Illyricum, who, under the new titles of Jovians and
   Herculians, were appointed to perform the service of the
   imperial guards. … They were old corps stationed at Illyricum;
   and, according to the ancient establishment, they each
   consisted of 6,000 men. They had acquired much reputation by
   the use of the plumbatæ, or darts loaded with lead."

      _E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 13, with foot-note._

   Restored and augmented by Maxentius, during his brief reign,
   the Prætorians were finally abolished and their fortified camp
   destroyed, by Constantine, after his victory in the civil war
   of A. D. 312.

      _E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 13._

   ----------PRÆTORIANS: End--------

PRÆTORIAN PRÆFECTS.

   "As the government degenerated into military despotism, the
   Prætorian præfect, who in his origin had been a simple captain
   of the guards, was placed not only at the head of the army,
   but of the finances, and even of the law. In every department
   of administration he represented the person, and exercised the
   authority, of the emperor. The first præfect who enjoyed and
   abused this immense power was Plautianus, the favourite
   minister of Severus. … They [the Prætorian præfects) were
   deprived by Constantine of all military command as soon as
   they had ceased to lead into the field, under their immediate
   orders, the flower of the Roman troops; and at length, by a
   singular revolution, the captains of the guards were
   transformed into the civil magistrates of the provinces.
   According to the plan of government instituted by Diocletian,
   the four princes had each their Prætorian præfect; and, after
   the monarchy was once more united in the person of
   Constantine, he still continued to create the same number of
   four præfects, and intrusted to their care the same provinces
   which they already administered.

   1. The Præfect of the East stretched his ample jurisdiction"
   from the Nile to the Phasis and from Thrace to Persia.

   "2. The important provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, Macedonia, and
   Greece, acknowledged the authority of the Præfect of
   Illyricum.

   3. The power of the Præfect of Italy" extended to the Danube,
   and over the islands of the Mediterranean and part of Africa.

   "4. The Præfect of the Gauls comprehended under that plural
   denomination the kindred provinces of Britain and Spain, and …
   to the foot of Mount Atlas.

   … Rome and Constantinople were alone excepted from the
   jurisdiction of the Prætorian præfects. … A perfect equality
   was established between the dignity of the two municipal, and
   that of the four Prætorian præfects."

      _E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapters 5 and 17._

      See, also, ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

PRÆTORIUM, The.

   "In the very early days of Rome, before even Consuls had a
   being, the two chief magistrates of the republic bore the
   title of Praetors. Some remembrance of this fact lingering in
   the speech of the people gave always to the term Prætorium
   (the Praetor's house) a peculiar majesty, and caused it to be
   used as the equivalent of palace. So in the well-known
   passages of the New Testament, the palace of Pilate the
   Governor at Jerusalem, of Herod the King at Caesarea, of Nero
   the Emperor at Rome, are all called the Praetorium. From the
   palace the troops who surrounded the person of the Emperor
   took their well-known name, 'the Praetorian Guard.'"

      _T. Hodgkin,
      Italy and Her Invaders,
      book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

{2584}

PRAGA, Battle of (1831).

      See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

   ----------PRAGMATIC SANCTION: Start--------

PRAGMATIC SANCTION.

   "No two words convey less distinct meaning to English ears
   than those which form this title: nor are we at all prepared
   to furnish an equivalent. Perhaps 'a well considered
   Ordinance' may in some degree represent them: i. e. an
   Ordinance which has been fully discussed by men practised in
   State Affairs. But we are very far from either recommending or
   being satisfied with such a substitute. The title was used in
   the Lower [the Byzantine] Empire, and Ducange ad v. describes
   'Pragmaticum Rescriptum seu Pragmatica Sanctio' to be that
   which 'ad hibitâ diligente causæ cognitione, ex omnium
   Procerum consensu in modum sententiæ lecto, a Principe
   conceditur.'"

      _E. Smedley,
      History of France,
      part 1, chapter 15, footnote._

   "Pragmatic Sanction being, in the Imperial Chancery and some
   others, the received title for Ordinances of a very
   irrevocable nature, which a sovereign makes, in affairs that
   belong wholly to himself, or what he reckons his own rights."

      _T. Carlyle,
      History of Frederick II.,
      book 5, chapter 2._

   "This word [pragmatic] is derived from the Greek 'pragma,'
   which means 'a rule.'"

      _E. de Bonnechose,
      History of France,
      volume 1, epoch 2, book 1, chapter 5, foot-note._

   The following are the more noted ordinances which have borne
   this name.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: A. D. 1220 and 1232.
   Of the Emperor Frederick II.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1250-1272.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION:A. D. 1268 (?).
   Of St. Louis.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1268.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: A. D. 1438.
   Of Charles VII. of France, and its abrogation.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1438; and 1515-1518.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION:A. D. 1547.
   Of the Emperor Charles V. for the Netherlands.

      See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1547.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: A. D. 1718.
   Of the Emperor Charles VI.

      See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1718-1738; and 1740 (OCTOBER).

   ----------PRAGMATIC SANCTION: End--------

   ----------PRAGUE: Start--------

PRAGUE: A. D. 1348-1409.
   The University and the German secession.

      See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY;
      and BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1620.
   Battle of the White Mountain.
   Abandonment of crown and capital by Frederick.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1620.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1631.
   Occupied and plundered by the Saxons.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1648.
   Surprise and capture of the Kleinsite by the Swedes.
   Siege of the older part of the city.
   The end of the Thirty Years War.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1646-1648.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1741.
   Taken by the French, Saxons and Bavarians.

      See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

PRAGUE: A. D. 1742.
   The French blockaded in the city.
   Retreat of Belleisle.

      See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

PRAGUE: A. D. 1744.
   Won and lost by Frederick the Great.

      See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744; and 1744-1745.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1757.
   Battle.
   Prussian victory
   Siege.
   Relief by Count Daun.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (APRIL-JUNE).

PRAGUE: A. D. 1848.
   Bombardment by the Austrians.

      See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1848-1849.

   ----------PRAGUE: End--------

PRAGUE, Congress of.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (MAY-AUGUST).

PRAGUE,
   Treaty of (1634).

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

   Treaty of (1866).

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

PRAGUERIE.

   The commotions produced by John Huss, at Prague, in the
   beginning of the 15th century, gave the name Praguerie, at
   that period, to all sorts of popular disturbances.

PRAIRIAL, The month.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER)
      THE NEW REPUBLICAN CALENDAR.

PRAIRIAL FIRST, The insurrection of.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (APRIL).

PRAIRIAL TWENTY-SECOND, Law of the.

      See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (JUNE-JULY).

PRAIRIE GROVE, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

PRAKRITA.

      See SANSKRIT

PRATO, The horrible sack of (1512).

      See FLORENCE: A. D. 1502-1569.

PRECIANI, The.

      See AQUITAINE: THE ANCIENT TRIBES.

PRECIEUSES.

      See RAMBOUILLET, HÔTEL DE.

PRECIOUS METALS, Production of.

      See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES, and 1848-1893.

PREFECTS.
PRÉFÊTS.
PRÆFECTS.

      See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14;
      and PRÆTORIAN PRÆFECTS.

PREMIER.
PRIME MINISTER.

      See CABINET, THE ENGLISH.

PREMISLAUS, King of Poland, A. D. 1289-1296.

PREMONSTRATENSIAN ORDER.

   This was the most important branch of the Regular Canons of
   St. Augustine, founded by St. Norbert, a German nobleman, who
   died in 1134. It took its name from Pre-montre, in Picardy,
   where the first house was established.

      _E. L. Cutts,
      Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages,
      chapter 3._

      ALSO IN:
      _J. Alzog,
      Manual of Universal Church History,
      section 243 (volume 2)._

      See AUSTIN CANONS.

PRESBURG, OR PRESSBURG, Peace of (1805).

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.

   ----------PRESBYTERIANS: Start--------

PRESBYTERIANS, English,
   in the Civil War.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY),
      and (JULY-SEPTEMBER); 1646 (MARCH);
      1647 (APRIL-AUGUST); (AUGUST-DECEMBER); 1648.

PRESBYTERIANS:
   At the Restoration.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1658-1660; 1661; and 1662-1665.

PRESBYTERIANS:
   In Colonial Massachusetts.

      See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1646-1651.

PRESBYTERIANS:
   Scotch-Irish.

      See SCOTCH-IRISH.

PRESBYTERIANS:
   Scottish.

      See CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.

   ----------PRESBYTERIANS: End--------

PRESCOTT, Colonel William, and the battle of Bunker Hill.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (JUNE).

{2585}

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

   "The executive power shall be vested in a President of the
   United States of America. He shall hold his office during the
   term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President,
   chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: Each State
   shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may
   direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of
   Senators and Representatives to which the State may be
   entitled in the Congress [and these electors, meeting in their
   respective States, shall vote for President and
   Vice-President, transmitting certified lists of their votes to
   the President of the Senate of the United States, who shall
   count them in the presence of the two Houses of Congress; and
   if no person is elected President by a majority of all the
   votes cast, then the House of Representatives shall elect a
   President from the three persons who received the highest
   numbers of the votes cast by the electors, the representation
   from each State having one vote in such election]. … No person
   except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United
   States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall
   be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any
   person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained
   to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a
   resident within the United States. … The President shall be
   Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States,
   and of the militia of the several States, when called into the
   actual service of the United States; he may require the
   opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the
   executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties
   of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant
   reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States,
   except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and
   with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties,
   provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he
   shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the
   Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and
   consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers
   of the United States whose appointments are not herein
   otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law;
   but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such
   inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone,
   in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The
   President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may
   happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting
   commissions which shall expire at the end of their next
   session. He shall from time to time give to the Congress
   information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their
   consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and
   expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both
   houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between
   them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn
   them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive
   ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care
   that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all
   the officers of the United States. The President,
   Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States,
   shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
   conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
   misdemeanors."

      _Constitution of the United States,
      article 2, and article 12 of amendments._

   The provisions of the Constitution regarding the Presidential
   succession, in case of the death or resignation of both
   President and Vice-President, are: 'In case of the removal of
   the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or
   inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said
   office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the
   Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death,
   resignation, or inability both of the President and
   Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as
   President, and such officer shall act accordingly until the
   disability be removed or a President shall be elected.'

      _(Article II, Section 6.)_

   In pursuance of the power thus granted to it in the last half
   of this section, Congress in 1792 passed an act declaring that
   in case of the death, resignation, etc., of both the President
   and Vice-President, the succession should be first to the
   President of the Senate and then to the Speaker of the House.
   This order was changed by the act of 1886, which provided that
   the succession to the presidency should be as follows:

   1. President.
   2. Vice-President.
   3. Secretary of State.
   4. Secretary of the Treasury.
   5. Secretary of War.
   6. Attorney General.
   7. Postmaster General.
   8. Secretary of the Navy.
   9. Secretary of the Interior.

   In all cases the remainder of the four-years' term shall be
   served out. This act also regulated the counting of the votes
   of the electors by Congress, and the determination of who were
   legally chosen electors.

      _Statutes of the United States passed at 1st Session
      of 49th Congress, page 1._

      ALSO IN:
      _E. Stanwood,
      History of Presidential Elections,
      chapter 27._

      _J. Story,
      Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States,
      book 3, chapters 36-37 (volume 3)._

      _The Federalist,
      numbers 66-76._

      _J. Bryce,
      The American Commonwealth,
      chapters 5-8 (volume 1)._

PRESIDIO.

      See TEXAS: A. D. 1819-1835

PRESS, The.

      See PRINTING.

PRESSBURG, or
PRESBURG, Treaty of (1805).

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1800.

PRESS-GANG.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812.

PRESTER JOHN, The Kingdom of.

   "About the middle of the eleventh century stories began to be
   circulated in Europe as to a Christian nation of north-eastern
   Asia, whose sovereign was at the same time king and priest,
   and was known by the name of Prester John. Amid the mass of
   fables with which the subject is encumbered, it would seem to
   be certain that, in the very beginning of the century, the
   Khan of the Keraït, a tribe whose chief seat was at Karakorum,
   between Lake Baikal and the northern frontier of China, was
   converted to Nestorian Christianity—it is said, through the
   appearance of a saint to him when he had lost his way in
   hunting. By means of conversation with Christian merchants, he
   acquired some elementary knowledge of the faith, and, on the
   application of Ebed-Jesu, metropolitan of Maru, to the
   Nestorian patriarch Gregory, clergy were sent, who baptized
   the king and his subjects, to the number of 200,000. Ebed-Jesu
   consulted the patriarch how the fasts were to be kept, since
   the country did not afford any corn, or anything but flesh and
   milk; and the answer was, that, if no other Lenten provisions
   were to be had, milk should be the only diet for seasons of
   abstinence. The earliest western notice of this nation is
   given by Otho of Freising, from the relation of an Armenian
   bishop who visited the court of pope Eugenius III. This report
   is largely tinctured with fable, and deduces the Tartar
   chief's descent from the Magi who visited the Saviour in His
   cradle.
{2586}
   It would seem that the Nestorians of Syria, for the sake of
   vying with the boasts of the Latins, delighted in inventing
   tales as to the wealth, the splendour, and the happiness of
   their convert's kingdom; and to them is probably to be
   ascribed an extravagantly absurd letter, in which Prester John
   is made to dilate on the greatness and the riches of his
   dominions, the magnificence of his state and the beauty of his
   wives, and to offer the Byzantine emperor, Manuel, if he be of
   the true faith, the office of lord chamberlain in the court of
   Karakorum. In 1177 Alexander III. was induced by reports which
   a physician named Philip had brought back from Tartary, as to
   Prester John's desire to be received into communion with the
   pope, to address a letter to the king, recommending Philip as
   a religions instructor. But nothing is known as to the result
   of this; and in 1202 the Keraït kingdom was overthrown by the
   Tartar conqueror Genghis Khan. In explanation of the story as
   to the union of priesthood with royalty in Prester John, many
   theories have been proposed, of which two may be mentioned
   here: that it arose out of the fact of a Nestorian priest's
   having got possession of the kingdom on the death of a khan;
   or that, the Tartar prince's title being compounded of the
   Chinese 'wang' (king) and the Mongol 'khan,' the first of
   these words was confounded by the Nestorians of Syria with the
   name John, and the second with 'cohen' (a priest). … The
   identification of Prester John's kingdom with Abyssinia was a
   mistake of Portuguese explorers some centuries later."

      _J. C. Robertson,
      History of the Christian Church,
      book 6, chapter 11, with foot-note (volume 5)._

      ALSO IN:
      _Colonel H. Yule,
      Note to 'The Book of Marco Polo,'
      volume 1, pages 204-209._

PRESTON,
   Battle of (1648).

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1648 (APRIL-AUGUST).

   Battle of (1715).

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1715.

PRESTON PANS, Battle of (1745).

      See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1745-1746.

PRESTONBURG, Battle of.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

PRETAXATION.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

PRETENDERS, The Stuart.

      See JACOBITES.

PRICE'S RAID.

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

PRIDE'S PURGE.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1648 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

PRIEST'S LANE, The.

      See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

PRIM, General, Assassination of.

      See SPAIN: A. D. 1866-1873.

PRIMATES.
METROPOLITANS.
PATRIARCHS.

   In the early organization of the Christian Church, the bishops
   of every province found it necessary "to make one of
   themselves superior to all the rest, and invest him with
   certain powers and privileges for the good of the whole, whom
   they therefore named their primate, or metropolitan, that is,
   the principal bishop of the province. … Next in order to the
   metropolitans or primates were the patriarchs; or, as they
   were at first called, archbishops and exarchs of the diocese.
   For though now an archbishop and a metropolitan be generally
   taken for the same, to wit, the primate of a single province;
   yet anciently the name archbishop was a more extensive title,
   and scarce given to any but those whose jurisdiction extended
   over a whole imperial diocese, as the bishop of Rome,
   Alexandria, Antioch, &c."

      _T. Bingham,
      Antiquities of the Christian Church,
      book 2, chapters 16-17 (volume 1)._

      See, also, CHRISTIANITY; A. D. 312-337.

PRIME MINISTER, The English.

      See CABINET, THE ENGLISH.

PRINCE, Origin of the title.

      See PRINCEPS SENATUS.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.

   "Prince Edward's Island, the smallest province of the Dominion
   [of Canada], originally called St. John's Island, until 1770
   formed part of Nova Scotia. The first Governor was Walter
   Patterson. … The first assembly met in 1773." In 1873 Prince
   Edward Island consented to be received into the Confederation
   of the Dominion of Canada—the latest of the provinces to
   accede to the Union, except Newfoundland, which still (1894)
   remains outside.

      _J. E. C. Munro,
      The Constitution of Canada,
      chapter 2._

      See, also,
      CANADA: A. D. 1867; and 1869-1873.

PRINCE OF THE CAPTIVITY.

      See JEWS: A. D. 200-400.

PRINCE OF WALES.

      See WALES, PRINCE OF.

PRINCEPS SENATUS.

   "As the title of imperator conferred the highest military rank
   upon Augustus and his successors, so did that of princeps
   senatus, or princeps (as it came to be expressed by an easy
   but material abridgment), convey the idea of the highest civil
   preeminence consistent with the forms of the old constitution.
   In ancient times this title had been appropriated to the first
   in succession of living censorii, men who had served the
   office of censor; and such were necessarily patricians and
   senators. The sole privilege it conferred was that of speaking
   first in the debates of the senate; a privilege however to
   which considerable importance might attach from the exceeding
   deference habitually paid to authority and example by the
   Roman assemblies. … The title of princeps was modest and
   constitutional; it was associated with the recollection of the
   best ages of the free state and the purest models of public
   virtue; it could not be considered beyond the deserts of one
   who was undoubtedly the foremost man of the nation. … The
   popularity which the assumption of this republican title
   conferred upon the early emperors may be inferred from the
   care with which it is noted, and its constitutional functions
   referred to by the writers of the Augustan age and that which
   succeeded it. But it was an easy and natural step in the
   progress of political ideas to drop the application of the
   title, and contract it from prince of the senate, to prince
   merely. The original character of the appellation was soon
   forgotten, and the proper limits of its privileges confounded
   in the more vague and general prerogative which the bare
   designation of first or premier seemed to imply."

      _C. Merivale,
      History of the Romans,
      chapter 31._

      ALSO IN:
      _E. Gibbon,
      Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
      chapter 3, note by Dr. W. Smith._

PRINCETON, Battle of (1777).

      See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
      A. D. 1776-1777 WASHINGTON'S RETREAT.

PRINCIPES.

      See LEGION, THE ROMAN.

{2587}

   ----------PRINTING AND THE PRESS: Start--------

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1430-1456.
   The invention of movable type.
   Rival claims for Coster and Gutenberg.
   The first Printed Book.

   "Before arriving at the movable type placed side by side, and
   forming phrases, which appears to us to-day so simple and so
   ordinary, many years passed. It is certain that long before
   Gutenberg a means was found of cutting wood and metal in
   relief and reproducing by application the image traced. …
   Remembering that the numerous guilds of 'tailleurs d' images,'
   or sculptors in relief, had in the Middle Ages the specialty
   of carving ivories and of placing effigies on tombs, it can be
   admitted without much difficulty that these people one day
   found a means of multiplying the sketches of a figure often
   asked for, by modelling its contour in relief on ivory or
   wood, and afterwards taking a reproduction on paper or
   parchment by means of pressure. When and where was this
   discovery produced? We cannot possibly say; but it is certain
   that playing cards were produced by this means, and that from
   the year 1423 popular figures were cut in wood, as we know
   from the St. Christopher of that date belonging to Lord
   Spencer. … It is a recognised fact that the single sheet with
   a printed figure preceded the xylographic book, in which text
   and illustration were cut in the same block. This process did
   not appear much before the second quarter of the 15th century,
   and it was employed principally for popular works which were
   then the universal taste. The engraving also was nothing more
   than a kind of imposition palmed off as a manuscript; the
   vignettes were often covered with brilliant colours and gold,
   and the whole sold as of the best quality. … An attempt had
   been made to put some text at the foot of the St. Christopher
   of 1423, and the idea of giving more importance to the text
   was to the advantage of the booksellers. … At the epoch of the
   St. Christopher, in 1423, several works were in vogue in the
   universities, the schools, and with the public. … To find a
   means of multiplying these treatises at little cost was a
   fortune to the inventor. It is to be supposed that many
   artisans of the time attempted it; and without doubt it was
   the booksellers themselves, mostly mere dealers, who were
   tempted to the adventure by the sculptors and wood-cutters.
   But none had yet been so bold as to cut in relief a series of
   blocks with engravings and text to compose a complete work.
   That point was reached very quickly when some legend was
   engraved at the foot of a vignette, and it may be thought that
   the 'Donatus' [i. e. the Latin Syntax of Ælius Donatus] was
   the most ancient of books so obtained among the 'Incunabuli,'
   as we now call them, a word that signifies origin or cradle.
   The first books then were formed of sheets of paper or
   parchment, laboriously printed from xylographic blocks, that
   is to say wooden blocks on which a 'tailleur d' images' had
   left in relief the designs and the letters of the text. He had
   thus to trace his characters in reverse, so that they could be
   reproduced as written; he had to avoid faults, because a
   phrase once done, well or ill, lasted. It was doubtless this
   difficulty of correction that gave the idea of movable types.
   … This at least explains the legend of Laurent Coster, of
   Haarlem, who, according to Hadrian Junius, his compatriot,
   discovered by accident the secret of separate types while
   playing with his children. And if the legend of which we speak
   contains the least truth, it must be found in the sense above
   indicated, that is in the correction of faults, rather than in
   the innocent game of a merchant of Haarlem. … Movable type,
   the capital point of printing, the pivot of the art of the
   Book, developed itself little by little, according to needs,
   when there was occasion to correct an erroneous inscription;
   but, in any case, its origin is unknown. Doubtless to vary the
   text, means were found to replace entire phrases by other
   phrases, preserving the original figures; and thus the light
   dawned upon these craftsmen, occupied in the manufacture and
   sale of their books. According to Hadrian Junius, Laurent
   Janszoon Coster (the latter name signifying 'the discoverer')
   published one of the celebrated series of works under the
   general title of 'Speculum' which was then so popular, … the
   'Speculum Humanæ Salvationis.' … Junius, as we see, attributes
   to Laurent Coster the first impression of the 'Speculum,' no
   longer the purely xylographic impression of the 'Donatus' from
   an engraved block, but that of the more advanced manner in
   movable types [probably between 1430 and 1440]. In point of
   fact, this book had at least four editions, similar in
   engravings and body of letters, but of different text. It must
   then be admitted that the fount was dispersed, and typography
   discovered. … All the xylographic works of the 15th century
   may be classed in two categories: the xylographs, rightly so
   called, or the block books, such as the 'Donatus,' and the
   books with movable types, like the 'Speculum,' of which we
   speak. … The movable types used, cut separately in wood, were
   not constituted to give an ideal impression. We can understand
   the cost that the execution of these characters must have
   occasioned, made as they were one by one, without the
   possibility of ever making them perfectly uniform. Progress
   was to substitute for this irregular process types that were
   similar, identical, easily produced, and used for a long time
   without breaking. Following on the essays of Laurent Coster,
   continuous researches bore on this point. … Here history is
   somewhat confused. Hadrian Junius positively accuses one of
   Laurent Coster's workmen of having stolen the secrets of his
   master and taken flight to Mayence, where he afterwards
   founded a printing office. According to Junius, the metal type
   was the discovery of the Dutchman, and the name of the thief
   was John. Who was this John? Was it John Gænsefleisch, called
   Gutenberg, or possibly John Fust? But it is not at all
   apparent that Gutenberg, a gentleman of Mayence, exiled from
   his country, was ever in the service of the Dutch inventor. As
   to Fust, we believe his only intervention in the association
   of printers of Mayence was as a money-lender, from which may
   be comprehended the unlikelihood of his having been with
   Coster, the more so as we find Gutenberg retired to
   Strasbourg, where he pursued his researches. There he was, as
   it were, out of his sphere, a ruined noble whose great
   knowledge was bent entirely on invention. Doubtless, like many
   others, he may have had in his hands one of the printed works
   of Laurent Coster, and conceived the idea of appropriating the
   infant process.
{2588}
   In 1439 he was associated with two artisans of the city of
   Strasbourg, ostensibly in the fabrication of mirrors, which
   may be otherwise understood as printing of 'Speculums,' the
   Latin word signifying the same thing. … Three problems
   presented themselves to him. He wanted types less fragile than
   wooden types and less costly than engraving. He wanted a press
   by the aid of which he could obtain a clear impression on
   parchment or paper. He desired also that the leaves of his
   books should not be anopistograph, or printed only on one
   side. … Until then, and even long after, the xylographs were
   printed 'au frotton,' or with a brush, rubbing the paper upon
   the forme coated with ink, thicker than ordinary ink. He
   dreamed of something better. In the course of his work John
   Gutenberg returned to Mayence. The idea of publishing a Bible,
   the Book of books, had taken possession of his heart. … The
   cutting of his types had ruined him. … In this unhappy
   situation, Gutenberg made the acquaintance of a financier of
   Mayence, named Fust, … who put a sum of 1,100 florins at his
   disposal to continue his experiments. Unfortunately this money
   disappeared, it melted away, and the results obtained were
   absolutely ludicrous. … About this time a third actor enters
   on the scene. Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, a writer,
   introduced into the workshop of Gutenberg to design letters,
   benefited by the abortive experiments, and taking up the
   invention at its dead-lock, conducted it to success. John of
   Tritenheim, called Trithemius, the learned abbot of Spanheim,
   is the person who relates these facts; but as he got his
   information from Schoeffer himself, too much credence must not
   be given to his statements. Besides, Schoeffer was not at all
   an ordinary artisan. If we credit a Strasbourg manuscript
   written by his hand in 1449, he was a student of the 'most
   glorious university of Paris.'" How much Schoeffer contributed
   to the working out of the invention is a matter of conjecture;
   but in 1454 it was advanced to a state in which the first
   known application of it in practical use was made. This was in
   the printing of copies of the famous letters of indulgence
   which Pope Nicholas V. was then selling throughout Europe.
   Having the so far perfected invention in hand, Fust and
   Schoeffer (the latter now having married the former's
   granddaughter) wished to rid themselves of Gutenberg. "Fust
   had a most easy pretext, which was to demand purely and simply
   from his associate the sums advanced by him, and which had
   produced so little. Gutenberg had probably commenced his
   Bible, but, in face of the claims of Fust, he had to abandon
   it altogether, types, formes, and press. In November, 1455, he
   had retired to a little house outside the city, where he tried
   his best, by the aid of foreign help, to establish a workshop,
   and to preserve the most perfect secrecy. Relieved of his
   company, Fust and Schoeffer were able to take up the
   impression of the Bible and to complete it without him. … One
   thing is certain: that the Bible of Schoeffer, commenced by
   Gutenberg or not, put on sale by Fust and Schoeffer alone
   about the end of 1455 or beginning of 1456, proves to be the
   first completed book. … It is now called the Mazarine Bible,
   from the fact that the copy in the Mazarin Library was the
   first to give evidence concerning it. The book was put on sale
   at the end of 1455 or beginning of 1456, for a manuscript note
   of a vicar of St. Stephen at Mayence records that he finished
   the binding and illuminating of the first volume on St.
   Bartholomew's Day [June 13], 1456, and the second on the 15th
   of August. … All these remarks show that the printers did not
   proclaim themselves, and were making pseudo-manuscripts. …
   Many of the copies are illuminated with as much care and
   beauty as if they were the finest manuscripts. … Copies are by
   no means uncommon, most of the great libraries having one, and
   many are in private collections."

      _H. Bouchot,
      The Printed Book,
      chapter 1._

   "The general consent of all nations in ascribing the honour of
   the invention of printing to Gutenberg seems at first sight a
   very strong argument in his favour; but if Gutenberg were not
   the first to invent and use movable types, but the clever man
   who brought to perfection what already existed in a crude
   state, we can quite imagine his fame to have spread everywhere
   as the real inventor. As a master in the art of printing,
   Gutenberg's name was known in Paris so early as 1472. … Mr.
   Hessels … believes that the Coster mentioned in the archives
   as living in Haarlem, 1436-83, was the inventor of types, and
   that, taken as a whole, the story as told by Junius is
   substantially correct. Personally I should like to wait for
   more evidence. There is no doubt that the back-bone of the
   Dutch claim lies in the pieces and fragments of old books
   discovered for the most part in the last few decades, and
   which give support to, at the same time that they receive
   support from, the Cologne Chronicler. … These now amount to
   forty-seven different works. Their number is being added to
   continually now that the attention of librarians has been
   strongly called to the importance of noting and preserving
   them. They have been catalogued with profound insight by Mr.
   Hessels, and for the first time classified by internal
   evidence into their various types and classes. But, it may
   well be asked, what evidence is there that all these books
   were not printed long after Gutenberg's press was at work? …
   The earliest book of Dutch printing bears date 1473, and not a
   single edition out of all the so-called Costeriana has any
   printer's name or place or date. To this the reply is, that
   these small pieces were school-books or absies and such-like
   works, in the production of which there was nothing to boast
   of, as there would be in a Bible. Such things were at all
   times 'sine ulla nota,' and certain to be destroyed when done
   with, so that the wonder would be to find them so dated, and
   the very fact of their bearing a date would go far to prove
   them not genuine. These fragments have been nearly all
   discovered in 15th-century books, printed mostly' in various
   towns of Holland. … Mr. Hessels quotes forty-seven different
   books as 'Costeriana,' which include four editions of the
   Speculum, nineteen of Donatus, and seven of Doctrinale. The
   Donatuses are in five different types, probably from five
   different Dutch presses. Compared with the earliest dated
   books of 1473 and onwards, printed in Holland, they have
   nothing in common, while their brotherhood to the Dutch MSS.
   and block-books of about thirty years earlier is apparent.
   Just as astronomers have been unable to explain certain
   aberrations of the planets without surmising a missing link in
   the chain of their knowledge, so is it with early typography.
   That such finished works as the first editions of the Bible
   and Psalter could be the legitimate predecessors of the
   Costeriana, the Bruges, the Westminster press, and others, I
   cannot reconcile with the internal evidence of their
   workmanship. But admit the existence of an earlier and much
   ruder school of typography, and all is plain and harmonious."

      _W. Blades,
      Books in Chains, and other Bibliographical Papers,
      pages 149-158._

      ALSO IN:
      _J. H. Hessels,
      Gutenberg: was he the Inventor of Printing?_

      _C. H. Timperley,
      Encyclopœdia of Literature and Typographical Anecdote,
      pages 101-120._

      _H. N. Humphreys,
      History of the Art of Printing,
      chapters 3-4._

{2589}

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1457-1489.
   Progress and diffusion of the art.

   After the Mazarine Bible, "then follows the Kalendar for the
   year 1457, most probably printed at the end of 1456. Then
   again the printed dates, August 14, 1457 and 1459, with place
   (Mentz) in the colophons of the Psalter issued by Fust and
   Schoeffer; the printed year 1460 (with Mentz added) in the
   Catholicon [a Latin Grammar and Dictionary]. &c. &c. So that,
   with the exception of 1458, there is no interruption in Mentz
   printing from the moment that we see it begin there. As
   regards the printed psalter, its printers are mentioned
   distinctly in the book itself; but the other books just
   mentioned are assumed to have been issued by the same two
   Mentz printing-offices which are supposed to be already at
   work there in 1454, though the 1460 Catholicon and some of the
   other works are ascribed by some to other printers. By the
   side of these dates, we find already a Bible completed in 1460
   by Mentelin at Strassburg, according to a MS. note in the copy
   preserved at Freiburg. … Assuming then, for a moment, that
   Mentz is the starting-point, we see printing spread to
   Strassburg in 1460; to Bamberg in 1461; to Subiaco in 1465; in
   1466 (perhaps already in 1463) it is established at Cologne;
   in 1467 at Eltville, Rome; in 1468 at Augsburg, Basle,
   Marienthal; in 1469 at Venice; 1470 at Nuremberg, Verona,
   Foligno, Trevi, Savigliano, Paris; 1471 at Spire, Bologna,
   Ferrara, Florence, Milan, Naples, Pavia, Treviso; 1472 at
   Esslingen, Cremona, Mantua, Padua, Parma, Monreale, Fivizano,
   Verona; 1473 at Laugingen, Ulm (perhaps here earlier),
   Merseburg, Alost, Utrecht, Lyons, Brescia, Messina; 1474 at
   Louvain, Genoa, Como, Savona, Turin, Vicenza; 1475 at Lubeck,
   Breslau, Blaubeuren, Burgdorf, Modena, Reggio, Cagli, Caselle
   or Casale, Saragossa; 1476 at Rostock, Bruges (here earlier?),
   Brussels; 1477 at Reichenstein, Deventer, Gouda, Delft,
   Westminster; 1478 at Oxford, St. Maartensdyk, Colle,
   Schussenried, Eichstadt; 1479 at Erfurt, Würzburg, Nymegen,
   Zwolle, Poitiers; 1480 at London [?], Oudenaarde, Hasselt,
   Reggio; 1481 at Passau, Leipzig, Magdeburg, Treves, Urach;
   1482 at Reutlingen, Memmingen, Metz, Antwerp; 1483 at Leiden,
   Kuilenburg, Ghent, Haarlem; 1484 at Bois-le–Duc, Siena; 1485
   at Heidelberg, Regensburg; 1486 at Munster, Stuttgart; 1487 at
   Ingolstadt; 1488 at Stendal; 1489 at Hagenau, &c."

      _J. H. Hessels,
      Haarlem the Birth-place of Printing, not Mentz,
      chapter 4._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1469-1515.
   The early Venetian printers.
   The Aldine Press.

   "One of the famous first race of German printers, John of
   Spires, arrived at Venice in the year 1469, and immediately
   brought his art into full play; producing within the first
   three months his fine edition of the 'Letters of Cicero.' a
   masterpiece of early printing. … The success of John of Spires
   as a printer was at once recognized by the Venetian Republic;
   and Pasquale Malipiero, the reigning Doge, granted a patent
   conferring upon him the sole right of printing books within
   the territory of Venice. … But the enterprising printer did
   not live to enjoy the privilege," and it was not continued to
   any of his family, "On the withdrawal of the monopoly several
   new printers set up their Presses in the city, among whom was
   the celebrated Jenson, the ingenious Frenchman who was sent by
   Charles VII. to acquire the art at Mayence. … John Emeric, of
   Udenheim, was another of the German printers who immediately
   succeeded John and Vindelin of Spires; and still more
   successful, though somewhat later, in the field, was Erard
   Ratdolt. … He [Ratdolt] is said to have been the first to
   adopt a regular form of Title at all approaching our modern
   conception of a Book-Title; and he also took the lead in the
   production of those beautifully-engraved initials for which
   the books printed in Italy towards the close of the 15th
   century are famous. His most splendid work is undoubtedly the
   'Elements of Euclid, with the Commentaries of Campanus.' …
   Nicholas Jenson was the most renowned of those who followed
   the earliest German printers in Venice, until his works were
   partially eclipsed by those of the Aldi. … In 1470 he [Jenson]
   had … completed his preparations, and the first four works
   which issued from his Venetian press appeared in that year. …
   These works were printed with Roman characters of his own
   engraving, more perfect in form than those of any previous
   printer. His types are in fact the direct parents of the
   letters now in general use, which only differ from them in
   certain small details dependent solely on fashion. … This
   celebrated printer died in September of the year 1481. …
   Andrea Torresani and others continued Jenson's Association,
   making use of the same types. Torresani was eventually
   succeeded in the same establishment by the celebrated Aldo
   Manuccio, who, having married his daughter, adopted the
   important vocation of printer, and became the first of those
   famous 'Aldi,' as they are commonly termed, whose fame has not
   only absorbed that of all the earlier Venetian printers, but
   that of the early printers of every other Italian seat of the
   art. … It was Manuccio who, among many other advances in this
   art, first invented the semi-cursive style of character now
   known as 'Italic'; and it is said that it was founded upon a
   close imitation of the careful handwriting of Petrarch, which,
   in fact, it closely resembles. This new type was used for a
   small octavo edition of 'Virgil,' issued in 1501, on the
   appearance of which he obtained from Pope Leo X. a letter of
   privilege, entitling him to the sole use of the new type which
   he had invented." The list of the productions of the elder
   Aldus and his son Paul "comprises nearly all the great works
   of antiquity, and of the best Italian authors of their own
   time. From their learning and general accomplishments, the
   Aldi might have occupied a brilliant position as scholars and
   authors, but preferred the useful labour of giving correctly
   to the world the valuable works of others. The Greek editions
   of the elder Aldus form the basis of his true glory,
   especially the 'Aristotle,' printed in 1405, a work of almost
   inconceivable labour and perseverance."

      _H. N. Humphreys,
      History of the Art of Printing,
      chapter 8._

{2590}

   "Aldus and his studio and all his precious manuscripts
   disappeared during the troubled years of the great Continental
   war in which all the world was against Venice [see VENICE: A.
   D. 1508-1500]. In 1510, 1511, and 1512, scarcely any book
   proceeded from his press. … After the war Aldus returned to
   his work with renewed fervour. 'It is difficult,' says
   Renouard, 'to form an idea of the passion with which he
   devoted himself to the reproduction of the great works of
   ancient literature. If he heard of the existence anywhere of a
   manuscript unpublished, or which could throw a light upon an
   existing text, he never rested till he had it in his
   possession. He did not shrink from long journeys, great
   expenditure, applications of all kinds.' … It is not in this
   way however that the publisher, that much questioned and
   severely criticised middleman, makes a fortune. And Aldus died
   poor. His privileges did not stand him in much stead,
   copyright, especially when not in books but in new forms of
   type, being non-existent in his day. In France and Germany,
   and still nearer home, his beautiful Italic was robbed from
   him, copied on all sides, notwithstanding the protection
   granted by the Pope and other princes as well as by the
   Venetian Signoria. His fine editions were printed from, and
   made the foundation of foreign issues which replaced his own.
   How far his princely patrons stood by him to repair his losses
   there seems no information. His father-in-law, Andrea of
   Asola, a printer who was not so fine a scholar, but perhaps
   more able to cope with the world, did come to his aid, and his
   son Paolo Manutio, and his grandson Aldo il Giovane, as he is
   called, succeeded him in turn."

      _Mrs. Oliphant,
      The Makers of Venice,
      part 4, chapter 3._

   Aldus died in 1515. His son Paul left Venice for Rome in 1562.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1476-1491.
   Introduction in England.
   The Caxton Press.

   "It was probably at the press of Colard Mansion, in a little
   room over the porch of St. Donat's at Bruges, that William
   Caxton learned the art which he was the first to introduce
   into England. A Kentish boy by birth, but apprenticed to a
   London mercer, Caxton had already spent thirty years of his
   manhood in Flanders as Governor of the English gild of
   Merchant Adventurers there, when we find him engaged as
   copyist in the service of Edward's sister, Duchess Margaret of
   Burgundy. But the tedious process of copying was soon thrown
   aside for the new art which Colard Mansion had introduced into
   Bruges. … The printing-press was the precious freight he
   brought back to England in 1476 after an absence of
   five-and-thirty years. Through the next fifteen, at an age
   when other men look for ease and retirement, we see him
   plunging with characteristic energy into his new occupation.
   His 'red pale' or heraldic shield marked with a red bar down
   the middle invited buyers to the press he established in the
   Almonry at Westminster, a little enclosure containing a chapel
   and almshouses near the west front of the church, where the
   alms of the abbey were distributed to the poor. … Caxton was a
   practical man of business, … no rival of the Venetian Aldi or
   of the classical printers of Rome, but resolved to get a
   living from his trade, supplying priests with service books
   and preachers with sermons, furnishing the clerk with his
   'Golden Legend' and knight and baron with 'joyous and pleasant
   histories of chivalry.' But while careful to win his daily
   bread, he found time to do much for what of higher literature
   lay fairly to hand. He printed all the English poetry of any
   moment which was then in existence. His reverence for that
   'worshipful man, Geoffrey Chaucer,' who 'ought to be eternally
   remembered,' is shown not merely by his edition of the
   'Canterbury Tales,' but by his reprint of them when a purer
   text of the poem offered itself. The poems of Lydgate and
   Gower were added to those of Chaucer. The Chronicle of Brut
   and Higden's 'Polychronicon' were the only available works of
   an historical character then existing in the English tongue,
   and Caxton not only printed them but himself continued the
   latter up to his own time. A translation of Boethius, a
   version of the Eneid from the French, and a tract or two of
   Cicero, were the stray first-fruits of the classical press in
   England. Busy as was Caxton's printing-press, he was even
   busier as a translator than as a printer. More than four
   thousand of his printed pages are from works of his own
   rendering. The need of these translations shows the popular
   drift of literature at the time; but keen as the demand seems
   to have been, there is nothing mechanical in the temper with
   which Caxton prepared to meet it. A natural, simple-hearted
   taste and enthusiasm, especially for the style and forms of
   language, breaks out in his curious prefaces. … But the work
   of translation involved a choice of English which made
   Caxton's work important in the history of our language. He
   stood between two schools of translation, that of French
   affectation and English pedantry. It was a moment when the
   character of our literary tongue was being settled, and it is
   curious to see in his own words the struggle over it which was
   going on in Caxton's time. 'Some honest and great clerks have
   been with me and desired me to write the most curious terms
   that I could find;' on the other hand, 'some gentlemen of late
   blamed me, saying that in my translations I had over many
   curious terms which could not be understood of common people,
   and desired me to use old and homely terms in my
   translations.' 'Fain would I please every man,' comments the
   good-humoured printer, but his sturdy sense saved him alike
   from the temptations of the court and the schools. His own
   taste pointed to English, but 'to the common terms that be
   daily used' rather than to the English of his antiquarian
   advisers. 'I took an old book and read therein, and certainly
   the English was so rude and broad I could not well understand
   it,' while the Old-English charters which the Abbot of
   Westminster lent as models from the archives of his house
   seemed 'more like to Dutch than to English.' To adopt current
   phraseology however was by no means easy at a time when even
   the speech of common talk was in a state of rapid flux. …
   Coupling this with his long absence in Flanders we can hardly
   wonder at the confession he makes over his first translation,
   that 'when all these things came to fore me, after that I had
   made and written a five or six quires, I fell in despair of
   this work, and purposed never to have continued therein, and
   the quires laid apart, and in two years after laboured no more
   in this work.' He was still however busy translating when he
   died [in 1491].
{2591}
   All difficulties in fact were lightened by the general
   interest which his labours aroused. When the length of the
   'Golden Legend' makes him 'half desperate to have accomplished
   it' and ready to 'lay it apart,' the Earl of Arundel solicits
   him in no wise to leave it and promises a yearly fee of a buck
   in summer and a doc in winter, once it were done. 'Many noble
   and divers gentle men of this realm came and demanded many and
   often times wherefore I have not made and imprinted the noble
   history of the San Graal.' … Caxton profited in fact by the
   wide literary interest which was a mark of the time."

      _J. R. Green,
      History of the English People,
      book 5, chapter 1 (volume 2)._

   "Contemporary with Caxton were the printers Lettou and
   Machlinia, … who carried on business in the city of London,
   where they established a press in 1480. Machlinia had
   previously worked under Caxton. … Wynkyn de Worde … in all
   probability … was one of Caxton's assistants or workmen, when
   the latter was living at Bruges, but without doubt he was
   employed in his office at Westminster until 1491, when he
   commenced business on his own account, having in his
   possession a considerable quantity of Caxton's type. Wynkyn de
   Worde, who was one of the founders of the Stationers' Company,
   died in 1534, after having printed no less than 410 books
   known to bibliographers, the earliest of which bearing a date
   is the 'Liber Festivalis,' 4to, 1493."

      _J. H. Slater,
      Book Collecting,
      chapter 9._

      ALSO IN:
      _C. Knight,
      William Caxton._

      _C. H. Timperley,
      Encyclopœdia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote,
      pages 138-194._

      _T. C. Hansard,
      History and Process of Printing
      ("The Five Black Arts," chapter 1)._

      _Gentleman's Magazine Library:
      Bibliographical Notes, and Literary Curiosities._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1496-1598.
   The Estienne or Stephanus Press in Paris.

   "With the names of Aldus and Elzevir we are all acquainted;
   the name of Estienne, or Stephanus, has a less familiar sound
   to English ears, though the family of Parisian printers was as
   famous in its day as the great houses of Venice and Leyden.
   The most brilliant member of it was the second Henry, whose
   story forms a melancholy episode in French literary history of
   the 16th century. … The Estiennes are said to have come of a
   noble Provençal family, but nothing is exactly known of their
   descent. The art of printing was not much more than fifty
   years old when Henry Estienne, having learnt his trade in
   Germany, came to Paris, and set up his press [about 1496] in
   the Rue Saint Jean de Beauvais, opposite the school of Canon
   Law. There for some twenty years he laboured diligently,
   bringing out in that time no less than 120 volumes, chiefly
   folios. The greater number of these are theological and
   scholastic works; among the few modern authors on the list is
   the name of Erasmus. Henry Estienne died in 1520 leaving three
   sons. Robert, the second of them, was born probably in 1503.
   The boys all being minors, the business passed into the hands
   of their mother, who in the following year married Simon de
   Colines, her late husband's foreman, and perhaps partner. …
   Robert worked with De Colines for five or six years before he
   went into business on his own account in the same street." It
   was he who first gave celebrity to the name and the press.
   "The spell of the Renaissance had early fallen upon the young
   printer, and it held him captive almost till the end of his
   life." He married "the daughter of the learned Flemish printer
   Jodocus Badius, notable for her culture and her beauty. Latin
   was the ordinary language of the household. The children
   learned it in infancy from hearing it constantly spoken. … At
   one time ten foreign scholars lived in Estienne's house to
   assist him in selecting and revising his manuscripts and in
   correcting his proofs. … Both Francis [King Francis I.] and
   his sister Marguerite of Navarre had a great regard for
   Robert, and often visited the workshop; to that royal
   patronage the printer was more than once indebted for his
   liberty and his life." His danger came from the bigoted
   Sorbonne, with whom he brought himself into collision by
   printing the Bible with as careful a correction of the text as
   he had performed in the case of the Latin classics. After the
   death of Francis I., the peril of the printer's situation
   became more serious, and in 1550 he fled to Geneva, renouncing
   the Roman Catholic faith. He died there in 1559.

      _H. C. Macdowall,
      An old French Printer
      (Macmillan's Magazine, November 1892)._

   The second Henry Estienne, son of Robert, either did not
   accompany his father to Geneva, or soon returned to Paris, and
   founded anew the Press of his family, bringing to it even more
   learning than his father, with equal laboriousness and zeal.
   He died at Lyons in 1598.

      _E. Greswell,
      A View of the Early Parisian Greek Press._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1535-1709.
   Introduction in America.
   The first Spanish printing in Mexico.
   The early Massachusetts Press.
   Restrictions upon its freedom.

   "The art of printing was first introduced into Spanish
   America, as early as the middle of the 16th century. The
   historians whose works I have consulted are all silent as to
   the time when it was first practiced on the American
   continent; … but it is certain that printing was executed,
   both in Mexico and Peru, long before it made its appearance in
   the British North American colonies. [The precise date of the
   introduction of printing into Mexico was for a long time in
   doubt. … When Mr. Thomas wrote his 'History of Printing in
   America,' early works on America were rare, and it is probable
   that there was not one in the country printed in either
   America or Europe in the 16th century, except the copy of
   Molina's dictionary; now many of the period may be found in
   our great private libraries. The dictionary of Molina, in
   Mexican and Spanish, printed in Mexico, in 1571, in folio,
   was, by many, asserted and believed to be the earliest book
   printed in America. … No one here had seen an earlier book
   until the 'Doctrina Christiana,' printed in the house of Juan
   Cromberger, in the city of Mexico, in the year 1544, was
   discovered. Copies of this rare work were found in two well
   known private libraries in New York and Providence. For a long
   time the honor was awarded to this as the earliest book
   printed in America. But there is now strong evidence that
   printing was really introduced in Mexico nine years before
   that time, and positive evidence, by existing books, that a
   press was established in 1540. Readers familiar with early
   books relating to Mexico have seen mention of a book printed
   there as early as 1535, … the 'Spiritual Ladder' of St John
   Climacus. … It seems that no copy of the 'Spiritual Ladder'
   has ever been seen in recent times, and the quoted
   testimonials are the only ones yet found which refer to it.

      _Note by Hon. John R. Bartlett,
      appendix A., giving a 'List of Books printed in Mexico
      between the years 1540 and 1560 inclusive.'_

{2592}

   … In January, 1639, printing was first performed in that part
   of North America which extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the
   Frozen ocean. For this press our country is chiefly indebted
   to the Rev. Mr. Glover, a nonconformist minister, who
   possessed a considerable estate. … Another press, with types,
   and another printer, were, in 1660, sent over from England by
   the corporation for propagating the gospel among the Indians
   in New England. This press, &c., was designed solely for the
   purpose of printing the Bible, and other books, in the Indian
   language. On their arrival they were carried to Cambridge, and
   employed in the printing house already established in that
   place. … The fathers of Massachusetts kept a watchful eye on
   the press; and in neither a religious nor civil point of view
   were they disposed to give it much liberty. … In 1662, the
   government of Massachusetts appointed licensers of the press;
   and afterward, in 1664, passed a law that 'no printing should
   be allowed in any town within the jurisdiction, except in
   Cambridge'; nor should any thing be printed there but what the
   government permitted through the agency of those persons who
   were empowered for the purpose. … In a short time, this law
   was so far repealed as to permit the use of a press at Boston.
   … It does not appear that the press, in Massachusetts, was
   free from legal restraints till about the year 1755 [see
   PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1704-1729]. … Except in
   Massachusetts, no presses were set up in the colonies till
   near the close of the 17th century. Printing then [1686] was
   performed in Pennsylvania [by William Bradford], 'near
   Philadelphia' [at Shackamaxon, now Kensington], and afterward
   in that city, by the same press which, in a few years
   subsequent, was removed to New York.

      See PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1685-1693;
      also PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1692-1696.

   The use of types commenced in Virginia about 1681; in 1682 the
   press was prohibited. In 1709 a press was established at New
   London, in Connecticut."

      _I. Thomas,
      History of Printing in America,
      2nd edition. (Translated and Collection
      of the American Antiquity Society, volume 5),
      volume 1, pages 1-17._

      ALSO IN:
      _J. L. Bishop,
      History of American Manufactures,
      volume 1, chapter 7._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1612-1650.
   Origin of printed newspapers.
   The newspaper defined.
   Its earliest appearances in Germany and Italy.

   "Lally-Tollendal, in his 'Life of Queen Elizabeth,' in the
   'Biographie Universelle' (vol. xiii, published in 1815, p. 56)
   … remarks that 'as far as the publication of an official
   journal is concerned, France can claim the priority by more
   than half a century; for in the Royal Library at Paris there
   is a bulletin of the campaign of Louis XII. in Italy in 1509.'
   He then gives the title of this 'bulletin,' from which it
   clearly appears that it is not a political journal, but an
   isolated piece of news—a kind of publication of which there
   are hundreds in existence of a date anterior to 1588 [formerly
   supposed to be the date of the first English newspaper—see
   PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1622-1702], and of which there
   is no doubt that thousands were issued. There is, for
   instance, in the British Museum a French pamphlet of six
   printed leaves, containing an account of the surrender of
   Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella on the 'first of January
   last past' (le premier jour de janvier dernierement passe), in
   the year 1492; and there are also the three editions of the
   celebrated letter of Columbus, giving the first account of the
   discovery of America, all printed at Rome in 1493. Nay, one of
   the very earliest productions of the German press was an
   official manifesto of Diether, Archbishop of Cologne, against
   Count Adolph of Nassau, very satisfactorily proved to have
   been printed at Mentz in 1462. There is among the German
   bibliographers a technical name for this class of printed
   documents, which are called 'Relations.' In fact, in order to
   arrive at a satisfactory conclusion with regard to the origin
   of newspapers, it is requisite, in the first place, to settle
   with some approach to precision what a newspaper is. Four
   classes of publications succeeded to each other from the 15th
   to the 19th century, to which the term has by different
   writers been applied:

   1st. Accounts of individual public transactions of recent
   occurrence.

   2nd. Accounts in one publication of several public
   transactions of recent occurrence, only connected together by
   having taken place about the same period, so as at one time to
   form the 'news of the day.'

   3rd. Accounts similar to those of the second class, but issued
   in a numbered series.

   4th. Accounts similar to those of the second class, but issued
   not only in a numbered series, but at stated intervals.

   The notices of the surrender of Granada and the discovery of
   America belong to the first class, and so also do the last
   dying speeches, which are in our own time cried about the
   streets. These surely are not newspapers. The Times and Daily
   News [London] belong to the fourth class, and these, of
   course, are newspapers. … Are not, in fact, all the essentials
   of a newspaper comprised in the definition of the second
   class, which it may be as well to repeat: 'Accounts in one
   publication of several public transactions of recent
   occurrence, only connected together by having taken place
   about the same period, so as at one time to form the news of
   the day'? Let us take an instance. There is preserved in the
   British Museum a collection of several volumes of interesting
   publications issued in Italy between 1640 and 1650, and
   containing the news of the times. They are of a small folio
   size, and consist in general of four pages, but sometimes of
   six, sometimes only of two. There is a series for the month of
   December, 1644, consisting entirely of the news from Rome. The
   first line of the first page runs thus:—'Di Roma,' with the
   date, first of the 3rd, then of the 10th, then the 17th, then
   the 24th, and lastly the 31st of December, showing that a
   number was published every week, most probably on the arrival
   of the post from Rome. The place of publication was Florence,
   and the same publishers who issued this collection of the news
   from Rome, sent forth in the same month of December, 1644, two
   other similar gazettes, at similar intervals, one of the news
   from Genoa, the other of the news from Germany and abroad.
   That this interesting series of publications, which is well
   worthy of a minute examination and a detailed description, is
   in reality a series of newspapers, will, I believe, be
   questioned by very few; but each individual number presents no
   mark by which, if separately met with, it could be known to
   form part of a set. …
{2593}
   The most minute researches on the history of newspapers in
   Germany are, as already mentioned, those of Prutz, who has
   collected notices of a large number of the 'relations,' though
   much remains to be gleaned. There are, for instance, in Van
   Heusde's Catalogue of the Library at Utrecht (Utrecht, 1835,
   folio), the titles of nearly a hundred of them, all as early
   as the sixteenth century; and the British Museum possesses a
   considerable quantity, all of recent acquisition. Prutz has no
   notice of the two that have been mentioned, and, like all
   preceding writers, he draws no distinction between the
   publications of the first class and the second. The view that
   he takes is, that no publication which does not answer to the
   definition of what I have termed the fourth class is entitled
   to the name of a newspaper. There was in the possession of
   Professor Grellman a publication called an 'Aviso,' numbered
   as '14,' and published in 1612, which has been considered by
   many German writers as their earliest newspaper, but Prutz
   denies that honour to it, on the ground of there being no
   proof that it was published at stated intervals. In the year
   1615 Egenolph Emmel, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, issued a weekly
   intelligencer, numbered in a series, and this, according to
   Prutz, is the proper claimant. Its history has been traced
   with some minuteness in a separate dissertation by
   Schwarzkopf, who has also the credit of having published in
   1795 the first general essay on newspapers of any value, and
   to have followed up the subject in a series of articles in the
   Allgemeine Litterarische Anzeiger. … The claims of Italy have
   yet to be considered. Prutz dismisses them very summarily,
   because, as he says, the Venetian gazettes of the sixteenth
   century, said to be preserved at Florence, are in manuscript,
   and it is essential to the definition of a newspaper that it
   should be printed. These Venetian gazettes have never, so far
   as I am aware, been described at all; they may be mere
   'news-letters,' or they may be something closely approaching
   to the modern newspaper. But I am strongly inclined to believe
   that something of the second class of Italian origin will turn
   up in the great libraries of Europe when further research is
   devoted to the subject. … The existence of these 'gazettes' in
   so many languages furnishes strong ground for supposing that
   the popularity of newspapers originated in Italy."

      _T. Watts,
      The fabricated "Earliest English Newspaper"
      (Gentleman's Magazine, 1850, reprinted in the Gentleman's
      Magazine Library; Bibliographical Notes, pages 146-150)._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1617-1680.
   The Elzevirs.

   "Just as the house of Aldus waned and expired, that of the
   great Dutch printers, the Elzevirs, began obscurely enough at
   Leyden in 1583. The Elzevir's were not, like Aldus, ripe
   scholars and men of devotion to learning. Aldus laboured for
   the love of noble studies; the Elzevirs were acute, and too
   often 'smart' men of business. The founder of the family was
   Louis (born at Louvain, 1540, died 1617). But it was in the
   second and third generations that Bonaventura and Abraham
   Elzevir began to publish at Leyden their editions in small
   duodecimo. Like Aldus, these Elzevirs aimed at producing books
   at once handy, cheap, correct, and beautiful in execution.
   Their adventure was a complete success. The Elzevirs did not,
   like Aldus, surround themselves with the most learned scholars
   of their time. Their famous literary adviser, Heinsius, was
   full of literary jealousies, and kept students of his own
   calibre at a distance. The classical editions of the Elzevirs,
   beautiful, but too small in type for modern eyes, are anything
   but exquisitely correct. … The ordinary marks of the Elzevirs
   were the sphere, the old hermit, the Athena, the eagle, and
   the burning faggot. But all little old books marked with
   spheres are not Elzevirs, as many booksellers suppose. Other
   printers also stole the designs for the tops of chapters, the
   Aegipan, the Siren, the head of Medusa, the crossed sceptres,
   and the rest. In some cases the Elzevirs published their
   books, especially when they were piracies, anonymously. When
   they published for the Jansenists, they allowed their clients
   to put fantastic pseudonyms on the title pages. But, except in
   four cases, they had only two pseudonyms used on the titles of
   books published by and for themselves. These disguises are
   'Jean Sambix' for Jean and Daniel Elzevir, at Leyden, and 'for
   the Elzevirs of Amsterdam, 'Jacques le Jeune.' The last of the
   great representatives of the house, Daniel, died at Amsterdam,
   1680. Abraham, an unworthy scion, struggled on at Leyden till
   1712. The family still prospers, but no longer prints, in
   Holland."

      _A. Lang,
      The Library,
      chapter 3._

   "Though Elzevirs have been more fashionable than at present,
   they are still regarded by novelists as the great prize of the
   book collector. You read in novels about 'priceless little
   Elzevirs,' about books 'as rare as an old Elzevir.' I have
   met, in the works of a lady novelist (but not elsewhere) with
   an Elzevir 'Theocritus.' The late Mr. Hepworth Dixon
   introduced into one of his romances a romantic Elzevir Greek
   Testament, 'worth its weight in gold.' Casual remarks of this
   kind encourage a popular delusion that all Elzevirs are pearls
   of considerable price."

      _A. Lang,
      Books and Bookmen,
      chapter 6._

      ALSO IN:
      _J. H. Slater,
      Book Collecting,
      chapter 8._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1622-1702.
   The first printed Newspaper and
   the first daily Newspaper in England.

   "Up to 1839 (when Mr. Watts, of the British Museum, exposed
   the forgery) the world was led to believe that the first
   English newspaper appeared in 1588." Mr. Watts "ascertained
   that 'The English Mercurie,' which Mr. George Chalmers first
   discovered on the shelves of the British Museum, and which was
   said to have been 'imprinted in London by her highness's
   printer, 1588,' was a forgery, for which the second Earl of
   Hardwicke appears to be answerable." As to the actual date of
   the appearance of the first printed newspaper in England, "Mr.
   Knight Hunt, in his 'Fourth Estate,' speaks confidently. …
   'There is now no reason to doubt,' he says, 'that the puny
   ancestor of the myriads of broad sheets of our time was
   published in the metropolis in 1622; and that the most
   prominent of the ingenious speculators who offered the novelty
   to the world, was one Nathaniel Butter.' As the printing press
   had then been at work in England for a century and a half,
   Caxton having established himself in Westminster Abbey in
   1471, and as manuscript news-letters had been current for many
   years previous to 1622, one cannot help wondering that the
   inventive wits of that age should have been so slow in finding
   out this excellent mode of turning Faust's invention to
   profitable account.
{2594}
   Butter's journal was called—'The Weekly Newes,' a name which
   still survives, although the original possessor of that title
   has long since gone the way of all newspapers. The first
   number in the British Museum collection bears date the 23rd of
   May, 1622, and contains 'news from Italy, Germanie,' &c. The
   last number made its appearance on the 9th of January, 1640; a
   memorable year, in which the Short Parliament, dismissed by
   King Charles 'in a huff,' after a session of three weeks, was
   succeeded by the Long Parliament, which unlucky Charles could
   not manage quite so easily. … It was nearly a century after
   'The Weekly Newes' made its first appearance, before a daily
   newspaper was attempted. When weekly papers had become firmly
   established, some of the more enterprising printers began to
   publish their sheets twice, and ultimately three times a week.
   Thus at the beginning of last century we find several papers
   informing the public that they are 'published every Tuesday,
   Thursday, and Saturday morning.' One of the most respectable
   looking was entitled 'The New State of Europe,' or a 'True
   Account of Public Transactions and Learning.' It consisted of
   two pages of thin, coarse paper … and contained altogether
   about as much matter as there is in a single column of the
   'Times' of 1855. The custom at that period was to publish the
   newspaper on a folio or quarto sheet, two pages of which were
   left blank to be used for correspondence. This is expressly
   stated in a standing advertisement in the 'New State of
   Europe,' in which the names of certain booksellers are given
   'where any person may have this paper with a blank half sheet
   to write their own private affairs.' … The first number of the
   'Daily Courant' [the first daily newspaper in England] was
   published on the 11th of March, 1702, just three days after
   the accession of Queen Anne. … As regards the form and size of
   the new journal, the 'author' condescends to give the
   following information, with a growling remark at the
   impertinence of the 'Postboys,' 'Postmen,' 'Mercuries,' and
   'Intelligencers' of that day:—'This "Courant" (as the title
   shows) will be published Daily, being designed to give all the
   Material News as soon as every Post arrives, and is confined
   to half the compass to save the Publick at least half the
   Impertinences of ordinary Newspapers.' In addition to the
   Prospectus we have quoted, the first number of the 'Daily
   Courant' contains only nine paragraphs, five of which were
   translated from the 'Harlem Courant,' three from the 'Paris
   Gazette,' and one from the 'Amsterdam Courant.' They all
   relate to the war of the Spanish Succession then waging, or to
   the attempts making by diplomats to settle the affairs of the
   Continent at some kind of Vienna or Utrecht Conference. After
   adhering for several weeks to the strict rule of giving only
   one page of news, and those entirely foreign, the 'Courant'
   begins to show certain symptoms of improvement. The number for
   April 22, contains two pages of news and advertisements. … The
   alteration in the getting-up of the 'Courant' was owing to a
   change of proprietorship. The paper had now come into the
   hands of 'Sam Buckley, at the Dolphin, Little Britain.' … Mr.
   Samuel Buckley, who continued to publish and conduct the
   'Daily Courant' for many years, was a notable man among London
   publishers, as we find from various references to him in the
   fugitive literature of that age."

      _The London Daily Press
      (Westminster Review, October, 1855)._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1631.
   The first printed Newspaper in France.
   Dr. Renandot and his "Gazette."

   "The first Frenchman to found a printed newspaper was Dr.
   Théophraste Renaudot, who obtained the King's privilege for
   the 'Gazette de France' in 1631. … He was a shrewd man, born
   at London in 1567, brought up in Paris, but graduate of the
   Faculty of Montpellier. In 1612, being then twenty-six, he
   returned to the capital, and somehow got appointed at once
   doctor to the King. But there was no salary attached to this
   post, which was in his case purely honorary, and so Renaudot
   opened a school, though the fact that he, a mere provincial
   doctor, had obtained a medical appointment at court, was very
   sore to the Paris Faculty of Medicine, who began to annoy him
   from that moment. Renaudot, however, was a man far ahead of
   his contemporaries in sagacity, patience, learning and
   humanity. Petty spite did not disturb him, or at least it did
   not deter him from executing any of the numerous plans he had
   in mind for the welfare of his contemporaries. … This
   extraordinary man not only inaugurated in France an Estate,
   Professional and Servants' Agency, as well as an office for
   private sales and exchanges, but further laid the basis of the
   Poste Restante, Parcels Delivery, Post-Office Directory,
   Tourist's Guide and Money Order Office; besides affording an
   outlet to troubled spirits like those who correspond through
   the agony column of 'The Times.' It is not surprising that his
   office in the Rue de la Calandre should soon have been all too
   small for its multifarious duties and that his original staff
   of six clerks should, in less than three months, have swelled
   to fifty. Richelieu, in sheer admiration at the man, sent for
   him and thanked him for the services he was rendering the
   King's subjects. He also offered him money to extend his
   offices, and this Renaudot accepted, but only as a loan. It
   was his custom to levy a commission of six deniers per livre
   (franc) on the sales he effected, and by means of these and
   other receipts he soon repaid the Cardinal every penny that
   had been advanced to him. But he did more than this. Finding
   that his registers were not always convenient modes of
   reference, by reason of the excessive crowds which pressed
   round them, he brought out a printed advertiser, which is
   almost the exact prototype of a journal at present well known
   in London. It was called 'Feuille du Bureau d'Adresses,' and
   appeared every Saturday, at the price of 1 sou. Opinions
   differ as to whether this paper preceded the 'Gazette de
   France,' or was issued simultaneously with it. Probably it was
   first published in manuscript form, but came out in print at
   least six months before the 'Gazette,' for a number bearing
   the date of June 14th, 1631, shows a periodical in full
   organisation and containing indirect references to
   advertisements which must have appeared several weeks before.
   At all events this 'Feuille' was purely an advertisement
   sheet—a forerunner of the 'Petites Affiches' which were
   reinvented in 1746—it was in no sense a newspaper. … It is
   clear that from the moment he started his 'Feuille du Bureau
   d'Adresses,' Renaudot must have conceived the possibility of
   founding a news-sheet. … The manuscript News Letters had
   attained, by the year 1630, to such a pitch of perfection, and
   found such a ready sale, that the notion of further
   popularising them by printing must have suggested itself to
   more than one man before it was actually put into practice.
{2595}
   But the great bar was this, that nothing could be printed
   without the King's privilege, and this privilege was not
   lightly granted. … Renaudot, who had no wish to publish
   tattle, had no reason to fear censorship. He addressed himself
   to Richelieu, and craved leave to start a printed newspaper
   under royal patronage. The politic Cardinal was quite shrewd
   enough to see how useful might be to him an organ which would
   set information before the public in the manner he desired,
   and in that manner alone; so he granted all Renaudot wished,
   in the form of 'letters patent,' securing him an entire
   monopoly of printing newspapers, and moreover he conferred on
   his protégé the pompous title of Historiographer of France.
   The first number of the 'Gazette de France' appeared on
   Friday, May 30, 1631. Its size was four quarto pages, and its
   price one sol parisis, i. e. ½d., worth about l½d. modern
   money. … The first number contained no preface or address,
   nothing in the way of a leading article, but plunged at once
   in medias res, and gave news from nineteen foreign towns or
   countries, but oddly enough, not a line of French
   intelligence. … The bulk of the matter inserted was furnished
   direct by Richelieu from the Foreign Office, and several of
   the paragraphs were written in his own hand. … The publication
   of the 'Gazette' was continued uninterruptedly from week to
   week but the press of matter was so great that Renaudot took
   to issuing a Supplement with the last number of every month.
   In this he condensed the reports of the preceding numbers,
   corrected errors, added fresh news, and answered his
   detractors. … At the end of the year 1631 he suppressed his
   monthly Supplement, increased the 'Gazette' to eight pages,
   and announced that for the future he would issue supplements
   as they were needed. It seems they were needed pretty often,
   for towards the beginning of the year 1633 Renaudot published
   Supplements, under the title of 'Ordinaries and
   Extraordinaries,' as often as twice, and even three times in
   one week. In fact whenever a budget of news arrived which
   would nowadays justify a special edition, the indefatigable
   editor set his criers afoot with a fresh printed sheet,
   shouting, 'Buy the "Extraordinary," containing the account of
   the superb burial of the King of Denmark!' or, 'Buy and read
   of the capture of the beautiful island of Curaçoa in the
   Indies by the Dutch from the Spaniards!' Renaudot understood
   the noble art of puffing. He dressed his criers in red, and
   gave them a trumpet apiece to go and bray the praises of the
   'Gazette' on the off days, when the paper did not appear. … On
   the death of Renaudot, he was succeeded by his sons Eusèbe and
   Isaac, who in their turn bequeathed the Gazette' to Eusèbe
   junior, son of the elder brother, who took orders and
   consequently left no progeny. After this the 'Gazette' became
   Government property. … In 1762 the 'Gazette' was annexed to
   the Foreign Office Department. … The 'Gazette de France'
   continued to appear under royal patronage until May 1st, 1792,
   when its official ties were snapped and it came out as a
   private and republican journal with the date 'Fourth Year of
   Freedom.' The 'Gazette' has flourished with more or less
   brilliancy ever since, and has been for the last fifty years a
   legitimist organ, read chiefly in the provinces."

      _The French Press
      (Cornhill Magazine, June, 1873)._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1637.
   Archbishop Laud's Star-Chamber restriction of printing.

   On the 11th of July, 1637, "Archbishop Laud procured a decree
   to be passed in the star chamber, by which it was ordered,
   that the master printers should be reduced to twenty in
   number; and that if any other should secretly, or openly,
   pursue the trade of printing, he should be set in the pillory,
   or whipped through the streets, and suffer such other
   punishment as the court should inflict upon him; that none of
   the master printers should print any book or books of
   divinity, law, physic, philosophy, or poetry, till the said
   books, together with the titles, epistles, prefaces, tables,
   or commendatory verses, should be lawfully licensed, on pain
   of losing the exercise of his art, and being proceeded against
   in the star chamber, &c.; that no person should reprint any
   book without a new license; that every merchant, bookseller,
   &c., who should import any book or books, should present a
   catalogue of them to the archbishop or bishop, &c., before
   they were delivered, or exposed to sale, who should view them,
   with power to seize those that were schismatical; and, that no
   merchant, &c., should print or cause to be printed abroad, any
   book, or books, which either entirely or for the most part,
   were written in the English tongue, nor knowingly import any
   such books, upon pain of being proceeded against in the star
   chamber, or high commission court. … That there should be four
   founders of letters for printing, and no more. That the
   archbishop of Canterbury, or the bishop of London, with six
   other high commissioners, shall supply the places of those
   four as they shall become void. That no master founder shall
   keep above two apprentices at one time. That all journeymen
   founders be employed by the masters of the trade; and that all
   the idle journeymen be compelled to work upon pain of
   imprisonment, and such other punishment as the court shall
   think fit. That no master founder of letters shall employ any
   other person in any work belonging to casting and founding of
   letters than freemen and apprentices to the trade, save only
   in putting off the knots of metal hanging at the end of the
   letters when they are first cast; in which work, every master
   founder may employ one boy only, not bound to the trade."

      _C. H. Timperley,
      Encyclopœdia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote,
      page 490._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1647.
   Renewed ordinance, in England, against the printers.

   "An ordinance of parliament passed the house of lords on this
   day [September 30, 1647], that no person shall make, write,
   print, sell, publish or utter, or cause to be made, &c., any
   book, pamphlet, treatise, ballad, libel, sheet, or sheets of
   news whatsoever (except the same be licensed by both or either
   house of parliament,) under the penalty of 40s. and an
   imprisonment not exceeding forty days, if he can not pay it:
   if a printer, he is to pay a fine of only 20s., or suffer
   twenty days' imprisonment, and likewise to have his press and
   implements of printing broken in pieces. The book-seller, or
   stationer, to pay 10s., or suffer ten days' imprisonment,—and,
   lastly, the hawker, pedlar, or ballad-singer, to forfeit all
   his printed papers exposed to sale, and to be whipped as a
   common rogue in the parish where he shall be apprehended.
{2596}
   Early in the following year, the committee of estates in
   Scotland passed an act prohibiting the printing under the pain
   of death, any book, declaration, or writing, until these were
   first submitted to their revisal. … One of the consequences of
   these persecutions was the raising up of a new class of
   publishers, those who became noted for what was called
   'unlawful and unlicensed books.' Sparkes, the publisher of
   Prynne's Histriomastix, was of this class. The presbyterian
   party in parliament, who thus found the press closed on them,
   vehemently cried out for its freedom; and it was imagined,
   that when they ascended into power, the odious office of a
   licenser of the press would have been abolished; but these
   pretended friends of freedom, on the contrary, discovered
   themselves as tenderly alive to the office as the old
   government, and maintained it with the extremest vigour. Both
   in England and Scotland, during the civil wars, the party in
   power endeavoured to crush by every means the freedom of the
   press."

      _C. H. Timperley,
      Encyclopœdia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote,
      page 506._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1654-1694.
   Freedom of the press under Cromwell.
   Censorship under the restored Stuarts.
   Roger L'Estrange and the first news reporters.

   "During the Protectorate of Cromwell the newspaper press knew
   … what it was to enjoy the luxury of freedom. The natural
   result was that a very great increase took place in the number
   of new political journals. Most of them, however, had only a
   very brief existence. Many of their number could not boast of
   a longer life than six or seven months—nay, many of them not
   so much as even that term of life. But, as might have been
   expected, from what was known of the antecedents of Charles
   II., the freedom of the press, which previously existed, came
   to an immediate end on his ascending the throne. Hardly had he
   done so, than an edict was issued, prohibiting the publication
   of any journal except the London Gazette, which was originally
   printed at Oxford, and called the Oxford Gazette,—the Court
   being then resident there on account of the plague raging in
   London at the time, 1665, when it was commenced, and for some
   time afterwards. This was an act of pure despotism. But
   Government at this time reserved to itself the right —a right
   which there was none to dispute—to publish a broad sheet in
   connexion with the London Gazette, whenever they might deem it
   expedient, which should contain either foreign or domestic
   matters of interest,—of the knowledge of which some of the
   King's subjects might wish to be put in early possession. …
   The newspapers of the seventeenth century were permitted,
   until the time of Charles II., to be published without being
   licensed by the Government of the day; but in the reign of
   that despotic sovereign, a law was passed [1662] prohibiting
   the publication of any newspaper without being duly licensed.
   … Sir John Birkenhead, … one of the three men whom Disraeli
   the elder called the fathers of the English press, was
   appointed to the office of Licenser of the Press. But he was
   soon succeeded by Sir Roger l'Estrange."

      _J. Grant,
      The Newspaper Press,
      volume 1, chapter. 2._

   Roger L'Estrange "is remarkable for having been the writer of
   the best newspapers which appeared before the age of Queen
   Anne, and, at the same time, a most bitter enemy to the
   freedom of the press. He was appointed licenser or censor in
   1663, and in the same year was given authority to publish all
   newspapers, periodicals, and pamphlets, not exceeding two
   sheets in size. He appears to have looked upon his newspaper
   as a noxious thing, suffered to exist only that an income
   might be created for him in return for the labour of purging
   the press. Yet he spared no pains to make his Public
   Intelligencer readable, and if we may trust his letters now
   preserved at the State Paper Office, expended in the first
   year more than £500 on 'spyes for collecting intelligence.'
   Three years afterwards he estimated the profits at £400 a
   year. … He sent paid correspondents, or 'spyes' as they were
   called, to all parts of the country, and even induced some
   respectable persons, under promise of concealing their names,
   to contribute occasional paragraphs; these persons were for
   the most part repaid by sending to them their newspapers and
   letters free of postage. Another set of 'spyes' was employed
   in picking up the news of the town on Paul's Walk or in the
   taverns and coffee–houses. L'Estrange printed about sixteen
   reams of his Intelligencer weekly, which were for the most
   part sold by the mercury-women who cried them about the
   streets. One Mrs. Andrews is said to have taken more than
   one-third of the whole quantity printed. … Advantage was taken
   of a slip in the weekly intelligence to deprive L'Estrange of
   his monopoly in favour of the new Oxford Gazette, published in
   the winter of 1665 and transferred to London in the ensuing
   spring. The Gazette was placed under the control of
   Williamson, then a rising under-Secretary of State, under
   whose austere influence nothing was suffered to appear which
   could excite or even amuse the public. … L'Estrange has not
   been a favourite with historians, and we confess that his
   harsh measures towards the press are apt to raise a feeling of
   repugnance. … But he was certainly an enthusiastic and
   industrious writer, who raised the tone of the press, even
   while taking pains to fetter its liberty. When he lost his
   monopoly, that era of desolation began which Macaulay has so
   forcibly described. The newspapers became completely sterile,
   omitting events even of such importance as the trial of the
   seven bishops, and were supplanted in popular favour by the
   manuscript news-letters, which were, in fact, the only
   journals of importance. On the day after the abdication of
   James II. three fresh newspapers appeared, and many more burst
   out after the appearance of the official journal under the
   style of the Orange Gazette. But it was not until 1694 that
   the king was induced to abolish the censorship and to permit
   free trade in news; 'he doubted much,' says Hume, 'of the
   salutary effects of such unlimited freedom.' The newspapers
   increased and multiplied exceedingly for the eighteen years
   between the abolition of the office of licenser and the
   passing of the Stamp Act, in 1712, by which a halfpenny tax
   was laid on every half-sheet of intelligence."

      _Early English Newspapers
      (Cornhill Magazine, July, 1868)._

{2597}

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1685-1693.
   William Bradford and his Press in Philadelphia and New York.

   William Bradford, a young printer, of the Society of Friends,
   came to Philadelphia in the autumn of 1685, and established
   himself in business. "His first publication was 'Kalendarium
   Pennsilvaniense, or America's Messenger; Being an Almanack for
   the Year of Grace 1686.' This brought him a summons before the
   Governor and Council, for referring to the Proprietary, in the
   table of chronology, ns 'Lord Penn;' and, on his appearance,
   he was ordered to blot out the objectionable title, and
   forbidden to print anything without license from the
   Provincial Council. In 1687 he was cautioned by the
   Philadelphia meeting not to print anything touching the
   Quakers without its approval. Two years later he was again
   called before the Governor, and Council—this time for printing
   the charter of the province. The spirited report, in his own
   handwriting, of his examination on this occasion, is now
   preserved in the collection of the New York Historical
   Society. Disappointed at the non-fulfilment of Penn's promise
   of the government printing and the failure of his scheme for
   printing an English Bible, which, although indorsed by the
   meeting, found few subscribers, and harassed by both the civil
   and religious authorities, Bradford determined to leave the
   province," which he did, with his family, sailing to England
   in 1689. He was induced, however, by promises of increased
   business and a yearly salary of £40, to return. In 1692,
   having become one of the supporters of George Keith, and
   having printed Keith's "Appeal", he was arrested and
   imprisoned.

      See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1692-1696.

   This occurred in August, and his trial followed in December.
   The jury disagreed, and he was held for appearance at the next
   court. "In the meantime the dissensions in the province
   aroused by the Keithian schism had led to the abrogation of
   Penn's charter by the crown, and the appointment of Benjamin
   Fletcher to be Royal Governor of Pennsylvania as well as New
   York." This change led to the dropping of proceedings against
   Bradford, and to his removal from Philadelphia to New York,
   whither he seems to have been invited. His removal was
   undoubtedly prompted by a resolution which the Provincial
   Council of New York adopted on the 23d of March, 1693: "That
   if a Printer will come and settle in the city of New York for
   the printing of our Acts of Assembly and Publick Papers, he
   shall be allowed the sum of £40 current money of New York per
   annum for his salary and have the benefit of his printing
   besides what serves the publick." "Bradford's first warrant
   for his salary as 'Printer to King William and Queen Mary, at
   the City of New York,' was dated October 12, 1693, and was for
   six months, due on the 10th preceding," showing that he had
   established himself in the colony more hospitable to his art
   as early as the 10th of April, 1693. "What was the first
   product of his press is a matter of doubt. It may have been,
   as Dr. Moore suggests, the 'Journal of the Late Actions of the
   French at Canada,' or 'New England's Spirit of Persecution
   Transmitted to Pennsilvania'"—which was a report of his own
   trial at Philadelphia—or it may have been an Act of the New
   York Assembly—one of three which his press produced early that
   year, but the priority among which is uncertain.

      _C. R Hildeburn,
      Printing in New York in the 17th Century
      (Memorial History of the City of New York,
      volume 1, chapter 15.)_

      ALSO IN:
      _I. Thomas,
      History of Printing in America,
      2d edition, volume 1._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1695.
   Expiration of the Censorship law in England.
   Quick multiplication of Newspapers.

   "While the Licensing Act was in force there was no newspaper
   in England except the 'London Gazette,' which was edited by a
   clerk in the office of the Secretary of State, and which
   contained nothing but what the Secretary of State wished the
   nation to know. There were indeed many periodical papers: but
   none of those papers could be called a newspaper. Welwood, a
   zealous Whig, published a journal called the Observator: but
   his Observator, like the Observator which Lestrange had
   formerly edited, contained, not the news, but merely
   dissertations on politics. A crazy bookseller, named John
   Dunton, published the Athenian Mercury: but the Athenian
   Mercury merely discussed questions of natural philosophy, of
   casuistry and of gallantry. A fellow of the Royal Society,
   named John Houghton, published what he called a Collection for
   the Improvement of Industry and Trade: but his Collection
   contained little more than the prices of stocks, explanations
   of the modes of doing business in the City, puffs of new
   projects, and advertisements of books, quack medicines,
   chocolate, Spa water, civet cats, surgeons wanting ships,
   valets wanting masters, and ladies wanting husbands. If ever
   he printed any political news, he transcribed it from the
   Gazette. The Gazette was so partial and so meagre a chronicle
   of events that, though it had no competitors, it had but a
   small circulation. … But the deficiencies of the Gazette were
   to a certain extent supplied in London by the coffeehouses,
   and in the country by the news-letters. On the third of May
   1695 the law which had subjected the press to a censorship
   expired. Within a fortnight, a stanch old Whig, named Harris,
   who had, in the days of the Exclusion Bill, attempted to set
   up a newspaper entitled Intelligence Domestic and Foreign, and
   who had been speedily forced to relinquish that design,
   announced that the Intelligence Domestic and Foreign,
   suppressed fourteen years before by tyranny, would again
   appear. Ten days later was printed the first number of the
   English Courant. Then came the Packet Boat from Holland and
   Flanders, the Pegasus, the London Newsletter, the London Post,
   the Flying Post, the Old Postmaster, the Postboy, and the
   Postman. The history of the newspapers of England from that
   time to the present day is a most interesting and instructive
   part of the history of the country. At first they were small
   and mean-looking. … Only two numbers came out in a week; and a
   number contained little more matter than may be found in a
   single column of a daily paper of our time."

      _Lord Macaulay,
      History of England,
      chapter 21._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1704-1729.
   The first Newspapers in America.

   "There was not a newspaper published in the English colonies,
   throughout the extensive continent of North America, until the
   24th of April, 1704. John Campbell, a Scotchman, who was a
   bookseller and postmaster in Boston, was the first who began
   and established a publication of this kind. It was entitled
   'The Boston News-Letter.' … It is printed on half a sheet of
   pot paper, with a small pica type, folio.
{2598}
   The first page is filled with an extract from 'The London
   Flying Post,' respecting the pretender. … The queen's speech
   to both houses of parliament on that occasion, a few articles
   under the Boston head, four short paragraphs of marine
   intelligence from New York, Philadelphia, and New London, and
   one advertisement, form its whole contents. The advertisement
   is from Campbell, the proprietor of the paper." In 1719, a
   rival paper was started in Boston, called the "Gazette," and
   in 1721, a third, founded by James Franklin, took the name of
   "The New England Courant." Meantime there had appeared at
   Philadelphia, on the 22nd of December, 1719,—only one day
   later than the second of the Boston newspapers—"The American
   Weekly Mercury," printed by Andrew Bradford, son of William
   Bradford. The same printer, Andrew Bradford, removing to New
   York, brought out "The New York Gazette," the first newspaper
   printed in that city, in October, 1725.

      _I. Thomas,
      History of Printing in America,
      volume 2, page 12, and after._

   "In 1740, the number of newspapers in the English colonies on
   the continent had increased to eleven, of which one appeared
   in South Carolina, one in Virginia, three in Pennsylvania—one
   of them being in German—one in New York, and the remaining
   five in Boston. … The New England 'Courant,' the fourth
   American periodical, was, in August 1721, established by James
   Franklin as an organ of independent opinion. Its temporary
   success was advanced by Benjamin, his brother and apprentice,
   a boy of fifteen, who wrote for its columns, worked in
   composing the types as well as printing off the sheets, and,
   as carrier, distributed the papers to the customers. The sheet
   satirized hypocrisy, and spoke of religious knaves as of all
   knaves the worst. This was described as tending 'to abuse the
   ministers of religion in a manner which was intolerable.' … In
   July 1722, a resolve passed the council, appointing a censor
   for the press of James Franklin; but the house refused its
   concurrence. The ministers persevered; and, in January 1723, a
   committee of inquiry was raised by the legislature. Benjamin,
   being examined, escaped with an admonition; James, the
   publisher, refusing to discover the author of the offence, was
   kept in jail for a month; his paper was censured as reflecting
   injuriously on the reverend ministers of the gospel; and, by
   vote of the house and council, he was forbidden to print it,
   'except it be first supervised.' Vexed at the arbitrary
   proceedings, Benjamin Franklin, then but seventeen years old,
   in October 1723, sailed clandestinely for New York. Finding
   there no employment, he crossed to Amboy; went on foot to the
   Delaware; for want of a wind, rowed in a boat from Burlington
   to Philadelphia; and bearing marks of his labor at the oar,
   weary, hungry, having for his whole stock of cash a single
   dollar, the runaway apprentice—the pupil of the free schools
   of Boston, rich in the boundless hope of youth and the
   unconscious power of modest genius—stepped on shore to seek
   food and occupation. On the deep foundations of sobriety,
   frugality and industry, the young journeyman built his
   fortunes and fame; and he soon came to have a printing-office
   of his own. … The assembly of Pennsylvania chose him its
   printer. He planned a newspaper [the 'Pennsylvania Gazette'];
   and, when (1729] he became its proprietor and editor, he
   defended freedom of thought and speech, and the inalienable
   power of the people."

      _G. Bancroft,
      History of the United States of America,
      part 3, chapter 15 (volume 2)._

      ALSO IN:
      _J. Parton,
      Life of Franklin,
      parts 1-2 (volume l)._

      _B. Franklin,
      Life by Himself,
      edited by J. Bigelow,
      part 1._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1709-1752.
   The Periodicals of the Essayists.
   The "Tatler," "Spectator," and their successors.

   "In the spring of 1709, Steele [Sir Richard] formed a literary
   project, of which he was far indeed from foreseeing the
   consequences. Periodical papers had during many years been
   published in London. Most of these were political; but in some
   of them questions of morality, taste, and love-casuistry had
   been discussed. The literary merit of these works was small
   indeed; and even their names are now known only to the
   curious. Steele had been appointed gazetteer by Sunderland, at
   the request, it is said, of Addison; and thus had access to
   foreign intelligence earlier and more authentic than was in
   those times within the reach of an ordinary news-writer. This
   circumstance seems to have suggested to him the scheme of
   publishing a periodical paper on a new plan. It was to appear
   on the days on which the post left London for the country,
   which were, in that generation, the Tuesdays, Thursdays, and
   Saturdays. It was to contain the foreign news, accounts of
   theatrical representations, and the literary gossip of Will's
   and of the Grecian. It was also to contain remarks on the
   fashionable topics of the day, compliments to beauties,
   pasquinades on noted sharpers, and criticisms on popular
   preachers. The aim of Steele does not appear to have been at
   first higher than this. … Issac Bickerstaff, Esquire,
   Astrologer, was an imaginary person, almost as well known in
   that age as Mr. Paul Pry or Mr. Pickwick in ours. Swift had
   assumed the name of Bickerstaff in a satirical pamphlet
   against Partridge, the almanac-maker. Partridge had been fool
   enough to publish a furious reply. Bickerstaff had rejoined in
   a second pamphlet still more diverting than the first. All the
   wits had combined to keep up the joke, and the town was long
   in convulsions of laughter. Steele determined to employ the
   name which this controversy had made popular; and, in April,
   1709, it was announced that Isaac Bickerstaff, Esquire,
   Astrologer, was about to publish a paper called the 'Tatler.'
   Addison had not been consulted about this scheme; but as soon
   as he heard of it, he determined to give it his assistance.
   The effect of that assistance cannot be better described than
   in Steele's own words. 'I fared,' he said, 'like a distressed
   prince who calls in a powerful neighbour to his aid. I was
   undone by my auxiliary. When I had once called him in, I could
   not subsist without dependence on him.' 'The paper,' he says
   elsewhere, 'was advanced indeed. It was raised to a greater
   thing than I intended it.'"

      _Lord Macaulay.
      Life and Writings of Addison (Essays)._

   "Steele, on the 12th of April 1709, issued the first number of
   the 'Tatler.' … This famous newspaper, printed in one folio
   sheet of 'tobacco paper' with 'scurvy letter,' ran to 271
   numbers, and abruptly ceased to appear in January 1711. It
   enjoyed an unprecedented success, for, indeed, nothing that
   approached it had ever before been issued from the periodical
   press in England. The division of its contents was thus
   arranged by the editor: 'All accounts of gallantry, pleasure,
   and entertainment shall be under the article of White's
   Chocolate House; poetry under that of Will's Coffee-House;
   learning under the title of Grecian; foreign and domestic news
   you will have from St. James's Coffee-House; and what else I
   shall on any other subject offer shall be dated from my own
   apartment.'
{2599}
   The political news gradually ceased to appear. … Of the 271
   'Tatlers,' 188 were written by Steele, 42 by Addison, and 36
   by both conjointly. Three were from the pen of John Hughes. …
   These, at least, are the numbers usually given, but the
   evidence on which they are based is slight. It rests mainly
   upon the indications given by Steele to Tickell when the
   latter was preparing his edition of Addison's Works. The
   conjecture may be hazarded that there were not a few Tatlers
   written by Addison which he was not anxious to claim as his
   particular property. … Addison, … remained Steele's firm
   friend, and less than two months after the cessation of the
   'Tatler' there appeared the first number of a still more
   famous common enterprise, the 'Spectator,' on the 1st of March
   1711. It was announced to appear daily, and was to be composed
   of the reflections and actions of the members of an imaginary
   club, formed around 'Mr. Spectator.' In this club the most
   familiar figure is the Worcestershire Knight, Sir Roger de
   Coverley, the peculiar property of Addison. … The 'Spectator'
   continued to appear daily until December 1712. It consisted of
   555 numbers, of which Addison wrote 274, Steele 236, Hughes
   19, and Pope 1 (The Messiah, 'Spectator' 378). Another
   contributor was Eustace Budgell (1685-1736), Addison's cousin.
   … The 'Spectator' enjoyed so very unequivocal a success that
   it has puzzled historians to account for its discontinuance.
   In No. 517 Addison killed Sir Roger de Coverley 'that nobody
   else might murder him.' This shows a voluntary intention to
   stop the publication, which the Stamp Act itself had not been
   able to do by force."

      _E. Gosse,
      A History of Eighteenth Century Literature,
      chapter 6._

   "After this, in 1713, came the 'Guardian'; and in 1714 an
   eighth volume of the 'Spectator' was issued by Addison alone.
   He was also the sole author of the 'Freeholder,' 1715, which
   contains the admirable sketch of the 'Tory Foxhunter.' Steele,
   on his side, followed up the 'Guardian' by the 'Lover,' the
   'Reader,' and half-a–dozen abortive efforts; but his real
   successes, as well as those of Addison, were in the three
   great collections for which they worked together. … Between
   the 'Guardian' of 1713 and the 'Rambler' of 1750-2 there were
   a number of periodical essayists of varying merit. It is
   scarcely necessary to recall the names of these now forgotten
   'Intelligencers,' 'Moderators,' 'Remembrancers,' and the like,
   the bulk of which were political. Fielding places one of them,
   the 'Freethinker' of Philips, nearly on a level with 'those
   great originals the "Tatlers" and the "Spectators;"' but the
   initial chapters to the different books of 'Tom Jones' attract
   us more forcibly to the author's own 'Champion,' written in
   conjunction with the Ralph who 'makes night hideous' in the
   'Dunciad.' … Another of Fielding's enterprises in the
   'Spectator' vein was the 'Covent Garden Journal,' 1752. …
   Concurrently with the 'Covent Garden Journal' appeared the
   final volume of Johnson's 'Rambler,' a work upon the cardinal
   defect of which its author laid his finger, when in later
   life, he declared it to be 'too wordy.' Lady Mary said in her
   smart way that the 'Rambler' followed the 'Spectator' as a
   pack horse would do a hunter. … In the twenty-nine papers
   which Johnson wrote for Hawkesworth's 'Adventurer,' the
   'Rambler' style is maintained. In the 'Idler,' however, which
   belongs to a later date, when its author's mind was unclouded,
   and he was comparatively free from the daily pressure" of
   necessity, he adopts a simpler and less polysyllabic style."

      _A. Dobson,
      Eighteenth Century Essays,
      introduction._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1712.
   The first Stamp Tax on Newspapers in England.

   The first stamp tax on newspapers in England went into effect
   on the 12th day of August, 1712. "An act had passed the
   legislature, that 'for every pamphlet or paper contained in
   half a sheet, or lesser piece of paper so printed, the sum of
   one halfpenny sterling: and for every such pamphlet or paper
   being larger than half a sheet, and not exceeding one whole
   sheet, so printed, a duty after the rate of one penny sterling
   for every sheet printed thereof.' This act, which was to curb
   the licentiousness of the press, was to be in force for the
   space of thirty-two years, to be reckoned from the 10th day of
   June, 1712. Addison, in the 'Spectator' of this day, says,
   'this is the day on which many eminent authors will probably
   publish their last works. I am afraid that few of our weekly
   historians, who are men that above all others delight in war,
   will be able to subsist under the weight of a stamp duty in an
   approaching peace. In short, the necessity of carrying a
   stamp, and the impracticability of notifying a bloody battle,
   will, I am afraid, both concur to the sinking of these thin
   folios which have every other day related to us the history of
   Europe for several years last past. A facetious friend of
   mine, who loves a pun, calls this present mortality among
   authors, "the fall of the leaf.'" On this tax Dean Swift thus
   humorously alludes in his Journal to Stella, as follows
   (August 7):—'Do you know that all Grub-street is dead and gone
   last week? No more Ghosts or murders now for love or money. I
   plied it close the last fortnight, and published at least
   seven papers of my own, besides some of other people's; but
   now every single half-sheet pays a halfpenny to the queen. The
   'Observator' is fallen; the 'Medleys' are jumbled together
   with the 'Flying Post'; the 'Examiner' is deadly sick; the
   'Spectator' keeps up and doubles its price; I know not how
   long it will hold. Have you seen the red stamp the papers are
   marked with? Methinks the stamping is worth a half-penny.' The
   stamp mark upon the newspapers was a rose and thistle joined
   by the stalks, and enclosing between the Irish shamrock, the
   whole three were surmounted by a crown. … It is curious to
   observe what an effect this trifling impost had upon the
   circulation of the most favourite papers. Many were entirely
   discontinued, and several of those which survived were
   generally united into one publication. The bill operated in a
   directly contrary manner to what the ministers had
   anticipated; for the opposition, who had more leisure, and
   perhaps more acrimony of feeling, were unanimous in the
   support of their cause. The adherents of ministers, who were
   by no means behind the opposition in their proficiency in the
   topic of defamation, were, it seems, not so strenuously
   supported; and the measure thus chiefly destroyed those whom
   it was Bolinbroke's interest to protect.
{2600}
   For some reason, which we have not been able to trace, the
   stamp-duties were removed shortly after their imposition, and
   were not again enforced until 1725. In order to understand how
   so small a duty as one halfpenny should operate so strongly
   upon these periodical publications, we must look at the price
   at which they were vended at that period. The majority of them
   were published at a penny, many at a halfpenny, and some were
   even published so low as a farthing."

      _C. H. Timperley,
      Encyclopædia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote,
      pages 601-602._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1723.
   End of Newspaper monopoly in France.

   "Until Louis XVI. was dethroned, Paris was officially supposed
   to possess but three periodicals: the 'Gazette de France' for
   politics, 'Le Journal des Savants' for literature and science,
   and the 'Mercure de France' for politics, literature, and
   social matters mingled. For a time these monopolies were
   respected, but only for a very short time. … During the
   Regency of the Duke of Orleans (1715-23), the 'Gazette de
   France,' 'Mercure,' and 'Journal des Savants' combined to
   bring an action for infringement against all the papers then
   existing, but they were non-suited on a technical objection;
   and this was their last attempt at asserting their
   prerogative."

      _The French Press
      (Cornhill Magazine, October, 1873)._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1734.
   Zenger's trial in New York.
   Determination of the freedom of the Press.

      See NEW YORK: A. D. 1720-1734.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1771.
   Freedom of Parliamentary reporting won in England.

      See ENGLAND: A. D. 1771.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1777.
   The first Daily Newspaper in France.

   "In 1777 there appeared the 'Journal de Paris,' which only
   deserves notice from its being the first daily paper issued in
   France."

      _Westminster Review,
      July 1860, page 219._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1784-1813.
   The earliest daily Newspapers in the United States.

   "The first daily newspaper published in the United States was
   the 'American Daily Advertiser.' It was issued in Philadelphia
   in 1784, by Benjamin Franklin Bache, afterwards of the Aurora.
   When the seat of national government was in Philadelphia, it
   shared the confidence and support of Jefferson with the
   'National Gazette.' It was strong in its opposition to the
   Federal section of the administration of Washington, and to
   all the measures originating with Hamilton. Zachariah Poulson
   became its proprietor and publisher in 1802, and it was known
   as 'Poulson's Advertiser,' and we believe he continued its
   publisher till October 28, 1839, when the establishment was
   sold to Brace and Newbold, the publishers of a new paper
   called the 'North American.' The name after that was the
   'North American and Daily Advertiser.' … The 'New York Daily
   Advertiser,' the second real journal in the United States, was
   published in 1785. It was commenced on the 1st of March by
   Francis Childs & Co. … On the 29th of July, 1786, the
   'Pittsburg (Pennsylvania) Gazette,' the first newspaper
   printed west of the Alleghany Mountains, appeared, and in 1796
   the 'Post' was issued. … 'The United States Gazette' was
   started in New York in 1789 by John Fenno, of Boston. Its
   original name was 'Gazette of the United States.' It was first
   issued in New York, because the seat of the national
   government was then in that city. When Congress removed to
   Philadelphia in 1790, the 'Gazette' went with that body. In
   1792 it was the special organ of Alexander Hamilton. … Noah
   Webster, the lexicographer of America, was a lawyer in 1793,
   and had an office in Hartford, Connecticut. 'Washington's
   administration was then violently assailed by the 'Aurora,'
   'National Gazette,' and other organs of the Republican Party,
   and by the partisans of France. Jefferson was organizing the
   opposition elements, and Hamilton was endeavoring to
   strengthen the Federal party. Newspapers were established on
   each side as the chief means of accomplishing the objects each
   party had in view. Noah Webster was considered, in this state
   of affairs, the man to aid the Federalists journalistically in
   New York. He was, therefore, induced to remove to that city
   and take charge of a Federal organ. On the 9th of December,
   1793, he issued the first number of a daily paper, which was
   named the 'Minerva.' According to its imprint, it appeared
   'every day, Sundays excepted, at four o'clock, or earlier if
   the arrival of the mail will permit.' … With the 'Minerva' was
   connected a semi-weekly paper called the 'Herald.' … The names
   of 'Minerva' and 'Herald' were shortly changed to those of
   'Commercial Advertiser' and 'New York Spectator,' and these
   names have continued. … The 'Commercial Advertiser' is the
   oldest daily newspaper in the metropolis. Of the hundreds of
   daily papers started in New York, from the time of Bradford's
   Gazette in 1725 to the 'Journal of Commerce' in 1827, there
   are now [1872] only two survivors—the 'Evening Post' and the
   'Commercial Advertiser.' … The first prominent daily paper
   issued in New England was the Boston Daily Advertiser, the
   publication of which was commenced on the 3d of March, 1813.
   There was a daily paper begun in that city on the 6th of
   October, 1796, by Alexander Martin, and edited by John O'Ley
   Burk, one of the 'United Irishmen.' It lived about six months.
   It was called the Polar Star and Boston Daily Advertiser.
   Another was attempted on the 1st of January, 1798, by Caleb P.
   Wayne, who was afterwards editor of the United States Gazette
   of Philadelphia. This second daily paper of Boston was named
   the Federal Gazette and Daily Advertiser. It lived three
   months. The third attempt at a daily paper in the capital of
   Massachusetts was a success. It was published by William W.
   Clapp, afterwards of the Saturday Evening Gazette, and edited
   by Horatio Biglow."

      _F. Hudson,
      Journalism in the United States,
      pages 175-194, and 378._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1785-1812.
   The founding of "The Times," in London.
   The beginning of "leading articles."

   The newspaper afterwards famous as "The Times" was started, in
   1785, under the name of the "Daily Universal Register," and
   did not adopt the title of "The Times" until the 1st of
   January, 1788.

      _J. Grant,
      The Newspaper Press,
      volume 1, chapter 16._

   "All the newspapers that can be said to have been
   distinguished in any way till the appearance of the 'Times'
   were distinguished by some freak of cleverness. … The 'Times'
   took up a line of its own from the first day of its existence.
   The proprietors staked their fortunes upon the general
   character of their paper, upon the promptitude and accuracy of
   its intelligence, upon its policy, upon the frank and
   independent spirit of its comments on public men. … The chief
   proprietor of the 'Times' was John Walter—a man who knew
   nothing or next to nothing of newspaper work, but who knew
   precisely what the public wanted in a newspaper, and
   possessed, with this instinct and intelligence, the
   determination and enterprise which constitute the character of
   a successful man of business.
{2601}
   He saw how a newspaper ought to be conducted, and he thought
   he saw how, by the development of a new idea in printing, he
   could produce the 'Times' a good deal cheaper than any of its
   contemporaries. The whole English language, according to Mr.
   Walter, consisted of about 90,000 words; but by separating the
   particles and omitting the obsolete words, technical terms,
   and common terminations, Mr. Walter believed it to be possible
   to reduce the stock in common use to about 50,000, and a large
   proportion of these words, with all the common terminations,
   he proposed to have cast separately, so that the compositor,
   with a slip of MS. before him to set in type, might pick up
   words or even phrases instead of picking up one by one every
   letter of every word in his copy, and thus, of course, save a
   good deal of time. The idea was impracticable, utterly
   impracticable, because the number of words required to carry
   out the system must in itself be so great that no case of type
   that a printer could stand before would hold them all, even if
   the printer 'learn his boxes' with a case of some 4,000 or
   5,000 compartments before him; but it took a good many years,
   a good many experiments, and the expenditure of some thousands
   of pounds to convince Mr. Walter that the failure was not due
   to the perversity of his printers but to the practical
   difficulties which surrounded his conception. John Walter was
   far more successful in the general conduct of the 'Times' as a
   newspaper than he was in the management of the 'Times'
   printing office. He set all the printers in London by the ears
   with his whim about logographic printing. But he had a very
   clear conception of what a national newspaper ought to be, and
   with the assistance of a miscellaneous group of men, who, as
   they are sketched for us by Henry Crabb Robinson, were
   apparently far more picturesque than practical, John Walter
   made the 'Times' what the 'Times' has been for nearly a
   century, pre-eminently and distinctly a national newspaper.
   The 'Times,' in its original shape, consisted merely of the
   day's news, a few advertisements, some market quotations,
   perhaps a notice of a new book, a few scraps of gossip, and in
   the session, a Parliamentary report. The 'Morning Chronicle'
   had the credit … of inventing the leading article, as it had
   the credit of inventing Parliamentary reporting. The 'Morning
   Chronicle,' on the 12th of May, 1791, published a paragraph,
   announcing that 'the great and firm body of the Whigs of
   England, true to their principles, had decided on the dispute
   between Mr. Fox and Mr. Burke, in favor of Mr. Fox, as the
   representative of the pure doctrines of Whiggery,' and that in
   consequence of this resolution Mr. Burke would retire from
   Parliament. It was very short, but this paragraph is the
   nearest approximation that is to be found in the newspapers of
   that time to a leading article, and appearing as it did in the
   part of the 'Morning Chronicle' where a year or two afterwards
   the leading articles were printed, Mr. Wingrove Cooke cites it
   as the germ of the leaders which, when they became general,
   gave a distinctive colour and authority to newspapers as
   independent organs of opinion and criticism. The idea soon
   became popular; and in the 'Morning Post' and the 'Courier'