the significance of this last name not being known. It is probable
that the Velamas were originally a branch of the great Kapu or Reddi
caste of cultivators, corresponding in the Telugu country to the Kurmis
and Kunbis, as many of their section names are the same as those of
the Kapus. The Velamas apparently took up the trades of weaving and
dyeing, and some of them engaged in military service and acquired
property. These are now landowners and cultivators and breed cattle,
while others dye and weave cloth. They will not engage themselves
as hired labourers, and they do not allow their women to work in
the fields.

2. Marriage and social customs

The caste are said to have 77 exogamous groups descended from the 77
followers or spearsmen who attended Raja Rudra Pratap of Bastar when
he was ousted from Warangal. These section names are eponymous,
territorial and totemistic, instances of the last kind being
Cherukunula from _cheruku_, sugarcane, and Pasapunula from _pasapu_,
turmeric, and _nula_, thread. Marriage within the section or _gotra_
is prohibited, but first cousins may intermarry. Marriage is usually
adult, and the binding portion of the ceremony consists in the tying
of the _mangal-sutram_ or happy thread by the bridegroom round the
bride's neck. At the end of the marriage the _kankans_ or bracelets
of the bridegroom and bride are taken off in signification that all
obstacles to complete freedom of intercourse and mutual confidence
between the married pair have been removed. In past years, when the
Guna Velamas had a marriage, they were bound to pay the marriage
expenses of a couple of the Palli or fisherman caste, in memory of
the fact that on one occasion when the Guna Velamas were in danger of
being exterminated by their enemies, the Pallis rescued them in their
boats and carried them to a place of safety. But now it is considered
sufficient to hang up a fishing-net in the house when a marriage
ceremony of the Guna Velamas is being celebrated. [715] The caste do
not permit the marriage of widows, and divorce is confined to cases
in which a wife is guilty of adultery. The Velamas usually employ
Vaishnava Brahmans as their priests. They burn the bodies of those
who die after marriage, and bury those dying before it. Children are
named on the twenty-first day after birth, the child being placed in
a swing, and the name selected by the parents being called out three
times by the oldest woman present. On this day the mother is taken
to a well and made to draw a bucket of water by way of declaration
that she is fit to do household work.

Vidur

List of Paragraphs

    1. _Origin and traditions_.
    2. _The Purads, Golaks and Borals_.
    3. _Illegitimacy among Hindustani castes_.
    4. _Legend of origin_.
    5. _Marriage_.
    6. _Social rules and occupation_.

1. Origin and traditions

_Vidur, [716] Bidur_.--A Maratha caste numbering 21,000 persons in
the Central Provinces in 1911, and found in the Nagpur Division and
Berar. They are also returned from Hyderabad and Bombay. Vidur means
a wise or intelligent man, and was the name of the younger brother
of Pandu, the father of the Pandava brothers. The Vidurs are a caste
of mixed descent, principally formed from the offspring of Brahman
fathers with women of other castes. But the descendants of Panchals,
Kunbis, Malis and others from women of lower caste are also known
as Vidurs and are considered as different subcastes. Each of these
groups follow the customs and usually adopt the occupation of the
castes to which their fathers belonged. They are known as Kharchi or
Khaltatya, meaning 'Below the plate' or 'Below the salt,' as they are
not admitted to dine with the proper Vidurs. But the rule varies in
different places, and sometimes after the death of their mother such
persons become full members of the caste, and with each succeeding
generation the status of their descendants improves. In Poona the
name Vidur is restricted to the descendants of Brahman fathers, and
they are also known as Brahmanja or 'Born from Brahmans.' Elsewhere
the Brahman Vidurs are designated especially as Krishnapakshi, which
means 'One born during the dark fortnight,' The term Krishnapakshi
is or was also used in Bengal, and Buchanan defined it as follows:
"Men of the Rajput, Khatri and Kayasth tribes, but no others, openly
keep women slaves of any pure tribe, and the children are of the
same caste with their father, but are called Krishnapakshis and can
only marry with each other." [717] In Bastar a considerable class
of persons of similar illegitimate descent also exist, being the
offspring of the unions of immigrant Hindus with women of the Gond,
Halba and other tribes. The name applied to them, however, is Dhakar,
and as their status and customs are quite different from those of
the Maratha Vidurs they are treated in a short separate article.

2. The Purads, Golaks and Borals

Another small group related to the Vidurs are the Purads of Nagpur;
they say that their ancestor was a Brahman who was carried away
in a flooded river and lost his sacred thread. He could not put on
a new thread afterwards because the sacred thread must be changed
without swallowing the spittle in the interval. Hence he was put out
of caste and his descendants are the Purads, the name being derived
from _pur_, a flood. These people are mainly shopkeepers. In Berar
two other groups are found, the Golaks and Borals. The Golaks are
the illegitimate offspring of a Brahman widow; if after her husband's
decease she did not shave her head, her illegitimate children are known
as Rand [718] Golaks; if her head was shaved, they are called Mund
(shaven) Golaks; and if their father be unknown, they are named Kund
Golaks. The Golaks are found in Malkapur and Balapur and number about
400 persons. A large proportion of them are beggars. A Boral is said
to be the child of a father of any caste and a mother of one of those
in which widows shave their heads. As a matter of fact widows, except
among Brahmans, rarely shave their heads in the Central Provinces,
and it would therefore appear, if Mr. Kitts' definition is correct,
that the Borals are the offspring of women by fathers of lower caste
than themselves; a most revolting union to Hindu ideas. As, however,
the Borals are mostly grocers and shopkeepers, it is possible that
they may be the same class as the Purads. In 1881 they numbered only
163 persons and were found in Darhwa, Mehkar and Chikhli taluks.

3. Illegitimacy among Hindustani castes

There is no caste corresponding to the Vidurs in the Hindi Districts
and the offspring of unions which transgress the caste marriage
rules are variously treated. Many castes both in the north and south
say that they have 12 1/2 subdivisions and that the half subcaste
comprises the descendants of illicit unions. Of course the twelve
subdivisions are as a rule mythical, the number of subcastes being
always liable to fluctuate as fresh endogamous groups are formed
by migration or slight changes in the caste calling. Other castes
have a Lohri Sen or degraded group which corresponds to the half
caste. In other cases the illegitimate branch has a special name;
thus the Niche Pat Bundelas of Saugor and Chhoti Tar Rajputs of Nimar
are the offspring of fathers of the Bundela and other Rajput tribes
with women of lower castes; both these terms have the same meaning as
Lohri Sen, that is a low-caste or bastard group. Similarly the Dauwa
(wet-nurse) Ahirs are the offspring of Bundela fathers and the Ahir
women who act as nurses in their households. In Saugor is found a class
of persons called Kunwar [719] who are descended from the offspring
of the Maratha Brahman rulers of Saugor and their kept women. They
now form a separate caste and Hindustani Brahmans will take water
from them. They refuse to accept _katcha_ food (cooked with water)
from Maratha Brahmans, which all other castes will do. Another class
of bastard children of Brahmans are called Dogle, and such people
commonly act as servants of Maratha Brahmans; as these Brahmans do
not take water to drink from the hands of any caste except their own,
they have much difficulty in procuring household servants and readily
accept a Dogle in this capacity without too close a scrutiny of his
antecedents. There is also a class of Dogle Kayasths of similar,
origin, who are admitted as members of the caste on an inferior
status and marry among themselves. After several generations such
groups tend to become legitimised; thus the origin of the distinction
between the Khare and Dusre Srivastab Kayasths and the Dasa and Bisa
Agarwala Banias was probably of this character, but now both groups
are reckoned as full members of the caste, one only ranking somewhat
below the other so that they do not take food together. The Parwar
Banias have four divisions of different social status known as the
Bare, Manjhile, Sanjhile and Lohri Seg or Sen, or first, second,
third and fourth class. A man and woman detected in a serious social
offence descend into the class next below their own, unless they can
pay the severe penalties prescribed for it. If either marries or forms
a connection with a man or woman of a lower class they descend into
that class. Similarly, one who marries a widow goes into the Lohri Seg
or lowest class. Other castes have a similar system of divisions. Among
the great body of Hindus cases of men living with women of different
caste are now very common, and the children of such unions sometimes
inherit their father's property. Though in such cases the man is
out of caste this does not mean that he is quite cut off from social
intercourse. He will be invited to the caste dinners, but must sit in
a different row from the orthodox members so as not to touch them. As
an instance of these mixed marriages the case of a private servant, a
Mali or gardener, may be quoted. He always called himself a Brahman,
and though thinking it somewhat curious that a Brahman should be
a gardener, I took no notice of it until he asked leave to attend
the funeral of his niece, whose father was a Government menial,
an Agarwala Bania. It was then discovered that he was the son of a
Brahman landowner by a mistress of the Kachhi caste of sugarcane and
vegetable growers, so that the profession of a private or ornamental
gardener, for which a special degree of intelligence is requisite,
was very suitable to him. His sister by the same parents was married
to this Agarwala Bania, who said his own family was legitimate and he
had been deceived about the girl. The marriage of one of this latter
couple's daughters was being arranged with the son of a Brahman, father
and Bania mother in Jubbulpore; while the gardener himself had never
been married, but was living with a girl of the Gadaria (shepherd)
caste who had been married in her caste but had never lived with her
husband. Inquiries made in a small town as to the status of seventy
families showed that ten were out of caste on account of irregular
matrimonial or sexual relations; and it may therefore be concluded
that a substantial proportion of Hindus have no real caste at present.

4. Legend of origin

The Vidurs say that they are the descendants of a son who was born
to a slave girl by the sage Vyas, the celebrated compiler of the
Mahabharata, to whom the girl was sent to provide an heir to the
kingdom of Hastinapur. This son was named Vidur and was remarkable
for his great wisdom, being one of the leading characters in the
Mahabharata and giving advice both to the Pandavas and the Kauravas.

5. Marriage

As already stated, the Vidurs who are sprung from fathers of different
castes form subcastes marrying among themselves. Among the Brahman
Vidurs also, a social difference exists between the older members
of the caste who are descended from Vidurs for several generations,
and the new ones who are admitted into it as being the offspring of
Brahman fathers from recent illicit unions, the former considering
themselves to be superior and avoiding intermarriage with the latter
as far as possible. The Brahman Vidurs, to whom this article chiefly
relates, have exogamous sections of different kinds, the names being
eponymous, territorial, titular and totemistic. Among the names of
their sections are Indurkar from Indore; Chaurikar, a whisk-maker;
Acharya and Pande, a priest; Menjokhe, a measurer of wax; Mine,
a fish; Dudhmande, one who makes wheaten cakes with milk; Goihe, a
lizard; Wadabhat, a ball of pulse and cooked rice; Diwale, bankrupt;
and Joshi, an astrologer. The Brahman Vidurs have the same sect groups
as the Maratha Brahmans, according to the Veda which they especially
revere. Marriage is forbidden within the section and in that of the
paternal and maternal uncles and aunts. In Chanda, when a boy of one
section marries a girl of another, all subsequent alliances between
members of the two sections must follow the same course, and a girl
of the first section must not marry a boy of the second. This rule
is probably in imitation of that by which their caste is formed,
that is from the union of a man of higher with a woman of lower
caste. As already stated, the reverse form of connection is considered
most disgraceful by the Hindus, and children born of it could not
be Vidurs. On the same analogy they probably object to taking both
husbands and wives from the same section. Marriage is usually infant,
and a second wife is taken only if the first be barren or if she is
sickly or quarrelsome. As a rule, no price is paid either for the
bride or bridegroom. Vidurs have the same marriage ceremony as Maratha
Brahmans, except that Puranic instead of Vedic _mantras_ or texts
are repeated at the service. As among the lower castes the father of
a boy seeks for a bride for his son, while with Brahmans it is the
girl's father who makes the proposal. When the bridegroom arrives he
is conducted to the inner room of the bride's house; Mr. Tucker states
that this is known as the _Gaurighar_ because it contains the shrine of
Gauri or Parvati, wife of Mahadeo; and here he is received by the bride
who has been occupied in worshipping the goddess. A curtain is held
between them and coloured rice is thrown over them and distributed,
and they then proceed to the marriage-shed, where an earthen mound or
platform, known as Bohala, has been erected. They first sit on this
on two stools and then fire is kindled on the platform and they walk
five times round it. The Bohala is thus a fire altar. The expenses of
marriage amount for the bridegroom's family to Rs. 300 on an average,
and for the bride's to a little more. Widows are allowed to remarry,
but the second union must not take place with any member of the family
of the late husband, whose property remains with his children or,
failing them, with his family. In the marriage of a widow the common
_pat_ ceremony of the Maratha Districts is used. A price is commonly
paid to the parents of a widow by her second husband. Divorce is
allowed on the instance of the husband by a written agreement, and
divorced women may marry again by the _pat_ ceremony. In Chanda it
is stated that when a widower marries again a silver or golden image
is made of the first wife and being placed with the household gods
is daily worshipped by the second wife.

6. Social rules and occupation

The Vidurs employ Maratha Brahmans for religious and ceremonial
purposes, while their _gurus_ are either Brahmans or Bairagis. They
have two names, one for ceremonial and the other for ordinary use. When
a child is to be named it is placed in a cradle and parties of women
sit on opposite sides of it. One of the women takes the child in her
arms and passes it across the cradle to another saying, 'Take the
child named Ramchandra' or whatever it may be. The other woman passes
the child back using the same phrase, and it is then placed in the
cradle and rocked, and boiled wheat and gram are distributed to the
party. The Vidurs burn the dead, and during the period of mourning
the well-to-do employ a Brahman to read the Garud Puran to them,
which tells how a sinner is punished in the next world and a virtuous
man is rewarded. This, it is said, occupies their minds and prevents
them from feeling their bereavement. They will take food only from
Maratha Brahmans and water from Rajputs and Kunbis. Brahmans will,
as a rule, not take anything from a Vidur's hand, but some of them
have begun to accept water and sweetmeats, especially in the case
of educated Vidurs. The Vidurs will not eat flesh of any kind nor
drink liquor. The Brahman Vidurs did not eat in kitchens in the
famine. Their dress resembles that of Maratha Brahmans. The men do not
usually wear the sacred thread, but some have adopted it. In Bombay,
however, boys are regularly invested with the sacred thread before
the age of ten. [720] In Nagpur it is stated that the Vidurs like
to be regarded as Brahmans. [721] They are now quite respectable
and hold land. Many of them are in Government service, some being
officers of the subordinate grades and others clerks, and they are
also agents to landowners, patwaris and shopkeepers. The Vidurs are
the best educated caste with the exception of Brahmans, Kayasths and
Banias, and this fact has enabled them to obtain a considerable rise
in social status. Their aptitude for learning may be attributed to
their Brahman parentage, while in some cases Vidurs have probably
been given an education by their Brahman relatives. Their correct
position should be a low one, distinctly beneath that of the good
cultivating castes. A saying has it, 'As the _amarbel_ creeper has no
roots, so the Vidur has no ancestry.' But owing to their education
and official position the higher classes of Vidurs have obtained a
social status not much below that of Kayasths. This rise in position
is assisted by their adherence in matters of dress, food and social
practice to the customs of Maratha Brahmans, so that many of them
are scarcely distinguishable from a Brahman. A story is told of a
Vidur Tahsildar or Naib-Tahsildar who was transferred to a District
at some distance from his home, and on his arrival there pretended to
be a Maratha Brahman. He was duly accepted by the other Brahmans, who
took food with him in his house and invited him to their own. After
an interval of some months the imposture was discovered, and it is
stated that this official was at a short subsequent period dismissed
from Government service on a charge of bribery. The Vidurs are also
considered to be clever at personation, and one or two stories are
told of frauds being carried out through a Vidur returning to some
family in the character of a long-lost relative.

Waghya

_Waghya,_ [722] _Vaghe, Murli._--An order of mendicant devotees of
the god Khandoba, an incarnation of Siva; they belong to the Maratha
Districts and Bombay where Khandoba is worshipped. The term Waghya
is derived from _vagh_, a tiger, and has been given to the order
on account of the small bag of tiger-skin, containing _bhandar_, or
powdered turmeric, which they carry round their necks. This has been
consecrated to Khandoba and they apply a pinch of it to the foreheads
of those who give them alms. Murli, signifying 'a flute' is the name
given to female devotees. Waghya is a somewhat indefinite term and
in the Central Provinces does not strictly denote a caste. The order
originated in the practice followed by childless mothers of vowing to
Khandoba that if they should bear a child, their first-born should be
devoted to his service. Such a child became a Waghya or Murli according
as it was a boy or a girl. But they were not necessarily severed from
their own caste and might remain members of it and marry in it. Thus
there are Waghya Telis in Wardha, who marry with other Telis. The child
might also be kept in the temple for a period and then withdrawn, and
nowadays this is always done. The children of rich parents sometimes
simply remain at home and worship Khandoba there. But they must beg
on every Sunday from at least five persons all their lives. Another
practice, formerly existing, was for the father and mother to vow that
if a child was born they would be swung. They were then suspended
from a wooden post on a rope by an iron hook inserted in the back
and swung round four or five times. The sacred turmeric was applied
to the wound and it quickly healed up. Others would take a Waghya
child to Mahadeo's cave in Pachmarhi and let it fall from the top of
a high tree. If it lived it was considered to be a Raja of Mahadeo,
and if it died happiness might confidently be anticipated for it in
the next birth. Besides the children who are dedicated to Khandoba,
a man may become a Waghya either for life or for a certain period in
fulfilment of a vow, and in the latter case will be an ordinary member
of his own caste again on its termination. The Waghyas and Murlis who
are permanent members of the order sometimes also live together and
have children who are brought up in it. The constitution of the order
is therefore in several respects indefinite, and it has not become a
self-contained caste, though there are Waghyas who have no other caste.

The following description of the dedication of children to Khandoba is
taken from the _Bombay Gazetteer_ [723]. When parents have to dedicate
a boy to Khandoba they go to his temple at Jejuri in Poona on any day
in the month of Chaitra (March-April). They stay at a Gurao's house and
tell him the object of their visit. The boy's father brings offerings
and they go in procession to Khandoba's temple. There the Gurao
marks the boy's brow with turmeric, throws turmeric over his head,
fastens round his neck a deer-or tiger-skin wallet hung from a black
woollen string and throws turmeric over the god, asking him to take
the boy. The Murlis or girls dedicated to the god are married to him
between one and twelve years of age. The girl is taken to the temple
by her parents accompanied by the Gurao priest and other Murlis. At
the temple she is bathed and her body rubbed with turmeric, with which
the feet of the idol are also anointed. She is dressed in a new robe
and bodice, and green glass bangles are put on her wrists. A turban
and sash are presented to the god, and the _guru_ taking a necklace
of nine cowries (shells) fastens it round the girl's neck. She then
stands before the god, a cloth being held between them as at a proper
wedding, and the priest repeats the marriage verses. Powdered turmeric
is thrown on the heads of the girl and of the idol, and from that day
she is considered to be the wife of Khandoba and cannot marry any other
man. When a Murli comes of age she sits by herself for four days. Then
she looks about for a patron, and when she succeeds in getting one she
calls a meeting of her brethren, the Waghyas, and in their presence
the patron says, 'I will fill the Murli's lap.' The Waghyas ask him
what he will pay and after some haggling a sum is agreed on, which
thirty years ago varied between twenty-five and a hundred rupees. If
it is more than Rs. 50 a half of the money goes to the community,
who spend it on a feast. With the balance the girl buys clothes for
herself. She lives with her patron for as long as he wishes to keep
her, and is then either attached to the temple or travels about as a
female mendicant. Sometimes a married woman will leave her home and
become a Murli, with the object as a rule of leading a vicious life.

A man who takes a vow to become a Waghya must be initiated by a _guru_,
who is some elder member of the order. The initiation takes place
early on a Sunday morning, and after the disciple is shaved, bathed
and newly clad, the _guru_ places a string of cowries round his neck
and gives him the tiger-skin bag in which the turmeric is kept. He
always retains much reverence for his _guru_, and invokes him with the
exclamation, 'Jai Guru,' before starting out to beg in the morning. The
following articles are carried by the Waghyas when begging. The _dapdi_
a circular single drum of wood, covered with goat-skin, and suspended
to the shoulder. The _chouka_ consists of a single wire suspended from
a bar and passing inside a hollow wooden conical frame. The wire is
struck with a stick to produce the sound. The _ghati_ is an ordinary
temple bell; and the _kutumba_ is a metal saucer which serves for a
begging-bowl. This is considered sacred, and sandalwood is applied
to it before starting out in the morning. The Waghyas usually beg
in parties of four, each man carrying one of these articles. Two
of them walk in front and two behind, and they sing songs in praise
of Khandoba and play on the instruments. Every Waghya has also the
bag made of tiger-skin, or, if this cannot be had, of deer-skin,
and the cowrie necklace, and a _seli_ or string of goat-hair round
the neck. Alms, after being received in the _kutumba_ or saucer,
are carried in a bag, and before setting out in the morning they put
a little grain in this bag, as they think that it would be unlucky
to start with it empty. At the end of the day they set out their
takings on the ground and make a little offering of fire to them,
throwing a pinch of turmeric in the air in the name of Khandoba. The
four men then divide the takings and go home. Marathas, Murlis and
Telis are the castes who revere Khandoba, and they invite the Waghyas
to sing on the Dasahra and also at their marriages. In Bombay the
Waghyas force iron bars through their calves and pierce the palms of
their hands with needles. To the needle a strip of wood is attached,
and on this five lighted torches are set out, and the Waghya waves
them about on his hand before the god. [724] Once in three years each
Waghya makes a pilgrimage to Khandoba's chief temple at Jejuri near
Poona, and there are also local temples to this deity at Hinganghat
and Nagpur. The Waghyas eat flesh and drink liquor, and their social
and religious customs resemble those of the Marathas and Kunbis.

Yerukala

_Yerukala._--A vagrant gipsy tribe of Madras of whom a small number
are returned from the Chanda District. They live by thieving,
begging, fortune-telling and making baskets, and are usually
treated as identical with the Koravas or Kuravas, who have the same
occupations. Both speak a corrupt Tamil, and the Yerukalas are said to
call one another Kurru or Kura. It has been supposed that Korava was
the Tamil name which in the Telugu country became Yerukalavandlu or
fortune-teller. Mr. (Sir H.) Stewart thought there could be no doubt
of the identity of the two castes, [725] though Mr. Francis points out
differences between them. [726] The Yerukalas are expert thieves. They
frequent villages on the pretence of begging, and rob by day in regular
groups under a female leader, who is known as Jemadarin. Each gang
is provided with a bunch of keys and picklocks. They locate a locked
house in an unfrequented lane, and one of them stands in front as
if begging; the remainder are posted as watchers in the vicinity,
and the Jemadarin picks the lock and enters the house. When the
leader comes out with the booty she locks the door and they all
walk away. If any one comes up while the leader is in the house
the woman at the door engages him in conversation by some device,
such as producing a silver coin and asking if it is good. She then
begins to dispute, and laying hold of him calls out to her comrades
that the man has abused her or been taking liberties with her. The
others run up and jostle him away from the door, and while they are
all occupied with the quarrel the thief escapes. Or an old woman
goes from house to house pretending to be a fortune-teller. When
she finds a woman at home alone, she flatters and astonishes her by
relating the chief events in her life, how many children she has,
how many more are coming, and so on. When the woman of the house is
satisfied that the fortune-teller has supernatural powers, she allows
the witch to cover her face with her robe, and shuts her eyes while
the fortune-teller breathes on them, and blows into her ears and sits
muttering charms. Meanwhile one or two of the latter's friends who
have been lurking close by walk into the house and carry away whatever
they can lay their hands on. When they have left the house the woman's
face is uncovered and the fortune-teller takes her fee and departs,
leaving her dupe to find out that her house has been robbed. [727]
The conjugal morals of these people are equally low. They sell or
pledge their wives and unmarried daughters, and will take them back on
the redemption of the pledge with any children born in the interval,
as though nothing out of the ordinary had happened. When a man is
sentenced to imprisonment his wife selects another partner for the
period of her husband's absence, going back to him on his release
with all her children, who are considered as his. Mr. Thurston gives
the following story of a gang of Koravas or Yerukalas in Tinnevelly:
"One morning, in Tinnevelly, while the butler in a missionary's
house was attending to his duties, an individual turned up with a
fine fowl for sale. The butler, finding that he could purchase it
for about half the real price, bought it, and showed it to his wife
with no small pride in his ability in making a bargain. But he was
distinctly crestfallen when his wife pointed out that it was his
own bird, which had been lost on the previous night. The seller was
a Korava." [728] In Madras they have also now developed into expert
railway thieves. They have few restrictions as to food, eating cats
and mice, though not dogs. [729] The Yerukalas practised the custom of
the Couvade as described by the Rev. John Cain, of Dumagudem: [730]
"Directly the woman feels the birth-pangs she informs her husband,
who immediately takes some of her clothes, puts them on, places on his
forehead the mark which the women usually place on theirs, retires
into a dark room where there is only a very dim lamp, and lies down
on the bed, covering himself up with a long cloth. When the child is
born it is washed and placed on the cot beside the father. Asafoetida,
jaggery and other articles are then given, not to the mother but to
the father. During the days of ceremonial impurity the man is treated
as other Hindus treat their women on such occasions. He is not allowed
to leave his bed, but has everything needful brought to him.

"The Yerukalas marry when quite young. At the birth of a daughter
the father of an unmarried little boy often brings a rupee and ties
it in the cloth of the father of a newly-born girl. When the girl is
grown up he can then claim her for his son."

NOTES

[1] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Kumhar.

[2] Gods and demons.

[3] _Hath_, hand and _garhna_ to make or mould.

[4] _Gora_, white or red, applied to Europeans.

[5] _History of the Marathas_, edition 1878, vol. i. p. 26.

[6] The above description is taken from the Central Provinces
_Monograph on Pottery and Glassware_ by Mr. Jowers, p. 4.

[7] _Golden Bough,_ ii. pp. 299, 301.

[8] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 524.

[9] _Orphèus_, p. 152.

[10] The sacrifice is now falling into abeyance, as landowners refuse
to supply the buffalo.

[11] Dr. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 368.

[12] _Vide_ article on Lakhera.

[13] _Rasmala_, i. p. 100.

[14] _Ibidem_, p. 241.

[15] _Khandesh Gazetteer_, p. 62.

[16] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. i. part ii. p. 34.

[17] From _jihar_, a tree or shrub.

[18] _Acacia catechu_.

[19] _Dhan_ properly means wealth, _cf._ the two meanings of the word
stock in English.

[20] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), para. 180.

[21] _Ibidem_.

[22] _Bawan_ = fifty-two.

[23] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_ p. 490, App. B, Gujar.

[24] _Eugenia jambolana_.

[25] _Ficus glomerata_.

[26] See the article entitled 'An Anthropoid.'

[27] _Bombay Gazetteer; Nasik_ p. 26.

[28] This is the rule in the Nagpur District.

[29] From a note by Mr. A. K. Smith, C.S.

[30] Circle Inspector Ganesh Prasad.

[31] _Semicarpus anacardium_.

[32] 'Oh, Lord Mahabir, give me a child, only one child.'

[33] _Beast and Man in India_, p. 44. But, according to the same
writer, the Hindus do say, 'Drunk as an owl' and also 'Stupid as
an owl.'

[34] _Crotalaria juncea_.

[35] The 3rd Baisakh (May) Sudi, the commencement of the agricultural
year. The name means, 'The day of immortality.'

[36] Furnished by Inspector Ganesh Prasad.

[37] _Dam_: breath or life.

[38] These paragraphs are largely based on a description of a Wardha
village by Mr. A.K. Smith, C.S.

[39] _Nagpur Settlement Report_, para. 45.

[40] The references to English farming in this paragraph are taken
from an article in the _Saturday Review_ of 22nd August 1908.

[41] _Report on the Territories of the Raja of Nagpur_.

[42] _Rasmala_, ii. 242.

[43] A freebooting tribe who gave their name to Kathiawar.

[44] This article is partly based on papers by Nanhe Khan,
Sub-Inspector of Police, Khurai, Saugor, and Kesho Rao, Headmaster,
Middle School, Seoni-Chhapara.

[45] Literally 'The Month of Separatica.' It is the eighth month
of the Muhammadan year and is said to be so called because in this
month the Arabs broke up their encampments and scattered in search of
water. On the night of Shab-i-Barat God registers all the actions of
men which they are to perform during the year; and all the children
of men who are to be born and die in the year are recorded. Though
properly a fast, it is generally observed with rejoicings and a
display of fireworks. Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_, p. 570.

[46] _Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P.,_ art. Kunjra.

[47] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, _ibidem_.

[48] This article is compiled from notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal and
by Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic clerk.

[49] _North Arcot Manual_, vol. i. p. 220.

[50] Vol. i. p. 224.

[51] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_.

[52] In this article some account of the houses, clothes and food
of the Hindus generally of the northern Districts has been inserted,
being mainly reproduced from the District Gazetteers.

[53] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Kurmi.

[54] _Indian Folk Tales_, p. 8.

[55] _Crotalaria juncea_. See article on Lorha for a discussion of
the Hindus' prejudice against this crop.

[56] There are several Chaurasis, a grant of an estate of this special
size being common under native rule.

[57] _Boswellia serrata_.

[58] _Eugenia Jambolana_.

[59] 2 lbs.

[60] Elliot, _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_, p. 115.

[61] The custom is pointed out by Mr. A. K. Smith, C.S.

[62] _Central Provinces Census Report_ (1911), p. 153.

[63] _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), p. 153.

[64] Or his big toe.

[65] _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), p. 158.

[66] In _Indian Folk Tales_.

[67] _Ficus R_.

[68] He is also known as Katia or Kattaha Brahman and as Mahapatra.

[69] _Indian Folk Tales_, p. 54.

[70] _Sorghum vulgare_, a large millet.

[71] Dr. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 365.

[72] A measure of 400 lbs.

[73] _Butea frondosa_.

[74] A measure containing 9 lb. 2 oz. of rice.

[75] _Ficus glomerata_.

[76] From Ganga, or the Ganges, and _ala_ a pot.

[77] _Cajanus indicus_.

[78] _Phaseolus mungo_.

[79] _Phaseolus radiatus_.

[80] _Bombax malabaricum_.

[81] _Acacia arabica_.

[82] _Cassia tora_.

[83] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), p. 340.

[84] _Schleichera trijuga_.

[85] _Hindus of Gujarat_, App., art. Vaghri, footnote.

[86] _Religion of the Semites_.

[87] Mackintosh, _Report on the Manbhaos._.

[88] See articles on Khairwar and Kewat.

[89] Colonel Ward's _Mandia Settlement Report_ p. 29.

[90] _Brief View of the Caste System_, p. 14.

[91] _Symplocos racemosa_.

[92] Raja Lachman Singh's _Bulandshahr Memo,_ p. 182, quoted in
Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Lodha.

[93] _Narsinghpur Settlement Report_ (1866), p. 28.

[94] _Nagpur Settlement Report_, p. 24.

[95] A small millet.

[96] Every twelfth year when the planet Jupiter is in conjunction
with the constellation Sinh (Leo).

[97] _Butea Frondosa_.

[98] This is known as _lodha_.

[99] The Rajjhars are a low caste of farmservants and labourers,
probably an offshoot of the Bhar tribe.

[100] _Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P. and Oudh_, art. Lohar.

[101] Dowson, _Classical Dictionary, s.v._

[102] In Uriya the term, _Ghantrabela_ means a person who has illicit
intercourse with another. The Ghantra Lohars are thus probably of
bastard origin, like the groups known as half-castes and others which
are frequently found.

[103] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 624. (Ibbetson.)

[104] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal,_ art. Lohar

[105] About 15 acres.

[106] _Berar Census Report_, 1881 (Kitts).

[107] _Punjab Ethnography_, para. 624.

[108] _Bombay Gazetteer_, xvi. 82.

[109] This article is partly based on papers by Mr. P.B. Telang,
Munsiff Seoni-Malwa, and Mr. Waman Rao Mandloi, naib-tahsildar, Harda.

[110] This derivation is also negatived by the fact that the name
Maharatta was known in the third century B.C., or long before the
Rastrakutas became prominent.

[111] _Bombay Gazetteer; Gujarat Hindus_, p. 338.

[112] Ibbetson, _Punjab Census Report_ (1881).

[113] _Bombay Gazetteer, l.c._ text and footnote by R. v. J. S. Taylor.

[114] Kitts' _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 143.

[115] See article on Panwar Rajput.

[116] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 144.

[117] Kitts' _Berar Census Report_ p. 144.

[118] Described in the articles on Kurmi and Kunbi.

[119] _Loc. cit_.

[120] _Bombay Gazetteer, Gujarat Hindus, loc. cit._

[121] In Berar for ten days--Kitts' _Berar Census Report, l.c._

[122] 3rd Baisakh (April) Sudi, commencement of agricultural year.

[123] _Berar Census Report, l.c._

[124] _Berar Census Report, l.c._

[125] _Bombay Gazetteer, Gujarat Hindus_.

[126] It was formerly suggested that the fact of the Mahars being
the chief worshippers at the shrines of Sheikh Farid indicated that
the places themselves had been previously held sacred, and had been
annexed by the Muhammadan priests; and the legend of the giant, who
might represent the demonolatry of the aboriginal faith, being slain by
the saint might be a parable, so to say, expressing this process. But
in view of the way in which the Mehtars worship Musalman saints, it
seems quite likely that the Mahars might do so for the same reason,
that is, because Islam partly frees them from the utter degradation
imposed by Hinduism. Both views may have some truth. As regards the
legends themselves, it is highly improbable that Sheikh Farid, a
well-known saint of northern India, can ever have been within several
hundred miles of either of the places with which they connect him.

[127] From Mr. C. Brown's notes.

[128] _C.P. Police Gazette_.

[129] Kitts, _l.c._

[130] _Ibidem_.

[131] Stated by Mr. C. Brown.

[132] Vol. ii. p. 237.

[133] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xii. p. 175.

[134] Rev. A. Taylor in _Bombay Gazetteer, Gujarat Hindus_, p. 341 f.

[135] The following passage is taken from Forbes, _Rasmala_, i. p. 112.

[136] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xi p. 73.

[137] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xi. p. 73.

[138] Grant Duff; _History of the Marathas_, vol. i. p. 24.

[139] _Nagpur Settlement Report_ (1899), p. 29.

[140] This article consists of extracts from Sir H. Risley's account
of the caste in the _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_.

[141] See lists of exogamous septs of Mahli, Sandal, Munda and Puri
in Appendix to _Tribes and Castes cf Bengal_.

[142] _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 326.

[143] This article is based on papers by Mr. Hira Lal and Suraj Baksh
Singh, Assistant Superintendent, Udaipur State, with references
to Mr. Crooke's exhaustive article on the Majhwars in his _Tribes
and Castes_.

[144] Crooke, art Majhwar, para. 1.

[145] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Manjhi.

[146] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Manjhi, para. 4.

[147] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal,_ art. Manjhi, para. 63.

[148] _Ibidem,_ para. 54.

[149] _Ficus glomerata_.

[150] Based entirely on Colonel Dalton's account in the _Ethnology
of Bengal_, and Sir H. Risley's in the _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_.

[151] See _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, by Mr. A. H. A. Simcox, p. 62.

[152] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, ed. 1897, pp. 25, 26.

[153] Page 130.

[154] _Hinduism_, in 'Religions Ancient and Modern' Series, p. 26.

[155] This article is based principally on Mr. Low's description of
the Marars in the _Balaghat District Gazetteer_ and on a paper by
Major Sutherland, I.M.S.

[156] _C.P. Census Report_ (1891), para. 180.

[157] Schröder, _Prehistoric Antiquities_, 121, quoted in Crooke's
_Tribes and Castes_, art. Mali.

[158] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 483.

[159] _Ibidem_, para. 484.

[160] _Balaghat District Gazetteer_, para. 59.

[161] Mr. Napier's _Bhandara Settlement Report_, quoted in article
on Kohli.

[162] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Mali.

[163] _Brief View of the Caste System_, p. 15.

[164] _La Cité antique_, 21st ed., p. 181.

[165] _The Antiquity of Oriental Carpets_, Sir G. Birdwood (Society
of Arts, 6th November 1908).

[166] The derivations of chaplet and rosary are taken from Ogilvy's
_Dictionary_.

[167] _Balaghat District Gazetteer_ (C.E. Low), para. 59.

[168] _Ibidem, loc. cit._

[169] _Balaghat District Gazetteer_, para. 59.

[170] _Hindu Castes_, vol. i. p. 327.

[171] _Balaghat District Gazetteer, loc. cit._

[172] This article is based on papers by Mr. Shyamacharan, B.A.,
B.L., Pleader, Narsinghpur, and Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic clerk.

[173] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes of the N. W. P. and Oudh_,
art. Mallah.

[174] This article is based on papers by Mr. Hira Lal and G. Padaya
Naidu of the Gazetteer Office.

[175] _Papers on the Aboriginal Tribes of the Central Provinces_, p. 6.

[176] Rev. A. Wood in _Chanda District Gazetteer_, para. 96.

[177] This article is compiled from notes on the caste drawn up
by Colonel Mackenzie and contributed to the _Pioneer_ newspaper by
Mrs. Horsburgh; Captain Mackintosh's _Account of the Manbhaos_ (India
Office Tracts); and a paper by Pyare Lal Misra, Ethnographic clerk.

[178] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 62.

[179] Dattatreya was a celebrated Sivite devotee who has been deified
as an incarnation of Siva.

[180] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 62.

[181] This article is based partly on a paper by Mr. Achyut Sitaram
Sathe, Extra Assistant Commissioner.

[182] P. 389.

[183] See also separate article Mang-Garori.

[184] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 147.

[185] _Lectures on the Criminal Tribes of the Central Provinces_,
p. 79.

[186] _Cynodon dactylon_.

[187] Dr, Murray Mitchell's _Great Religions of India_, p. 63.

[188] From a note by Mr. Hira Lal.

[189] Times Press, Bombay, 1882.

[190] Kennedy, _Criminal Classes of the Bombay Presidency_, p. 122.

[191] _Lectures on some Criminal Tribes of India_.

[192] This passage is quoted by Mr. Gayer from the Supplement to the
Central Provinces Police Gazette of 24th January 1905.

[193] Hutton's _Thugs, Dacoits and Gang-robbers of India_ (1857),
pp. 164-168, quoting an account by Captain Barr.

[194] This article is based on papers by Rai Sahib Nanakchand, B.A.,
Headmaster, Saugor High School, and Munshi Pyare Lal Misra of the
Gazetteer office.

[195] _Brief View_, p. 30.

[196] The _tazias_ are ornamental representations of the tomb of
Hussain, which the Muhammadans make at the Muharram festival.

[197] This article is based on a note furnished by Mr. M. Aziz,
Officiating Naib-Tahsildar, Sironcha.

[198] From a glossary published by Mr. Gupta, Assistant Director of
Ethnology for India.

[199] Generally the paternal aunt's son.

[200] _Bassia latifolia_.

[201] Sir H. Risley's _India Census Report_ (1901), Ethnographic
Appendices, p. 93.

[202] P. 48, footnote.

[203] _Nasik Gazetteer_, _ibidem_. Elphinstone's _History_, p. 246.

[204] The proper spelling is Bhosle, but Bhonsla is adopted in
deference to established usage.

[205] _Bombay Census Report_ (1901), pp. 184-185.

[206] _Rajasthan_, i. 269.

[207] _Ibidem_, ii. 420.

[208] _Sholapur Gazetteer_, p. 87.

[209] _Satara Gazetteer_, p. 64.

[210] _Ibidem_, p. 75.

[211] _Bombay Census Report_ (1907), _ibidem_.

[212] _Letter on the Marathas_ (India Office Tracts).

[213] _Satara Gazetteer_, p. 75.

[214] Grant-Duff, 4th edition (1878), vol. i. pp. 70-72.

[215] Forsyth, _Nimar Settlement Report_.

[216] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xviii. part i. pp. 413-414.

[217] Elliott, _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_.

[218] The following description is taken from the Ethnographic
Appendices to Sir H.H. Risley's _India Census Report_ of 1901.

[219] Irvine's _Army of the Mughals_, p. 82.

[220] _Ibidem_, p. 232. Gopal is a name of Krishna.

[221] Lit. armour-bearers. Colonel Tone writes: "I apprehend from the
meaning of this term that it was formerly the custom of this nation,
as was the case in Europe, to appear in armour. I have frequently
seen a kind of coat-of-mail worn by the Maratha horsemen, known as a
_beuta_, which resembles our ancient hauberk; it is made of chain work,
interlinked throughout, fits close to the body and adapts itself to
all its motions."

[222] In order to obtain redress by Dharna the creditor or injured
person would sit starving himself outside his debtor's door, and if
he died the latter would be held to have committed a mortal sin and
would be haunted by his ghost; see also article on Bhat. The account
here given must be exaggerated.

[223] Elphinstone's _History_, 7th ed. p. 748.

[224] _Ibidem_, p. 753.

[225] Some information has been obtained from a paper by Mr. Harbans
Rai, Clerk of Court, Damoh.

[226] Rajendra Lal Mitra, quoted in art. on Beria.

[227] Greeven, op. cit. pp. 29, 33.

[228] Op. cit p. 334.

[229] Greeven, p. 66, quoting from _Echoes of Old Calcutta_.

[230] Crooke, _op. cit._

[231] Crooke, _op. cit._ para. 52.

[232] Ibbetson, _op. cit._ para. 227.

[233] Greeven, _op. cit._ p. 21.

[234] The fruit of the _achar_ (_Buchanamia latifolia_).

[235] _Acacia arabica_.

[236] _Acacia catechu_.

[237] Some writers consider that Balmik, the sweeper-saint, and
Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, are not identical.

[238] Page 38.

[239] Page 8.

[240] Page 54.

[241] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 599.

[242] Sir H. Risley, _l.c._, art. Dom.

[243] _Institutes_, x. 12-29-30.

[244] _Ibidem_, iv. 239, quoted by Mr. Crooke, art. Dom.

[245] Probably not within the house but in the veranda or courtyard.

[246] _Ibidem_.

[247] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, art. Dom, para. 34.

[248] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _l.c._

[249] _Ibidem_.

[250] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), and _Bombay Gazetteer_, _l.c._

[251] _Hindu Tribes and Castes_, quoted by Sir H. Risley, art. Dom.

[252] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _l.c._

[253] Ibbetson, _l.c._ para. 596.

[254] _Ibidem_, para. 601.

[255] _L.c._ pp. 25, 26.

[256] _Rajputana Gazetteer_, vol. i. p. 165.

[257] A Muhammadan form of marriage.

[258] Elliott's _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_, p. 63.

[259] Cunningham's _Archaeological Survey Reports_, xx. p. 24.

[260] _Ibidem_.

[261] General Cunningham's enumeration of the _pals_ is as follows:
Five Jadon clans--Chhirkilta, Dalat, Dermot, Nai, Pundelot; five
Tuar clans--Balot, Darwar, Kalesa, Lundavat, Rattawat; one Kachhwaha
clan--Dingal; one Bargjuar clan--Singal. Besides these there is one
miscellaneous or half-blood clan, Palakra, making up the common total
of 12 1/2 clans.

[262] Ibbetson's _Punjab Census Report_, para. 582. Sir D. Ibbetson
considered it doubtful, however, whether the expression referred to
the Mina caste.

[263] Major Powlett, _Gazetteer of Alwar_.

[264] _Asiatic Studies_, vol. i. p. 162.

[265] Quoted in Dowson's _Elliott's History of India_, iii. p. 103.

[266] Dowson's _Elliott_, iv. pp. 60, 75, 283, quoted in Crooke's
_Tribes and Castes_.

[267] _Census Report_ (1881), para. 582.

[268] _Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P._ art. Meo.

[269] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 589.

[270] _Archaeological Reports_. vol. xx. p. 26.

[271] _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces_,
vol. iii. p. 496.

[272] Baden Powell's _Land Systems of British India_, vol. iii. p. 116.

[273] _Punjab Ethnography_, p. 289.

[274] _Brief View_, p. 43.

[275] Crooke, _loc. cit._

[276] This article is partly based on papers by Mr. Gopal Parmanand,
Deputy Inspector of Schools, Saugor, and Mr. Shamsuddin, Sub-Inspector,
City Police, Saugor.

[277] _Brief View_.

[278] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey Draft Monograph on Jingar_.

[279] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Mochi.

[280] _Eastern India_, vol. iii. p. 105.

[281] Rajendra Lal Mitra, _Indo-Aryans_, vol. i. pp. 222, 223.

[282] _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 326.

[283] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Bind.

[284] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bind.

[285] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, _loc. cit._

[286] The clever writer referred to in the preceding line.

[287] Breast-cloth.

[288] This article is mainly compiled from papers by Mr. Hira Lal
and Babu Gulab Singh, Superintendent of Land Records, Betul.

[289] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 158.

[290] _Butea frondosa_.

[291] _Phyllanthus emiblica_.

[292] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Chatterji, retired
E.A.C., Jubbulpore; Professor Sadashiva Jairam, M.A., Hislop College,
Nagpur; and Mr. C. Shrinivas Naidu, First Assistant Master, Sironcha,
Chanda; and from the Central Provinces District Gazetteers.

[293] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes,_ art. Nai.

[294] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Nai, para. 5.

[295] The following account is largely taken from Mr. Nesfield's
_Brief View of the Caste System_, pp. 42, 43.

[296] _Eighteenth Century Middle-Class Life_, by C.S. Torres, in the
_Nineteenth Century and After_, Sept. 1910.

[297] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 17.

[298] _Ibidem_, p. 107.

[299] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 330.

[300] In the _Balaghat District Gazetteer_.

[301] D.B. Pandian, _Indian Village Life_, under Barber.

[302] Quoted in Malcolm's _Sketch of the Sikhs, Asiatic Researches_,
vol. xi., 1810, p. 289.

[303] Quoted in Sir D. Ibbetson's account of the Sikhs in _Punjab
Census Report_ (1881).

[304] _Sketch of the Sikhs_, _ibidem_, pp. 284, 285.

[305] Professor Blümners, _Home Life of the Ancient Greeks_,
translation, p. 455.

[306] _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. iii. p. 370.

[307] Hendley, _Account of the Bhils_, _J.A.S.B._ vol. xxxiv., 1875,
p. 360.

[308] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 528.

[309] S.C. Roy, _The Mundas and their Country_, p. 369.

[310] W. Kirkpatrick in _J.A.S.B._, July 1911, p. 438.

[311] _Golden Bough_, 3rd ed. vol. viii. p. 153.

[312] _G.B._, 3rd ed., _Balder the Beautiful_, vol. ii. p. 103.

[313] Dr. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 45.

[314] _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 234.

[315] _Ibidem_, vol. i. p. 242.

[316] _Ibidem_, vol. i. pp. 368, 369.

[317] Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 270.

[318] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Parsis of Gujarat_, p. 226.

[319] _Religion of the Semites_, note i. pp. 483, 484.

[320] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 52.

[321] _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 368.

[322] Yule's ed. i. 50, quoted in _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of
Gujarat_, p. 470.

[323] Mr. V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_, 2nd ed. p. 128.

[324] _Religion of the Semites_, p. 33.

[325] Lev. xiv. 9 and Deut. xxi. 12.

[326] _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 371.

[327] _Ibidem_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 370.

[328] _Ibidem_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 371.

[329] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Sarwaria.

[330] _Occult Review_, October 1909.

[331] _Orpheus_, p. 99, and _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Parsis of Gujarat_;
p. 220.

[332] Hanuman is worshipped on this day in order to counteract the
evil influence of the planet Saturn, whose day it really is.

[333] Pots in which wheat-stalks are sown and tended for nine days,
corresponding to the Gardens of Adonis.

[334] _Religion of the Semites_ p. 324.

[335] _Golden Bough_, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 203.

[336] In 1911 the Naodas numbered 700 persons in the Central
Provinces. About 1000 were returned in Central India in 1891, but in
1901 they were amalgamated with the Mallahs or Kewats. This article
is based on a paper by Mr. P.R. Kaipitia, Forest Ranger.

[337] This article is partly compiled from notes furnished by
Mr. Aduram Chaudhri and Mr. Jagannath Prasad, Naib-Tahsildars.

[338] See art. Kanjar.

[339] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 588.

[340] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Beria.

[341] _Asiatic Researches_, vol. vii., 1803, by Captain Richardson.

[342] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Nat.

[343] Crooke, _l.c._, art. Nat.

[344] _Ibidem._

[345] Ibbetson, _Punjab Census Report_ (1886), para. 588.

[346] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xx. p. 186, quoted in Mr. Crooke's
article.

[347] Temple and Fallon's _Hindustani Proverbs_, p. 171.

[348] _As. Res._ vol. xvi., 1828, p. 213.

[349] _Melia indica_.

[350] _Bengali Festivals and Holidays_, by the Rev. Bihari Lal De,
_Calcutta Review_, vol. v. pp. 59, 60.

[351] Based on papers by Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer Office,
and Mr. Mir Patcha, Tahsildar, Bilaspur.

[352] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Lunia.

[353] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Lunia.

[354] _Papers relating to the Aboriginal Tribes of the C.P._, p. 6.

[355] Note by Mr. Tawney as Deputy Commissioner of Chhindwara, quoted
in _Central Provinces Census Report_ of 1881 (Mr. Drysdale).

[356] Sir C.A. Elliott's _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_, p. 70.

[357] _Linguistic Survey_, vol. iv. p. 406.

[358] _Bengal Census Report_ (1901).

[359] _Ethnography_, p. 248.

[360] _Tribes and Castes_, vol. ii. p. 141.

[361] Panna Lal, Revenue Inspector.

[362] _Sorghum halepense_.

[363] _Shorea robusta_.

[364] In Bilaspur the men have an iron comb in the hair with a circular
end and two prongs like a fork. Women do not wear this.

[365] _Jungle Life in India_, p. 134.

[366] This article is compiled from papers by Pyare Lal Misra,
Ethnographic clerk, and Hazari Lal, Manager, Court of Wards, Chanda.

[367] The basil plant.

[368] _Bilaspur Settlement Report_ (1868), p. 49.

[369] From a note by Mr. Gauri Shankar, Manager, Court of Wards, Drug.

[370] With the exception of the historical notice, this article
is principally based on a paper by Mr. Muhammad Yusuf, reader to
Mr. C.E. Low, Deputy Commissioner of Balaghat.

[371] Tod's _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 407.

[372] Foreign elements in the Hindu population, _Ind. Ant._ (January
1911), vol. xl.

[373] _Early History of India_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press), 3rd ed.,
p. 303.

[374] _Ibidem_, 2nd ed., p. 288.

[375] _Ibidem_, p. 316.

[376] _Early History of India_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press), 3rd ed.,
p. 319.

[377] _Garret's Classical Dictionary of Hinduism_, _s.v._ Jamadagni
and Rama.

[378] The following extract is taken from Mr. V.A. Smith's _Early
History of India_, 3rd ed. pp. 395, 396. The passage has been somewhat
abridged in reproduction.

[379] Malcolm, i. p. 26.

[380] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 215.

[381] A similar instance in Europe is related by Colonel Tod,
concerning the origin of the Madrid Restaurant in the Bois de Boulogne
at Paris. After Francis I had been captured by the Spaniards he was
allowed to return to his capital, on pledging his parole that he would
go back to Madrid. But the delights of liberty and Paris were too
much for honour; and while he wavered a hint was thrown out similar
to that of destroying the clay city. A mock Madrid arose in the Bois
de Boulogne, to which Francis retired. (_Rajasthan_, ii. p. 428.)

[382] _Rajasthan_, ii. pp. 264, 265.

[383] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Panwar.

[384] _Memoir of Central India_, i. 96.

[385] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Panwar.

[386] Blockmann, i. 252, quoted by Crooke.

[387] Ibbetson, P.C.R., para. 448.

[388] His name, Lakshma Deva, is given in a stone inscription dated
A.D. 1104-1105.

[389] The inscription is said to be in one of the temples in Winj
Basini, near Bhandak, in the Devanagri character in Marathi, and
to run as follows: "Consecration of Jagnarayan (the serpent of the
world). Dajíanashnaku, the son of Chogneka, he it was who consecrated
the god. The Panwar, the ruler of Dhar, was the third repairer of
the statue. The image was carved by Gopinath Pandit, inhabitant of
Lonar Mehkar. Let this shrine be the pride of all the citizens, and
let this religious act be notified to the chief and other officers."

[390] A few Panwar Rajputs are found in the Saugor District, but they
are quite distinct from those of the Maratha country, and marry with
the Bundelas. They are mentioned in the article on that clan.

[391] March.

[392] Rice boiled with milk and sugar.

[393] Village headman.

[394] Patwari or village accountant.

[395] _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 59.

[396] _Diospyros tomentosa_.

[397] Gamble, _Manual of Indian Timbers_, p. 461.

[398] _Balaghat District Gazetteer_.

[399] P. 62, quoting from Bringand, _Les Karens de la Birmanie,
Les Missions Catholiques_, xx. (1888), p. 208.

[400] _Tod's Rajasthan_, i. p. 165. But Johar is a common term of
salutation among the Hindus.

[401] _Seoni Settlement Report_ (1867), p. 43.

[402] From a collection of notes on Patharis by various police
officers. The passage is somewhat abridged in reproduction.

[403] _Ficus R._

[404] _Bassia latifolia_.

[405] _Ficus glomerata_.

[406] Note already quoted.

[407] This article is partly compiled from papers by Mr. Aduram
Chaudhri and Pandit Pyare Lal Misra of the Gazetteer Office,
and extracts from Mr. Kitts' _Berar Census Report_ (1881), and
Mr. Sewell's note on the caste quoted in Mr. Gayer's _Lectures on
the Criminal Tribes of the Central Provinces_.

[408] _Lectures on Criminal Tribes of the C.P._, p. 19.

[409] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 135.

[410] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey_, art. Pardhi.

[411] _Jungle Life in India_, pp. 586-587.

[412] _Peasant Life in Bihar_, p. 80.

[413] See Jerdon's _Mammals of India_, p, 97. The account there given
is quoted in the _Chhindwara District Gazetteer_, pp. 16-17.

[414] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 75.

[415] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, pp. 69, 71.

[416] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, pp. 39-40.

[417] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey_, _ibidem_.

[418] This article is based on papers by Mr. Panda Baijnath and other
officers of the Bastar State.

[419] By Dr. Cornish.

[420] _Linguistic Survey_; vol. ix, p. 554; vol. ii. part ii. pp. 434
ff.

[421] In the article on Gond it is suggested that the Gonds and
Khonds were originally one tribe, and the fact that the Parjas have
affinities with both of them appears to support this view.

[422] _Eugenia jambolana_.

[423] Hareli, _lit._ 'the season of greenness.'

[424] Nawakhani, _lit._ 'the new eating.'

[425] _Folklore as a Historical Science_ (G.L. Gomme), pp. 191, 192.

[426] Based principally on Mr. Crooke's article on the caste in his
_Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_.

[427] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhar.

[428] Art. Pasi, para. 3.

[429] Art. Bhar, para. 4.

[430] A pulse of a black colour (_Phaseolus radiatus_).

[431] These sentences are taken from Dr. Grierson's _Peasant Life in
Behar_, p. 79.

[432] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Pasi.

[433] The following passage is taken from Mr. Crooke's article
on Pasi, and includes quotations from the _Sitapur_ and _Hardoi
Settlement Reports_.

[434] _Lectures on Criminal Tribes of the Central Provinces_.

[435] The word Rakshabandhan is said to mean literally, 'the bond
of protection.' Another suggested derivation, 'binding the devil,'
is perhaps incorrect.

[436] The historical account of the Pindaris is compiled from Malcolm's
_Memoir of Central India_, Grant-Duff's _History of the Marathas_,
and Prinsep's _Transactions in India_ (1825). Some notes on the modern
Pindaris have been furnished by Mr. Hira Lal, and Mr. Waman Rustom
Mandloi, Naib-Tahsildar, Harda.

[437] _Memoir of Central India_, i, p. 433.

[438] _Indian Antiquary_, 1900.

[439] _Transactions in India_, 1813-23, by H.T. Prinsep.

[440] _Maratha and Pindari Campaigns_.

[441] The above is compiled from the accounts given by Prinsep and
Malcolm.

[442] That is when Malcolm wrote his _Memoir_.

[443] This account is copied from Prinsep's _Transactions_.

[444] _Memoir_, ii. p. 177.

[445] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 674.

[446] Malcolm, ii. p. 177.

[447] The Pindari's childhood is recalled here, _vide_ poem.

[448] Pamphlet published in connection with the Ethnographic Survey.

[449] _A Prabhu Marriage_, p. 3 _et seq._

[450] _A Prabhu Marriage_, pp. 26-27.

[451] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey_, art. Prabhu.

[452] _Bombay Gazetteer_, ix. p. 68, footnotes.

[453] _Hoshangabad Settlement Report_ (1807), p. 60.

[454] _Nagpur Settlement Report_.

[455] _Settlement Report_.

[456] Preserved butter.

[457] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Raghuvansi.

[458] Kitts' _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 157.

[459] About 400 lbs.

[460] _Early History of India_ (Oxford, Clarendon Press), 3rd edition,
p. 414.

[461] _Early History of India_, pp. 252, 254.

[462] _Ibidem_, p. 210.

[463] _Ibidem_, p. 227.

[464] Colonel Tod states that, the proper name of the caste was Jit
or Jat, and was changed to Jat by a section of them who also adopted
Muhammadanism. Colonel Tod also identifies the Jats or Jits with the
Yueh-chi as suggested in the text (_Rajasthan_, i. p. 97).

[465] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 42. Mr. Crooke points out that the Buddha
here referred to is probably the planet Mercury. But it is possible
that he may have been identified with the religious reformer as the
names seem to have a common origin.

[466] See also separate articles on Panwar, Rajput and Gujar.

[467] _J.A.S.B._, 1909, p. 167, _Guhilots_. See also annexed article
on Rajput Sesodia.

[468] _Ibidem_, i. p. 105.

[469] See also article Bhat.

[470] _Rajasthan_, i. pp. 231, 232.

[471] _Butea frondosa_. This powder is also used at the Holi festival
and has some sexual significance.

[472] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 159.

[473] _Melia indica_.

[474] _Ficus R._

[475] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 123.

[476] _Rajasthan_, i. pp. 267, 268.

[477] _Rasmala_, ii. p. 261.

[478] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 553.

[479] _Reminiscences of Lady Dorothy Nevill_, Nelson's edition, p. 367.

[480] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 3.

[481] Mrs. Postans, _Cutch_, p. 35.

[482] Mrs. Postans, _Cutch_, p. 138.

[483] _Rajasthan_, i. pp. 543, 544.

[484] _Ibidem_, i. p. 125.

[485] _Ibidem_, ii. p. 52.

[486] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 552.

[487] Vol. ii. p. 227.

[488] A ceremony of smearing vermilion on the bride before a wedding,
which is believed to bring good fortune.

[489] The basil plant, sacred to Vishnu.

[490] A round black stone, considered to be a form of Vishnu.

[491] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 555.

[492] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_. art. Rajput.

[493] Quoted in Sir D. Ibbetson's _Punjab Census Report_ (1881),
para. 456.

[494]  Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Baghel.

[495] Vol. i. part i. p. 198.

[496] See also a history of the Baghels, called _Pratap Vinod_,
written by Khan Bahadur Rahmat Ali Khan, and translated by Thakur
Pratap Singh, Revenue Commissioner of Rewah.

[497] Article Baghel, quoting Forsyth's _Highlands of Central India_.

[498] _Memoir of Central India_, vol. ii. p. 479.

[499] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 445.

[500] This article consists entirely of extracts from Mr. Crooke's
article on the Bais Rajputs.

[501] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Banaphar.

[502] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 88, and _Supplementary Glossary_, _s.v._

[503] _Tribes and Castes_, _s.v._

[504] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bundela.

[505] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 106.

[506] _Imperial Gazetteer_, articles Bundelkhand and Panna.

[507] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, pp. 390-394.

[508] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Chandel.

[509] Sherring's _Castes and Tribes_, i. pp. 359, 360.

[510] _Supplemental Glossary_, art. Bhar.

[511] See art. Pasi.

[512] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Chandel.

[513] _Ibidem_.

[514] _J.A.S.B._ vol. xlvi. (1877), p. 232.

[515] _Ibidem_, p. 233.

[516] _J.A.S.B._ vol. xlvi. (1877), p. 233.

[517] _Rajasthan_, i. pp. 86, 87.

[518] _Archaeological Reports_, ii. 255, quoted in Mr. Crooke's
art. Chauhan.

[519] _Imperial Gazetteer, India_, vol. ii, p. 312.

[520] _Early History of India_ and _Imperial Gazetteer, loc. cit._

[521] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 419.

[522] The above particulars are taken from Mr. Crooke's article
Dhakara in his _Tribes and Castes_.

[523] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 391.

[524] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 385.

[525] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Gaharwar.

[526] _Tribes and Castes_, i. p. 75.

[527] _Supplementary Glossary_, p. 33.

[528] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 105.

[529] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's article on Gaharwar.

[530] See art. Rajput, Bundela.

[531] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's article Gaur Brahman.

[532] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 105.

[533] _Supplemental Glossary, s.v._

[534] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 36.

[535] The above notice of the Kalachuri or Haihaya dynasty of Tripura
is taken from the detailed account in the _Jubbulpore District
Gazetteer_, pp. 42-47, compiled by Mr. A.E. Nelson, C.S., and Rai
Bahadur Hira Lal.

[536] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 390. This, however,
does not only refer to the Jubbulpore branch, whose territories
did not probably include the south and east of the present Central
Provinces, but includes also the country over which the Ratanpur
kings subsequently extended their separate jurisdiction.

[537] _Bilaspur District Gazetteer_, chap. ii., in which a full and
interesting account of the Ratanpur kingdom is given by Mr. C.U. Wills,
C.S.

[538] _Ibidem_, p. 49.

[539] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Hayobans.

[540] The date is too early, as is usual in these traditions. Though
the Haihaivansis only founded Ratanpur about A.D. 1050, their own
legends put it ten centuries earlier.

[541] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 36.

[542] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 319.

[543] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 381.

[544] The above information is taken from the new _Imperial Gazetteer_,
articles Jaipur and Alwar States.

[545] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Kachhwaha.

[546] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 94; Elliot's _Supplemental Glossary_,
art. Gaur Taga.

[547] See article on Kol.

[548] _Eastern India_, ii. 461, quoted in Mr. Crooke's art. Nagvansi.

[549] _Tribes and Castes_, vol. i. art. Nikumbh.

[550] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 417.

[551] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Nikumbh.

[552] _Eastern India_, ii. p. 919.

[553] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 86.

[554] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 390.

[555] Ibidem, pp. 378, 379.

[556] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 91.

[557] Ibidem.

[558] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Parihar.

[559] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 389.

[560] _Ibidem_, p. 413.

[561] _Imperial Gazetteer_, art. Bali.

[562] _Rajasthan_, ii. pp. 16, 17.

[563] _Ibidem_, i. p. 81.

[564] _Ibidem_, ii. p. 37.

[565] _Ibidem_, ii. p. 35.

[566] _J.A.S.B._ (1909), vol. v. p. 167.

[567] _Imperial Gazetteer, loc. cit_.

[568] Bhandarkar, _loc. cit._ p. 180.

[569] The following extracts from the history of the clan are mainly
taken from the article on Udaipur State in the _Imperial Gazetteer_.

[570] _Rajasthan_, pp. 222, 223.

[571] Forbes, _Rasmala_ i. p. 400.

[572] _Rajasthan_ i. pp, 398, 399. The death of the young princess
was mainly the work of Amir Khan Pindari who brought pressure on the
Rana to consent to it in order to save his state.

[573] If the Chalukyas were in the Deccan in the fourth century they
could not have originated from the Hun and Gujar invaders of the
fifth and sixth centuries, but must have belonged to an earlier horde.

[574] _Some Problems of Ancient Indian History_, by Dr. Rudolf Hoernle,
_J.R.A.S._ (1905) pp. 1-14.

[575] _Tribes and Castes, s.v._

[576] _Ibidem_, art. Soiri.

[577] Mr Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Tomara.

[578] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 386.

[579] Elliot, _Supplemental Glossary, s.v._

[580] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes, and Castes,_ art. Tomara.

[581] See also article Jadum for a separate account of the local
caste in the Central Provinces.

[582] _Early History of India_, 3rd edition, p. 434.

[583] Based on the accounts of Sir H. Risley and Colonel Dalton and
a paper by Pandit G.L. Pathak, Superintendent, Korea State.

[584] _B. G. Poona_, Part I., p. 409.

[585] _An Account of the Origin and Present Condition of the Tribe
of Ramosis_ (Bombay, 1833; India Office Tracts. Also published in
the _Madras Journal of Literature and Science_.)

[586] This paragraph is mainly compiled from the _Nasik_ and _Poona_
volumes of the _Bombay Gazetteer_.

[587] _Ficus glomerata_.

[588] _Eugenia jambolana_.

[589] _Calotropis gigantea_.

[590] _Bauhinia racemosa_.

[591] _Poona Gazetteer_, part i. p. 425.

[592] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Rangrez.

[593] _Peasant Life in Bihar_, p. 101, footnote.

[594] Temple and Fallon's _Hindustani Proverbs_.

[595] Based on Sir H. Risley's account of the tribe in the _Tribes
and Castes of Bengal_, and on notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Raigarh.

[596] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, vol. ii. App. I.

[597] _Saccharum spontaneum_.

[598] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Rautia.

[599] This article is based principally on an account of the Sanaurhias
written by Mr. C.M. Seagrim, Inspector-General of Police, Indore,
and included in Mr. Kennedy's _Criminal Classes of Bombay_ (1908).

[600] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Sanaurhia.

[601] _Criminal Classes of Bombay Presidency_, pp. 296, 297.

[602] Sleeman's _Reports on the Badhaks_, p. 327.

[603] Mr. Gayer's _Lectures on some Criminal Tribes_.

[604] _Report on the Badhak or Bagri Dacoits_ (1849), p. 328.

[605] J. Hutton, _A Popular Account of the Thugs and Dacoits and
Gang-robbers of India_ (London, 1857).

[606] This article is based almost entirely on a description of the
Sansias contained in Colonel Sleeman's _Report on the Badhak or Bagri
Dacoits_ (1849). Most of the material belongs to a report drawn up
at Nagpur by Mr. C. Ramsay, Assistant Resident, in 1845.

[607] Sleeman's _Report on the Badhaks_, p. 253.

[608] _Ibidem_, p. 254.

[609] Sir D. Ibbetson, _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 577.

[610] P. 259.

[611] The description of a dacoity is combined from two accounts
given at pp. 257, 273 of Colonel Sleeman's _Report_.

[612] _Sorghum vulgare_.

[613] Made of the bark of the date-palm tied with strips of cloth
round some inflammable wood.

[614] Sleeman, p. 263.

[615] But it is unlucky for a snake to cross one's path in front.

[616] Sleeman, pp. 261, 262.

[617] Committee of five persons.

[618] _Ficus religiosa_.

[619] The seer = 2 lbs.

[620] _Criminal Classes in the Bombay Presidency_; Sansias and Berias.

[621] Mr. Gayer, _Central Provinces Police Lectures_; p. 68.

[622] This article is mainly based on a paper by Mr. Rama Prasad
Bohidar, Assistant Master, Sambalpur High School.

[623] See article Beldar for a notice of the different groups of
earth-workers.

[624] Said to be derived from their name Waddar.

[625] Story of Jasma Odni in Sati Charita Sangrah.

[626] This article is principally based on papers by Munshi
Gopinath, Naib-Tahsildar, Sonpur, Mr. Kaluram Pachore, Assistant
Settlement Officer, Sambalpur, and Mr. Hira Lal, Assistant Gazetteer
Superintendent.

[627] _Archaeological Reports_, vol. xvii. pp. 120, 122.

[628] _India Census Report_ (1901), p. 283.

[629] _Archaeological Reports_, vol. xvii. p. 113.

[630] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes of N.W.P._, art Savara.

[631] _Tribes and Castes of N.W.P._, art. Savara.

[632] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Savar.

[633] _F. glomerata_.

[634] _Balaghat Gazetteer_, C.E. Low, p. 207.

[635] _Bhandara Settlement Report_ (A.J. Lawrence), p. 49.

[636] Major Lucie Smith's _Chanda Settlement Report_ (1869), p. 105.

[637] The following account of the process of gold-washing is taken
from Mr. Low's _Balaghat Gazetteer_, p. 201.

[638] This article is compiled from a paper by Mr. Bhagirath Patnaik,
Diwan of Rairakhol, and from notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal at Rairakhol.

[639] This article is partly based on an article by Mr. Raghunath
Prasad, E.A.C., formerly Deputy Superintendent of Census, with extracts
from the late Mr. Nunn's Monograph on the Gold and Silver Industries,
and on information furnished by Krishna Rao, Revenue Inspector, Mandla.

[640] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Sunar.

[641] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xvii. p. 134.

[642] See articles on Kunbi and Kurmi.

[643] Monograph on the Gold and Silverware of the Central Provinces
(Mr. H. Nunn, I.C.S.), 1904. The tola is a rupee's weight, or
two-fifths of an ounce.

[644] _Journal of Indian Art_, July 1909, p. 172.

[645] From a monograph on rural customs in Saugor, by Major
W.D. Sutherland, I.M.S.

[646] Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_, i. p. 98.

[647] _2 King Henry IV._ Act IV. Sc. 4.

[648] _Religion of the Semites_, note B., p. 453.

[649] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Poona_, App. D., Ornaments.

[650] _Religion of the Semites_, Lecture III.

[651] 2 lbs.

[652] From a paper on Caste Panchayats, by the Rev. Failbus,
C.M.S. Mission, Mandla.

[653] Rajendra Lal Mitra, _Indo-Aryans_ vol. i. p. 231.

[654] _Introduction to the History of Religion_, 3rd ed. p. 172.

[655] Monograph, _loc. cit._

[656] This account is taken from Buchanan's _Eastern India_,
vol. ii. p. 100.

[657] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xii. p. 71.

[658] Temple and Fallon's _Hindustani Proverbs._

[659] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat,_ pp. 199, 200.

[660] Pandian's _Indian Village Folk_, p. 41.

[661] This article is compiled from a paper by Mr. D. Mitra, pleader,
Sambalpur.

[662] _Madras Census Report_, 1891, p. 301.

[663] This article is based on information: contributed by
Nand Kishore, Nazir of the Deputy Commissioner's Office, Damoh;
Mr. Tarachand Dube, Municipal Member, Bilaspur; and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri
of the Gazetteer Office.

[664] This article is based on papers by Mr. Prem Narayan, Extra
Assistant Commissioner, Chanda; Mr. Mir Pacha, Tahsildar, Seoni;
Mr. Chintaman Rao, Tahsildar, Chanda; and Mr. K.G. Vaidya, Chanda.

[665] _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), p. 147, referring to Professor
Karl Pearson's _Chances of Death_.

[666] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Teli.

[667] _Bassia latifolia._

[668] _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 72.

[669] Weighing. 2 oz. each.

[670] _Phaseolus radiatas._

[671] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Teli.

[672] _Acacia arabica_.

[673] _Melia indica_.

[674] _Indian Folk Tales_, p. 10.

[675] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Teli.

[676] _Rajasthan_, vol. ii. pp. 678, 679.

[677] Thevenot's _Travels_, Part III. p. 41, quoted in Dr. Sherwood's
account, _Ramaseeana_, p. 359.

[678] Sleeman, p. 11.

[679] P. 144.

[680] P. 162.

[681] P. 147.

[682] P. 205.

[683] Hutton's _Thugs and Dacoits_.

[684] Sleeman, p. 170.

[685] Sleeman, p. 168.

[686] He was called Feringia because he was born while his mother
was fleeing from an attack on her village by troops under European
officers (Feringis).

[687] Sleeman, p. 205.

[688] Hutton, p. 70.

[689] _Ibidem_, p. 71.

[690] Pp. 34, 35.

[691] See _Cults, Customs and Superstitions of India_, p. 249.

[692] Pp. 32, 33.

[693] Kandeli adjoins the headquarters station of Narsinghpur, the
two towns being divided only by a stream.

[694] P. 23.

[695] Near Bilehri in Jubbulpore.

[696] Captain Lowis in Sleeman's _Report on the Thug Gangs_ (1840).

[697] Pp. 15, 16.

[698] P. 7.

[699] P. 150.

[700] Sleeman's _Report on the Thug Gangs_, Introduction, p. vi.

[701] P. 142.

[702] P. 216.

[703] 'Oh Kali, Eater of Men, Oh great Kali of Calcutta.' The name
Calcutta signifies Kali-ghat or Kali-kota, that is Kali's ferry or
house. The story is that Job Charnock was exploring on the banks of
the Hoogly, when he found a widow about to be burnt as a sacrifice
to Kali. He rescued her, married her, and founded a settlement on
the site, which grew into the town of Calcutta.

[704] P. 133.

[705] P. 173.

[706] _Orphéus_, p. 170.

[707] Dhamoni is an old ruined fort and town in the north of Saugor
District, still a favourite haunt of tigers; and the Thugs may often
have lain there in concealment and heard the tigers quarrelling in
the jungle.

[708] Sleeman, p. 196.

[709] P. 91.

[710] P. 67.

[711] P. 100.

[712] _Orphéus_ (M. Salomon Reinach), p. 316.

[713] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Turi.

[714] _North Arcot Manual_, i. p. 216.

[715] _Indian Antiquary_ (1879), p. 216.

[716] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. W.A. Tucker,
Extra Assistant Commissioner, Bhandara, and Mr. B.M. Deshmukh,
Pleader, Chanda.

[717] Buchanan, _Eastern India_, i. p. 186.

[718] Rand = widow or prostitute.

[719] The term Kunwar is a title applied to the eldest son of a chief.

[720] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xviii. p. 185.

[721] _Nagpur Settlement Report_, p. 27.

[722] This article is partly based on a paper by Pandit Pyare Lal
Misra, ethnographic clerk.

[723] Vol. xx. pp. 189-190.

[724] _Bombay Gazetteer_; vol. xxii. p. 212.

[725] _Madras Census Report_ (1891).

[726] _Madras Census Report_ (1901).

[727] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xxi. pp. 170, 171.

[728] _Tribes and Castes of Southern India_, art. Korava.

[729] _North Arcot Manual_, p. 247.

[730] _Ind. Ant._ vol. iii., 1874, p. 157.

                            THE END

         Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh.