Skilues       _exhausted salmon_     September and Oct.
  Skaai            Skaai         _dry_                  October and Nov.
  Siistkwu         Keshmakwaln   _snow_                 November and Dec.

_The Piskwaus._--"On the main Columbia, between the Salish proper,
and the Wallawallahs below Fort Okanagan. A miserable, beggarly
people, great thieves. Their country very poor in game and
roots."--_Transactions of the American Ethnological Society_, p. 13.

_The Skitsuish._--_Cœur d'alène._--"About 400 souls live on the lake
of that name above the falls of the Spokan, have no salmon, raise
potatoes, and have a tendency to cultivate."--_Transactions of the
American Ethnological Society_, p. 13.

_The Kawichen_, _Skwali_, _Checheeli_, _Kowelits_, _Kwaintl_,
_Kwenawitl_ and _Núsdalum_.--The exact relations of these tribes
to each other, as well as their position in the Tsihaili family, is
unascertained.

Geographically they agree in forming the south-western division of the
stock, and in occupying the peninsula (or _acté_) between the mouth of
the Columbia, Puget's Sound, and Cape Flattery; where, in the latter
locality, they are in contact with the Wakash Klassets and Klallems,
and, in the former, with the Tshinúks.

Philologically the Atna, as tested by the first known vocabulary of the
language, a short one of M'Kenzie's, is closely allied to the Núsdalum.
But, then, on the other hand the Núsdalum, Kawichen and Skwali (or
Squallyarnish) are by no means so like each other as are the two
vocabularies first mentioned.

Again, Dr. Scouler gives reasons against disconnecting this branch of
the Tsihaili from the Wakash dialects of Quadra and Vancouver's Island,
with which he shows that they have at least the following words in
common.

  ENGLISH.                 CHEKEELI.        WAKASH.

  _Plenty_                 haya             aya.
  _No_                     wake             wik.
  _Water_                  chuck            tchaak.
  _Good_                   closh            hooleish.
  _Bad_                    peshak           peishakeis.
  _Man_                    tillicham        tchuckoop.
  _Woman_                  cloochamen       tlootsemin.
  _Child_                  tanass           tannassis.
  _Now_                    clahowiah        tlahowieh.
  _Come_                   sacko            tchooqua.
  _Slave_                  mischemas        mischemas.
  _What are you doing?_    ekta mammok      akoots-ka-mamok.
  _What are you saying?_   ekta-wawa        au-kaak-wawa. .
  _Let me see_             nannanitch       nannanitch.
  _Sun_                    ootlach          opeth.
  _Sky_                    saya             sieya.
  _Fruit_                  camas            chamas.
  _To sell_                makok            makok.
  _Understand_             commatax         commatax.

For the particular dialect spoken by another Tsihaili tribe, and placed
by Dr. Scouler in the present section, we have no vocabulary, viz.: the
Commagsheak in the northern part of the Gulf of Georgia.

ISOLATED (_or nearly Isolated_) TSIHAILI.(?)

    _The Nsietshawuss._--Occupants of the sea-coasts to the south
    of the Columbia. Numbers in 1840 about 700. Conterminous
    with the Tshinúks, on the north, the Jakon on the south, and
    the Tlatskanai on the east.--_Appearance and manners of the
    Tshinúks._

    _Synonym._--Killamuk.

The elements of doubt denoted by the note of interrogation(?) consist
in the discrepancy between the evidence of the Killamuk language, and
the evidence of the Killamuk physiognomy; the former being Tsihaili,
the latter Tshinúk. Hence, whilst Mr. Hales makes them the former, Dr.
Scouler classes them with the latter.

Now comes a small family, falling into no minor divisions, and spread
over an area of but third-rate magnitude.

THE KÚTANIS (KITUNAHA).

    _Synonym._--Flat-bows.

    _Locality._--Banks of the Kútani River, one of the feeders of
    the Columbia.

    _Conterminous._--with the Blackfoots, Ponderay, Salish,
    Shushwap, and Carrier Athabaskans.

The Kútanis are described by Simpson as undersized, irregularly fed,
poor, and squalid; the women being plainer than the men. Irregularly
fed upon fish and venison, they dig up the kammas and mash it into a
pulp. This, in times of unusual scarcity, they flavour with a sort
of moss or lichen collected from the trees. On the other hand they
are sharp-sighted in making bargains, prudent enough to be the best
economisers in their district of the fur-animals, steady in their
fidelity to the whites, and so brave, under attacks, as to hold their
own against the powerful Blackfoots of the eastern side of the Rocky
Mountains.

According to Mr. Hales their numbers are about 400; they are great
hunters, furnishing much peltry, and in appearance and character
resembling the Indians east of the Rocky Mountains rather than those of
the Oregon.

These accounts agree; whilst the evidence of language as known from the
vocabularies of the American Exploring Expedition, and a MS. vocabulary
of Mr. Howse's disconnect them from the tribes around them.

In physical appearance they are _contrasted_ by Simpson with the Salish
Ponderays. These last struck him with the stateliness of their manners;
and so much did they show to advantage, that he considered them as the
finest-looking men he had seen, next to the Indians of the plains.

CHINÚKS (TSHINÚK).

    _Locality._--Mouth of the Columbia.

    _Divisions._--1. Chinúks Proper, on the southern bank of the
    Columbia, at its mouth. 2. Klatsops, at Point Adams, south of
    the Chinúks. 3. Kathlamut, on the south bank of the Columbia,
    above the Chinúks. 4. Wakáikam. 5. Watlala, or Upper Chinúk,
    farthest up the river. 6. Nihaloitih.

    _Physical Appearance._--"The personal appearances of the
    Chinook differs so much from that of the aboriginal tribes of
    the United States, that it was difficult at first to recognise
    the affinity. Taking them collectively, they are even inferior
    in stature to the tribes of Interior Oregon; the general form
    is shorter and more squat, and the face is rounder and broader
    when viewed in front. Instances occurred of a fairness of
    complexion, which I have not seen in other parts of aboriginal
    America; and in young children, the colour was often not
    strikingly deeper than among Europeans.

    "The oblique eye I have scarcely noticed in other parts of
    America; nor such frequent difficulty in distinguishing men
    from women, whether in youth or age. The arched nose, was,
    however, very prevalent among the Chinooks. The beard was
    not always absolutely wanting, but it occasionally attained
    the length of an inch or more. One man had both beard and
    whiskers, quite thin, but full two inches long; and in other
    respects he much resembled some representations I have seen
    of the Esquimaux." * * * "The head is artificially flattened
    in infancy; _but as the children grow up, the cranium tends
    to resume its natural shape, so that the majority of grown
    persons hardly manifest the existence of the practice._ One
    effect, however, seemed to be permanently distinguishable, in
    the unusual breadth of the face."--Pickering, p. 27.

We have already, in speaking of the Salish, met with the word
_Flat-head_, and, although in that particular case, it was misapplied,
it is still an important term in American ethnology, since more than
one family of American Indians has the practice of _artificially
flattening the head_. This we meet with, for the first time, amongst
the Tshinúks, the true _Flat-heads_ of those parts.

The process itself was witnessed by Pickering. In one of the stockaded
villages of the Chinúks, where the influence of the missionaries had
so far found its way as for some of the houses to stand in a small
cultivated enclosure, of about a quarter of an acre in size, an infant
was confined to a wooden receptacle, with a pad tightly bandaged over
the forehead and eyes, so that it was alike impossible for it to see or
move. He also observed that when the child was suspended according to
usage, the head was actually lower than the feet.

So much for the children. The adults improve upon Nature by piercing
the septum of the nose and putting a ring through it, by earrings, and
by painting the face--in default of paint, by smearing it with soot,
the marks being after a pattern. A black and dull red paint, with
which they ornament their canoes, hats, and masks, are aboriginal, the
others procured from traders. A sail, also, seen in one of the larger
boats was considered not native, but copied from the Russians. In other
respects the management of their canoes, as well as the construction,
was skilful; so were some of the contrivances both for fowling and
fishing. For the former purpose tall masts were set up to intercept by
means of connecting nets(?) the water-fowl at night. Sturgeon were
speared or noosed; the darts used for killing fish being double-headed.
The capture of whales, an exploit never attempted by even the most
enterprising of the Polynesians, is attempted by the Chinúks.

The art, however, of platting, or weaving, seems to be that wherein
the Chinúks have the best claim for excellence. Still it is doubtful
whether, in this respect, they are above the level of the American
tribes in general. The mats are made of the _scirpus lacustris_ placed
side by side, and strung at intervals. The wool of the mountain goat
is woven into blankets, marked, in the way of pattern, with angular
figures, coloured black and red. The former seem to be made by changing
the material, and substituting the black hair of the dog for that of
the goat.

Carving in claystone is another Chinúk art. So many, however, of the
specimens in museums are made in imitation of imported articles that
the original patterns, consisting generally in the representation of
grotesque imaginary quadrupeds, are nearly extinct.[110]

I shall close the account of the Tshinúks with a notice of the Lingua
Franca, taken from Mr. Hales, which is now in the actual process of
formation in the parts about the mouth of the Columbia. It first began
to be developed in the harbour of Nútka Sound; from the language of
which district a few words were adopted by the early English traders.
When the intercourse with the inhabitants of the Columbia began, these
Nútka words became transferred to the Chinúk country; and the three
languages which then contributed elements to the so-called _jargon_,
were the Nútka, the Chinúk, and the English. From the second of these
tongues were taken, besides certain substantives and adjectives, the
first ten numerals, the word for a hundred, twelve pronouns, and about
twenty adverbs and prepositions. Additions were also supplied from the
French of the Canadian _voyageurs_.

Some of the processes by which this medium of communication has
been formed deserve study; and they have been well exhibited in the
philological portion of the United States Exploring Expedition, the
source of the present information.

1. For a language to be spoken by three different nations it is
convenient to admit only such articulations as are common to the three
languages. An approach to this occurs here. The harsh Chinúk sounds are
modified. The French nasal is dropped. The English _tsh_ becomes _dzh_;
perhaps, in the mouth of a Frenchman, _zh_.

2. In names of objects common to both languages, the choice seems to be
determined by the hardness or easiness of the pronunciation. For _man_,
_sun_, _moon_, _stick_, _snow_, _warm_, &c., the terms are English;
although the equivalents were part and parcel of the Chinúk and Nútkan,
equally. They were, however, preeminently unpronounceable, being
_kottllelikum_, _ottllatl_, &c. On the other hand where the Indian
is moderately adapted to European organs terms from _both_ languages
become current, _e.g._

  ENGLISH.           JARGON.

  Water       _tsok_      and _wātā_
  Cold        _tsis_       "  _kol_
  Fire        _olapitski_  "  _paia_.

3. Grammar is, as we should expect it to be, at its _minimum_ amount.

_a._ _b._ There are no signs of either the possessive case or the
plural number. The former is determined by the construction only--_kata
nēm maika papa_=_what name thou father_=_wh(-at) is (the) name (of)
th(-y) father_. The latter is sometimes denoted by _haiu_=_many_.

_c._ In general the tense of verbs is to be discovered by the context.
When it is absolutely necessary to fix the time, certain adverbs are
resorted to; as, _now_, _formerly_, _tomorrow_. The future sense is
expressed by _tuké_=_wish_.

_d._ The notion of condition is expressed by the Chinúk
_klunas_=_perhaps_, or by the English _pos_=_suppose_. The only other
conjunction in the language is _pi_ =the French _puis_=_and_, _or_,
_then_, &c.

_e._ The substantive verb is generally (as in the normal state of the
Semitic languages) omitted--_maika pilton_ = _thou art foolish_.

The changes that European words undergo may be collected from the
following vocabulary.

                        WORDS OF ENGLISH ORIGIN.

  Boston, American[111]
  Bōt--boat.
  Hakatshum--handkerchief.
  Haus--house.
  Klai--clay.
  Klas--glass.
  Kintshosh--Englishman.[112]
  Kitl--kettle.
  Kōl--coal.
  Lēk--lake.
  Lēsi--lazy.
  Lûm--rum.
  Oluman[113]--father.
  Paia--fire.
  Pilton[114]--foolish.
  Pēpa--paper.
  Pōs--suppose.
  Shŭt--shirt.
  Stutshin---sturgeon.
  Tala--silver, dollar.
  Tlai--cry.
  Tshaket--jacket.
  Tumola--tomorrow.
  Wām--warm.
  Wata--water.
  Win--wind.

                        WORDS OF FRENCH ORIGIN.

  Kapo--capot.
  Kasét--casette.
  Kuli--courir.
  Labúsh--la bouche.
  Lahásh--la hache.
  Laklés--la graisse.
  Lalán--la langue.
  Lamestin--la médecine.
  Lamontai--le montaigne.
  Lasuai--la soie.
  Latapl--la table.
  Lawie--la vieille.
  Lebiskwi--le biscuit.
  Liman--la main.
  Letan--les dents.
  Loup-marin--loup marin[115].
  Pasianks--Français.
  Putāli--poudre.
  Sawash[116]--Indian.
  Shante--chanter.
  Seápot--chapeau.
  Siápul--ditto.

                           ONOMATOPŒIC WORDS.

  Hehe--laugh.
  Liplip--boil.
  Tiktik--watch.
  Ting-ting--bell.
  Tum--heavy noise.
  Tum-wata--cataract.

The power of combination is greatly developed. Almost every verb and
adjective may receive a modification in its meaning by the prefixion of
the word _mamúk_=_make_ or _cause_. Thus--

  Tsháko[117] = come     mamúk tsháko = bring.
  Klátawa[117] = go       "    klátawa = send.
  Kikwili[118] = below    "    kikwili = bury.
  Pepa = paper            "    pepa = write.

That of composition is equally so; _e.g._ _ship-man_=_sailor_,
_ship-stik_=_spar_, _stik-skin_=_bark_, _sél-haus_ (sail-house) =
_tent_, &c.

"The place at which the _jargon_ is most in use is at Fort _Vancouver_.
At this establishment five languages are spoken by about five hundred
persons--namely, the _English_, the _Canadian French_, the _Tshinúk_,
the _Cree_ or _Knisteneau_, and the _Hawaiian_. The three former
are already accounted for; the _Cree_ is the language spoken in the
families of many officers and men belonging to the Hudson's Bay
Company, who have married half-breed wives at the posts east of the
Rocky Mountains. The _Hawaiian_ is in use among about a hundred natives
of the Sandwich Islands, who are employed as labourers about the fort.
Besides these five languages there are many others--the _Tsihailish_,
_Wallawalla_, _Kalapuya_, _Naskwali_, &c., which are daily heard from
natives who visit the fort for the purpose of trading. Among all
these individuals, there are very few who understand more than two
languages, and many who speak only their own. The general communication
is, therefore, maintained chiefly by means of the _jargon_, which may
be said to be the prevailing idiom. There are Canadians and half-breeds
married to Chinook women, who can only converse with their wives in
this speech; and it is the fact, strange as it may seem, that many
young children are growing up to whom this factitious language is
really the mother tongue, and who speak it with more readiness and
perfection than any other."

CATHLASCOU.

    _Locality._--From the Falls of the Columbia to Wappatoo Island,
    falling into a number of small tribes.

The third of the larger divisions of the Oregon Indians is that of the--

SAHAPTIN.

    _Area._--The northern bank of the Columbia from the Tshinúk
    country, at the mouth, to the junction of the river Lewis. The
    valley of the river Lewis (or Snake River). As far east as the
    Rocky Mountains.

    _Conterminous_ with the Salish Tsihaili to the north, the
    Upsaroka (Crows) to the east, the Paducas and Wailatpu to the
    south, the Skwali Tsihaili and the Watlala Tshinúks to the west.

    _Divisions._--1. Wallawallas, Kliketat. 2. Proper Sahaptin or
    Nez-percés. 3. Pelús. 4. Yakemas. 5. Cayús(?).

    _Numbers._--About 4000.

    _Aliment._--Roots, salmon.

    _Extract from Mr. Hales._--"Both the Sahaptin and Wallawallas
    compress the head, but less than the tribes on the coast."

_The Kliketat_ are distinguished by having the lower part of the septum
of the nose cut away.[119]

The imperfect industry of the Sahaptin tribes is considered to be on a
higher level than that of either the Tshinúks or Tsihaili; so that, in
this respect, they stand the first of the Oregon aborigines.

The same applies to their susceptibility of religious influences. With
no family have the efforts of the missionaries been more successful
than with the Nez-percés.

In physical appearance they are more like the Indians to the east of
the Rocky Mountains, than any tribes hitherto described.

Lastly, the easternmost Sahaptin are on the limits of the buffalo area;
and as such are partially hunters, as well as common to the two sides
of the Rocky Mountains.

It is now convenient to return to the Pacific, and to follow from west
to east the tribes that lie south of the area already described.

THE YAKON.

    _Locality._--A strip of sea-coast between the Nsietshawus
    (Tsihaili) the Tlatskanai, the Kalapuya, the Umkwa, and the
    Saintskla.

    _Numbers._--About 700.

KALAPUYA.

    _Locality._--Valley of the Upper Willamet.

    _Conterminous_ with the Watlala Tshinúks, the Molele, the
    Tlatskanai and Umkwa Athabaskans.

    _Numbers._--About 500.

    _Dialects._--1. Proper Kalapuya. 2. The Tuhwallatie or
    Follatie. 3. Yamkallie of Mr. Tolmie.--How far are these the
    same?

MOLELE.

    _Locality._--Parts about Mount Hood and Mount Vancouver, south
    of the Columbia.

    _Conterminous_ with the Watlala Tshinúks, the Kalapuya, the
    Cayús, and the Lutuami.

    _Numbers._--"Reduced in 1841, by disease, to twenty souls.
    Probably now extinct."--_Hales._

    _Divisions._--1. Molele. 2. Cayús(?)

CAYÚS.(?)

    _Locality._--South bank of the Columbia, between the Molele and
    the Paduca Shoshonis.

    _Numbers._--About 500 good warriors, with extensive pasturage
    and large droves of horses, one chief having 2,000.--_Hales._

The note of interrogation denotes that the ethnological position of the
Cayús is ambiguous. Mr. Hales makes them Molele, Dr. Scouler, Sahaptin.

LUTUAMI.

    _Synonym._--Tlamatl or Clamet.

    _Locality._--Head-waters of the river Clamet, due south of
    the Molele, and conterminous with the Umkwa on the west, the
    Wihinast Shoshonis on the east, and the Palaiks and Shastis on
    the south.

We are now approaching a series of tribes known by little more than
their names. Beginning at the sea-coast to the south of the strip
occupied by the Yakon, and in the immediate neighbourhood of the Umkwa
country, we find in proceeding from west to east--

THE SAINTSKLA.

    _Locality._--South of the Yakon, between the Umkwa and the sea.

THE TOTOTUNE.

    _Locality._--Sea-coast south of the Saintskla.

THE KILLIWASHAT.

    _Locality._--Mouth of the Umkwa.

THE TSALEL.

    _Locality._--Middle course of the Umkwa.

THE KAUS.

    _Locality._--Between the river Umkwa and the river Clamet, or
    (ethnologically) between the Killiwashat and the Lutuami.

SHASTI.

    _Locality._--South-west of the Lutuami.

PALAIK.

    _Locality._--South-east of the Lutuami, and conterminous with
    the Shasti.

The list of the tribes and families of the Oregon territory, is now,
with one exception, complete, at least according to the present state
of our knowledge; whilst the section that still stands over for notice,
extends so far beyond it, and is in other respects so remarkable in its
distribution, that it forms an ethnological break.

Hence, although in a purely descriptive ethnography it would be
advisable to take the tribes of California in immediate succession to
those of Oregon, and those of Mexico next in order to the Californian,
the present arrangement will be different, and the transition will
be from the Oregon Indians to the Indians on the east of the Rocky
Mountains. This departure from the strict line of ethnological
continuity, is demanded in the present volume; because the question
as to the origin of the American population, being considered of so
much more importance than the mere description of different tribes,
the arrangement follows the order, in which the reader requires facts
as a basis for his reasoning, rather than the absolute sequence of
ethnological relationship. This accounts for certain departures, which
may possibly have been noticed, from the form and method of description
adopted in the ethnology of Asia; it also is a reason for sometimes
placing together groups on the score of _difference_ rather than
_likeness_. Such is the case here. The classes about to be noticed
follow those that have already been considered, not because they are
closely related, but because they present marks of disconnection which
are necessary to be known and appreciated previous to any argument upon
subjects like the unity or _non_-unity of the American population, or
its connexion or _non_-connexion with the population of the Old World.
In other words, as the nearest affinities of the Oregon tribes are with
the Californian, the present order of sequence is artificial rather
than natural.

As to the line itself which thus diverts our inquiries from the
true ethnological sequence, it is the area of a family already[120]
mentioned--the area of the _Paduca_ tribes. Of this the peculiarity is
as follows. It begins with the country of the Wihinast, is separated
from the Pacific by the comparatively small areas of the Wailatpu,
Molele, Kalapuya, and Yakon, and extends in a south-east direction as
far as the Gulf of Mexico. Hence, with the exception of a narrow tract
on the Lower Columbia, it runs from sea to sea; so separating all the
numerous sections of the Indians of the United States and Canada from
those of Spanish America, _i.e._ from those of Mexico wholly, and from
those of California partially.

This gives us a limit for the parts about to be noticed, which, roughly
speaking, constitute--

_Politically._--the United States and Canada--

_Physically._--the river-systems of the St. Lawrence, the Red River,
and the Mississippi, and also of those rivers which, like the Potomac,
fall into the Atlantic--

_Ethnologically._--the country included between the Eskimo, Athabaskan,
Kútani, Salish, Sahaptin, and Paduca areas.

Concerning this it may be said that the ocean on one side is hardly
a more definite boundary than the Rocky Mountains on the other, so
truly do they, as a physical division, coincide with the ethnological
one,--at least for the parts between the Athabaskans and Paducas.

The climate of the area may be measured by the fact of its containing
Florida on the South, and Labrador on the North, the coasts of the Gulf
of Mexico, and the coasts of Hudson's Bay.

The east-and-west conditions are less self-evident; the two most
important differences being that between the parts east, and that
between the parts west of the Mississippi. Speaking roughly, the former
is the country of the forest, the latter of the prairie; the former the
seat of an incomplete agriculture, the latter the range of the buffalo.

The divisions of the American population that occupy, or occupied,
this area, are of unascertained value; I shall give them, in the first
instance, nearly according to the classification and nomenclature of
Gallatin's standard dissertation in the Archæologia Americana. Some
of these will be large, some small; some like the Turk, some like the
Dioscurian; phænomena for which we are now prepared. The first in the
list, single handed, takes up more than half the whole area.

ALGONKINS.

    _Synonyms._--Lenapian, Wapanachki=_men of the east_. This is
    said by Heckewelder to have been their national and collective
    name. Probably, however, it was so only for the tribes on the
    Atlantic.

    _Distribution._--East and west from the Rocky Mountains to
    Newfoundland; north and south, from Labrador to the Carolinas.
    Breadth greatest in its northern part, decreasing towards the
    south.

    _Area._--Newfoundland, part of Labrador, Cape Breton, Nova
    Scotia, Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, south-eastern
    part of the Hudson's Bay territory, the boundary line between
    British North America and the United States, the north-western
    part of the Missouri territory, part of the Wisconsin
    territory, parts of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New
    York, &c., the New England States, Virginia, Kentucky(?), North
    Carolina.

    _Divisions._--_a._ Bethucks. _b._ Central Algonkins. _c._
    Shiennes. _d._ Blackfoots. Classification provisional.

    _a._ _Bethucks._--Locality Newfoundland. Probably extinct. Not
    hitherto recognised as Algonkin.

    _b._ _Central Algonkins._--1. _The Crees_, _Knisteneaux_,
    _Klisteno_, or _Kilistheno_. Native name, _Nĕhethowuck_=_exact
    people_. Situation, the river-system of the rivers Nelson,
    Salmon, and Albany, falling into Hudson's Bay.

    2. _Ojibways_, on the south and west sides of Lake Superior,
    south of the Crees.

    3. _Algonkins Proper._

    4. _Nipissing._--Closely allied tribes on the sides of the Lake
    of the Two Mountains, in the district of Montreal.

    5. _Ottawas._--On the river Ottawa, in the islands of Lake
    Superior. Northern part of Michigan, Closely allied to the
    Proper Algonkins.

    6. _Montagnards_, _Mountaineers._--The French name and its
    translation, of the name of the tribes between Montreal and the
    mouth of the St. Lawrence.

    7. _Scoffis_--_Nascopies_.--The Algonkins of Labrador.
    Conterminous with the Eskimo.

    8. _Sheshatapoosh._--Ditto.

    9. _Abenakis._--In the state of Maine, in the valley of the
    Kennebec.

    10. _Etchemin._---From whom the state of Maine, took its name.
    A tribe of these occupy the valley of the St John's River, in
    New Brunswick.

    11. _Passamaquoddy._--Maine. A branch of the Etchemin.

    12. _Micmacs._--New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, parts
    of Labrador and Newfoundland.

    13. _Penobscot._--Maine.

    14. _Messisaugis._--North of Lake Ontario, at its junction with
    the St. Lawrence.

    15, 16. _Pequod and Mohicans._--Extinct. In 1674, in
    Connecticut.

    17. _Narraganset._--Extinct. In 1674, in Rhode Island.

    18. _Massachusetts._--Extinct. In 1674, in the state so called.

    19, 20, 21, 22, 23.--_The Pawkunnawkuts_ (_or Wampanoag_),
    _the Pawtucket_, _the Pennakuk_, _the Nipmuk_, _the
    Montaug_.--Extinct. In 1674, in Long Island. The language of
    these Indians is represented by Jonathan Edwards' Grammar of
    the Mohican, and by Eliot's translation of the Bible.

    24. _Lenni-Lenapi or Delawares._--Three tribes, _a._ the Unami,
    or Turtle. _b._ The Minsi or Wolf. _c._ The Unalachtigo, or
    Turkey.

    25. _The Monakans_(?)--Extinct. Virginia, one day's journey
    beyond the Falls, at Richmond. People of the high country as
    opposed to the Powhattans of the low--said to build stone
    houses.

    The Indians of Virginia, especially the Powhattans, will
    be noticed in the sequel as affording a measure of the
    civilization of the Algonkins.

    26. _The Pamticoes_ (_Pamticoughs_).--South Carolina. This is
    the southernmost limit of the Eastern Algonkins.

    The list is now continued from the south-eastern boundary of
    the Ojibways, and from the parts south of Lake Superior, and
    west of Lake Michigan.

    27. _The Menomeni._--Due south of Lake Superior, from which
    they are separated by the Ojibways.

    28, 29. The _Sauks_=_white-clay_ and the _Ottogami_=_foxes_.
    These last are also called _Musqkuakuik_=_red-clay_.

    30. _The Kickapoos._--Southern part of Illinois. Closely allied
    to the Sauks and Foxes.

    31. _The Potawotomi._--South of Lake Michigan.

    32. _The Shawno._--The most south of the Western Algonkins,
    being south of the Ohio, in the state of Kentucky. Now removed
    to the west of the Mississippi, to a reserve immediately south
    of that of the Delawares.

    33, 34, 35, 36, 37.--Illinois Indians=the Miami, Piankeshaws,
    Kaskkaias(?)[121], Cabokias, Tamaronas, Peorias, and Mitchigami.

    _c._ _Shyennes._--Between the head-waters of the Yellow-stone
    River and the River Platte. Conterminous with the Upsaroka,
    Pawnees, and probably the northern Shoshonis. As such, isolated
    from the other Algonkins.

    _d._ _Blackfoot Algonkins._--Head-waters of the south branch
    of the Saskatchewan, and extended as far west as the Rocky
    Mountains, by which they are divided from the Kútanis. Bounded
    on the north by the Athabaskans, the south by the Upsarokas
    (Sioux), the east by the Ahnenin and Crees. The Blackfoots have
    been but recently recognised as Algonkin.

The numerous details of this great division prevent anything beyond the
doubtful points of the classification being noticed. These apply to
three members of it, the Bethuck, the Shyennes, and the Blackfoots.

1. _The Bethuck._--The particular division to which the aborigines
of Newfoundland belonged, has been a matter of doubt; some writers
considering them to have been Eskimo, others to have been akin to the
Micmacs, who have now a partial footing in the island.

Reasons against either of these views are supplied by a hitherto
unpublished Bethuck vocabulary with which I have been kindly furnished
by my friend Dr. King, of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a
_separate section of the Algonkins_,[122] and such I believe them to
have been.

2. _The Shyennes._--It has been already stated that the present Shyenne
area is isolated. This had a tendency to mislead inquirers and to
originate the notion that the Shyennes were Sioux.

Again,--in a treaty between the United States and the Shyennes, in
1825, the names of the chiefs who signed are Sioux. This misled also.

Still, on the evidence of Mr. Kennet M'Kenzie, of the St. Louis Fur
Company, who informed Mr. Gallatin that "there was not at that time
any European interpreter for the Shyenne, that the treaty was carried
on through the medium of some Sioux, and that he had reason to believe
that the names subscribed to it were Sioux translations of those of
the Shyenne chiefs," their position was left as doubtful by that
philologist.

However, a vocabulary of Lieutenant Abert has since settled the matter,
"in which no affinity whatever is discovered with the Sioux. Although
from its nature it contains but a small number of primitive words,
or of those for which we have equivalents in other languages, there
are enough to establish the fact that the Shyennes are, like the
Black-feet, an Algonkin tribe. Out of forty-seven Shyenne words for
which we have equivalents in other languages, there are thirteen which
are indubitably Algonkin, and twenty-five which have affinities more
or less remote with some of the languages of that family. Of these
last I would have rejected more than one half had they stood alone,
but they corroborate, to some extent, the evidence afforded by the
words, the etymology of which is clear. The nine remaining words (out
of the forty-seven), which have no apparent affinity with the Algonkin,
are _hill_, _mountain_, _stone_, _little_, _white_, and the numerals
VI, VII, VIII, IX, on comparing the vocabulary with those of other
families, I could discover no other words which had any resemblance
but the following:--_little_=_nakee_, Shyenne, _okeye_, Wyandott;
_fire_=_sist_, Shyenne; _ojishta_, _ojista_, Seneca, Oneida."[123]

Furthermore, the evidence of Lewis and Clarke, confirmed by that of
M'Kenzie and Gallatin, shows that the separation of the Shyennes from
the other Algonkins, took place within the historical period. "They
were originally settled on a stream called Chayenne, or Cayenne, an
upper branch of the Red River of Lake Winnepeg, from which they were
driven away by the Sioux; an account which is confirmed by Alexander
M'Kenzie. They retreated west of the Missouri, below the river
Warreconne, where their ancient fortifications still existed in 1804.
Thence they were again compelled to retreat farther west, near the
Black Hills, on the head branches of the river which now bears their
name."[124]

That the evidence of the Shyenne numerals, the only part of Lieut.
Abert's vocabulary then known to him, made the Shyennes Algonkin,
was also stated by the present writer at the meeting of the British
Association, in 1847, at Oxford.--_Transactions of the Sections_, p.
123.

3. _The Blackfoots._--Until lately all that was known of the Blackfoot
language was from two short vocabularies, one of Humphreville's and one
of Mr. Catlin's.

The addition of a third in MS. has fixed the language as Algonkin; such
being the opinion formed independently by both Mr. Gallatin[125] and
the present writer, who was favoured by Dr. Prichard with the MS. It is
further confirmed by a tabulated vocabulary of Mr. Howse's, now in the
press.[126]

With the exception of the Shyennes, who seem to have moved within
the historical period, the Algonkin area is _continuous_; but though
_continuous_, it is not _uninterrupted_. The important class of the
Mohawk, or Iroquois, tribes, is different from the Algonkin. It lies
_within_ the Algonkin area, surrounded by Algonkins, but not itself
Algonkin.

THE IROQUOIS.

Measured by the extent of ground that it covers the Iroquois class
is of less importance than the Algonkin. Measured by its prominence
in history it is equal or greater. The _Five Nations_ were Iroquois.
The once formidable _Mohawks_ were Iroquois. Before the arrival of
the Europeans the Five Nations were dominant over their Algonkin
neighbours; and after the arrival of the Europeans the Iroquois
warriors were more feared than those of the Algonkins. At one time the
head of the Algonkin confederacy was an Iroquois chieftain.

It has been stated above that the Iroquois are, at present,
encompassed (or nearly encompassed) by Algonkins; so as to have become
isolate in respect to the other classes of Indians, and cut off from
contact with them. This, and more than this, is the case. Portions of
the Iroquois family are cut off from each other, so that in coming to
the details we shall expect to hear of the Northern division of the
Iroquois, and of the Southern division of the Iroquois. At present
it is sufficient to state that such a division exists, and that the
localities for the Northern Iroquois are the parts about Lake Huron;
for the Southern, North Carolina. In the latter locality alone are they
in contact with tribes other than the Algonkin.

    _Area._--Discontinuous.

    _Divisions._--_a._ Northern Iroquois. _b._ Southern Iroquois.

    _Sub-divisions._--_a._ Northern Iroquois. 1. The Five
    Nations=The Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagoes, the Senecas,
    and the Cayugas. 2. The Confederacy (?) of the Hurons (or
    Wyandots), the Erigas, the Andastes, and the Attiondarons, the
    Tionontates, the Anies(?), &c.

    _b._ Southern Iroquois.--The Tutelo, Nottoway, Meherrin, and
    Tuscaroras.

    _Localities._--_a._ For the Northern Iroquois the parts about
    and between Lakes Huron, Ontario, and Erie. _b._ For the
    Southern Iroquois.--North Carolina. Separation effected by
    tribes of the Algonkin division, especially the Delawares.

The Iroquois and Algonkins exhibit in the most typical form the
characteristics of the North American Indians as exhibited in the
earliest descriptions, and are the two families upon which the current
notions respecting the physiognomy, habits, and moral and intellectual
powers of the so-called Red Race are chiefly founded.

THE SIOUX.

    _Area._--Central North America, between the Mississippi and
    the Rocky Mountains, east and west. Between Lake Winebago and
    the Arkansas, north and south. The valley of the Missouri.
    The water-system of Lake Winebago. One division east of the
    Mississippi.

    _Divisions._--1. Winnebagoes, Hochungohrah=_Trout Nation_.
    2. Dakotas, Sioux, or Nadowessiou. 3. Assineboins, or Stone
    Indians. 4. Upsaroka, or Crows. 5. Mandans. 6. Minetari. 7.
    Osage.

    _Sub-divisions._--_a._ Of the Dahcota--1. Yanktons. 2.
    Yanktoanans(?) 3. Tetons. 4. Proper Sioux.

    _b._ Of the Osage.--1. Konzas. 2. Missouris. 3. Ottos. 4.
    Omahaws. 5. Puncas. 6. Ioways. 7. Quappas. 8. Osage Proper.

The Sioux is the third great division of the North American Indians,
and it is the division which comprises the tribes of the interior, of
the Far West in opposition to the sea-coast, of the prairie country in
opposition to the tracts that are or have been forest, and of the foot
of the Rocky Mountains. The country of the buffalo is shared between
them and the Western Algonkins.

Broadly speaking, we may say between these three nations the basins
of all the feeders of the Upper Mississippi are distributed: the
exceptions being insignificant. This they have and more; since the
Canadian population is, in great part, Algonkin.

The Sioux tribes are essentially inland or continental.

