and Edinburgh. His graduation essay on the Stoic philosophy won him
the honorary degree of A.M. Becoming a minister of the Established
Kirk, he seceded with Chalmers and rendered valuable service to the
Free Church. His “Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral”
(1850) laid the foundation of his fame as a philosophical writer, and
doubtless led to his appointment in 1852 to the professorship of logic
and metaphysics in Queen’s College, Belfast. From Belfast, after an
active literary and educational career, he was called to the presidency
of Princeton College, and thenceforward was a distinguished figure
in the American intellectual world. His numerous writings after 1868
include “The Scottish Philosophy, Biographical, Expository, Critical”
(1874), “The Emotions” (1880), “Philosophical Series” (1882-1885, eight
volumes), “Psychology of the Cognitive Powers” (1886), “Realistic
Philosophy Defended” (1887), “The Religious Aspect of Evolution”
(1887), and “First and Fundamental Truths” (1894). Dr. McCosh was one
of the first to point out the theological bearing of Darwinism and to
announce his acceptance of it when properly understood. “Touching the
thought of his time,” says Professor Sloane, “at its salient points and
with tremendous vitality, he constantly insisted on the few central
truths of his system in their application to each new question as it
arose. Incisive, intense, and real, or rather concrete in his thinking,
he felt a loyalty to truth which he sought to instil with all his might
into the minds of others.”

_William Torrey Harris._--William T. Harris (born in 1835) left Yale in
1857 to become a teacher in St. Louis, where he was superintendent of
schools from 1867 till 1888. From 1889 till 1906 he was United States
Commissioner of Education. Although leading a busy life as a teacher,
he found time for philosophical work. He founded (1867) and has since
edited _The Journal of Speculative Philosophy_, the first philosophical
periodical in English. His “Hegel’s Logic” (1890), while highly
technical, is one of the clearest and most scholarly expositions of
Hegelian thought. He has written also “An Introduction to the Study of
Philosophy” (1889), “Psychologic Foundations of Education” (1898), and
many smaller educational and philosophical studies.

_John Fiske._--One of the greatest of modern expositors of science was
John Fiske (1842-1901). He was born at Middletown, Connecticut, and
entered Harvard as a sophomore in 1860, graduating in 1863. The works
of Spencer and Darwin opened a new world to his vigorous imagination
and he devoted many years to elucidating and applying their doctrines,
in “Myths and Myth Makers” (1872), “Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy”
(1874), “The Unseen World” (1876), “Darwinism, and Other Essays”
(1879), “Excursions of an Evolutionist” (1883), “The Destiny of Man
Viewed in the Light of His Origin” (1884), and “The Idea of God as
Affected by Modern Knowledge” (1885). His later years were devoted to
studies in American history, the events of which he interpreted as the
result of evolutionary processes. His work reveals a uniform optimism.

=Some Living Writers.=--Among living writers on philosophical themes
space will permit the mention of only two or three. The son of Henry
James, the theologian, and the brother of Henry James, Jr., the
novelist, William James (born in 1842) was educated privately and
at Harvard, from which he received the degree of M.D. in 1870. Two
years later he became an instructor and in 1881 a full professor, the
subjects of his later interest being psychology and philosophy. He has
written, among a large number of books and articles, “Principles of
Psychology” (1890), “The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular
Philosophy” (1897), “Human Immortality” (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1898),
“The Varieties of Religious Experience” (Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh
University, 1902), and “Pragmatism” (1907). Especially noteworthy is
his work in analytical psychology. Always clear and fresh in style, his
writings have exerted a marked influence on thought both in Europe and
in America.

Borden Parker Bowne (born in 1847), who, after graduating at New York
University in 1871, studied at Halle, Göttingen, and Paris, in 1876
became professor of philosophy at Boston University. He has written
“The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer” (1874), “Studies in Theism” (1879),
“Metaphysics” (1882), “Introduction to Psychological Theory” (1886),
and “Principles of Ethics” (1892).

Jacob Gould Schurman (born in 1854) has made some worthy contributions
to the literature of ethics; it is a matter of regret that
administrative work has of late kept him from writing more for the
general public. He was born at Freetown, Prince Edward Island, and
studied at Acadia College. In 1875 he won the Gilchrist Dominion
Scholarship in the University of London, from which he graduated in
1877. He later studied at Edinburgh, Heidelberg, Berlin, and Göttingen,
and in Italy. From 1886 till 1892 he was professor of philosophy in
Cornell University, of which he became president in 1892. He has
written lucid studies of “Kantian Ethics and the Ethics of Evolution”
(1881), “The Ethical Import of Darwinism” (1888), “Belief in God”
(1890), and “Agnosticism and Religion” (1896).

Josiah Royce (born in 1855), a Californian who studied at the
University of California, Leipsic, Göttingen, and Johns Hopkins,
has done much to interpret and popularise the thought of Hegel, and
has made valuable original contributions to contemporary idealistic
thought. His philosophical works include “The Religious Aspect of
Philosophy” (1885), “The Spirit of Modern Philosophy” (1892), “The
Conception of God” (1895), “Studies of Good and Evil” (1898), “The
Conception of Immortality” (1900, an Ingersoll Lecture), and “The
World and the Individual” (1900-1901). A close thinker, he writes in a
remarkably fresh, vigorous, and informal style.

=Political and Legal Science.=--In the fields of political, economic,
social, and legal science the most that can be claimed for American
writers is that a fair number of them have achieved genuine
distinction and enjoy international reputations. America is still too
young to be expected to have produced independent schools of thought in
these lines. What Dr. Sherwood says of the economists may have a larger
application here:

  The chief reason for our failure to make large contributions
  to economic science [he remarks in his “Tendencies in American
  Economic Thought”] is the same reason which explains the meagreness
  of our contribution to general science, viz., the all-absorbing
  problem of making use of the advantages within our grasp. Within a
  century we have been compelled to work out several most difficult
  problems: how to unite in a solid empire many vigorous, large,
  and discordant nationalities; how to stretch this empire over the
  adjacent territories, so as to remove dangerous enemies; how to
  get rid of slavery without disrupting the Union; how to make our
  general education keep pace with our growth in numbers and with
  the advance of science; how, with the rapidly shifting forms of
  industrial organisation, to maintain purity of government and
  social order; how to govern an empire without an emperor; how to
  push forward material civilisation without going backwards in
  intellectual and moral civilisation; how to stimulate invention so
  as to win wealth for all, with inadequate labour and capital.

These practical problems have kept us from producing men with wealth
and leisure for working out solutions of the large abstract questions
raised in these sciences. Nor have our writers yet succeeded in
handling large masses of facts with the skill of some foreign writers.
The best comprehensive work on American institutions remains Bryce’s
“American Commonwealth,” the work of an Englishman. Yet in Marshall,
Kent, and Story we have produced some great jurists; in Wheaton,
Lawrence, and Woolsey some great writers on legal science; in Carey,
Wells, Walker, and George writers of commanding importance in the
sphere of political economy.

_John Marshall._--Pre-eminent among the jurists of America is John
Marshall (1755-1835), for thirty-four years Chief-Justice of the
United States Supreme Court. Marshall served as an officer in the
Revolution; in 1780, being without a command, he attended Chancellor
Wyeth’s lectures on law at William and Mary College. Entering upon the
practice of law, he quickly became known for his acumen. His accession
to the Supreme Court bench (1801) marks an epoch in our legal and
constitutional history. He had, as it were, to blaze a trail. The
Constitution had been adopted; it had yet to be construed. A thousand
questions arose as to what it meant, what it included, what it was
meant not to include. Marshall’s decisions, recorded in thirty-two
volumes of reports, reveal the impartial workings of a master legal
mind. Such men do not often appear; it was fortunate that the American
Government in its early years was guided by Marshall’s constitutional
constructions. They virtually form a system of law, a system which
has not since been seriously modified. “The judge who rears such a
monument to his memory,” says Mr. Magruder, his biographer, “will
never be forgotten; in the united domain of English and American
jurisprudence there are not half a dozen such memorials; but not the
least distinguished is that of Marshall.”

_James Kent._--It has been said of Kent’s “Commentaries upon American
Law” (1826-1830) that they had a deeper and more lasting influence upon
the American character than any other secular book of the nineteenth
century. James Kent (1763-1847) graduated from Yale in 1781 and then
practised law, first at Poughkeepsie, and after 1793 in New York City.
In the same year he became professor of law in Columbia College. The
Federalist leaders rapidly advanced him; he was made Chief-Justice of
the New York Supreme Court in 1804 and Chancellor in 1814. Retiring in
1823, he resumed his teaching at Columbia, and later published many of
his lectures in the “Commentaries.” His Chancery decisions, to be found
in Caines’ and Johnson’s reports, were of fundamental importance and
form the basis of American equity jurisprudence.

_Joseph Story._--With Chancellor Kent, Joseph Story (1779-1845)
shares the glory of having laid the foundations of American equity
jurisprudence. Story graduated from Harvard in 1798 and was admitted
to the bar in 1801. Becoming a leader of what was later the Democratic
party, in 1808 he entered Congress and in 1811 was appointed an
Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. From 1829 on he
was also a professor of law at Harvard. For some time after Marshall’s
death he was acting Chief-Justice. Many of his opinions in patent
and admiralty law are still authoritative. Some of his writings are
“Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States” (1833), “The
Conflict of Laws” (1834), “Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence”
(1835-1836), and treatises on agency, partnership, bills, and notes.

_Henry Wheaton._--Less known than Story, yet in his day a prominent
figure in the legal world, was Henry Wheaton (1785-1848), of
Providence, Rhode Island, a graduate of Brown University in the
class of 1802. He was a lawyer, an editor, and a diplomatist (from
1837 till 1846 Minister Plenipotentiary to Prussia). His “Elements
of International Law” (1836, republished in several editions, and
translated into French, Chinese, and Japanese) remains one of the
leading authorities. Another important work was his “Histoire du
progrès des gens en Europe depuis le paix de Westphalie jusqu’au
Congrès de Vienne” (1841, English translation 1846). He was widely
respected for sound learning and diplomatic ability.

_Francis Lieber._--Francis Lieber (1800-1872), a native of Berlin and
a Ph.D. of the University of Jena (1820), came to America virtually
a political exile, and, though an ardent worshipper of freedom, was
at first, as Dr. Harley remarks, obliged to make his home in the
very heart of the slave power. For twenty-one years he was professor
of history and political economy in South Carolina College, being
“the first great teacher in this country of history and politics as
co-ordinated subjects.” From 1856 till 1860 he held the chair of
political economy in Columbia College; and from 1860 till his death
he was professor of political science in the Columbia Law School.
The great works on which his fame rests are his “Political Ethics”
(1838), “Legal and Political Hermeneutics” (1839), and “Civil Liberty
and Self-Government” (1853). In writing these books he was a pioneer,
and pointed out some important principles of American liberty. In his
later years he gave much attention to international and military law.
From his proposals originated the Institut de Droit International,
started at Ghent in 1873, “the organ for the legal consciousness of the
civilised world.”

_William Beach Lawrence._--Another writer whose name is linked with
Columbia College is William B. Lawrence (1800-1881). Born in New York
City, he graduated from Columbia in 1818, was admitted to the bar in
1823, and gave attention chiefly to international law. For a time
he lectured at Columbia on political economy, defending free trade.
Removing to Rhode Island, he served as acting Governor in 1852. In
1872-1873 he lectured on international law in the Columbian University
at Washington. His works are marked by breadth of view and soundness
of judgment. They include “The Bank of the United States” (1831),
“Institutions of the United States” (1832), “Discourses on Political
Economy” (1834), “The Law of Charitable Uses” (1845), “Commentaire sur
les éléments du droit international” (1868-1880), and “The Treaty of
Washington” (1871).

_Theodore Dwight Woolsey._--Theodore D. Woolsey (1801-1889) had a
varied preparation for his notable career. Graduating at Yale in 1820,
he studied law in Philadelphia, theology at Princeton, and Greek at
Leipsic, Bonn, and Berlin. From 1831 till 1846 he was professor of
Greek at Yale. Becoming president of Yale in 1846, he thenceforward
confined his teaching to history, political science, and international
law, and became eminent as a writer on subjects in these fields. Among
his works are “An Introduction to the Study of International Law”
(1860), “Essays on Divorce and Divorce Legislation” (1869), “Political
Science” (two volumes, 1877), and “Communism and Socialism, in Their
History and Theory” (1880).

_Henry Wager Halleck._--Chiefly known as a soldier, and as general
of the armies of the United States from July, 1862, till March,
1864, Henry W. Halleck (1815-1872) was after all more skilled in
the science of war than in its practice in the field. He studied at
Union College and West Point, from which he graduated in 1839. Before
the Lowell Institute in 1845 he lectured on the science of war; his
lectures, published as “Elements of Military Art and Science,” were
much used later as a training manual. The chief of his other works,
“International Law, or Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in
Peace and War” (1861), abridged in 1866 for college use, still ranks
among the highest authorities.

_Henry Charles Carey._--In his day the foremost champion of
governmental protection to private industry was Henry C. Carey
(1793-1879). The eldest son of Matthew Carey, the Philadelphia
publisher, he devoted his early years to carrying on the bookselling
and publishing business, retiring in 1835. His essay on “The
Rate of Wages” (1835) was soon expanded into “The Principles of
Political Economy” (1837-1840), which found favour abroad and was
translated into Swedish and Italian. His other leading works were
“The Credit System of France, Great Britain, and the United States”
(1838), “The Past, the Present, and the Future” (1848), “Letters
on the International Copyright” (1853), “The Principles of Social
Science” (1858), and “The Unity of Law” (1873). Carey was originally
a free-trader, but early became a supporter of protection on the
ground of temporary expediency. Some of his views have been attacked
as unwarranted and dogmatically expressed; it must be conceded,
however, that he had a strong grasp of facts and that his works are an
invaluable contribution to economic and social science.

_David Ames Wells._--For many years, it is safe to say, the leading
economist in America was David A. Wells (1828-1898). He was descended
from Thomas Welles, Governor of Connecticut in 1655-1658, was born at
Springfield, Massachusetts, and was graduated from Williams College
in 1847 and from the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard in 1852.
For some years he taught physics and chemistry, and was engaged
also in writing school text-books on these subjects. An essay (“Our
Burden and Strength”) on the resources and financial ability of the
United States (1864) brought Wells into prominence, while it did much
to restore confidence in the Federal Government. President Lincoln
summoned Mr. Wells to Washington, and appointed him chairman of the
Revenue Commission of 1865-1866. As special commissioner of the revenue
(1866-1870) he completed vast reforms in the complex system of revenue
which had grown up during the war. Thereafter he was largely engaged
in writing and speaking on economic topics. Among his books are
“Robinson Crusoe’s Money,” illustrated by Nast (1876), “Our Merchant
Marine: How It Rose, Increased, Became Great, Declined, and Decayed”
(1882), “Practical Economics” (1885), “A Study of Mexico” (1887), “The
Relation of the Tariff to Wages” (1888), and “Recent Economic Changes”
(1898).

_Francis Amasa Walker._--Born in Boston, Francis A. Walker (1840-1897)
graduated from Amherst at twenty, then served in the Union Army,
becoming a brigadier-general. In 1869 he was put at the head of the
Bureau of Statistics; he was superintendent of the Ninth and the Tenth
Census, and held other prominent positions, including (1873-1881)
the professorship of political economy and history at the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale and (1881-1897) the presidency of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was a prolific writer; of
his economic works we can mention only “The Indian Question” (1874),
“The Wages Question” (1876), “Money” (1878), “Money in its Relations
to Trade and Industry” (Lowell Institute lectures, 1879), “Political
Economy” (1883), “Land and its Rent” (1883), and “International
Bimetallism” (1896). Walker’s influence as an economist was felt
especially in connection with the theory of wages. “The central idea of
his theory,” says Dr. Sherwood, “that the amount of wages under free
competition tends to equal the product due to the labour, has been
generally accepted, although not altogether as the direct result of his
writing.”

_Henry George._--The theories of Henry George (1839-1896) have been
widely discussed. They were first put forth in “Our Land and Land
Policy” (1871), in which he held that the burden of taxation should
be borne by the land and not by industry, and that thus opportunities
for progress would be equalised. His most important book was “Progress
and Poverty” (1879), which in a few years made George virtually the
apostle of a new economic and social creed. Conservative economists
have been slow to accept his single-tax theory; it has, however, called
attention to the enormous waste and wrong that result from granting
public franchises to private corporations without due compensation. His
theory of wages, that they arise from a value created by the efficiency
of the labourer, has been generally accepted and may be regarded as a
real contribution to economic science.

=Some Other Writers.=--More than a generation of Williams College
men sat under the teaching of Arthur Latham Perry (1830-1905), for
thirty-eight years professor of history and political economy. Perry
published his “Elements of Political Economy” in 1865; some twenty
editions have since appeared. His advocacy of free trade in the sixties
cost him many friends. He published also a work on “International
Commerce” (1866) and smaller treatises on political economy. Elisha
Mulford (1833-1885), a graduate of Yale College and an Episcopal
clergyman, was the author of two highly powerful and stimulating books:
“The Nation” (1870), dealing with the philosophy of the state, and “The
Republic of God” (1880), a religious work of similar character. William
Graham Sumner (born in 1840) became prominent for his advocacy of free
trade and of the gold standard. Graduating at Yale in 1863, he studied
at Göttingen and Oxford, then took orders in the Episcopal Church.
Since 1872 he has been professor of political and social science at
Yale. He has written “A History of American Currency” (1874), “Lectures
on the History of Protection in the United States” (1875), “What Social
Classes Owe Each Other” (1882), “Collected Essays in Political and
Social Science” (1885), “The Financier and Finances of the American
Revolution” (1892), and “A History of Banking in the United States”
(1896). Another well known political economist is Richard Theodore
Ely (born in 1854), a graduate of Columbia College (1876) and of
Heidelberg (Ph.D. _summa cum laude_, 1879), who, as director of the
School of Economics, Political Science, and History in the University
of Wisconsin, has trained more teachers of economic science than any
other American living and has exerted marked influence on the thought
of his time. He has to his credit a long list of valuable publications;
some of them are “French and German Socialism in Modern Times” (1883),
“The Labour Movement in America” (1886), “Taxation in American States
and Cities” (1888), “Socialism, an Examination of Its Nature, Its
Strength, and Its Weakness, with Suggestions for Social Reform” (1894),
“The Social Law of Service” (1896), and “Monopolies and Trusts” (1900).
The tendency of the Government to regulate economic movements is in
harmony with a doctrine of which he has been a bold champion. Another
equally high authority on trusts and currency problems is Jeremiah
Whipple Jenks (born in 1856), since 1891 professor of political economy
at Cornell University. His “The Trust Problem” (1900) and “Trusts and
Industrial Combinations” (1900) have circulated widely. President
Woodrow Wilson (born in 1856) of Princeton, discussed elsewhere as a
historian, must also be mentioned here for his standard work on “The
State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics” (1889), “An Old
Master, and Other Political Essays” (1893), and “Mere Literature, and
Other Essays,” in which large and sound views of government and its
functions are set forth in a clear and attractive style.

=Ethnological and Linguistic Science.=--In the broad field of
ethnological research the work of American scholars has been chiefly
devoted to the native and primitive races of America. This offers,
as has been pointed out by Mr. McGee,[23] “the finest field the
world affords,” exhibiting nearly every stage of development and
nearly every type of mankind; and American contributions to ethnology
and anthropology have been correspondingly important. The names
of Gallatin, Schoolcraft, Morgan, Powell, Brinton, will be at once
recalled; probably the last named is our best known ethnologist. In the
science of language our showing is, in point of numbers, somewhat more
creditable. The lexicographical work of Webster, Worcester, Whitney,
and March, and the grammatical work of Child and Gildersleeve have
been recognised and appreciated the world over. In these sciences
America’s debt to Germany is a heavy one. Most of our greater teachers
of language received their professional training in Germany; and while
fewer of our students now go to Germany for the doctor’s degree, the
influence of German scholarship is still strongly felt among us.

_Pierre Étienne Duponceau._--Duponceau (1760-1844) was one of the
pioneers of American philology. Born in France, he came to America
in 1777 as secretary to Baron Steuben, served in the American army
as captain till 1781, and afterward practised law in Philadelphia,
becoming well known. He wrote treatises on law: “Exposition sommaire de
la constitution des États-Unis d’Amérique” (1837); and in linguistics:
“English Phonology” (1818), “Mémoire sur le système grammatical des
languages de quelques nations indiennes de 1’Amérique du Nord” (1838),
which was awarded a medal by the French Institute, and “A Dissertation
on the Nature and Character of the Chinese System of Writing” (1838).

_Albert Gallatin._--The long and illustrious political career of Albert
Gallatin (1761-1849) must not detain us here. Most of his literary and
ethnological work was done in his later years. In 1836 he published his
“Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the United States, East of the
Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in North
America.” In 1845 appeared his “Notes on the Semi-Civilised Nations
of Mexico, Yucatan, and Central America.” He founded the American
Ethnological Society in 1842; and he is rightly known and will be
remembered as the father of American ethnology.

_Henry Rowe Schoolcraft._--Among the most prominent of early American
ethnologists was Henry R. Schoolcraft (1793-1864). His grandfather,
James Calcraft, formerly a British soldier under Marlborough, had kept
a large school in Albany County, New York, and because of this his
name was changed to Schoolcraft. At an early age Henry Schoolcraft
became a student of mineralogy, chemistry, natural philosophy, and
medicine. In connection with his father’s glass-making enterprises
in New Hampshire, Vermont, and western New York, he was engaged for
some time in building glass-works, and in 1817 began to publish a work
on “Vitreology.” Conceiving a desire to travel in the Far West, he
started in 1818 on a journey down the Ohio and up the Mississippi. A
book resulting from this, on the mineralogy of the West, made him well
known. Another expedition was described in “Travels in the Central
Portions of the Mississippi Valley” (1825). In 1828 he was the leader
in founding the Michigan Historical Society and in 1832 he helped found
the Algic Society, for the reclamation and study of the Indians. A
narrative of his work and experiences was embodied in “Personal Memoirs
of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes on the American
Frontiers, 1812 to 1842,” a work full of the flavour of the primitive
West. Other works were “Algic Researches” (1839), a collection of
Indian allegories and legends; “Oneota, or The Characteristics of the
Red Race in America” (1844-1845); “The Red Race of America” (1847); and
“American Indians, their History, Condition, and Prospects” (1850), an
immense work covering a wide range of subjects. His books did much to
promote knowledge of Indian life and thought.

_Charles Pickering._--Another well-known ethnologist, Charles Pickering
(1805-1878), born in Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, graduated at
Harvard College in 1823 and took his degree in medicine in 1826. He
accompanied Commodore Wilkes in the _Vincennes_ on its exploring voyage
around the world in 1838-1842 and later visited India and Eastern
Africa. His great work was “The Races of Man and their Geographical
Distribution” (1848); later works of importance were “The Geographical
Distribution of Animals and Man” (1854) and “The Geographical
Distribution of Plants” (1861).

_Lewis Henry Morgan._--Lewis H. Morgan (1818-1881), born at Aurora
on Cayuga Lake, New York, and graduated from Union College in 1840,
became interested in studying the Indians through having organised a
society called “The Grand Order of the Iroquois,” which he wished to
model after the ancient Iroquois Confederacy. The first literary fruits
of his studies were his “Letters on the Iroquois” (in _The American
Review_ in 1847). Finding that he must neglect his law practice
or abandon his Indian studies, he determined to publish all his
materials and then cleave to law. In 1851, then, appeared “The League
of the Iroquois,” in which were fully explained the organisation and
government of the celebrated Iroquois Confederacy, and which formed the
first scientific account of an Indian tribe. A few years later, urged
by Henry, Agassiz, and others, he took up his studies again, and began
an investigation which was extended to embrace the whole world, and
which resulted in his scholarly “Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity
of the Human Family,” published in 1871, as No. 17 of the Smithsonian
“Contributions to Knowledge.” In 1881 he gathered his materials on
tribal organisation into an epoch-making philosophical treatise on
“Ancient Society,” which materially helped to lay the foundations of
our modern science of governmental institutions.

_John Wesley Powell._--Major John W. Powell (1834-1902) became
conspicuous both as a geologist and an anthropologist. He studied at
two or three small Western colleges, served in the Civil War, and then
taught geology in two Illinois universities. In 1867 he travelled
in the Colorado Rockies and thenceforward for many years was busied
with surveys and explorations of the Far West. From 1881 till 1894
he was director of the United States Geological Survey, resigning to
become director of the Bureau of Anthropology. He made many important
contributions to the sciences which interested him, publishing
“Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and Its Tributaries”
(1875), “Report on the Geology of the Uinta Mountains” (1876), “Report
on the Arid Region of the United States” (1879), “Introduction to the
Study of the Indian Languages” (1880), “Studies in Sociology” (1887),
“Canyons of the Colorado” (1895), and “Physiographic Processes,
Physiographic Features, and Physiographic Regions of the United States”
(1895).

_Daniel Garrison Brinton._--Daniel G. Brinton (1837-1899) of
Philadelphia was one of the leading archæologists of the New World.
Graduating at Yale in 1858 and at the Jefferson Medical College,
Philadelphia, in 1860, he served as a surgeon in the war and from 1867
to 1887 was editor of _The Medical and Surgical Reporter_. From 1886
until his death he was professor of American linguistics and archæology
at the University of Pennsylvania. He has to his credit a long list
of important books and papers, only a few of which can be mentioned
here. He began to publish in 1859 (“The Floridian Peninsula, Its
Literary History, Indian Tribes, and Antiquities”). From boyhood he
took a deep interest in the study of the American Indians; and in 1868
he published “The Myths of the New World.” He also wrote, on Indian
subjects, “American Hero Myths” (1882), “The American Race” (1892),
and numerous ethnological and linguistic papers. He also both edited
(for the most part) and published “The Library of Aboriginal American
Literature” in eight volumes (1882-1885). In the controversies between
science and theological dogma he was a pronounced radical. Along with
his scientific labours Dr. Brinton found time for some studies in
poetry, especially of Browning and Whitman.

_Noah Webster._--Among students of linguistic science the first to be
mentioned in point of time, and one of the first in importance, is Noah
Webster (1758-1843), a native of Hartford, Connecticut, and a graduate
of Yale College, whose “Grammatical Institute of the English Language”
(spelling-book, grammar, and reader) appeared in 1783-1785. These books
had an immense sale. The grammar showed originality, but was partly
superseded by Murray’s. Webster published also “Dissertations on the
English Language” (1789), a more advanced “Philosophical and Practical
Grammar of the English Language” (1807), and “Origin, History, and
Connection of the Languages of Western Asia and of Europe” (1807); the
last being one of the first fruits of Sir William Jones’ identification
of Sanskrit in 1786. The great work of Webster’s life, however, was his
“American Dictionary of the English Language,” first published in 1828.
Revised in 1847, 1864, and 1890, this is now the “International” and
enjoys a large sale. The edition of 1901 contains 2528 pages.

_Lindley Murray._--Lindley Murray (1745-1826), a native of
Pennsylvania, made a fortune in trade at the time of the Revolution,
and then settled at Holdgate, near York, England. Here he wrote his
“Grammar of the English Language” (1795), which by 1816 had swollen to
two volumes. In 1818 he published an “Abridgement,” which went through
some six-score editions. It laid great stress on syntax, and was a
terror to generations of students.

_Joseph Emerson Worcester._--For many years the only rival of
Webster’s Dictionary was Worcester’s. Like Webster, Joseph Emerson
Worcester (1784-1865) was a graduate of Yale College. After teaching
for a time at Salem, Massachusetts, he settled at Cambridge. After
various lexicographical labours, he issued “A Universal and Critical
Dictionary” (1846), containing “in addition to the words found in
Todd’s edition of Johnson’s Dictionary, nearly 27,000 words for which
authorities are given.” In 1860 this was expanded into the quarto
“Dictionary of the English Language,” which included about 104,000
words. In a memoir of Dr. Worcester, Ezra Abbot said:

  The tendency of his mind was practical rather than speculative. As
  a lexicographer, he did not undertake to reform long-established
  anomalies in the English language: his aim was rather to preserve
  it from corruption; and his works have certainly contributed much
  to that end. In respect both to orthography and pronunciation, he
  took great pains to ascertain the best usage; and perhaps there
  is no lexicographer whose judgment respecting these matters in
  doubtful cases deserves higher consideration.

_Goold Brown._--Most of our grandfathers got their knowledge of
English grammar from the text-books of Goold Brown (1791-1857). His
education was obtained at the Friends’ School in Providence, Rhode
Island, his birthplace. He became a successful teacher and for twenty
years conducted an academy in New York City. His “Institutes of
English Grammar” appeared in 1823 and with an elementary work had an
enormous circulation. His “Grammar of English Grammars” (1851), which
brought him wide reputation, has been called “the most exhaustive,
most accurate, and most original treatise on the English language ever
written.” This is absurdly high praise; yet the book is undoubtedly a
monument of industry, and has been for many earnest souls “a court of
last resort on matters grammatical.”

_George Perkins Marsh._--In his day a distinguished diplomatist and man
of letters, George P. Marsh (1801-1882) made substantial contributions
to philology. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1820 and studied
law. He soon turned to studies in language and in 1838 printed
privately a translation of Rask’s “Icelandic Grammar.” His “Lectures
on the English Language” (1861) were delivered originally at Columbia;
his “Origin and History of the English Language” (1862) was a course of
Lowell Institute lectures.

_Samuel Stehman Haldeman._--Samuel S. Haldeman (1812-1880) attained a
respectable place as a philologist, but was also known as a naturalist
and an archæologist. He went to Dickinson College two years, but not
liking the course of study, left to study by himself. Shortly after his
marriage in 1835, he settled at Chickies, Pennsylvania, became a silent
partner with two brothers in the iron business, and spent most of his
time in his library, where, for many years, he worked sixteen hours a
day. His nature-studies resulted in “Fresh-Water Univalve Mollusca of
the United States” (nine parts, 1840-1845); “Zoölogical Contributions”
(1842-1843); “Zoölogy of the Invertebrate Animals” (1850); and more
than seventy papers. He began early to take interest in the Indian
languages, and published papers on them, as well as on the languages
of Europe and China, and on spelling reform. These writings are now
valuable chiefly as landmarks in the history of linguistic science;
but this does not impair Haldeman’s contemporary reputation as a
learned and accurate linguist. His last works were a monograph on
“Pennsylvania Dutch” (1872) and “Outlines of Etymology” (1878).

_James Hammond Trumbull._--Well known as a thorough student of Indian
languages was James H. Trumbull (1821-1897) of Hartford, Connecticut.
He studied at Yale in the class of 1842, but was prevented by ill
health from graduating. On linguistics he wrote “The Composition of
Indian Geographical Names” (1870), “The Best Methods of Studying the
Indian Languages” (1871), “Notes on Forty Algonkin Versions of the
Lord’s Prayer” (1873), and “Indian Names of Places in and on the
Borders of Connecticut, with Interpretations” (1881). He also edited
Roger Williams’ “Key into the Language of America” (1866).

_Francis James Child._--Francis J. Child (1825-1896), created a
tradition of zeal for broad and sound learning, the influence of which
is still strong. A Boston youth, he stood at the head of his class
at Harvard, that of 1846. For forty-five years he was a professor in
Harvard. In addition to some excellent editions of texts, he published
an epoch-making monograph, “Observations on the Language of Chaucer”
(1862), “Observations on the Language of Gower’s Confessio Amantis”
(1866), and a monumental edition of “English and Scottish Popular
Ballads” (1857-1858, revised and enlarged edition in ten volumes,
1882-1898), which is a model of accurate, comprehensive work, and which
it is safe to say will not soon be superseded. It is due largely to
Child that Harvard has become one of the leading centres of English
study in America.

_Francis Andrew March._--The Nestor of living American philologists
is Professor Francis A. March (born in 1825), since 1855 a teacher in
Lafayette College. He graduated at Amherst College in 1845. At first
he pursued philosophical studies, but was later drawn to the study of
language. His “Method of Philological Study of the English Language”
appeared in 1865. His “Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language”
(1870) was a pioneer, and with the “Anglo-Saxon Reader” (1870) did good
service in introducing the subject into American colleges. For many
years Dr. March has been an ardent apostle of spelling reform.

_William Dwight Whitney._--Probably William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894)
is best known as a writer of textbooks and popular expositor of
linguistic problems. Among scholars, however, his chief monument is his
work in Sanskrit. Born at Northampton, Massachusetts, he was graduated
at eighteen from Williams College. In the winter of 1848-1849 he began
the study of Sanskrit; this study he continued under Salisbury at
Yale, Weber at Berlin, and Roth at Tübingen. In 1854 he was appointed
professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology at Yale, and held this
chair until his death; being for many years accounted the leading
philologist in America. He was a most industrious and systematic
worker. His bibliography includes 360 titles. He wrote simple and lucid
grammars of English (1877), French (1886), German (1869), and Sanskrit
(1879); “Language and the Study of Language” (1867); “Oriental and
Linguistic Studies” (1873-1874); “The Life and Growth of Language”
(1875); several translations, with commentaries, of Sanskrit texts;
and numerous papers and reviews. He was also editor-in-chief of “The
Century Dictionary” (1889-1891) and read every proof of its 21,138
columns. But his greatest service to the cause of science was in
holding up to his pupils a lofty ideal and a rigorous scientific method.

  Hellenists, Latinists, and linguists of every sort [said Professor
  Perrin in a memorial address], and even historical students in the
  more restricted sense, all over this country and Europe, are now
  labouring, each in his chosen field, with a more equable spirit, a
  broader method, and a loftier ideal, because they have caught them
  all, directly or indirectly, from the master whose memory we honour.

_Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve._--Valuable work in classical philology has
been done by Basil L. Gildersleeve (born in 1831). After graduating
at Princeton in 1849, he studied at Berlin, Bonn, and Göttingen,
receiving the degree of Ph.D. from Göttingen in 1853. For twenty years
(1856-1876) he was professor of Greek (for five years, of Latin also)
at the University of Virginia. In 1876 he was called to a similar chair
at Johns Hopkins University, which he has since held. He founded (1880)
and has since edited _The American Journal of Philology_, and has
published, among other books, “A Latin Grammar” (1876, twice revised),
“Essays and Studies, Educational and Literary” (1890), “The Syntax
of Classical Greek” (part i., 1900, with Charles W. E. Miller), and
editions of Justin Martyr, Persius, and Pindar.

=Natural and Physical Science.=--It is in the natural and physical
sciences that our attempt to cover the ground will at once appear most
hopeless. In some of these sciences, for example astronomy, physics,
and geology, American scholars stand concededly among the foremost
in the world; to practically all of them Americans have contributed
noteworthy studies and discoveries. Lack of space prevents even the
mention, with one or two exceptions, of living writers.

_John James Audubon._--Among the naturalists of America no name is
more illustrious than that of the chief of our ornithologists, John
James Audubon (1780-1851). His father was a French naval officer who
had settled upon a plantation near New Orleans and married a lady
of Spanish descent. When but a child Audubon used to draw pictures
of birds; of those which were not satisfactory he made a bonfire
at each birthday. When he was about eighteen, his father settled
him on a farm near Philadelphia; here he gratified the naturalist’s
passion to such an extent that he was good for nothing else. “For a
period of twenty years,” he wrote later, “my life was a series of
vicissitudes. I tried various branches of commerce, but they all proved
unprofitable, doubtless because my whole mind was ever filled with my
passion for rambling and admiring those objects of Nature from which
alone I received the purest gratification.” He lived with his family
successively in Kentucky, Ohio, Mississippi, and Louisiana; drawing
and studying birds incessantly. Visiting England in 1826, he arranged
for the publication of “The Birds of America” (1830-1839). It was to
be published in numbers of five folio plates each, the whole to be in
four volumes and to be sold for $1000 a copy. The work was to cost over
$100,000; yet he had not money enough to pay for the first number. He
supported himself by painting. He was elected (1830) a Fellow of the
Royal Society. Audubon accompanied his “Birds” with “Ornithological
Biographies” (five volumes, 1831-1839), the literary value of which is
important; “it presents,” says one writer, “in language warm from his
having been a part of the scenes, a virgin past of our country, and its
forests and prairies, which can never be restored or so well described
again.” “The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America,” with 150 plates,
appeared in three volumes in 1845-1848; in this undertaking he was
assisted by his two sons and the Rev. John Bachman of Charleston,
South Carolina. The last three years of his life were spent in mental
darkness. His claim to honorable rank in American letters cannot be
denied.

_Spencer Fullerton Baird._--No American naturalist exerted a wider
and deeper influence than Spencer F. Baird (1823-1887). A native of
Pennsylvania and a graduate of Dickinson College (1840), he was the
friend and in some work the collaborator of Audubon, Agassiz, and
other zoölogists. Appointed assistant secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution in 1850, he directed much of the scientific exploration of
the West; organised the National Museum (1857); succeeded Henry in 1878
as secretary of the Smithsonian and largely developed its work; and in
1874 became head of the Commission of Fish and Fisheries, and organised
the science and practice of fish culture in America. He was besides
a voluminous writer. His books and papers down to 1882 include 1063
titles. Of them we may mention “Catalogue of North American Reptiles”
(1853), “The Birds of America” (with John Cassin, 1860), “The Mammals
of North America” (1859), and “History of American Birds” (with Thomas
M. Brewer and Robert Ridgway, 1874-1884).

_Alpheus Hyatt._--In zoölogy and palæontology one of the celebrated
scholars of his day was Alpheus Hyatt (1838-1902). Born in Washington,
D. C., he received his education at the Maryland Military Academy,
Yale College, and under Agassiz at the Lawrence Scientific School of
Harvard, from which he was graduated in 1862. After the Civil War, in
which he rose to be a captain, he continued his studies in natural
history and became active in fostering these studies in general.
He helped to found _The American Naturalist_ in 1868, and was the
principal founder of the American Society of Naturalists, organised in
1883. In 1881 he became professor of zoölogy and palæontology in the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in Boston University. He was
equally active in teaching, in popularising science, and in research.
Some of his books are “Observations on Freshwater Polyzoa” (1866),
“Revision of North American Poriferæ” (1875-1877), long the only work
on North American commercial sponges, “The Genesis of the Tertiary
Species of Planorbis at Steinheim,” a long and important monograph on
the influence of gravity on certain shells, published by the Boston
Society of Natural History in its “Memoirs” (1880), “Genera of Fossil
Cephalopods” (1883), “The Larval Theory of the Origin of Cellular
Tissue” (1884), giving his theory of the origin of sex, and “The
Genesis of the Arietidæ” (1889). He also edited a series of “Guides for
Science-Teaching,” of several of which he himself was also the author.
Few Americans indeed have done so much to make natural science popular
as did Hyatt. His work in research was immensely fruitful. He has been
called the founder of the new school of invertebrate palæontology,
while in systematic zoölogy he made several discoveries which led to
important revisions in biological classification.

_Alpheus Spring Packard._--The son of a Bowdoin College professor
of the same name, Alpheus S. Packard (1839-1905) naturally entered
Bowdoin and there came under the influence of Dr. Paul Chadbourne,
who encouraged his inclination toward zoölogical study. After
graduating from Bowdoin in 1861 and from the Maine Medical School in
1864, he worked under Agassiz at Harvard, devoting himself largely
to the study of insects. In 1867 he became curator of invertebrates
and in 1876 director, of the Peabody Academy of Science in Salem,
Massachusetts. In 1878 he was appointed professor of zoölogy and
geology in Brown University, retaining this post till his death. He
was one of the founders and for twenty years editor of _The American
Naturalist_. Besides hundreds of papers, he wrote a “Guide to the
Study of Insects” (1869); “The Mammoth Cave and Its Inhabitants,”
jointly with F. W. Putnam (1872); “Life Histories of Animals” (1876),
the first attempt since the Lowell Institute lectures of Agassiz to
attempt a summary of embryological discoveries; “Insects Injurious to
Forest and Shade Trees” (1890), “A Naturalist on the Labrador Coast”
(1891), “A Text-Book of Entomology” (1898), and “Lamarck, the Founder
of Evolution: His Life and Work” (1901). Apropos of the last book it
will be remembered that Packard, Cope, and Hyatt were the founders and
chief exponents of the Neo-Lamarckian school of evolution. Packard was
an indefatigable investigator and his contributions to entomology and
zoölogy immensely advanced those sciences.

_Edward Drinker Cope._--Another celebrated naturalist was Edward D.
Cope (1840-1897) of Philadelphia, whose studies in fossil vertebrates
were of epoch-making significance. He studied at the University of
Pennsylvania. From 1864 till 1867 he was professor of natural sciences
in Haverford College. For twenty-two years thereafter he was engaged in
exploration, research, and editorial work. In 1889 he became professor
of geology and palæontology in the University of Pennsylvania. Before
he was thirty he had laid his foundations in five chief lines of
research, ichthyology, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and evolutionary
philosophy. On all of these subjects he wrote much and wisely. He was
the author of over four hundred volumes, papers, and memoirs, to say
nothing of hundreds of editorial articles in _The American Naturalist_,
which he edited from 1878 until his death. On the subject of evolution
alone his most important works are “The Origin of Genera” (1868), “The
Origin of the Fittest” (1886), and “The Primary Factors of Organic
Evolution” (1896). His activity in research may be judged from the fact
that he himself named and described 1115 out of some 3200 known species
of North American fossil vertebrates. Naturally, in attempting so much,
he fell short of perfection in some things.

  His life-work, [says Professor Osborn,[24]] bears the marks of
  great genius, of solid and accurate observation, and at times of
  inaccuracy due to bad logic or haste and over-pressure of work. The
  greater number of his Natural Orders and Natural Laws will remain
  as permanent landmarks in our science. As a comparative anatomist
  he ranks, both in the range and effectiveness of his knowledge
  and his ideas, with Cuvier and Owen.... As a natural philosopher,
  while far less logical than Huxley, he was more creative and
  constructive, his metaphysics ending in theism rather than
  agnosticism.

_Elliott Coues._--Distinguished as an ornithologist, Elliott Coues
(1842-1899) became favourably known also for researches in biology and
comparative anatomy. After taking degrees at the Columbian University
in 1861-1863, he entered the Union Army as assistant surgeon, studying
flora and fauna wherever he went. In 1873-1876 he was surgeon and
naturalist to the United States Northern Boundary Commission and
in 1876-1880 was connected with the United States Geological and
Geographical Survey of the Territories. He helped found the American
Ornithologists’ Union and edited its organ, The Auk. His “Key to
North American Birds” (1872, rewritten 1884 and 1901) is of great
significance. He wrote also on “Birds of the Northwest” (1874), “Birds
of the Colorado Valley” (1878), and with Winfrid A. Stearns, “New
England Bird Life” (1881).

_David Starr Jordan._--David Starr Jordan (born in 1851) has in
recent years been regarded chiefly as an educator; he became known
through his studies on fishes. Entering Cornell University in 1868,
he was appointed instructor in botany in 1870 and graduated M.S. in
1872. After teaching and studying science for some years, he was
made (1879) professor of zoölogy at Indiana University, of which
he became president in 1885. Since 1891 he has been president of
Stanford University. Some of his books are “A Manual of the Vertebrate
Animals of the Northern United States” (1876), “Science Sketches”
(1887), “Fishes of North and Middle America” (1896-1899), “Footnotes
to Evolution” (1898), and “The Food and Game Fishes of North America”
(1902). He is a leader both in his chosen scientific field and in
educational thought.

_Asa Gray._--The best-known botanist of his epoch was Asa Gray
(1810-1888) a native of Paris, Oneida County, New York. He graduated
in medicine at Fairfield College in 1831, but soon gave up medicine
for botany and in 1842 was elected to the Fisher professorship of
natural history in Harvard University. Any adequate narrative of
Gray’s tremendous activity as a writer and teacher is out of the
question here; we can only say that his widely known and long standard
text-books on botany (beginning with the “Elements of Botany,” 1836,
which grew into the “Structural and Systematic Botany” of 1879, and
including his “How Plants Grow,” 1858, and “How Plants Behave,” 1872)
represent but a small part of his literary activity. With Dr. Torrey
he began (1838) the “Flora of North America”; he wrote also valuable
botanical memoirs and many valuable articles for _The North American
Review_ and _The American Journal of Science_.

_Edward Hitchcock._--Edward Hitchcock (1793-1864), a Congregational
clergyman, and for thirty-nine years a professor of science in Amherst
College, was especially devoted to geological study. A large number of
his books and papers relate to geological subjects, which he helped
to make popular; among these books are “Economical Geology” (1832),
“Geology of Massachusetts” (1841), “The Religion of Geology and Its
Connected Sciences” (1851), and “Ichnology of New England” (1858). He
was the first president of the Association of American Geologists, and
was president of Amherst College from 1845 till 1854.

_Louis Agassiz._--The celebrated naturalist Jean Louis Rodolphe
Agassiz (1807-1873) was of Swiss birth and did not come to America
to live until he was forty-one years of age, and had already become
famous for those studies of glacial phenomena set forth in “Études sur
les glaciers” (1840) and “Système glaciaire” (with Guyot and Desor,
1847). For twenty-five years (1848-1873) he was professor of natural
history at Harvard, and in that time, besides training some of the most
eminent of living American scientists, he did much to arouse popular
interest in science and scientific progress. Of the “Contributions to
the Natural History of the United States” which he planned to publish
in ten volumes, he lived to issue only four (1857-1862). For Agassiz
Nature was “the expression of the thought of the Creator.” In opposing
the Darwinians as to the origin of species, Agassiz unfortunately
took the wrong side of the question of how the Creator expressed His
thought; but he remains nevertheless distinguished both as a scientist
and as an educator; a singularly great and gentle nature, strong and
true.

_Arnold Henry Guyot._--Less distinguished than his compatriot Agassiz,
but of enduring fame, was the geographer Arnold Guyot (1807-1884). Born
near Neuchâtel, Switzerland, he studied there and in Germany, receiving
the degree of Ph.D. from Berlin in 1835. Like Agassiz he became known
for his glacial discoveries; and like Agassiz he came to America in
the troubled year 1848. From 1854 until his death he was professor of
geology and physical geography at Princeton. His text-books and maps
revolutionised the teaching and study of geography. He wrote also many
scientific papers and memoirs, among which may be noted especially
those describing his studies in the Appalachian Mountains. American
science owes much to his unselfish devotion.

_James Dwight Dana._--James D. Dana (1813-1895), born in Utica, New
York, was attracted by the fame of the elder Silliman to Yale College,
where he graduated in 1833. To the Sillimans he became allied by his
marriage with Henrietta F. Silliman in 1844; and like them he had a
long and notable career closely connected with Yale College, where
he became (1835) Silliman professor of natural history and geology.
He wrote many reports on geological, zoölogical, and mineralogical
subjects, besides “A Manual of Mineralogy” (1851), “A Manual of
Geology” (1862), “On Coral Reefs and Islands” (1853), “Science and the
Bible” (_Bibliotheca Sacra_, 1856-1857), and “Corals and Coral Islands”
(1872).

_Alexander Winchell._--Another noted geologist was Alexander Winchell
(1824-1891). Graduating from Wesleyan University in 1847, he became
a teacher of science in various schools, and in 1853 professor of
physics and civil engineering in the University of Michigan; being
soon transferred to the chair of geology, zoölogy, and botany. He
afterward taught at Syracuse and Vanderbilt Universities. From the
latter institution in 1878 he was dismissed because his views on
evolution were “contrary to the plan of redemption.” The next year he
was recalled to Michigan. Besides being a leading spirit in forming
the Geological Society of America, and in establishing _The American
Geologist_, he was a voluminous writer, especially of scientific works
for popular use, and endeavoured in these works to show the essential
harmony between science and Christian dogma. Thus he did the work of a
peacemaker in what has long been a heated conflict.

_Nathaniel Bowditch_ (1773-1838) was a pioneer in the study of
astronomy and mathematics in America. At first a cooper and then a
ship-chandler, he was studious, and learned Latin in order to read
Newton’s “Principia.” As supercargo on a merchant vessel during several
voyages, he became expert in the theory of navigation and published in
1802 “The New American Practical Navigator,” which in a revised form is
published by the United States Hydrographic Office and is the standard
compendium for navigators. In 1829 he translated Laplace’s “Méchanique
céleste,” adding valuable notes.

_Benjamin Peirce._--In the annals of mathematics and astronomy the name
of Benjamin Peirce (1809-1880) has a place of distinction. Born at
Salem, Massachusetts, he became a pupil of Bowditch, and graduated at
Harvard in 1829, in the class with Holmes. He became a tutor at Harvard
in 1831, professor of mathematics and physics in 1833, and nine years
later Perkins professor of mathematics and astronomy, holding this
chair till his death. From 1867 till 1874, succeeding Dallas Bache, he
was superintendent of the Coast Survey. He wrote an important series
of mathematical text-books; “System of Analytical Mechanics” (1857);
“Linear Associative Algebra” (communications to the National Academy
of Sciences, collected in 1870); and Lowell Institute lectures on
“Ideality in the Physical Sciences” (1881). He obtained eminence, it
has been said, equally in mathematics, physics, astronomy, mechanics,
and navigation.

_The Sillimans._--In the annals of American science no other name is so
long and favourably known as that of the Sillimans. Benjamin Silliman
(1779-1864) was for fifty years, beginning in 1802, professor of
chemistry in Yale College and founded (1818) _The American Journal of
Science and Arts_, which he edited for twenty-eight years. His son,
Benjamin, Jr. (1816-1885), taught and studied chemistry, mineralogy,
and geology in Yale, and was associate editor (1838-1846) of his
father’s _Journal_. For the rest of his life he was a professor of
chemistry, first in what is now the Sheffield Scientific School of
Yale, then at Louisville University, and later in the Academic and
Medical Departments at Yale. In 1858 he published “First Principles
of Natural Philosophy or Physics”; and he was the author of many
scientific memoirs, addresses, and reports. He was one of the pioneers
in science-teaching in America, and his influence on scientific
education was deep and abiding.

_Joseph Henry._--Joseph Henry (1797-1878) was one of the most
illustrious physicists of his day. Born and educated at Albany,
New York, he began (1827) researches which resulted in important
discoveries in the field of electro-magnetism, one of which made the
telegraph possible. From 1832 till 1846 he was professor of natural
philosophy in the College of New Jersey (Princeton), and from 1846
till his death was secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which he
had helped to organise. He published “Contributions to Electricity
and Magnetism” (1839) and many papers, especially in the Smithsonian
reports. A brilliant and profound investigator, he did signally
important service in organising great scientific enterprises. “To
Henry,” says Dr. Woodward, “more than to any other man, must be
attributed the rise and the growth in America of the present public
appreciation of the scientific work carried on by governmental aid.”

_Alexander Dallas Bache._--Alexander Dallas Bache (1806-1867), a
great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, after graduating in 1825 at West
Point, at the head of his class, at twenty-two resigned a lieutenant’s
commission to become professor of natural philosophy and chemistry at
the University of Pennsylvania. Having made a name for his researches
on steam, magnetism, etc., he was called in 1843 to be superintendent
of the United States Coast Survey, and performed his duties with marked
efficiency. Gifted with quick apprehension and broad intelligence, he
possessed great powers of leadership. He published nearly two hundred
scientific papers, memoirs, and reports. “To him,” declared his
eulogist Benjamin Gould, “the scientific progress of the nation was
indebted more than to any other man who had trod her soil.”

_Matthew Fontaine Maury._--Matthew F. Maury (1806-1873) is well known
to students of meteorological science and also to the educational
world. He was a Virginian of Huguenot extraction, who went to sea at
nineteen and became not only a good sailor but also an authority on
navigation. His “Treatise on Navigation” (1835) was favourably received
abroad and was used as a text-book in the United States Navy. As “Harry
Bluff” he published in _The Southern Literary Messenger_, about 1840,
under the title of “Scraps from the Lucky-Bag,” a series of papers
on nautical matters, which brought him fame and resulted in placing
him in charge of the Depot of Charts and Instruments at Washington,
an office which later became the Naval Observatory and Hydrographical
Department. One of his first tasks was to compile some charts of winds
and currents. These charts proved immensely valuable by shortening
voyages and lowering the expense of commerce. His “Physical Geography
of the Sea and its Meteorology” (1855) at once took the highest rank
in its field, and the geographical text-books which he wrote in his
later years have done great service to education and in a revised form
still satisfy the needs of many schools. He was the author also of many
pamphlets and official papers.

_Josiah Parsons Cooke._--Josiah Parsons Cooke (1827-1894), a pioneer
in chemical education, was born in Boston and graduated at Harvard
in 1844. In 1851 he became professor of chemistry and mineralogy at
Harvard. He did much to further the study of chemistry in colleges and
was one of the first to urge the laboratory method of instruction.
He published, among other things, “Chemical Problems and Reactions”
(1853), “Religion and Chemistry” (1864), “The New Chemistry” (1871),
and “The Credentials of Science the Warrant of Faith” (1888).

_John William Draper._--John W. Draper (1811-1882) is known in the
annals of science as a chemist and physiologist; he won eminence
also as a historian. Born at St. Helens, near Liverpool, the son of
a Wesleyan Methodist minister, he studied chemistry under Turner in
London, and coming to America in 1833, graduated in medicine from the
University of Pennsylvania in 1836. He now began investigating the
chemical action of light, and published in 1844 a “Treatise on the
Forces which Produce the Organisation of Plants.” His memoir “On the
Production of Light by Heat” (1847), a valuable contribution to the
subject of spectrum analysis, appeared thirteen years before Kirchoff’s
celebrated memoir, which used to be thought of as marking the beginning
of spectrum analysis. He was also the first to succeed (1839) in taking
portraits of the human face by photography. In 1839 he became professor
of chemistry, and in 1850 of physiology also, in the University of
New York. His “Treatise on Human Physiology, Statical and Dynamical”
(1856) at once took its place as a standard text-book. He wrote also a
“Text-Book on Chemistry” (1846); a “Text-Book on Natural Philosophy”
(1847); “History of the Conflict between Religion and Science” (1874),
an able and comprehensive treatment of a vast subject; and “Scientific
Memoirs” (1878), a collection of papers on radiant energy. Two of his
sons, Henry and John Christopher, also became well known physiologists
and chemists.

_Charles Augustus Young._--Of the more recent astronomers of America,
Charles A. Young (1834-1908) was one of the foremost. Born in Hanover,
New Hampshire, the son of Professor Ira Young of Dartmouth College, he
graduated from Dartmouth in 1853. From 1856 till 1866 he was professor
of mathematics, astronomy, and natural philosophy in Western Reserve
University. In the latter year he returned to Dartmouth as professor
of natural philosophy and astronomy, remaining there till 1877, when
he became professor of astronomy at Princeton. He was prominently
connected with several important astronomical expeditions and produced
some notable inventions, among them an automatic spectroscope which has
been widely used by astronomers. He made some significant observations
on the sun, including a verification by experiment of Doppler’s
principle as applied to light, by which he was able to measure the
velocity of the sun’s rotation. He also discovered the thin solar shell
of gaseous matter called “the reversing layer.” He wrote “The Sun” in
“The International Scientific Series” (1882), “A General Astronomy”
(1889), “Elements of Astronomy” (1890), and “A Manual of Astronomy”
(1902).

_Robert Henry Thurston._--Distinguished as an educator, an inventor,
and a writer on engineering subjects was Robert H. Thurston
(1839-1903). He was born in Providence, Rhode Island, and graduated
from Brown University in 1859. During the Civil War he served as an
engineer in the Federal Navy; in 1865 he was appointed assistant
professor of natural and experimental philosophy at the United States
Naval Academy. In 1871 he became professor of engineering at the
Stevens Institute of Technology, remaining here until 1885, when
he was made director of Sibley College in Cornell University. His
writings, always clear, exact, and authoritative, have circulated
widely among engineers. They include “A History of the Growth of the
Steam Engine” (1878, revised in 1901, and translated into French and
German), “Materials of Engineering” (three volumes, 1882-1886), “Manual
of the Steam Engine” (1890-1891), “Manual of Steam Boilers” (1890),
with other valuable works, and about 250 scientific papers. Thurston
served on several important government engineering commissions. Of him
it has justly been said that “he made engineers better scientists,
promoted engineering education, helped to put engineering upon a higher
professional plane, and constantly was on the watch to dispel the fogs
of prejudice by help of the truths of science.”

_The Youmans Brothers._--The life of Edward Livingston Youmans
(1821-1887) was spent chiefly in popularising science. Born in Albany
County, New York, he inherited a strong bent toward scientific study.
For many years he wrestled with threatening blindness, and was never
well. His “Class-Book of Chemistry” (1851) was remarkably successful.
“There was,” Mr. Fiske says of it, “a firm grasp of the philosophical
principles underlying chemical phenomena, and the meaning and functions
of the science were set forth in such a way as to charm the student
and make him wish for more.” He spent many years in delivering lyceum
lectures, for which he was well fitted. His “Handbook of Household
Science” (1857) was a carefully written treatise on the applications
of science to the problems of food, light, heat, and sanitation. Its
popularity led him to plan a comprehensive “Household Cyclopædia”
which he did not live to finish. Besides editing “The Correlation and
Conservation of Forces” (1864), a series of expositions by Grove,
Helmholtz, Mayer, Faraday, Liebig, and Carpenter, and “The Culture
Demanded by Modern Life” (1867), a collection of addresses and
arguments in favour of scientific education, Youmans published several
addresses and papers, and did much to give the views of Darwin and
Spencer a favourable reception in America. He was the originator and
general editor of “The International Scientific Series,” of which
fifty-seven volumes appeared in his lifetime. It was a difficult but
eminently useful task to secure popular scientific books by masters;
and the series of seventy-nine volumes has done much for education.
Youmans was also the founder of _The Popular Science Monthly_ (begun in
1872) and edited the first twenty-eight volumes.

  While it was his main intent [to quote Mr. Fiske again] to give in
  popular form an account of the progress of the several departments
  of science, he never lost sight of the aim to show wherein the
  scientific method was applicable to the larger questions of
  life--of education, social relations, morals, government, and
  religion.

William Jay Youmans (1838-1901) first studied chemistry at Columbia and
Yale and privately with his brother Edward, then took a medical course
at New York University. After practising medicine for some three years,
he became connected with _The Popular Science Monthly_, which he edited
from 1887 till 1900. He wrote “Pioneers of Science in America” (1895).

_Henry Carrington Bolton._--Henry Carrington Bolton (1843-1903) did
much for the bibliography of chemistry; his “Select Bibliography of
Chemistry, 1492-1892” (1893-1905) comprises over 12,000 titles in
twenty-four languages. He also wrote many papers on the history of
chemistry. His “Counting-out Rhymes of Children” (1888) gave him
prominence as a folklorist, and he published also some important papers
on various other subjects in folklore.

VII. THE PERIODICALS.

=Their Importance.=--No apology need be offered for including in
this volume a section on the history of American periodicals. As
Professor Smyth has well said, in speaking of the early magazines
of Philadelphia, such a division “helps to exhibit the process of
American literature as an evolution.” Much of our best literature made
its first appearance in periodicals; and the remuneration received by
authors from this source has great significance in the economics of
literature. Likewise much of our best and most searching criticism,
whether reprinted or not, appeared originally in newspapers and
magazines, which have thus had a prominent part in the making of
American literature. In 1810 there were only about thirty periodicals
altogether; in 1900 there were 239 classed as general and literary,
some of them having a considerable circulation on the other side of
the Atlantic. In the brief space allotted to this section it will be
impossible to do more than to mention a few of the most important
literary periodicals; the full extent of the journalistic activity of
the United States may be inferred from the fact that in 1900 over eight
billion copies of periodicals were circulated, having a market value of
nearly $225,000,000.

=The Eighteenth Century.=--The eighteenth century will not long detain
us. Only ten years after Edward Cave had founded _The Gentleman’s
Magazine_ in London (1731), Andrew Bradford and Benjamin Franklin
founded in Philadelphia the first monthly magazines in America. Of
Bradford’s venture, _The American Magazine_, edited by John Webbe,
only three numbers appeared; while Franklin published only six numbers
of _The General Magazine_. In the course of the century several
others appeared, among them _The American Magazine and Historical
Chronicle_ (Boston, 1743-1746); _The Independent Reflector_ (New
York, 1752-1753), among whose contributors were Governor William
Livingston, John Morin Scott, and Aaron Burr; _The American Magazine_
(Philadelphia, 1757-1758, revived in 1769), which Professor Tyler calls
“by far the most admirable example of our literary periodicals in the
colonial time,” edited by Rev. William Smith, first provost of the
College of Philadelphia; _The New American Magazine_ (Woodbridge, New
Jersey, 1758-1760), edited by S. Nevil; _The Royal American Magazine_
(Boston, 1774-1775); _The Pennsylvania Magazine_ (Philadelphia,
1775-1776), edited by Thomas Paine, to which articles were sent by
Francis Hopkinson, John Witherspoon, and William Smith; _The Columbian
Magazine_ (Philadelphia, 1786-1790), edited at first by Matthew Carey
and later by Alexander J. Dallas, and changed in 1790 to _The Universal
Asylum_ (1790-1792; to this Benjamin Rush was a faithful contributor);
_The American Museum_ (Philadelphia, 1787-1792, 1798), for which Carey
abandoned _The Columbian_ and which was “the first really successful
literary undertaking of the kind in America”; _The Massachusetts
Magazine_ (Boston, 1789-1796); _The New York Magazine_ (1790-1797);
_The Farmers’ Museum_ (Walpole, New Hampshire, 1793-1799), of which
Joseph Dennie, the editor from 1796 to 1799, boasted that “it is read
by more than two thousand individuals, and has its patrons in Europe
and on the banks of the Ohio”; and _The Monthly Magazine and American
Review_ (New York, 1799-1800), founded by Charles Brockden Brown, and
carried on in 1801-1802 as _The American Review and Literary Journal_.
But the reading public of those days was small, and other conditions
were unfavourable to publishers; in consequence, almost none of these
publications lived into the next century.

=The Nineteenth Century.=--Of the literary magazines established
before 1850, only one or two have survived. Yet we now begin to see
the periodicals exhibiting greater vitality; and gradually they come
to deal more and more with native literature and to exhibit a greater
self-reliance on the part of American writers. The first half of the
century was the period in which the national spirit took deep root and
made rapid growth; and this national spirit is fully reflected in the
literature of the time.

In 1801 Joseph Dennie and John Dickins began to publish, in
Philadelphia, _The Port Folio_, which was destined to live for
twenty-six years. Among its contributors were John Blair Linn, author
of “The Powers of Genius,” “The Death of Washington,” etc.; Robert
H. Rose, author of “Sketches in Verse”; John Sanderson, who wrote a
book of Parisian sketches entitled “The American in Paris”; Alexander
Graydon; Gouverneur Morris; Joseph Hopkinson, author of “Hail,
Columbia,” and of articles on Shakespeare; and Alexander Wilson, poet
and ornithologist, whose works were edited by Alexander B. Grosart
(Paisley, Scotland, 1876).

From 1803 to 1811, the Anthology Club maintained in Boston a sprightly
magazine called _The Anthology and Boston Review_. The best minds of
Boston contributed to it; among them George Ticknor, William Tudor,
Joseph Buckminster, John Quincy Adams, Dr. John Sylvester, Edward
Everett, and John Gardiner. The magazine never paid expenses; but the
contributors cheerfully paid for their pleasure. The club did much to
give Boston its literary prestige, and was the forerunner of the famous
Boston Athenæum.

_The Literary Magazine and American Register_ (Philadelphia, 1803-1808)
was likewise founded by the novelist Brown, who published therein,
among other things, his “Memoirs of Carwin, the Biloquist.”

Washington Irving began his literary career with the publication of
_Salmagundi_, which he founded in New York in 1807, in conjunction with
his brother William and James Kirke Paulding. The little sheet, in
yellow covers, was issued by an eccentric publisher, David Longworth,
the front of whose house was entirely hidden by a colossal painting of
the crowning of Shakespeare. The magazine was modelled after Addison’s
_Spectator_. Paulding was Launcelot Langstaff and Irving was Pindar
Cockloft, the poet. “Our intention,” wrote the editors, “is simply to
instruct the young, reform the old, correct the town, and castigate
the age; this is an arduous task, and therefore we undertake it with
confidence.” The work soon became popular throughout the United
States for its clever reproductions of society foibles. After twenty
numbers, however, it was discontinued, because, as Paulding said, “the
publisher, with that liberality so characteristic of these modern
Mæcenases, declined to concede to us a share of the profits, which had
become considerable.” Twelve years later, Irving being then in Europe,
Paulding attempted a second series (Philadelphia, May to August, 1820),
which, though inferior to the first series, still contained some
interesting pages.

_The Select Reviews and Spirit of the Foreign Magazines_, begun by
Samuel Ewing in Philadelphia (1809), later became _The Analectic
Magazine_ (1812-1821). In 1813-1814 Irving was its editor and
contributed to it some biographies of heroes of the War of 1812 and
some of the essays afterwards collected in “The Sketch Book.” Other
contributors were Gulian C. Verplanck, James K. Paulding, Alexander
Wilson, and William Darlington. _The Analectic_ published in July,
1819, the first lithograph made in America.

_The Portico_ (Baltimore, 1815-1819) numbered among its contributors
John Neal, whose lengthy review of Byron appeared as a serial. Neal
continued to write for _The Portico_ “until he knocked it on the head,
it is thought, by an article on Free Agency.”

_The Idle Man_ (New York, 1821-1822) was edited by Richard H. Dana the
elder; in it were printed his novels “Tom Thornton” and “Paul Felton”
and some contributions from Bryant and from Washington Allston.

_The New York Mirror_, a weekly, was begun in 1823 by General George
P. Morris and Samuel Woodworth, the author of “The Old Oaken Bucket.”
Woodworth soon gave way to Theodore S. Fay and he in turn (1831)
to Nathaniel P. Willis. Morris and Willis conducted it with great
success until 1842. Fay contributed “The Little Genius,” satirical
letters on New York society, and “The Minute Book,” letters from
Europe. Willis spent some years abroad as foreign correspondent of the
paper (1832-1836), his letters being eagerly read and widely copied.
Morris and Willis subsequently conducted _The New Mirror_ (New York,
1843-1844), which in October, 1844, became a daily, and _The Home
Journal_ (New York, from 1846 on), which as _Town and Country_ still
continues.

_The Atlantic Magazine_ (New York, 1824-1825), edited by Robert C.
Sands, was continued till 1826 as _The New York Review and Athenæum
Magazine_. In its later form it was edited by Henry J. Anderson and
William Cullen Bryant. In it appeared many of Bryant’s poems and some
of his prose, as well as contributions by Longfellow, Dana, Willis,
Bancroft, and Caleb Cushing. In March, 1826, the _Review_ was merged
with _The New York Literary Gazette_. In July this was in turn combined
with _The United States Literary Gazette_, which had been founded in
Boston in 1825 and edited by Theophilus Parsons, the new title being
_The United States Review and Literary Gazette_. James G. Carter, and
later Charles Folsom, were the Boston editors, and Bryant was the New
York editor. The periodical did not long survive.

_The American Monthly Magazine_ (New York, 1829-1831) was established
and edited by Nathaniel P. Willis, who enlisted a number of younger
writers, such as Richard Hildreth, Park Benjamin, Isaac McLellan,
Albert Pike (“Hymns to the Gods”), Rufus Dawes, and Mrs. Sigourney.
In 1831 the _Magazine_ was absorbed by _The New York Mirror_, of which
Willis now became an associate editor.

_The Illinois Monthly Magazine_ (Vandalia, Illinois, 1830-1832), edited
and mainly written by James Hall, was the earliest literary publication
in the West; it was superseded by _The Western Monthly Magazine_
(Cincinnati, 1833-1836), edited by Timothy Flint.

One of the most popular of the Philadelphia magazines was _Godey’s
Lady’s Book_ (1830-1877), which as early as 1859 circulated 98,500
copies, and which published compositions by Paulding, Park Benjamin,
Holmes, Irving, Poe, Bayard Taylor, Longfellow, Harriet Beecher Stowe,
Simms, Willis, Buchanan Read, Thomas Dunn English, and Lydia H.
Sigourney. Poe’s contribution on “The Literati of New York,” published
in its columns in 1846, created a great sensation at the time. For
more than thirty years _Godey’s_ was edited by Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, who
is also famous as the author of “Mary had a little lamb,” and through
whose exertions our national Thanksgiving Day was secured.

_The New England Magazine_, established in Boston in 1831 by Joseph
T. and Edwin Buckingham, published contributions from Hildreth, Park
Benjamin, Whittier, Holmes (who published here the first two papers,
never by authority reprinted, of his “Autocrat” series), Longfellow,
William and Andrew Peabody, George S. Hillard (“Literary Portraits” and
“Selections from the Papers of an Idler”), and other eminent writers.
In 1835 Park Benjamin took it to New York and continued it till 1838 as
_The American Monthly Magazine_.

_The North American Quarterly Magazine_ (Philadelphia, 1833-1838)
was conducted by Sumner Lincoln Fairfield, author of “The Cities of
the Plain,” and of an unpublished poem, “The Last Night of Pompeii”
(finished in 1830), from which he alleged that Bulwer, to whom he sent
the manuscript, stole the plot of his “Last Days of Pompeii.”

Much more successful was _The Knickerbacker or New-York Monthly
Magazine_, founded in the same year and quietly changed with the
seventh number to _The Knickerbocker_. The founder was Charles Fenno
Hoffman, who edited three numbers. Some contributors were Harry Franco,
Bryant, Irving (“Crayon Papers”), Longfellow, Lewis Gaylord Clark (for
a time the editor), William L. Stone, the brothers Duyckinck, Frederick
S. Cozzens, Simms, Park Benjamin, John L. Stephens (letters from
Egypt), and Parkman (“The Oregon Trail”). With some exceptions it must
be said that the contents of _The Knickerbocker_ were not of very great
merit; and in its later years there were too many stories on the order
of “Carl Almendinger’s Office, or, The Mysteries of Chicago,” which
ran as a serial in 1862. In 1864 the title was _The American Monthly
Knickerbocker_, and from July till October, 1865, when publication was
suspended, the title was _The Fœderal American_.

_The Southern Literary Messenger_, published monthly at Richmond,
Virginia, between 1834 and 1864, exerted a marked influence upon the
literary taste of the whole South. In it were first published many
of Poe’s stories and criticisms, and he was the editor of the second
volume. Other contributors were Paulding, Park Benjamin, John W.
Draper, Willis, Henry C. Lea, R. H. Stoddard, Simms, John B. Dabney,
Matthew F. Maury, Philip Pendleton, and John Esten Cooke, Henry Timrod,
Paul H. Hayne, Aldrich, Moncure D. Conway, Thomas Dunn English, John P.
Kennedy, James Barron Hope (“Henry Ellen”), and W. Gordon McCabe.

In 1837 William E. Burton, the comedian, established in Philadelphia
_The Gentleman’s Magazine_ to do for his sex what _Godey’s_ was doing
for the ladies. Beginning with July, 1839, Poe became joint editor.
The next year Burton sold out to George R. Graham, who combined
the magazine with _The Casket_ (begun by Samuel Coate Atkinson in
1827) to form _Graham’s Lady’s and Gentleman’s Magazine_. For years
_Graham’s_ was the most famous and truly national periodical in
America. Graham understood the reading public as did few other men. He
paid contributors liberally for those days, and collected a brilliant
list of writers, including every name well known in letters at the
time except Irving, who confined himself to _The Knickerbocker_. To
_Graham’s_ Longfellow contributed his “Spanish Student,” “Childhood,”
“The Builders,” “The Belfry of Bruges,” “The Arsenal at Springfield,”
“Nuremberg,” etc. Poe contributed “The Mask of the Red Death,” “The
Murders in the Rue Morgue,” “The Conqueror Worm,” “Life in Death,” and
some minor pieces. Here were first published also many of Hawthorne’s
“Twice-Told Tales.” Simms, Paulding, Geo. H. Boker, Henry W. Herbert,
Robert T. Conrad, E. P. Whipple, and John G. Saxe were “principal
contributors.” Lowell and Bayard Taylor were editorial writers. Cooper
received $1800, then a very high price, for “The Islets of the Gulf, or
Rose Budd,” later republished as “Jack Tier, or The Florida Reefs,” and
$1000 for a series of biographies of distinguished naval commanders.
Nathaniel P. Willis wrote much between 1843 and 1851. In 1852, Graham
boasted that in the decade previous he had paid American contributors
between eighty and ninety thousand dollars. The circulation of the
magazine for a long time was 40,000 copies. About 1854 Graham sold
out. In competition with _Harper’s_ and _Putnam’s_, _Graham’s_ soon
declined. In 1859 its name was changed to _The American Monthly_, and
it quickly disappeared.

In 1839 Willis began, in connection with Dr. T. O. Porter, to issue a
weekly, _The Corsair_, from the basement of the Astor House, New York.
Willis was the chief writer, contributing romantic stories, dramatic
criticism, letters from Europe entitled “Jottings Down in London,”
and gossip. While in England he met Thackeray, whom he induced to
contribute eight letters. In all, fifty-two numbers were printed, the
last dated March 7, 1840.

The Transcendental Movement, which will be discussed elsewhere, found
expression in 1840 in a Boston quarterly called _The Dial_, which
flourished till 1844, and which was edited successively by George
Ripley, Margaret Fuller, and Emerson. The last contributed more than
thirty prose articles and poems, among them “The Conservative,”
“Chardon Street and Bible Convention,” “The Transcendentalist,” and
in verse “The Problem,” “The Sphinx,” and “Woodnotes.” Bronson Alcott
sent his “Orphic Sayings,” the mystery of some of which has never been
fathomed. Other writers were Theodore Parker, George Ripley, Thoreau,
James Freeman Clarke, William H. and William Ellery Channing, Eliot
Cabot, John S. Dwight, Christopher P. Cranch, Mrs. Ellen Hooper, and
Charles A. Dana. “Conceived and carried on in a spirit of boundless
hope and enthusiasm,” the magazine encountered much ridicule among the
Philistines. _The Knickerbocker_ said of the first number:

  It is to be devoted to that refinement upon common-sense
  literature, just now so much in vogue at the East; which, like the
  memorable science of Sir Piercie Shafton, shall indoctrinate the
  dull in intellectuality, the vulgar in nobility, and give that
  “unutterable perfection of human utterance”; that eloquence which
  no other eloquence is sufficient to praise; that art which, in
  fine, when we call it _literary Euphuism_, we bestow upon it its
  richest panegyric.

Yet in spite of such strictures, the contents of _The Dial_ are now
immensely significant of the social agitation then going on in New
England; and much of its matter has become a part of our permanent
literature.

_The New World_, a large weekly established in New York by Park
Benjamin (1840-1845), reprinted much from the English magazines, but
included also contributions from Epes and John Osborne Sargent, James
Aldrich, Herbert, Charles Lanman, Edward S. Gould, Charles Eames
(editor for a time), and John Jay. George P. Putnam, the publisher, was
for some years its London correspondent.

It was in _Peterson’s Ladies’ National Magazine_ (a fashion journal
begun in Philadelphia in 1841) that Frances Hodgson Burnett published
her first story, “Ethel’s Sir Lancelot” (November, 1868). The magazine,
long popular among readers of light literature, was a few years since
merged with _The Argosy_.

_The Union Magazine_ (New York, 1847-1848), edited by Mrs. Caroline
M. Kirkland, was bought by John Sartain, the engraver, and William
Sloanaker, who had withdrawn from the managership of _Graham’s_, and
reappeared in Philadelphia (1849-1852) as _Sartain’s Union Magazine of
Literature and Art_, attaining great popularity. It published works by
Longfellow (“The Blind Girl of Castel Cuillé,” “Resignation”), Boker,
Mrs. Sigourney, Lucy Larcom, Henry T. Tuckerman, Poe (“The Bells”),
Park Benjamin, R. H. Stoddard, and Charles G. Leland.

_Harper’s New Monthly Magazine_ (New York), established by the Messrs.
Harper in June, 1850, has long enjoyed a deservedly large circulation.
For a considerable time it contained chiefly articles, especially
fiction, reprinted from English periodicals. In later years it has
included much more from American writers, and its contents have in
general been of a high order of merit. Its records of travel and of
scientific progress have been valuable. For many years the “Easy
Chair,” conducted by George William Curtis, and later by William D.
Howells, has been an interesting feature. In _Harper’s_ first appeared
Howells’ “Annie Kilburn” and “Their Silver Wedding Journey,” Warner’s
“Studies of the Great West” and “A Little Journey in the World,”
Constance F. Woolson’s “Jupiter Lights,” “East Angels,” and “Anne,”
Poulteney Bigelow’s “White Man’s Africa,” Stockton’s “Bicycle of
Cathay” and “The Great Stone of Sardis,” John Fox, Jr.’s “Kentuckians,”
Stephen Crane’s “Whilomville Stories,” Mark Twain’s “Personal
Recollections of Joan of Arc,” Woodrow Wilson’s “Colonies and Nation,”
Mary E. Wilkins’ “Portion of Labor,” Mary Johnston’s “Sir Mortimer,”
and Margaret Deland’s “Awakening of Helena Richie.” _The International
Magazine_, founded by Rufus W. Griswold in New York in 1850, was two
years later merged with _Harper’s_.

_Putnam’s Monthly Magazine_ began publication in New York in 1853.
Its earlier editors were Charles F. Briggs (whose pen name was “Harry
Franco”), Parke Godwin, George W. Curtis, and George P. Putnam.
Among the more important of the early contributions may be mentioned
“Shakespeare’s Scholar” by Richard Grant White, “Early Years in
Europe” by George H. Calvert, “The Potiphar Papers” and “Prue and I”
by George W. Curtis, a series of political essays by Parke Godwin,
“Fireside Travels” and “A Moosehead Journal” by James Russell Lowell,
the “Sparrowgrass Papers” by Frederick S. Cozzens, “Cape Cod” by
Henry W. Thoreau, “Wensley” by Edmund Quincy, and “Israel Potter” by
Herman Melville. _Putnam’s_ was one of the first of American magazines
which restricted its pages to original contributions, and which gave
special attention to the encouragement of the work of American writers.
Published till 1857 and from 1868 till 1870, it was revived in 1906
as _Putnam’s Monthly_, under the editorial direction of Joseph B.
Gilder and George H. Putnam. _Putnam’s_ is still to be described as a
literary magazine, although space is given also to illustrated articles
on popular topics. _Putnam’s_ arranges with certain of the English
magazines, such as _The Cornhill Magazine_ and _The Fortnightly
Review_, to share contributors, English as well as American. The essays
of Mrs. Richmond Ritchie (Thackeray’s daughter) and of Mr. Arthur C.
Benson, for instance, have, under such an arrangement, been published
simultaneously in _The Cornhill_ and in _Putnam’s_.

The year 1857 is memorable for the founding of _The Atlantic Monthly_
by the publishing firm of Phillips & Sampson of Boston. James Russell
Lowell became the first editor, accepting the post on condition
that Dr. Holmes, who suggested the name, should be engaged as the
first contributor. Among those who wrote for the first number were
Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson, Motley, Holmes (who began “The Autocrat”),
Whittier, Charles Eliot Norton, J. T. Trowbridge, Harriet Beecher
Stowe, and Parke Godwin. Most of these were already well known authors.
The list of contributors to _The Atlantic_ during the half-century of
its life includes all of the most illustrious of American writers--not
only of New England, but of all parts of the country. In religious
thought its attitude has been reverent but liberal. The achievements
of science have been set forth by men like Agassiz, Percival Lowell,
Simon Newcomb, John Trowbridge, George F. Wright, and George H. Darwin.
The new political and economic questions have been discussed by such
men as President Roosevelt, former President Cleveland, Richard Olney,
Woodrow Wilson, Carl Schurz, John W. Foster, Henry Loomis Nelson,
Edward M. Shepard, Benjamin Kidd, John Jay Chapman, and Thomas Nelson
Page. The fiction of _The Atlantic_ has been produced mainly by
American writers--Hawthorne (“Septimius Felton”), Henry James, Jr.
(“Roderick Hudson,” “The Portrait of a Lady”), Aldrich (“The Stillwater
Tragedy,” “Prudence Palfrey”), Bret Harte, Howells (“Their Wedding
Journey,” “A Chance Acquaintance,” “The Lady of the Aroostook”), Mark
Twain, Marion Crawford (“A Roman Singer,” “Paul Patoff,” “Don Orsino”),
Stockton (“The House of Martha”), S. Weir Mitchell (“In War Time”),
Hopkinson Smith (“Caleb West”), Cable (“Bylow Hill”), Paul Leicester
Ford (“The Story of an Untold Love”), Mary Johnston (“To Have and to
Hold,” “Audrey”), Sarah Orne Jewett (“The Tory Lover”), Margaret Deland
(“Sidney,” “Philip and His Wife”), Kate Douglas Wiggin (“Penelope’s
Progress”), and many others. An equally brilliant list might be made of
the essayists whose best work has made its initial appearance in the
form of _Atlantic_ articles. The editors have been Lowell (1857-1861),
James T. Fields, of the firm of Ticknor & Fields, then the publishers
(1861-1871), William Dean Howells (1871-1880), Thomas Bailey Aldrich
(1880-1890), Horace E. Scudder (1890-1897), Walter H. Page (1897-1899),
and Bliss Perry--an illustrious roll. _The Atlantic_ has never changed
its original purpose.

  It is still [to quote a recent writer] an American magazine for
  American readers.... It holds that the most important service
  which an American magazine can perform is the interpretation of
  this country to itself, by the promotion of sympathy between the
  different sections of our varied population, the frank examination
  of our national characteristics, the study of our perplexing
  problems, the encouragement of our art and literature, and the
  reinforcement of those moral and religious beliefs upon which
  depends the success of our experiment in self-government.

These ideals largely explain the success and permanence of _The
Atlantic_. _The Galaxy_, founded in New York in 1866, after furnishing
for several years an entertaining literary and scientific miscellany,
was in 1878 incorporated with _The Atlantic_.

_Lippincott’s Magazine_, established in Philadelphia in 1868, continues
to devote its chief energies to fiction, though it has also published
some notable poetry. Here appeared Lanier’s “Corn,” Edward Kearsley’s
“CampFire Lyrics,” and some of the verse of Emma Lazarus, Maurice
Thompson, Paul H. Hayne, Celia Thaxter, and Philip Bourke Marston.

_The Overland Monthly_ (San Francisco, 1868-1875, 1883 to the present
time) has faithfully mirrored the picturesque and stirring life of the
Far West. It absorbed _The Californian_ (1880-1882). The first five
volumes were edited by Bret Harte, and a large number of his stories,
probably forming his best literary work, first appeared in its columns.

_Old and New_ (Boston, 1870-1875) was conducted by Edward Everett Hale
with the intention of “squeezing from the Old its lessons for the New”
and of combining amusing with instructive literature after the manner
of the _Revue des Deux Mondes_.

In 1870, Dr. Josiah G. Holland and Roswell B. Smith projected
_Scribner’s Monthly_ (New York), and for eleven years Dr. Holland
was its editor. In 1881 it was changed to _The Century Magazine_ and
under the editorship of Richard Watson Gilder has taken high rank
as a distinctively popular magazine. It has given special attention
to popular history, and its literary, historical, and scientific
articles, generally substantial and meritorious, have appealed to
a wide range of readers. Like _Harper’s_, it has drawn upon all of
the leading writers, for example Harte (“Gabriel Conroy”), Cable
(“The Grandissimes,” “Dr. Sevier”), Howells (“A Modern Instance,” “A
Woman’s Reason,” “Silas Lapham”), Stockton (“Rudder Grange,” “The
Merry Chanter,” “The Hundredth Man”), Boyesen (“Falconberg”), John
Hay (“The Bread-Winners”), Henry James, Jr. (“Confidence,” “The
Bostonians”), Eugene Schuyler (“Peter the Great”), Joel Chandler
Harris (“Uncle Remus”), Hamlin Garland (“Her Mountain Lover”), Mary
Hallock Foote (“The Led-Horse Claim,” “Cœur d’Alene”), Marion Crawford
(“Via Crucis”), Mark Twain (“Pudd’nhead Wilson”), S. Weir Mitchell
(“Characteristics,” “Hugh Wynne”). Many poems of merit have also been
printed in _The Century_.

In 1887, _Scribner’s Magazine_ was established by Charles Scribner’s
Sons, and has since taken rank as among the first of American
monthlies. It devotes proportionately more space to literature than
is given by its competitor, _The Century Magazine_, and pays less
attention to so-called popular subjects. Like _The Century_, it
contains illustrations, which are characterised by a high artistic
standard. _Scribner’s_ is under the editorial management of Mr. Edward
L. Burlingame. Like _The Century_, it is published in London as well as
in New York.

Among the other literary periodicals established within the last
quarter-century are _The Bay State Monthly_ (Boston, 1884-1885), which
became in 1886 _The New England Magazine_, and which confines itself
chiefly to the history and literature of New England; _The Forum_ (New
York, since 1886), devoted to the discussion of present-day questions;
_The Cosmopolitan_ (New York, since 1886), a typical popular monthly
miscellany; _The Arena_ (New York, since 1889), which has been a
fearless exponent of advanced liberal thought; _Munsey’s Magazine_ (New
York, since 1891), well illustrated, and claiming a circulation of over
600,000 copies; _McClure’s Magazine_, established by S. S. McClure in
New York in 1893, which by the end of its first year circulated 150,000
copies; _The Bookman_ (New York), edited since 1895 by Harry Thurston
Peck; and _The Reader_ (Indianapolis, Indiana, 1902), now merged in
_Putnam’s Monthly_.

_The Annuals._--In the twenties and thirties of the last century, too,
the annuals were popular in America as in England. Almost all of the
leading authors contributed to them. Among the best were _The Talisman_
(New York, 1828-1830), written by Bryant, Verplanck, and Sands, and
illustrated by Inman, Samuel F. B. Morse, and others; and _The Token_
(Boston, 1828-1842), edited by S. G. Goodrich (“Peter Parley”) and (in
1829) N. P. Willis, in which appeared contributions by Longfellow,
Hawthorne (some “Twice-Told Tales”), Mrs. Child, Mrs. Sigourney, and
Mrs. Hale. In general, however, the American, like the British annuals,
included a large amount of mediocre writing.

_The Reviews._--The American reviews begin with _The American Review
of History and Politics_, founded by Robert Walsh (Philadelphia,
1811-1813). In 1815 _The North American Review and Miscellaneous
Journal_ was founded in Boston and has consequently had the longest
life of all the periodicals now in existence. Its founder, William
Tudor, was, we have seen, a member of the Anthology Club, and a writer
of fine taste, who later did good service in a diplomatic career in
South America. The _Review_ was at first published every two months
in numbers of 150 pages each; after the seventh volume it appeared
quarterly in numbers of 250 pages each and at the same time ceased
to publish poetry and general news, thus conforming more closely to
the leading type of contemporary British reviews. The most voluminous
contributors to the first sixty volumes were Judge Willard Phillips
(editor in 1817), Tudor, Edward and Alexander Everett (editors in
1819-1822 and 1830-1836 respectively), Jared Sparks (editor in
1822-1830), Bancroft, Francis Bowen (editor in 1843-1853), Nathan Hale,
George S. Hillard, John G. Palfrey (editor in 1836-1843), Oliver,
William, and Andrew Peabody, Caleb Cushing, Cornelius C. Felton,
William H. Prescott, and Charles Francis Adams. Much of Whipple’s
criticism originally appeared here. Among recent editors have been
Lowell, Charles Eliot Norton, Henry Adams, and Henry Cabot Lodge.
Bryant’s “Thanatopsis” first appeared here in September, 1817. The
book reviews, especially between 1850 and 1870, were probably better
than those usually found in any other American periodical. In recent
years the character of _The North American_ has largely changed. It
now offers monthly a collection of signed articles chiefly on current
political and social problems.

Other early reviews were _The Christian Examiner and Theological
Review_ (Boston, 1824-1869, in 1870 merged with _Old and New_), in
which appeared some of the most virile criticism of the time; _The
American Quarterly Review_ (Philadelphia, 1827-1837), another of
Walsh’s ventures and a quarterly of merit; _The Southern Review_
(Charleston, 1828-1832, revived 1842-1855), started by William Elliott
and Hugh S. Legare; _The Western Review_ (Cincinnati, 1828-1830),
founded by Timothy Flint; _The New York Review_ (1837-1842),
established by Francis L. Hawks and later edited by Joseph G. Cogswell
and Caleb S. Henry; _The Boston Quarterly Review_ (1838-1842), edited
by Orestes A. Brownson, and merged with _The United States Magazine and
Democratic Review_ (Washington and New York, 1837-1852), which became
_The United States Review_ (1853-1859); _The New Englander_ (New Haven,
Conn., 1843-1892), for religious, historical, and literary articles;
_The American Whig Review_ (New York, 1845-1852), started by George
H. Colton and later edited by Dr. James D. Whelpley; _The Literary
World_ (New York, 1847-1853), ably edited by Evart A. Duyckinck; _The
Massachusetts Quarterly Review_ (Boston, 1847-1850), edited by Theodore
Parker; _The New York Quarterly Review_ (1852-1853); and _The National
Quarterly Review_ (New York, 1860-1880).

_The Nation_ was founded as a weekly in New York in 1865 by Edwin
Lawrence Godkin, who remained its editor for a third of a century.
Since 1881, when Mr. Godkin assumed the editorial control of the New
York _Evening Post, The Nation_ has been issued as the weekly edition
of _The Evening Post_. During the forty-three years of its existence,
_The Nation_ has held a leading position in American criticism and also
as an exponent of American politics considered from an independent
point of view. From 1881 to 1905, _The Nation_ was under the editorial
management of the late Wendell Phillips Garrison. It is now under the
direction of Mr. Hammond Lamont. The literary department is conducted
by Mr. Paul E. More, who had, before assuming this editorial post, made
a name for himself in literary criticism.

_The International Review_ (New York, 1874-1883) printed many articles
of solid worth. _The Dial_, semi-monthly, was established in Chicago
in 1880 by Francis F. Browne. It has made a noteworthy reputation for
a high standard of American criticism, and has retained the services
of some of the ablest of American reviewers. _The Critic_ was founded,
as a weekly literary journal, in New York, in 1881, by Jeannette L.
Gilder and Joseph B. Gilder. It did good work in literary criticism and
in the presentation of literary news for twenty-five years, when it
was absorbed by _Putnam’s Monthly_. _The Sewanee Review_, a quarterly
founded at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee, in 1892,
and _The South Atlantic Quarterly_, founded at Durham, North Carolina,
in 1902, are publishing the best literary criticism in the South to-day.

_Newspapers._--The plan of this Manual permits but a brief reference
to the more important of the newspapers which have given attention to
the interests of literature. The New York _Evening Post_ was founded
in 1801, and was for fifty-two years (1828-1880) edited by Bryant. In
1819, it printed the well-known “Croaker Papers” by Drake and Halleck.
James K. Paulding was an occasional contributor, and Whitman was one of
its Washington writers during the first year of the Civil War, 1861.
Bret Harte was for a time on the editorial staff, and the list of
the literary critics includes the names of John R. Thompson and John
Bigelow. During the years 1881-1902, _The Evening Post_ was under the
editorial control of Edwin L. Godkin, who was an Irishman by birth,
an Englishman by education, and an American by what may be called
natural selection. His editorials in _The Evening Post_ constitute a
most important contribution to the literature of journalism, or it
may be more precise to say to the journalism of literature. They were
forcible, witty, and incisive, and always represented the earnest
convictions of the writer. _The Evening Post_, which still gives a full
measure of dignified and effective consideration to literature, is now
under the editorial direction of Messrs. Rollo Ogden and Oswald G.
Villard. Its literary department is managed by Paul E. More.

_The New York Tribune_ was founded in 1841 by Horace Greeley, who
must also take rank as one of the noteworthy American editors. For
thirty-one years, George Ripley had the chief responsibility for its
literary department, and among his associates were Bayard Taylor and
Margaret Fuller. A number of the more important reviews, particularly
those having to do with English criticism and with poetry, were the
work of Edmund C. Stedman. Miss Ellen Hutchinson, later associated with
Mr. Stedman in editing the “Library of American Literature,” was for
many years on the literary staff of _The Tribune_.

_The Sun_ was founded in 1833, and was for many years managed by a
third great American editor, Charles A. Dana. The incisive force and
stirring wit of Dana’s editorials have probably never been equalled in
American journalism, unless it were in the columns of Godkin’s Post.
_The Sun_ has always given much attention to literature, and the weekly
contributions of Mr. Mayo W. Hazeltine have for many years taken first
rank among the critical literary essays of the day.

_The Times_ was founded in 1851 by Henry J. Raymond, an early associate
of Horace Greeley. During the past twelve years, _The Times_ has given
a larger measure of attention to literature than any other paper in
the country. Its literary department finally became sufficiently
important to call for a separate printing, and it is now issued as a
weekly literary supplement. The present editor of the supplement, which
presents a convenient and comprehensive summary of the publications
of each week, is Mr. William Bayard Hale. The literary supplement has
secured for its regular contributors a number of the more capable
critics of the day, among whom may be mentioned Mr. Edward Cary, Miss
Elizabeth Luther Cary, Miss Hildegarde Hawthorne, and Mr. Montgomery
Schuyler.

Of the other New York papers, _The World_ was founded in 1860, and
during the years 1862-1876 was associated with the name of Manton
Marble, one of the scholarly editors of his day. It is now controlled
by Mr. Joseph Pulitzer. _The Express_, founded in 1836, and for a
series of years the organ of the remarkable brothers James and Erastus
Brooks, was, about 1880, merged with _The Mail_, also founded in 1836.
_The Commercial Advertiser_, founded early in the nineteenth century,
became about 1890 _The Commercial Advertiser and the Globe_, and later
_The Globe_. _The Herald_, founded in 1831 by the elder James Gordon
Bennett, is still under the control of the Bennett family. It is most
valuable to the community in its presentation of news, but has not been
distinctive on its literary side. _The Eagle_, published in what is now
the Borough of Brooklyn, was founded about 1850. It has always taken
high rank for independence of political conviction and also for the
excellent literary quality of its editorials and reviews. It has for
many years been under the editorial direction of St. Clair McKelway.

In New England, _The Boston Transcript_, founded in 1830, devotes much
space to reviews and discussions of literature and stands high for its
catholicity of judgment and discriminating taste. Among the papers in
the smaller New England cities should be specified _The Republican_, of
Springfield, Massachusetts, founded in 1824, the ownership of which
has for three generations been in the Bowles family. It has included
among its contributors some of the ablest writers of New England. _The
Courant_, of Hartford, Connecticut, had the advantage for many years of
the editorship of Charles Dudley Warner.

In the Middle West, the Chicago _Tribune_, founded in 1847, is to be
recalled for its association with the life-work of one of America’s
ablest journalists, Joseph Medill. In Cincinnati, _The Commercial_
had the advantage for many years of the editorial direction of Murat
Halsted. In the Southwest, the Louisville (Kentucky) _Journal_,
founded in 1830, will always be associated with the name of George D.
Prentice. _The Journal_ was in 1868 merged with _The Courier_ and, as
_The Courier-Journal_, has since been under the direction of Mr. Henry
Watterson, a survivor of the type of “strenuous” Southern journalism.

The Washington _National Era_, published between the years 1847 and
1860, is to be noted as having presented to the world “Uncle Tom’s
Cabin.” In the contest for abolition which this book did so much to
bring to a triumphant end, _The Liberator_ (1831-1866), carried on
by William Lloyd Garrison, and _The National Anti-Slavery Standard_
(1840-1872), conducted by Wendell Phillips, should also be mentioned.
These two men differed sharply from each other from time to time as to
the methods to be pursued, but were at one in their fierce antagonism
to slavery and in their readiness to devote their lives, if need be, to
its extinction.

AMERICAN AUTHORS REPRESENTED IN THE TAUCHNITZ EDITION.

    Adams, Henry                                             1838-
    Alcott, Louisa M.                                        1832-1888
    Aldrich, Thomas Bailey                                   1836-1907
    Atherton, Gertrude Franklin                              1859-
    Bellamy, Edward                                          1850-1898
    Benedict, Frank Lee                                      1834-
    Bierce, Ambrose                                          1842-
    Burnett, Frances Hodgson                                 1849-
    Carnegie, Andrew                                         1837-
    Chance, Julia Grinnell Cruger (Julien Gordon)            1859-
    Churchill, Winston                                       1871-
    Clemens, Samuel L. (Mark Twain)                          1835-
    Cooper, James Fenimore                                   1789-1851
    Craigie, Pearl Mary Teresa (John Oliver Hobbes)          1867-1906
    Crawford, F. Marion                                      1854-
    Cummins, Maria Susanna                                   1827-1866
    Davis, Richard Harding                                   1864-
    Deland, Margaret                                         1857-
    Dixon, Thomas, Jr.                                       1864-
    Eggleston, Edward                                        1837-1902
    Emerson, Ralph Waldo                                     1803-1882
    Fletcher, Julia Constance (George Fleming)               1853-
    Frederic, Harold                                         1856-1898
    Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins                                 1862-
    Gunter, Archibald Clavering                              1847-1907
    Habberton, John                                          1842-
    Halsted, Leonora B.                                      1855-
    Harland, Henry                                           1861-1905
    Harte, Francis Bret                                      1839-1902
    Hawthorne, Nathaniel                                     1804-1864
    Hay, John                                                1838-1905
    Holmes, Oliver Wendell                                   1809-1894
    Howells, William Dean                                    1837-
    Irving, Washington                                       1783-1859
    Jackson, Helen Hunt (H. H.)                              1831-1885
    James, Henry                                             1843-
    Kimball, Richard B.                                      1816-1892
    Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth                              1807-1882
    Lorimer, George Horace                                   1868-
    McKnight, Charles                                        1826-1881
    Norris, Frank                                            1870-1902
    Osbourne, Lloyd                                          1868-
    Parkes, Elizabeth Robins (C. E. Raimond)                 1862-
    Pike, Mary Hayden Green (Mary Langdon)                   1825-
    Poe, Edgar Allan                                         1809-1849
    Prentiss, Elizabeth Payson                               1818-1878
    Riggs, Kate Douglas Wiggin                               1857-
    Roosevelt, Theodore                                      1858-
    Savage, Richard Henry                                    1846-1903
    Sheppard, Nathan                                         1834-1888
    Stanton, Theodore                                        1851-
    Stockton, Frank R.                                       1834-1902
    Stowe, Harriet Beecher                                   1811-1896
    von Teuffel, Blanche Wilder Howard                       1847-1898
    Wallace, Lewis                                           1827-1905
    Warner, Anna B. (Amy Lothrop)                            1820-
    Warner, Susan (Elizabeth Wetherell)                      1819-1885
    Wetmore, Elizabeth Bisland                               1861-
    Wharton, Edith                                           1862-
    Williamson, Alice Muriel                                 1870-

INDEX

        A

  _Aaron in the Wildwoods_, 214

  Abbot, Ezra, 414

  _Active Service_, 230

  _Adam Bede_, 197

  Adams, Abigail, 43, 45

  Adams, Charles Francis, 449

  Adams, Charles Kendall, 112

  Adams, Henry, 89, 112, 114, 212, 449

  Adams, Herbert Baxter, 113

  Adams, John, 43, 45, 49, 251, 371

  Adams, John Quincy, 361, 365-6, 377, 436

  Adams, Samuel, 68-70, 360

  Addison, D. D., 379

  Addison, Joseph, 147, 241, 325, 346, 437

  _Address on West India Emancipation_, 386

  Ade, George, 345

  Adeler, Max. See Clark, Charles H.

  _Adirondack Stories_, 202

  _Adrift in Dixie_, 181

  _Adventures of Ann, The_, 224

  _Adventures of Captain Bonneville_, 93, 95, 324

  _Adventures of Captain Horn_, The, 209

  _Adventures of François, The_, 186

  _Adventures of Harry Franco, The_, etc., 161

  _Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The_, 357

  _Adventures of Robin Day, The_, 158

  _Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The_, 357

  _Æschylus_, 294, 308

  _Afield and Afloat_, 210

  _Afloat and Ashore_, 126

  _Aftermath_, 229, 278

  _Afterwhiles_, 318

  Agapida, Fray Antonio, 94

  Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe, 276, 411, 420, 421, 425, 445

  _Agnes of Sorrento_, 170

  _Agnes Surriage_, 204

  Akenside, Mark, 249, 250

  _Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems_, 270

  Alcott, Amos Bronson, 331, 442

  Alcott, Louisa May, 184

  _Alderbrook_, 165

  Aldrich, James, 440, 443

  Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 181-2, 207, 315, 316, 343-4, 445, 446

  Alexander, Archibald, 389

  Alexander, James Waddell, 389

  _Algerine Captive, The_, 117

  _Alhambra, The._ See _Tales of the Alhambra_.

  _Alice of Old Vincennes_, 215

  Allen, Alexander V. G., 383, 391, 392

  Allen, James Lane, 228-9, 238

  Allen, James Lane (of Chicago), 229

  Allen, Paul, 90

  Allen, Samanthy. See Holley, Marietta.

  Allston, Washington, 163, 252, 254, 264, 438

  Almanac, 27-8

  _Almanac Calculated for New England by Mr. Pierce, An_, 27

  _Alone_, etc., 173

  _Ambassadors, The_, 195

  _Amber Gods, The_, 175

  _Ambitious Woman, An_, 204

  _Amelia, or The Influence of Virtue_, 121

  _America_, 245

  _America and Great Britain_, 252

  _American, The_, 193, 194

  _American Anthology_, 317, 318

  _American Archives_, etc., 98

  _American Colleges and the American Public_, 396

  _American Commonwealth, The_, 400

  _American Dictionary of the English Language_, 413

  _American Eloquence_, etc., 379

  _American Encyclopedia, The_, 332

  _American Flag, The_, 245, 254

  _American Geologist, The_, 426

  _American in Paris, The_, 436

  _American Journal of Philology, The_, 418

  _American Journal of Science, The_, 424, 427

  _American Literature_, 339

  _American Magazine, The_, 33, 434, 435

  _American Magazine and Historical Chronicle, The_, 434

  _American Monthly, The_, 441

  _American Monthly Knickerbocker, The_, 440

  _American Monthly Magazine, The_, 157, 160, 438, 439

  _American Museum, The_, 435

  _American Nation, The_, etc., 113

  _American Naturalist, The_, 420, 422

  _American Orations_, etc., 379

  American Philosophical Society, The, 37

  _American Politician, An_, 216

  _American Quarterly Review, The_, 450

  _American Review, The_, 411

  _American Review and Literary Review, The_, 435

  _American Review of History and Politics, The_, 449

  _American Revolution, The_, 113

  _American Scholar, The_, 328

  _American Times, The_, 346

  _American Weekly Mercury, The_, 32

  _American Whig Review, The_, 450

  _American Wives and English Husbands_, 234

  _American Woman’s Home, The_, 343

  _Ames, Fisher_, 361

  Amiel, H. F., 111

  _Among my Books_, 336

  _Among the Guerillas_, 181

  _Among the Hills_, 302

  _Among the Pines_, 181

  _Analectic Magazine, The_, 437

  _Andenken_, 198

  Anderson, Henry J., 438

  Andrews, Mary R. Shipman, 236

  _Andromeda_, 212

  _Angel and the Nightingale, The_, 252

  _Anglomaniacs, The_, 207

  _Annabel Lee_, 270

  _Annals of the American Pulpit_, 379, 382

  _Anne_, 191, 444

  _Annie Kilburn_, 200, 443

  _Anthology and Boston Review, The_, 436

  Anthology Club, The, 436

  _Antony Brade_, 175

  _Apology of Ayliffe, The_, 206

  _Appleton’s Journal_, 197

  _Appreciation of Literature, The_, 340

  _April Hopes_, 200

  _Arabian Nights, The_, 307

  Arbuthnot, John, 123

  _Arcadian, The_, 218

  _Archibald Malmaison_, 197-8

  _Archy Moore_, 159

  _Arcturus_, 161

  _Arena, The_, 448

  _Argonauts of North Liberty, The_, 189

  _Argosy, The_, 443

  Argyll, Duke of, 277

  Arnold, Matthew, 260, 261, 262

  _Art in the Netherlands_, 196

  _Art of Poetry_, 243

  _Artemus Ward: His Book_, 355

  _Artemus Ward: His Book of Goaks_, 355

  _Artemus Ward in London_, 355

  _Arthur Bonnicastle_, 174

  _Arthur Clenning_, 134

  _Arthur Mervyn_, etc., 118

  _As It Was Written_, 222

  _Ascutney Street_, 182

  _Aspern Papers, The_, etc., 194

  Astor, William Waldorf, 212

  _Astoria_, etc., 93, 95, 324

  _Asylum, The; or Alonzo and Melissa_, 121

  _At Close Range_, 228

  _At Last_, 173

  _At Love’s Extremes_, 214

  _At Magnolia Cemetery_, 268-9

  _At Sundown_, 301

  _At Teague Poteet’s_, 214

  _Atalantis_, 269

  _Atheism in Philosophy_, 381

  Athenæan Society, 135

  _Athenæum, The_ (London), 134

  Atherton, Gertrude Franklin, 234

  Atkinson, Samuel Coate, 441

  _Atlantic Essays_, 337

  _Atlantic Magazine, The_, 438

  _Atlantic Monthly, The_, 137, 168, 175, 176, 179, 181, 182, 183, 186,
          187, 189, 198, 199, 202, 204, 207, 218, 220, 243, 260, 287,
          300, 316, 319, 333, 336, 338, 340, 342, 408, 445-6

  _Atlantic Souvenir, The_, 145

  _Audrey_, 236, 446

  Audubon, John James, 229, 418-9

  _Auk, The_, 423

  _Aulnay Tower_, 204

  _Aunt Serena_, 204

  _Aurelian_, 160

  Austin, Jane Goodwin, 223

  Austin, William, 134

  _Authors and Friends_, 338

  _Autobiography of a Quack, The_, 186

  _Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, The_, 180, 294-5, 333

  _Average Man, An_, 221

  _Average Woman, The_, 221

  _Awakening of Helena Richie, The_, 227, 444

  _Awkward Age, The_, 194

  _Azarian_, 175

  _Aztec Treasure House, The_, etc., 223

        B

  Bache, Alexander Dallas, 427, 428-9

  Bacheller, Irving, 234

  _Bachelor Maid, A_, 207

  _Bachelor’s Christmas, The_, etc., 221

  Bachman, Rev. John, 419

  _Backlog Studies_, 334

  _Backwoodsman, The_, 255

  Bacon, Francis, 388

  Bacon, Leonard, 381-2, 383

  Baird, Spencer Fullerton, 419-20

  Baker, William Mumford, 185

  _Balaam and His Master_, etc., 214

  Baldwin, James M., 393

  Balestier, Charles Wolcott, 220-1

  _Ballad of Babie Bell_, etc., 316

  _Ballads and Other Poems_, 278

  _Ballads of New England_, 300

  Balzac, Honoré de, 131

  Bancroft, George, 97, 99-104, 113, 438, 449

  _Banker of Bankersville, A_, 214

  _Bar Sinister, The_, 233

  _Barbara Frietchie_, 302

  _Barefoot Boy, The_, 302

  Barlow, Joel, 245, 247, 248, 346, 383

  Bartram, John, 36

  Bates, Arlo, 212

  Bates, Edward, 317

  _Battle-Ground, The_, 236

  _Battle-Hymn of the Republic_, 297

  _Battle of Lovell’s Pond, The_, 277

  _Battle of Niagara, The_, 253

  _Battle of the Kegs, The_, 53-4

  _Battle-Pieces_, 263

  Baudelaire, Charles, 156, 272

  _Baviad_, 250

  _Bay Path, The_, 173

  _Bay Psalm Book, The_, 383

  _Bay State Monthly, The_, 448

  Bayard, James A., 362

  _Beatrix Randolph_, 198

  _Beautiful Lady, The_, 233

  _Bedouin Song_, 306

  _Beechenbrook, a Rhyme of the War_, 275

  Beecher, Henry Ward, 186-7, 388-9, 390

  Beecher, Lyman, 169, 380, 388

  Beers, Henry A., 181

  _Beginnings of New England, The_, 113

  _Begum’s Daughter, The_, 204

  _Behemoth, a Legend of the Mound-Builders_, 160

  _Behind Closed Doors_, 208

  Belknap, Jeremy, 92, 116

  Bellamy, Edward, 206

  _Bells, The_, 270, 316

  _Ben Hur_, 172, 202

  _Benefits Forgot_, 221

  Benjamin, Park, 256, 438, 439, 440, 443

  Bennett, James Gordon, Sr., 453

  Benson, Arthur C., 445

  Benton, Thomas Hart, 350, 366

  _Berber, The_, etc., 166

  Bethune, George W., 383

  _Better Sort, The_, 195

  _Between Whiles_, 343

  Betz, Louis P., 157

  _Beyond the Gates_, 191

  _Bibliotheca Sacra_, 381, 389

  _Bicycle of Cathay, A_, 209, 444

  Bigelow, John, 451

  Bigelow, Poulteney, 444

  _Biglow Papers_, 286, 287, 290, 348, 350

  _Bill Nye and the Boomerang_, 356

  Billings, Josh. See Shaw, H. W.

  _Biographical Stories for Children_, 136

  Bird, Robert Montgomery, 158, 178

  _Bird-Lover in the West, A_, 341

  _Birds and Poets_, 341

  _Birds’ Christmas Carol, The_, 234

  _Birds in the Bush_, 341

  _Bishop’s Son, The_, 168

  Bismarck, Prince, 107, 184

  _Bits of Travel_, 343

  Björnson, B., 313

  Blackstone, William, Sir, 11, 70

  _Blackwood’s_, 238

  Blaine, James G., 367, 378

  Bleecker, Ann Eliza, 116

  _Blessed Saint Certainty_, 185

  _Blind Alice_, 163

  _Blind Girl of Castel Cuillé, The_, 443

  _Blithedale Romance, The_, 137, 142

  _Bloody Tenet of Persecution, The_, 16

  _Bloody Tenet Washed, The_, etc., 16

  _Bloody Tenet yet more Bloody, The_, 16

  _Blue and the Gray, The_, 319

  _Blue Grass Region, The, etc._, 229

  Bluff, Harry. See Maury, M. F.

  Blumenbach, J. F., 97

  Boccaccio, 219

  Boisgobey, Fortuné Abraham de, 154

  Boker, George Henry, 318-9, 441, 443

  Bolton, Henry Carrington, 433

  _Bonaventure_, etc., 210

  _Bonnyborough_, 182

  _Book of Roses_, 110

  _Bookman, The_, 448

  _Books and Reading_, 396

  Booth, Edwin, 341

  Boston Athenæum, 436

  _Boston Book, The_, 134

  _Boston Courier, The_, 286

  _Boston Gazette, The_, 31, 49

  _Boston News-Letter, The_, 31

  _Boston Quarterly Review, The_, 450

  _Boston Transcript, The_, 453

  _Bostonians, The_, 193, 447

  Boucher, 44

  Bowditch, Nathaniel, 427

  Bowen, Francis, 395-6, 449

  Bowne, Borden Parker, 393, 398-9

  Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth, 190, 203, 237, 447

  Boyle, Robert, 35

  _Boys at Chequasset_, 182

  _Boy’s Town, A_, 198, 200

  _Bracebridge, Hall_, 123, 324

  Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, 117

  Bradford, Andrew, 434

  Bradford, William, 9-10, 89

  Bradstreet, Anne, 18-19, 21, 295, 332

  Brainard, John G. C., 265

  _Bravo, The_, 127

  Bread and Cheese Club, 127

  _Bread-Winners, The_, 213, 447

  Breitmann, Hans. See Leland, Charles Godfrey.

  _Bressant_, 197

  Brewer, Thomas, 420

  _Bricks without Straw_, 211

  Bridge, Horatio, 135, 141

  Briggs, Charles Augustus, 383

  Briggs, Charles Frederick, 152, 161, 440, 444

  Brinton, Daniel Garrison, 409, 412-13

  Broadus, John Albert, 389

  _Broadway Journal, The_, 152, 286

  Brockden, Charles, 118

  Bronson, W. C., 250, 321

  _Brooklyn Eagle, The_, 308

  Brooks, Erastus, 453

  Brooks, James, 453

  Brooks, Maria Gowen, 163, 265-6

  Brooks, Noah, 188

  Brooks, Phillips, 383, 389, 390-2

  _Broomstick Train, The_, 295

  _Brother Gardener’s Lime-Kiln Club_, 356

  _Brothers, a Tale of the Fronde, The_, 157

  Brougham, Henry Lord, 361

  Brown, Alice, 224

  Brown, Charles Brockden, 117-21, 132, 148, 149, 435, 436

  Brown, Goold, 414-15

  Browne, Charles Farrar, 353, 354-5

  Browne, Francis F., 451

  Browne, Ross, 306

  Brownell, Henry H., 267

  Brownell, W. C., 131, 141

  Browning, Elizabeth B., 316

  Browning, Robert, 195, 266, 316, 413

  Brownson, Orestes A., 162-3, 450

  _Brutus_, 255

  Bryant, William Cullen, 113, 243, 245, 247, 256-62, 263, 272, 274,
          280, 293, 296, 325, 366, 438, 440, 448, 449, 451

  Bryce, James, 114, 376, 400

  _Buccaneer, The_, 264

  Buckingham, Edwin, 439

  Buckingham, Joseph T., 134, 439

  Buckminster, Joseph, 436

  Bulwer Lytton, 84, 277, 440

  Bunner, H. C., 212, 218-9, 238

  Bunyan, John, 135, 208

  Burdette, Robert Jones, 355, 356-7

  _Burglars in Paradise_, 191

  _Burial of the Guns, The_, etc., 222

  Burk, J. D., 92

  Burke, Edmund, 59, 359

  Burlingame, Edward L., 448

  Burnett, Frances Hodgson, 201-2, 443

  Burney, Fanny, 357

  Burnham, Clara Louise, 224

  Burns, Robert, 55, 254, 298, 302

  Burr, Aaron, 205, 365, 380, 435

  _Burrcliff_, 171

  Burroughs, John, 171, 341

  Burton, William E., 440

  _Burwell Papers_, 5-7

  Bushnell, Horace, 386-7

  _But Yet a Woman_, 219

  Butler, Samuel, 346

  _By Order of the Company_, 236

  _Bylow Hill_, 211, 446

  Bynner, Edwin Lassetter, 204-5

  Byron, Lord, 86, 243, 253, 254, 264, 268, 269, 305, 314, 343, 437

        C

  _Cabin Book, The_, 144

  Cable, George Washington, 210, 212, 238, 446, 447

  Cabot, Eliot, 442

  _Cajütenbuch, Das; oder Nationale Charakteristiken_, 144

  _Calavar_, 158

  Calcraft, James, 409

  _Caleb West, Master Diver_, 228, 446

  _Caleb Williams_, 119

  Calhoun, John Caldwell, 367, 368, 389

  _Californian, The_, 188, 447

  _Californians, The_, 234

  _Call of the Wild, The_, 235

  Calvert, George H., 268, 444

  Calvin, John, 386

  _Cambric Mask, The_, 233

  _Cambridge Thirty Years Ago_, 347

  “Camillus,” 361

  _Camp-Fire Lyrics_, 446

  Campbell, Alexander, 385

  Campbell, Margaretta. See Deland, Margaret.

  Campbell, Thomas, 86, 249

  _Cape Cod_, 330, 444

  _Captain Bonneville_, 95

  _Captain’s Youngest, The_, etc., 201

  _Carcelline Emerald, The_, 207

  _Cardigan_, 233

  _Cardinal’s Snuff-Box, The_, 222

  _Career of Puffer Hopkins, The_, 161

  Carey, Henry Charles, 400, 404-5

  Carey, Matthew, 251, 404, 435

  _Carl Almendinger’s Office, or The Mysteries of Chicago_, 440

  _Carlotta’s Intended_, 231

  Carlyle, Thomas, 100, 165, 167, 314, 327, 328, 337

  Carman, Bliss, 319

  Carpenter, William Benjamin, 432

  Carruthers, William A., 145

  Carter, James G., 438

  Carter, Robert, 285

  _Carter Quarterman_, 185

  _Cartoons_, 275

  Carver, Jonathan, 82-4

  Cary, Alice, 168, 263

  Cary, Constance. See Harrison, Mrs. Burton N.

  Cary, Edward, 174, 453

  Cary, Elizabeth Luther, 196, 453

  Cary, Phœbe, 263

  _Casa Braccio_, 217

  _Case of George Dedlow, The_, 186

  _Casket, The_, 441

  _Cassandra Southwick_, 302

  Cassin, John, 420

  _Cassique of Kiawah, The_, 149

  _Casting Away of Mrs. Lecks and Mrs. Aleshine, The_, 209

  _Castle Nowhere_, etc., 191

  _Castle of Otranto, The_, 116

  _Caterpillar, The_, 253

  _Cathedral, The_, 287, 290

  _Cathedral Courtship, A_, 234

  Catherwood, Mary Hartwell, 227-8

  _Cavalier, The_, 211

  _Cavaliers of Virginia, The_, 145

  Cave, Edward, 434

  _Cecil Dreeme_, 176, 187

  _Celebrity, The_, 233

  _Centennial Cantata_, 273