CATAWBA.

    _Locality._--The Santee, or Catawba River, in North Carolina.

WOCCOON.

    _Locality._--North Carolina. Extinct.

    The Catawba and Woccoon languages, which are allied to each
    other, probably represent those aboriginal languages of North
    Carolina, which were _not_ of the Algonkin class.

Besides these, however, there occur the following names, concerning
which we only know that they belonged to North Carolina. The extent
to which they spoke mutually unintelligible dialects is uncertain. 1.
Cheraws; 2. Waterees; 3. Congarees; 4. Enoes;(?)[127] 5. Sewees; 6.
Santees; 7. Wyniaws; 8. Waxsaws; 9. Esaws; 10. Toteros; 11. Keyauwees;
12. Sissispahaws; 13. Machapanga; 14. Connamox; 15. Coramines; 16.
Chowans; 17. Wyanokes; 18. Sawara.

Add to these for South Carolina:--1. The Saluda; 2. Stonoes; 3.
Edistoes; 4. Westoes; 5. Yamassees.

This indicates a new branch of research, viz.: the ethnology of the
extinct tribes; and the extent to which it may be carried in the way
of _minute_ investigation is shown by the length of the list of the
divisions or sub-divisions of the population of the Carolinas alone. It
is nearly as long for the original colony of Virginia, where the first
settlers mention amongst others--

1. _Kecoughtans._--At the mouth of James River. A colony of this people
was transplanted by Powhattan in 1608 to the banks of the Montgomery.

2. _Paspaheghes._--James River, just above the Kecoughtans.

3. _Arrohatecks._--James River, just above the Paspaheghes.

4, 5, 6, 7, 8.--_Appamatucks_, _Quiyoughcohanocks_, _Warraskoyacks_,
_Nandsamunds_, _Chesapeaks_.--All on the south-east side of James
River. On York River we find the names of Youghtamund and Mattapament;
but whether these be the names of districts, or of tribes, is uncertain.

9. _The Bocootawwonaukes._--So called by the Powhattans, situated to
the north-east of the Falls, and said to smelt copper and other metals.

10, 11, 12.--_Indians of the Rappahannock._--In the high-country at its
head-waters the Mannahoacks, the Cuttatawoman(?), the Nandtaughtacund;
these last numbering 150 men.

13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21.--_Indians of the Potomack._--The
Wighcocomoco with 100 fighting men; the Cekakawwon with 30; the
Onawmament with 100; the Satawomeck with 160; the Taxenent with 40; the
Potapoco with 20; the Pamacoack with 60; the Moyoones with 100; and,
lastly, Nacothtank with 80.

22, 23, 24.--_Indians of the Pawtuxunt._--The Aquintanacsuck, the
Pawtuxunt, and Mattapament. Number of fighting men about 200.

Besides the following are mentioned as surrounding the Powhattan's
territories--

1. The _Chawonocks_, bounded on the north by

2. The _Mangoangs_.

3. The _Mannohocks_ conterminous with the Mannoacks.

4. The _Acquanachuk_.

5. The _Tockwoghs_.

6. The _Nuskarawaok_.

Of all these there is the special evidence of Strachey, from Captain
Smith, that none understand each other except by interpreters; an
observation which applies to the Monacans and Susquehannas as well.

Besides these names we collect from the map the additional ones of the
(1) _Massawomecks_, and (2) _Kuskarawaoks_.

Some of these spread northward, and represented part of the population
of the Northern States (which, however, was chiefly Minsi), just as
some of the Carolina tribes reached into Florida. Still, the great
number of sub-divisions, for comparatively small areas, constitutes
one of the difficulties of American ethnology. For none of these lost
families do we possess vocabularies; so that, although from external
evidence we are sometimes able to give them an ethnological position,
the evidence is not conclusive. That conclusive evidence is necessary,
and that we can by no means at once assume any given tribe to be
Algonkin, simply because it is within the Algonkin area, is well known
to every investigator for these parts.

Again, not only have whole tribes become extinct since the settlement
of Europeans, but at the very beginning of the American historical
period, tribes were found mutually exterminating each other. The
empire of Powhattan was founded upon the annihilation of some tribes,
and the incorporation of others. The Huron Iroquois were nearly
extinguished by the Five Nations. The Mandans, within the last
decennium, after being thinned and weakened by the small-pox, were,
as a separate tribe, destroyed by the Sioux, who incorporated with
themselves those who were not killed in the attack.

The Catawbas and Waxas are said to have flattened the head.

THE CHEROKEES.

    _Locality._--Valley of the Tennessee River.

    _Conterminous_ with the Southern Algonkins, the Southern
    Iroquois, the Catawbas, and the Choctahs.

The Cherokee is one of the few so-called savage nations which is
_increasing_, and not _de_creasing, in numbers. It is, also, the most
industrial of all the American families; the Cherokee landholder
having, in some cases, as much as five hundred acres under tillage, and
possessing slaves as well. Lastly, a native Cherokee has reduced the
language to writing--the alphabet (which will be noticed in the sequel)
being syllabic.

THE CHOCTAHS.

    _Area._--Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, parts of Louisiana,
    Georgia, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

    _Bounded_ by the Mississippi, the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic,