be taken into consideration, or else it will sometimes happen that all
of the brakes will not be applied when such is the intention, simply
because the air has been discharged so slowly from the brake-pipe that
it only represents a considerable leakage, and thus allows the air
under some cars to be wasted.

It is thus very essential to discharge enough air in the first
instance, and with sufficient rapidity, to cause all of the leakage
grooves to be closed, which will remain closed until the brakes have
been released. In no case should the reduction in the brake-pipe for
closing the leakage grooves be less than four or five pounds, which
will move all pistons out so that the brake-shoes will be only slightly
bearing against the wheels. After this first reduction, the pressure
can be reduced to suit the circumstances.

On a long train, if the three-way cock be opened suddenly, and then
quickly closed, the pressure in the brake-pipe, as indicated by the
gauge, will be suddenly and considerably reduced on the engine, and
will then be increased by the air-pressure coming from the rear of the
train: hence it is important to always close the three-way cock slowly,
and in such a manner that the pressure, as indicated by the gauge, will
not be increased; or else the brakes on the engine and tender, and
sometimes on the first one or two cars, will come off when they should
remain on. It is likewise very important, while the brakes are on, to
keep the three-way cock in such a position that the brake-pipe pressure
can not be increased by leakage from the main reservoir; for any
increase of pressure in the brake-pipe causes the brakes to come off.

On long down grades, it is important to be able to control the speed of
the train, and at the same time to maintain a good working pressure.
This is easily accomplished by running the pump at a good speed, so
that the main reservoir will accumulate a high pressure while the
brakes are on. When, after using the brake some time, the pressure has
been reduced to sixty pounds, the train pipes and reservoirs should
be recharged as much as possible before the speed has increased to
the maximum allowed. A greater time for recharging is obtained by
considerably reducing the speed of the train just before recharging,
and by taking advantage of the variation in the grades.

There should not be any safety-valve or leaks in the main reservoir,
otherwise the necessary surplus pressure for quickly recharging can not
be obtained.

To release the brakes with certainty, it is important to have a higher
pressure in the main reservoir than in the main pipe. If an engineer
feels that some of his brakes are not off, it is best to turn the
handle of the three-way cock just far enough to shut off the main
reservoir, and then pump up fifteen or twenty pounds extra, which will
insure the release of all of the brakes; all of which can be done while
the train is in motion.

For ordinary stops, great economy in the use of air is effected by, in
the first instance, letting out from eight to twelve pounds pressure
while the train is at speed, taking care to begin a sufficient distance
from the station.

PUMP GOVERNOR.

This is an important attachment which ought to be connected to all
air-brake pumps. It not only prevents the carrying of an excessive
air-pressure by the engineers, which often results in the sliding
of the wheels, but it also causes the accumulation of a surplus of
air-pressure in the main reservoir, while the brakes are applied, which
insures the release of the brakes without delay. It also limits the
speed of the pump, and consequently the wear.

[Illustration: FIG. 34_b_.]

The pump governor is shown in Fig. 34_b_, the object of which is
to automatically cut off the supply of steam to the pump when the
air-pressure in the train-pipe exceeds a certain limit, say seventy
pounds.

The operation of this governor is as follows: the wheel 8 is screwed
down so as to permit the valve 10 to be unseated by the excess of
pressure on the upper side of the valve, permitting steam to pass
through the openings _A_ and _B_ to the pump. A connection is made from
the train-pipe to the upper end of the governor, and the compressed
air passes around the stem 14 to the upper side of the diaphragm plate
18, which is held to its position by the spring 16, which latter is of
sufficient strength to resist a pressure of, say, seventy pounds per
square inch on diaphragm. As soon as the air-pressure on the diaphragm
18 exceeds this amount, it forces the diaphragm down, unseating the
valve 13, and allowing the steam on the upper side of the valve 10 to
escape through the exhaust 6, which causes an excess of steam-pressure
on the lower side of the valve 10, forcing the valve against its seat,
and cutting off the supply of steam to the pump.

When the pressure in the train-pipe is diminished by applying the
brakes, the diaphragm is restored to the position shown by the action
of the spring 16. The valve 13 is seated by the spring 12; and the
steam-pressure, passing through the port _C_, accumulates on the upper
side of the valve 10, forcing it down, and opening the passage for
steam to the pump until the air-pressure is again restored to the
required limit of seventy pounds.

CHAPTER XXV.

_THE EAMES VACUUM BRAKE._

OPERATION OF THE BRAKE.

The Vacuum Brake, as the name implies, is operated by means of a vacuum
which is formed in the connections that act the part of the cylinder
in the air-brake. With an air-brake, compressed air is made to do the
work of applying the brakes by moving a piston to which the brake-lever
is attached, the air being carried throughout the train by means of
iron pipes and rubber hose: with the vacuum brake the work is done in
a similar way with similar connections; but, instead of compressed air
being forced inside the pipes and apparatus, all the air is exhausted
out, and the natural pressure of the atmosphere is made to do the work.

THE DIAPHRAGM.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.]

Under each vehicle of a train, as seen in Fig. 35, a diaphragm is
securely fastened which performs the combined duties of cylinder and
piston. It consists of a kettle-shaped casting with a loose disk of
heavy rubbered duck fastened over its mouth; the center of the disk
being provided with an iron plate, through which passes an eye-bolt for
forming connection with the brake-lever. The inside of the diaphragm
is connected to the pipe which passes along the train, and has its
front end connected with the ejector on the locomotive.

THE EJECTOR.

[Illustration: FIG. 36.]

The position of the ejector in the cut can be clearly seen in Fig. 36,
where there is also a diaphragm to be seen under the deck where it is
located when used to operate driver brakes. The ejector is operated
on the same principle as the water injector, only it is used to lift
air instead of water. A cross-section of the injector is shown in
Fig. 36. When the engineer wishes to apply the brake, he pulls the
handle 41 (broken off in the cut), which opens the valve _B49_, and
admits steam to the body of the ejector _A1_. The steam rushes upward
round the end of the tube 5, its velocity being accelerated in
passing through the contracted opening left round the top of the tube.
Passing through tubes 3 and 6, the steam shoots up in the form of a
column with a hollow base; the tube 5, which is connected with the
pipes and diaphragms on the train, forming this base. The effect of
the steam passing out under these conditions is to induce a current
through the tube 5, which draws up the valve _B7_, and sucks the air
out of the pipes and diaphragms. A vacuum being thus formed in the
diaphragms, the atmosphere presses the flexible ends together. This
tendency to collapse is retarded by the brake-rod connections, and the
latter receive a pull equal to the combined atmospheric pressure on the
diaphragm. The brake-levers are arranged to transmit a proper tension
to the brake-shoes for making the brake effective. A vacuum gauge
placed on the front of the ejector enables the engineer to regulate the
power as he wants it. The brake is released by pushing on the lever
24, which opens the valve 8, and admits air into the brake-pipes. The
release-valve attachment is sidewise in vertical section cut through
the handle, and is put separate for convenience of illustration.

CARE OF THE BRAKE.

The valve _B7_ of the ejector needs grinding occasionally; and, if
the lift should be too great, the valve will hammer the seat out of
shape. Sometimes when waste or other fibrous impurities are sucked
through the pipe, they stick in this valve, keeping it away from the
seat. The valve is very easily reached by taking off the cap _O4_. The
steam-valve _B49_ needs about the same care as any other steam-valve,
and its troubles are of the same nature. The shoulder at the top of the
tube 5, which is used to obstruct the steam, thereby increasing the
velocity of the quantity that passes, sometimes gets cut into channels
with the fast moving steam striking it. This reduces the promptness of
the ejector’s action, but it is a form of deterioration that proceeds
very slowly. Care must be taken to keep the drip-valves _A_ and _B16_
in order, otherwise there may be trouble with the ejector throwing
water, or freezing up if the engine stands where that apparatus will
get cold in winter.

CHAPTER XXVI.

_POWER OF LOCOMOTIVES AND TRAIN RESISTANCES._

CALCULATING POWER OF LOCOMOTIVES.

The capacity of engines is generally expressed in horse-power, which
is a measurable quantity; but, for several reasons, that method of
indicating power has not been usually applied to the locomotive. When
practical railroad men hear the size of cylinders, the diameter of
driving-wheels, and the boiler dimensions of a locomotive, mentioned,
they understand what kind of service the engine is adapted for, and
about the weight of train it can haul. As it has been found necessary
for designing and other purposes, to estimate, with some degree of
accuracy, the work a locomotive is capable of doing, it has become
usual to reckon the power of a locomotive by the tractive force it can
exert upon the rails.

PROPORTION OF ADHESION TO TRACTION.

Tractive force is the power which the pistons of the engine are capable
of exerting through the driving-wheels, to move the engine and train.
The efficiency of the engine’s traction is dependent upon the adhesion
of the wheels to the rails; for, where the adhesion is insufficient,
the pistons will slip the wheels, and no useful effect will result. To
prevent the wheels of ordinary American engines from slipping on dry
rails, the weight resting on the drivers must be about five times the
power exerted by the pistons to slip the wheels. To prevent slipping on
wet, unwashed rails, more than double the above weight would be needed.
In practice, locomotives are not provided with weight enough to prevent
the wheels from slipping on a greasy rail: the sand-boxes provide the
means of obtaining adhesion where the rails are in bad order. A common
practice is to place upon the drivers weight equal to about six times
the power exerted to slip the wheels, which leaves a small margin for
wet rails. Many locomotives have power sufficient to slip the wheels
on dry rails; but such engines generally have boilers too small for
the cylinders, or the distribution of weight on the drivers is badly
effected.

ESTIMATING TRACTIVE POWER.

The easiest way of calculating the tractive power of a locomotive is by
use of the following simple formula, first propounded by Pambour:--

                  _d^{2}Lp_
            _T_ = ---------.
                     _D_

  _d_ = the diameter of the cylinder in inches.

  _L_ = the length of the stroke in inches.

  _D_ = the diameter of driving-wheels in inches.

  _p_ = the effective mean pressure on the piston in pounds per
          square inch.

  _T_ = the equivalent tractive force at the rails in pounds.

This, given in plain terms, reads: Square the diameter of piston in
inches; multiply by the length of stroke in inches; multiply by the
mean pressure of steam per square inch, and divide by the diameter of
the drivers in inches.

We will apply the calculations to the case of the standard Buchanan
passenger engine; the cylinders being 17 by 24 inches, the drivers 68
inches in diameter, and the effective pressure on pistons about 80
pounds. The problem is worked thus:--

                          17 inches diam. of cylinders.
                          17
                        ----
                         289 = square of diameter.
                          24 inches stroke of piston.
                        ----
                        6936
                           80 lbs. per square inch.
  Diam. of drivers, 68)554880(8160

This gives 8,160 pounds as the pressure exerted to turn the drivers,
which may be accepted as a close approximation to the truth. In using
this formula, the mistake has frequently been made of taking the
quotient to represent the power developed by one cylinder, when, in
fact, it gives the power of both.

A method of calculating the locomotive traction that is a good deal
followed by our engineers, is to ascertain the foot-pounds of work the
engine is doing during each revolution of the drivers. By dividing the
total thus found by the circumference of the drivers in feet, the force
exerted through each foot that the engine moves is found. Taking the
same engine, the pistons 17 inches diameter, give 226.98 square inches
area. This is multiplied by the mean effective pressure of steam,
giving 226.98 × 80 = 18158.4 pounds pressing on each piston through the
whole stroke of four feet.

           18158.4
                 2 pistons.
           -------
           36316.8
                 4 feet of stroke.
          --------
          145267.2

These figures show that 145267.2 foot-pounds are exerted during each
turn of the wheel, whose circumference is 17.8024; therefore, 145267 ÷
17.8024 = 8160, the number of pounds exerted through each foot moved.

There is still another way of figuring out tractive power by
calculating the rotational force and the leverage through which it is
applied to the locomotive wheels. The pressure of steam on the piston
is productive of two strains on the crank-axle. When the crank is
on the dead center, the pressure upon the crank-pin forces the axle
against the axle-box without causing any tendency to rotate: but, when
the crank-pin is on the quarter, the full leverage of the crank is
available for rotation; the leverage increasing gradually as the crank
gets away from the center. The mean effort upon the crank-pin during
one revolution of the crank is to the effort of the piston as .6366 is
to 1.

Now, to find the traction of the locomotive, we multiply the length
of our crank, which is 12 inches, by .6366, which gives 7.64 as the
length of the crank receiving constant pressure from the pistons.
The aggregate steam-pressure has already been found to be for each
piston, 18158.4 pounds. This is multiplied by 7.64; and the product is
divided by the radius of the wheel, which is 34 inches, giving as a
quotient 4080, being the power exerted on one side of the engine. That,
multiplied by 2, gives 8160 pounds,--the same as was found by the other
two methods.

HORSE-POWER OF LOCOMOTIVES.

When people wish to find the horse-power developed by a locomotive, the
indicator is generally employed, and the calculations made from the
diagram. Others figure out locomotive horse-power as they do that of
other engines. By this method, the engine whose traction we have been
investigating might have the horse-power calculated as follows:--

            226.98 square inches piston area.
                80 pounds mean pressure.
           -------
           18158.4 piston pressure.
                 4 feet piston travel each revolution.
           -------
           72633.6
                 2 cylinders.
          --------
          145267.2
               145 revolutions per minute.
          --------
          20063944 ÷ 33000 = 608 horse-power when running
  at a speed of 30 miles an hour.

No allowance has been made for frictional losses in any of these
calculations.

One horse-power is equivalent to the work performed in raising 33,000
pounds one foot high in one minute. One pound raised 33,000 feet
high, or 330 pounds raised 100 feet high, would amount to the same
thing. One horse-power is usually spoken of as 33,000 foot-pounds; and
engineers in this country always calculate work by foot-pounds,--that
is, so many pounds raised a certain number of feet. To indicate the
capacity of any prime motor, the foot-pounds of work it is capable of
raising in a given time must be stated. Although the work is often done
without any thing being raised vertically, the power represented would
be capable of raising the equivalent weight in the stated time.

FORMULAS OF TRAIN RESISTANCES.

The work which a locomotive performs in pulling a train is expended in
overcoming the resistances due to wheel-friction, gradients, curves,
and atmospheric or wind pressure. Formulas have been propounded for
calculating all train resistances, but they are utterly untrustworthy
for American railroad trains. The best known formula of this kind is
that given by D. K. Clark in his _Railway Machinery_. One calculation
will show how misleading its figures are when applied to American
railroad train resistances. Figured by the Clark formula, the total
resistance per ton of a passenger train running at a speed of fifty
miles an hour on a straight level track, is 22.6 pounds. By accurate
records with his dynagraph car, Professor P. H. Dudley found the total
resistances of an express train running at a speed of fifty-one miles
an hour, to be 11 pounds. The resistances are so much different under
different conditions, that nothing closer than a loose approximation
can be calculated of the work done by a locomotive, unless indicator or
dynamometer tests are made.

EXPERIMENTS OF TRAIN RESISTANCES ON THE ERIE RAILWAY.

In experiments made with a freight train on the Erie Railway in
1881, reported by Mr. F. M. Wilder to the Railway Master Mechanics’
Association, it was found that the total resistance on a level track
was from 3.25 to 4.5 pounds per ton at speeds under twenty miles an
hour. These figures will approximately represent the resistance due to
wheel and axial friction in summer; but this resistance will be higher
during cold weather, when the oil in the axle-boxes gets frozen. Track
in bad condition will also tend to increase the wheel resistance, and
improperly constructed trucks and wheels will entail the use of more
power to move the train. Where trucks are so defective that they do not
maintain the wheels revolving in parallel planes, the flanges of some
of the wheels will rub on the rail, increasing the resistance. Wheels
out of round; those having the axle out of center, however slight;
wheels of different size on the same axle; and numerous other car-truck
disorders,--all contribute their share in making a train pull hard.

CONDITIONS THAT INCREASE TRAIN RESISTANCES.

In a calm day the atmospheric resistance is very slight under a speed
of twenty miles an hour. To a fast train, atmospheric resistance
becomes an important obstruction. The atmosphere acts on the train
in various ways, that are hard to calculate with any degree of
accuracy,--head resistance to the locomotive, which is presumably equal
to the exposed area of the front of the engine and cab in square feet
multiplied by the air-pressure due to the speed; then, various parts of
the cars present surfaces that the air strikes against, and increases
the resistance; the raised and projecting roofs of passenger coaches
offer an ample area for the wind to hold the train by; and every
opening between the cars permits the wind to obstruct, to some extent,
each individual car. Where wind is blowing freely in a direction to
strike the train on the side, the resistance is greatly increased; the
retardation being due to the wind pushing the car sidewise, so that the
wheel-flanges rub against the rail, and also to the wind obtaining a
strong hold on the front of each car. In the case of a freight train,
the resistance is greatly increased when the doors of cars are left
open; for every car in that condition acts like a parachute to reduce
speed. Freight trains arranged with box cars and flat cars mixed,
obtain more than a fair share of obstruction from the atmosphere; for
every box car that has a space opened in front by a flat car, gets
nearly the full pressure of the wind in its front. It pays in coal to
incur some trouble and delay in putting box cars together. That also
enables the brakemen to get along the train more rapidly than where the
cars are mixed.

In the experiments already alluded to on the Erie Railway, it was
found, in the absence of wind, that the first car of a freight-train
produced atmospheric resistance equal to a surface of sixty-three feet,
multiplied by the air-pressure due to speed; and that each subsequent
car offered a resistance of twenty per cent of that due to the first
car.

RESISTANCE OF CURVES.

Curved track increases the resistance of trains in direct proportion
to the shortness of curvature. In European railways, the character of
the curves is nearly always denominated by the length of radius: in
this country, a railroad curve is described as of so many degrees. The
degree of a curve is determined by the angle subtended at its center by
a chord of 100 feet. To those who think of a curve by its radius, it
may be well to explain that a curve of one degree has a radius of 5,370
feet, and the radius of any curve can be ascertained by dividing these
figures by the number of degrees.

WORK DONE BY A LOCOMOTIVE PULLING A TRAIN.

To pull a train up an ascending gradient, the locomotive has to perform
work similar to the operation of a pile-driving engine in raising its
driving-block. The train is the block raised by the locomotive; and
the lift is not vertical, but up an inclined plane; yet the amount of
work done is reckoned in precisely the same way. When the engine of a
pile-driver raises a block weighing 1,000 pounds a distance of 30 feet,
the work done is 1,000 × 30 = 30,000 foot-pounds: when a locomotive
pulls a train weighing 1,000 tons over one mile rising 30 feet, the
engine performs 30,000 foot-tons of work in that distance by raising
the load alone. The total amount of work done will also include the
energy expended in overcoming wheel-friction and other ordinary train
resistances.

To find the tractive force which the engine must exert through each
foot of the mile traversed in pulling the train described, we must
divide the foot-pounds of work done, by the distance over which the
power was exerted. Thirty thousand foot-tons of work is 60,000,000
foot-pounds. To this we will add 5 pounds additional for every ton of
the train for every foot advanced to cover wheel and wind resistances,
making 86,400,000 foot-pounds of work that the engine has to perform in
hauling the train one mile. This, divided by the number of feet in a
mile, will give 16,363 pounds as the work the locomotive must perform
through each foot,--an effort which is entirely within the capacity of
many consolidation engines.

RECORD OF FAST EXPRESS TRAIN MADE BY PROFESSOR P. H. DUDLEY’S DYNAGRAPH
CAR.

Engineers interested in finding an approximation of the work done in
taking a fast train over a railroad, can make a close estimate by
studying out the figures given below by Professor Dudley. The table
shows the performance of an ordinary locomotive upon a train composed
of three eight-wheel and six twelve-wheel cars; weight 250 tons;
working-weight of engine and tender, 126,000 pounds; cylinders of
engine, 17 by 24 inches; diameter of drivers, 72 inches; weight on
drivers, 48,000 pounds; blowing-pressure on boiler, 135 pounds.

In starting the train, the locomotive would record a tension of 11,000
to 12,000 pounds for one or two hundred feet of distance. After hooking
up, the tension would decrease to about 2,800 or 3,000 pounds; and,
with this pull, the speed of 50 miles an hour was attained in the
fifth mile. As the speed increases, the resistance of the air against
the locomotive becomes greater, and more of its own power is required
to move itself. In starting a train, the working adhesion of the
steel-tired drivers on dry steel rails is about 33 per cent of the
weight upon them, and reduces as the speed increases.

_Tabulation of Part of a Trip of the Dynagraph Car on a Fast Express
Train._

KEY:

  1 Numbers of Miles.
  2 Time in Minutes and Seconds per Mile.
  3 Speed in Miles per Hour.
  4 Velocity of the Wind in Miles per Hour.
  5 Approximate Grades.
  6 Foot-Pounds of Work shown by Dynametrical Curve per Mile.
  7 Foot-Pounds of Work per Minute expressed in Horse-Power.
  8 Approximate calculated Foot-Pounds of Work required to move the
      Locomotive in Horse-Power.
  9 Sum of Columns 7 and 8.

  ===+======+=======+=====+================+============+=====+=====+====
   1 |  2   |   3   |  4  |       5        |      6     |  7  |  8  |  9
  ---+------+-------+-----+----------------+------------+-----+-----+----
   1 | 2 54 | 20.68 |     | Level          | 24,116,233 | 252 |     |
   2 | 1 34 | 38.31 | 6.0 | Down 5 ft 3 in | 20,035,253 | 369 | 221 | 590
   3 | 1 22 | 43.90 | 4.0 | Down 5 ft 3 in | 17,763,214 | 398 | 292 | 690
   4 | 1 16 | 47.34 | 3.0 | Level          | 15,904,273 | 383 | 418 | 791
   5 | 1 11 | 50.70 | 4.5 | Level          | 14,871,528 | 382 | 406 | 788
   6 | 1 13 | 49.31 | 6.0 | Up 13 feet     | 15,284,616 | 383 | 406 | 789
   7 | 1 11 | 50.70 | 6.0 | Down 18 feet   | 14,458,430 | 369 | 426 | 795
   8 | 1 08 | 52.89 | 5.0 | Down 13 feet   | 13,219,136 | 354 | 451 | 805
   9 | 1 07 | 53.70 | 5.0 | Down 8 feet    | 11,566,744 | 319 | 483 | 802
  10 | 1 09 | 52.10 | 5.0 | Down 5 feet    | 11,773,293 | 310 | 441 | 751
  11 | 1 08 | 52.89 | 4.2 | Level          | 11,773,293 | 316 | 447 | 763
  12 | 1 09 | 52.10 | 5.2 | Down 8 feet    | 12,806,038 | 337 | 456 | 793
  13 | 1 10 | 51.43 | 6.0 | Level          | 12,392,940 | 324 | 443 | 767
  14 | 1 10 | 51.43 | 4.5 | Level          | 12,806,038 | 339 | 426 | 765
  15 | 1 10 | 51.43 | 4.0 | Level          | 13,425,685 | 351 | 420 | 771
  16 | 1 10 | 51.43 | 3.5 | Level          | 13,299,136 | 345 | 415 | 760
  17 | 1 08 | 52.89 | 3.0 | Level          | 13,838,783 | 371 | 443 | 814
  18 | 1 08 | 52.89 | 5.0 | Down 6 feet    | 13,219,136 | 354 | 464 | 818
  19 | 1 08 | 52.89 | 3.0 | Down 2 feet    | 13,219,136 | 354 | 443 | 797
  20 | 1 11 | 50.70 | 3.5 | Up 10 feet     | 14,838,783 | 379 | 406 | 785
  21 | 1 13 | 49.31 | 3.0 | Up 10 feet     | 14,458,430 | 362 | 384 | 746
  22 | 1 08 | 52.89 | 3.1 | Level          | 12,392,940 | 332 | 443 | 775
  23 | 1 07 | 53.70 | 3.1 | Down 10 feet   | 12,186,391 | 333 | 462 | 797
  ===+======+=======+=====+================+============+=====+=====+====

The following calculations have been made, to indicate the trains that
various locomotives ought to pull.

  _Weights of Train which Locomotives can haul at a Speed
    of 20 Miles an Hour under Ordinary Conditions, in Tons
    of 2,000 Pounds (not including the Weight of Engine and
    Tender)._

  =========================+=============================
                           |     TYPE OF LOCOMOTIVE.
                           +---------+---------+---------
                           |Type “A.”|Type “B.”|Type “C.”
  -------------------------+---------+---------+---------
    _On straight track_:   |         |         |
  Level                    |  1,096  |1,664    |  2,226
  Grade  20 feet per mile  |    547  |  840½   |  1,128
    ”    40  ”      ”      |    350  |  545    |    734
    ”    60  ”      ”      |    249  |  390½   |    522
    ”    80  ”      ”      |    188  |  302    |    410
    ”   100  ”      ”      |    148  |  242    |    330
                           |         |         |
    _On 5-degree curves_:  |         |         |
  Level                    |    921  |1,401½   |  1,876
  Grade  20 feet per mile  |    464  |  716    |    962
    ”    40  ”      ”      |    310  |  485    |    654
    ”    60  ”      ”      |    227  |  360½   |    488
    ”    80  ”      ”      |    173  |  279½   |    380
    ”   100  ”      ”      |    137  |  225½   |    308
                           |         |         |
    _On 10-degree curves_: |         |         |
  Level                    |    662  |1,013    |  1,358
  Grade  20 feet per mile  |    401  |  621½   |    836
    ”    40  ”      ”      |    278  |  477    |    590
    ”    60  ”      ”      |    207  |  330½   |    448
    ”    80  ”      ”      |    160  |  260    |    354
    ”   100  ”      ”      |    128  |  212    |    290
  =========================+=========+=========+=========
  Under the most favorable conditions, loads about fifty per cent
  greater than those given above may be hauled.

The calculations are for three types of engine, designated in the
column titles as Type “A,” Type “B,” and Type “C;” these being as
follows:--

_Type A._--American locomotive, with four driving-wheels, and 12,000
pounds weight on each wheel, the total weight of engine being 36 tons.

_Type B._--Mogul or ten-wheeled locomotive, with six driving-wheels,
and 12,000 pounds weight on each wheel, the total weight of engine
being about 42 tons.

_Type C._--Consolidation locomotive, with eight driving-wheels, and
12,000 pounds weight on each wheel, the total weight of engine being
about 54 tons.

CHAPTER XXVII.

_WATER FOR LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS._

HOW WATER GETS MIXED WITH LIME.

Throughout a very wide area of territory in the United States and
Canada, limestones, or various forms of calcareous rocks, constitute
the upper rock stratum immediately underlying the subsoil of the great
agricultural regions. During the stupendous operations of Nature in
building up this continent, the rocks have been subjected to vast
disintegrating agencies: they have been torn and eroded by huge masses
of ice; they have been burned by the rays of the unshadowed sun;
fractured by the congealing power resulting from deep-searching frost;
melted by water,--that most universal solvent in nature; then scattered
far and wide by ice and flood. This process has been so complete, that,
in the whole limestone territory, all the earth seems charged with
lime. Limestones are very sparingly soluble in pure water; but the
rain that falls from the clouds is not pure, but contains a charge of
carbonic acid that acts chemically upon the lime, forming salts, which
the water readily dissolves. Owing to this circumstance, there are few
streams, and fewer wells, in the calcareous districts that are not
contaminated with lime. The water that passes into streams, generally
runs over surfaces that have been washed partly free from lime; and, in
consequence of this, creeks and rivers are not so badly tainted with
lime-salts as the water in wells that stands saturating the rocks. The
appearance or taste of water gives no indication of the quantity of
lime held in solution; for the ice-cold well, or sparkling spring, that
supplies water so pleasant to drink, may yield so much lime-salts that
the water would be ruinous to sheets and flues when used for boiler
purposes.

EXPENSE ENTAILED BY USING BAD WATER.

Considering the financial influence of the matter alone, it might be
supposed that parties building railroads would exercise diligence in
selecting the best water that possibly could be secured for boiler
purposes, since the operating expenses are largely magnified by using
impure water; but for many years the subject appeared to receive no
attention whatever from those best able to regulate the water supply,
and water stations were established without any consideration as to the
character of the water available.

It is owing to the absence of care in the original locating of water
stations, that numerous tanks are to-day drawing their supply from
bad wells, where surface water could easily be obtained. Railroad
companies are peculiarly conservative about making changes that
entail expenditure of money: and existing evils in the water supply
arrangements are often continued, because some expense would be
incurred in making them; although no kind of money expenditure would
bring a more ample return in economy.

EFFORTS OF MASTER MECHANICS TO SECURE GOOD WATER.

The paramount importance of the quality of water used in locomotive
boilers, has been long recognized by nearly all master mechanics;
for the effect of bad water is brought to their attention in an
unmistakable manner. The subject has been frequently before the Master
Mechanics’ Association for investigation. A report of a committee
appointed at an early meeting to investigate the subject, declares
that “Master mechanics have had the conviction forced home, that
impure water is the bane of good boilers;” and, even then, a vigorous
effort was being made to eliminate the injurious ingredients from
the water; and the work was carried on in a hopeful and confident
spirit, which was indicated by the words of a subsequent report, which
asserted that “Different waters differ widely in the component parts
of the impurities they contain, and each requires separate study and
treatment;” but the committee were satisfied that the engineering
and mechanical skill of railway men could readily devise a suitable
appliance for each particular case. In those days, railroad men thought
that they could, by mechanical and chemical means, purify bad water,
and render it suitable for boiler use. Purifying bad water proved
about as difficult an undertaking as reforming the average bad man is
recognized to be; and few railroad men can now be found who believe a
purifying process can be successfully performed on the large quantity
of water needed for locomotive boiler feeding.

LOSS OF FAITH IN PURIFYING METHODS.

The conclusion that artificial methods of purifying bad water can not
be carried out in railroad water supply, was not arrived at hastily. It
was reached by slow degrees, and through the convincing ordeal of many
disappointments, with methods and nostrums that promised to effect the
desired results.

Experience demonstrated, that, in the limestone regions, the proper and
only way to avoid trouble from lime incrustation in locomotive boilers,
is to obtain soft water from streams, or by collecting the rainfall in
ponds or reservoirs.

SCALE-MAKING AGENCIES.

Water, as has been mentioned, is the most universal solvent in nature;
and what is known as hard water contains many foreign ingredients,
but those that exercise such a pernicious influence upon locomotive
boilers are lime and magnesia. The scale-making lime appears in two
forms,--sulphate of lime, and carbonate of lime. The former is the
more dangerous and troublesome scale-making agent; the latter is most
frequently met with.

Ordinary well-water will be found to contain solid matter in solution
varying from 10 to 100 grains to the gallon. Under 20 grains to the
gallon of impurities may be considered fair water if the principal
ingredient is carbonate of lime, but that amount of sulphate will
make highly objectionable boiler water. Where the use of well-water
is unavoidable on a road, quite a saving to boilers can be effected
by ascertaining the quantity and character of the impurities received
from each water-tank, and directing the engineers to avoid those that
contain the worst scale formers.

TO ASCERTAIN THE QUALITY OF WATER.

The proper way to ascertain with accuracy the character of water, is
to send specimens to a competent analytical chemist for quantitative
analysis. But, as few railroad companies will incur the expense of
having the water of the water stations systematically tested, master
mechanics may, by a little labor, study, and practice, learn to make
tests for themselves that will indicate near enough for practical
purposes the character of each water station supply.

As master mechanics are the railroad officials most directly interested
in the kind of water supplied for locomotive use, they ought to have
direct control of all the water stations on the roads where they are in
charge.

APPLIANCES NEEDED IN TESTING WATER.

The chemical apparatus needed for the examination of well-water are,
a balance that will weigh accurately to half a grain; an oil stove
for evaporative purposes; a few pint porcelain evaporating dishes; a
sand-bath, which can be made from a piece of sheet-copper; a dozen
test tubes; half a dozen vials to hold solutions of chemically pure
chemicals; some pieces of glass tubing; a small mortar and pestle;
a supply of filtering-paper; and the vessels needed for measuring
accurately. For the solution of the chemical re-agents to be used, a
supply of distilled water is necessary; and water of this kind is also
necessary to make comparisons with. A piece of pure crystalline ice,
when melted, will generally produce water pure enough for experimental
purposes.

PREPARING FOR THE EXPERIMENTS.

In bringing in water for examination, it is best to have it drawn from
the water-tank into a perfectly clean jug, which should be corked and
labeled. Weigh an evaporating dish, noting down the exact weight, and
on a sand-bath evaporate one quart or half a gallon of the water to
be inspected. When the dish becomes dry, rub off all dust that may
be adhering to the bottom, and weigh the dish. The added weight will
indicate approximately the total amount of solid matter in the water.
Note that down, and every other detail of the experiments.

LIME HELD IN SOLUTION BY FREE CARBONIC ACID.

Sometimes a large quantity of bicarbonate of lime is held in solution
by free carbonic acid, which escapes as soon as the water is boiled,
leaving the lime to subside in the form of mud. Water of this kind may
appear very hard, yet not be very objectionable for boiler use; since
the deposit can be blown out if the blow-off cock is used freely.
To test this, boil a pint of water for two or three minutes in a
perfectly clean dish, then pass it through a filter paper that has been
previously dried and weighed. When the operation is finished, dry and
weigh the filter paper again; and the added weight will indicate the
amount of solid matter held in solution by free carbonic acid gas.

TEST FOR LIME SALTS.

Superficial tests that will indicate the condition of the water from
the coloring produced by the impurities combining with chemicals that
take them out of solution, can be made in the following manner: Five
test tubes are half filled with water to be tested. The first one will
be examined for lime in any form. A teaspoonful of aqua ammonia is put
in the water for the purpose of stimulating the chemical action, then
twenty drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia are added. The degree
of turbidity will indicate the quantity of lime in the water. Should
the quantity of lime be very small, the test tube would have to be kept
in a warm place a few hours before the re-action showed itself.

TEST FOR SULPHATE OF LIME.

The water in the second test tube will be examined for sulphate of
lime. A few drops of hydrochloric acid are first put into the water,
then twenty drops of chloride of barium. A white precipitate, which
generally makes its appearance at once, indicates the presence of
sulphuric acid. In water belonging to the calcareous regions, it may
safely be concluded that the sulphuric acid is held in the form of
sulphate of lime. An exception has sometimes to be made for water drawn
from the vicinity of coal mines, and such places, where sulphate of
iron abounds. Water that holds sulphuric acid in this form is readily
identified by a test for iron salts.

When it is found that water gives a strong re-action indicating
sulphate of lime, the inference may safely be drawn that the tank it
came from should be avoided.

TEST FOR CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA.

The third test tube may be examined for carbonate of magnesia, which is
found freely mixed with the water of many wells. Put aqua ammonia in
this tube, and add twenty drops of a solution of phosphate of soda. A
crystalline precipitate will indicate the presence of magnesium. Where
carbonate of magnesia is present in considerable quantities in water,
it sometimes forms along with lime a thick, porous scale; and in other
cases it is apt to float on the top of the water, causing trouble by
making the boiler foam. If an engine boiler has got scale formed from
water free from magnesia, and goes on to a division where this impurity
abounds, the magnesia will take off the old scale before it begins to
form new incrustation. A few pounds of common salt put into the tender
daily will have a good effect in preventing trouble with magnesia;
since it forms chloride of magnesia, which is a decided preventive of
lime scale.

TEST FOR SALTS OF IRON.

In the fourth test tube we will search for iron salts. A solution of
potassa or ammonia will produce, should iron be present, a whitish
precipitate, which presently turns to a dirty green, and, ultimately,
a reddish-brown color, owing to its absorption of oxygen from the
air. A more delicate test for iron is ferro-cyanide of potassium, or
sulpho-cyanate of potassium; but other mineral combinations might
deceive a novice using these reagents into the belief that iron was
present when it was not. A light trace of iron in water is very common;
and, so long as it is in minute quantities, the salt seems quite
innocent. But occasionally water is found saturated with iron in the
form known by chemists as _FeSOᵥ{4}_. Then it is very objectionable for
boiler-feeding; since it exercises a strong corrosive action on the
plates, pitting and furrowing being a common result of its action.
Scale formed by water of this character is nearly always a hard, thin
substance, that sticks with intense tenacity, and generally takes away
part of the skin of the iron when it is taken off.

TEST FOR CHLORINE.

The fifth tube we will examine for common salt, which is nearly always
present in water. This test is done by dropping in some nitrate of
silver solution, which produces a white precipitate, caused by the
silver combining with the chlorine, which is the principal element
in common salt. This is an excessively fine test, and the nitrate of
silver will detect an incredibly small trace of common salt in water.
The worst effect that common salt has in water, is to cause priming.
Where it is present to any great extent, the blow-off cock should be
used frequently on the road; and a surface-cock is quite an aid in
keeping the boiler in order. Water that is taken from wells or streams
about cities, and found to give strong chlorine re-actions, is nearly
always contaminated with sewage.

LEARNING THE MANIPULATION OF TESTS.

Practice in making superficial qualitative tests of water, produces
skill in reading the meaning of the various chemical re-actions. This
skill can be rapidly developed by practice on prepared specimens. Water
for experiments on carbonate of lime can be prepared by dissolving
calcite crystals or marble dust in hydrochloric acid, or by mixing
chalk with clean rain-water, and filtering it till free from turbidity.
While the chalk is mixed with the water, and unfiltered, the specimen
will be made stronger by blowing air from the lungs through a glass
tube into the water. A preparation for testing sulphate of lime may
be made by dissolving some gypsum in distilled water. Fluid magnesia,
dropped into pure water, will provide carbonate of magnesia specimens;
and Epsom salts will give the magnesia re-action, with the addition
that it will indicate sulphuric acid under the chloride of barium
test. A grain of salt no larger than a pin-head dropped into a pint of
distilled water, will give a distinct chlorine test when nitrate of
silver solution is added. Stronger, or even weaker, salt solution can
be used by the experimenter while he is working into practice. A small
piece of sulphate of iron, dissolved in water, will provide a test for
iron.

MAKING QUALITATIVE TESTS.

While pursuing the apprentice practice of tests with these solutions,
care must be taken to have the test tubes perfectly clean. Go over the
tests in something like the following order. The carbonate of lime test
is to be made first. Four test tubes will be used. In the first we put
distilled water alone; in the second we put ten drops of the chalk
solution; in the third we put twenty drops of the solution; in the
fourth we put thirty drops, then add distilled water till all the test
tubes are about two-thirds filled. Drop into each tube about the same
quantity of oxalate of ammonia solution, and the degree of turbidity
will help to indicate the hardness of each specimen. The first tube,
containing pure water, will give no re-action if the chemicals are pure.

This process should be extended to all the other solutions, and will
be found very helpful. In carrying out experiments of this kind,
much assistance will be obtained from having a work like Stuckhardt’s
_Chemistry_ at hand for reference.

THE SOAP-TEST FOR HARDNESS.

Most people are aware that hard water has a peculiar effect upon soap,
making it curdle instead of lather when used for washing purposes. This
peculiarity was made use of some years ago by Dr. Clark of Aberdeen,
Scotland, in devising a test for the hardness of water, in which the
quantity of a standard soap solution needed to produce a permanent
lather on water, indicated the degree of hardness of the water. A
modification of the Clark process can be used very conveniently by
master mechanics in making superficial tests of the hardness of water,
and the plan has the advantage of being easily applied. With a test
tube and a small bottle of soap-solution, the investigator is ready
at any time or place to make tests; and a few minutes spent over each
specimen will give him an idea of the value of the water for boiler
purposes.

The original Clark soap-test was made with a soap-solution of known
strength, of which a certain measured quantity was required to
produce a permanent lather on a gallon of water containing a given
quantity of carbonate of lime. The degrees of hardness of other
specimens were computed according to the quantity of the soap-solution
required to produce a permanent lather. Preparing soap-solution of a
certain strength, and water of a certain hardness, for the purpose
of indicating a point for beginning the computations, is a tedious
operation; and the soap-test can be used in a much simpler way. While
making numerous tests of water on the Burlinglington, Cedar Rapids, and
Northern Railway some years ago, to ascertain the condition of water
tanks at different seasons of the year, and in examining the supply of
proposed water stations on extensions of the road, I used the following
modification of the Clark process:--

MODIFICATION OF THE CLARK SOAP-TEST.

The Cedar River, during its normal flow in summer, contains about ten
grains of solid matter, mostly calcium carbonate, to the American
gallon of 58,373 grains. This I considered good boiler-water, and
made it the standard of comparison for my tests. Beside the shop,
there is a well, which the people who built the road dug for supplying
boiler-water; although the Cedar ran a few rods distant. This
well-water contained about forty grains of solid matter to the gallon,
one-fourth of the impurity being sulphate of lime. This water I made my
“awful example” standard of comparison, so that water approaching this
in hardness was condemned.

The soap-solution I made by dissolving seventy grains of castile soap,
or white soap-powder, in a pint of alcohol. Care must be taken that
all the soap is dissolved, and then it is best to keep the mixture in
an even temperature not below 60° Fahr. The tests can be made more
accurately by having the water under examination brought to the same
temperature as the soap-solution.

APPLYING THE SOAP-TEST.

In making the tests, a measured quantity of the Cedar water was put
into a stoppered bottle. One ounce of water put into a two-ounce bottle
is a convenient quantity. The soap-solution was then measured out with
a pipette made to hold thirty drops, and the bottle was well shaken
after each measure till it was found that a lather was formed which
held on for five minutes. The operation was then repeated; and the last
charge from the pipette was put in, drop by drop, till the point where
a permanent lather formed was noted. A similar performance was gone
through with the bad well-water, and very little practice enabled the
operator to ascertain where a specimen of water stood between the range
of the good and bad water.

The soap-solution must be kept in a properly stoppered bottle; and,
every time a new solution is made, its strength must be tested in the
above fashion. The solution deteriorates when kept longer than a month
or six weeks.

The degree of turbidity caused by the first charge of soap-solution, is
an indication to the practiced experimenter of the degree of hardness
of the water.

Most men interested in ascertaining the condition of boiler-water, can
devise means for obtaining water of known hardness wherewith to make
comparative tests.

If water under examination prove very hard, the test will be more
accurately done by diluting it with its own volume of distilled water.

The soap-test is good for lime in all its forms, and magnesia; but the
latter impurity uses up more soap than lime does. So, where magnesia
abounds in water, the specimen under trial will seem harder than it
actually is. Magnesia is also slower than lime in acting upon the soap.
Water that contains magnesia will produce a lather when enough solution
is put in to overcome the lime present; but if it be allowed to stand
a few minutes, till the magnesia acts, the lather will not then form.
The presence of certain alkaline salts in water, such as the carbonates
and sulphates of soda and potash, injuriously affects the soap-test by
making the water appear softer than it is; since they accelerate the
forming of a permanent lather. Keeping these facts in mind will often
prove of valuable service in making tests of water.

When the soap-test indicates that water contains hardening ingredients,
representing more than fifteen grains to the gallon, other tests should
be at once made to ascertain what the leading ingredients are.

DIFFICULTIES OF PURIFYING WATER FOR LOCOMOTIVES.

The nostrums offered to railroad managers for purifying feed-water
are legion, but it is doubtful if a single remedy has proved entirely
successful. In most instances, the material or means used have been
worthless or impracticable; but, in other cases, the appliances have
not received justice from those attending their application. Most
people underrate the magnitude of the task involved in undertaking to
render the impurities of feed-water innocent in locomotive boilers.
The case of a learned professor who undertook to doctor the feed-water
for locomotives on a prominent road, where he made his arrangements
for each engine using one thousand gallons of water a day, is
representative. When provision has to be made for some engines using
double that quantity each hour, the difficulty of the transaction
becomes apparent. As has already been said, I believe that obtaining
soft surface-water is the proper way to avoid trouble with locomotive
boilers; but, where this is impracticable, considerable saving can be
effected by “doctoring” the water if the operations are intelligently
conducted.

MUD.

Mud is the most universal impurity of feed-water; and, in many cases,
it causes the destruction or injury of sheets, particularly the
crown-sheets of fire-boxes. Where the water of a road is habitually
muddy, it would pay to filter the water, or to have two tanks at each
water station, so that a system could be followed of letting the water
settle in one tank while the other was in use. The settled mud, by this
means, could be washed out regularly before a tank were refilled.

CARBONATE OF LIME.

Dr. Clark, inventor of the soap-test, recommended a method of purifying
water containing carbonate of lime, which has been successfully
followed in many places, especially in England. It consists of adding
caustic lime to water containing carbonate of lime. By this process,
28 grains of caustic lime result in the precipitation of 100 grains
of lime carbonate. Or, to put it in a practical shape, where a tank
contains 30,000 gallons of water, each gallon being impregnated with 30
grains of lime carbonate, 36 pounds of caustic lime will be sufficient
to precipitate the whole of the impurity, making a total deposit of 164
pounds.

SULPHATE OF LIME.

Where the water impurity is principally sulphate of lime, the caustic
lime remedy will not work; but a precipitate of the objectionable
compound can be made by treating the water with caustic baryta or
caustic soda. In the first case, the baryta takes possession of the
sulphuric acid holding the lime in solution, allowing the latter to
fall down as mud: when the soda cure is applied, the sulphuric acid
deserts the lime, and combines with the soda, for which it has greater
affinity, leaving the lime to precipitate, unless it be preserved in
solution by the carbonic acid that accompanied the soda.

Where the water contains a mixture of lime sulphate and carbonate,
the soda treatment may be advantageously used in combination with the
caustic lime system.

Attempts have frequently been made to purify water by putting chemicals
into the locomotive tenders, the impurity being precipitated in the
boiler. The leading objection to this system is, that it leads to
enormous quantities of sediment being deposited inside the boiler;
since, in some instances, the purifying substance is as bulky as the
original impurity. In other cases, the chemical introduced into the
boiler causes foaming. Let us take the case of water that contains
fifteen grains of sulphate of lime to the gallon, and is treated with
sulphate of baryta. To do so properly, one grain of the chemical will
be required for each grain of lime. A freight engine uses seventy-five
gallons of water to the mile, and runs one hundred miles a day. This is
light service, both for water and mileage; yet, within ten days, nearly
three hundred pounds of solid matter is injected into the boiler.
To purify water by injecting chemicals into locomotive boilers, and
prevent the boiler filling up rapidly with mud, or giving trouble from
foaming, the blow-off cock and surface cock must be used so frequently
as to be felt on the consumption of coal. Where purifying of feed-water
_must_ be done, the right place to carry on the process is in the
station tanks, or in special appliances beside them. By carefully
watching the character of the impurities in the water, and treating
them with their proper precipitants, labor and expense devoted to the
purification of feed-water may bring in good returns: where attempts
are made to improve the water over a whole road by one method of
treatment, failure is certain.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

_EXAMINATION FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS._

The following is the form of questions put to firemen on one of the
most prominent railroads in this country before they are admitted as
competent for promotion, and the kind of answers expected from those
who are considered eligible for the higher position. The form questions
are not adhered to strictly, and care is taken that a candidate for
promotion does not commit the answers to memory without properly
understanding the subject. No fireman is promoted who does not satisfy
the examiner that he understands the practical questions asked.

_Q._--What are the principal duties of an engineer before attaching his
engine to train?

_A._--To examine the engine carefully, to see that all set-screws
are in place, and rod-keys secure; that the engine is equipped with
all necessary signals, firing, and hand-tools; the necessary supply
of water, fuel, and stores. Also, to take a look at the flues and
crown-sheet.

_Q._--What is important, in carrying water in the boiler, as to height
and regularity?

_A._--To carry water and steam in the top gauge-cocks when working
steam, and as uniformly as possible.

_Q._--What is important in carrying water on grades, and approaching a
summit?

_A._--To carry the water sufficiently high to be sure that the front
ends of the tubes are not exposed, and, in pitching over a summit,
to have sufficient water to cover and protect the crown-sheet, after
finding its level from the front or low end of the boiler.

_Q._--Should it be necessary, after pitching over a summit, to pump up
a gauge or more of water, what should be the condition of the fire?

_A._--The fire should be kept bright, and burning freely.

_Q._--Why is this important?

_A._--To prevent chilling the flues, causing them to leak.

_Q._--Should you have ample water after pitching over, what should be
the condition of the fire?

_A._--It should be leveled and settled down, and covered over
sufficiently to prevent unnecessary waste of steam or fuel.

_Q._--Should the pump or injectors fail on the road, what would you do?

_A._--First, smother down the fire, stop promptly, take off the hose,
and raise the tank-valves to ascertain that they are connected; also
see that the strainers are clear. If all is found clear, then try the
injectors again; and, if the engine has a pump, take it down, and
see that the valves are free, and would also run water through the
feed-pipes. When all is open and free, put them up, and try them again.

_Q._--Should the water in the boiler get too low to allow you time for
the examination, what would you do?

_A._--Draw the fire, and send a messenger to the nearest telegraph
office for assistance.

_Q._--Should the water in the boiler become disturbed, and foam, what
would you do? And how would you ascertain whether it was foaming, or
being over pumped?

_A._--As soon as the water is discovered discharging from the stack,
would at once shut off, and ascertain the height of the water solid.
Should the water drop below the second or third gauge, would conclude
there was foaming, and would again gently open the throttle. Should
the water again rise, and discharge from the stack, would put on both
injectors, open the surface blow, and run carefully; allowing the bad
water to be worked off through the surface blow, being very careful not
to work the water in sufficient quantities through the cylinders as to
endanger knocking out the heads; and would occasionally shut off, to
see that the water was not being thrown off faster than the pumps or
injectors were supplying it. By this means, the bad water would, in
most cases, be worked out, and, with gentle usage, would again settle.

_Q._--Should the blow-off cock be blown out, or be broken off, or a
hole be broken in the boiler in any way, what would you do?

_A._--Draw the fire promptly, and send a messenger to the nearest
telegraph office for assistance. Would then disconnect, and get the
engine ready to be towed in when assistance arrived.

_Q._--What portions of the engine would you disconnect in such a case?

_A._--Take off main rods and valve-rods.

_Q._--What is important to observe in setting up or adjusting wedges?

_A._--To have them so neatly adjusted that there will be no thump of
the boxes, and, at the same time, not so tight as to cramp, and not
allow them full and free play in the pedestals.

_Q._--How would you go about setting them up?

_A._--Would place the engine at half stroke on the right side, block
the left wheels, admit a little steam, and thump the boxes hard away
from the wedges. Would then get under, and put the wedges up solid with
a short wrench, and make a side mark on the pedestals at top of wedge,
then draw them down equally a scant one-eighth of an inch. Go over the
left side in the same manner.

_Q._--How would you key up, or adjust, the side rods of a ten-wheel
engine?

_A._--Would place the engine on a level and straight track, and on a
dead center; then slack off all keys on that line of rods; would then
key the knuckle on center brass first, leaving it sufficiently free on
the pin to be moved laterally by hand. Then adjust the front and back
ends in the same manner.

_Q._--Why should you place the engine on exact dead center, and begin
by keying the center brass first?

_A._--In order to insure keying the rods of proper length, to allow
them to pass the dead, or rigid, points without strain.

_Q._--Can the side rods be keyed too long or too short when not
standing on dead center?

_A._--They can.

_Q._--If too long or too short, at what point of the stroke will the
strain be?

_A._--While passing the dead, or rigid, points.

_Q._--Should you slip the right back motion eccentric on the road, how
would you reset it?

_A._--Would place the engine on exact dead center on right side,
place the reverse-lever in full forward gear, and make a mark on the
valve-rod at the stuffing-box gland; then place the reverse-lever
in full back gear, and turn the slipped eccentric until the mark on
valve-rod came to its original position, being careful to see that the
full or throw of the eccentric was in position nearly opposite the
forward eccentric; then secure it there.

_Q._--In what way does the mark you made on the valve-rod, while in
forward gear, aid you in setting the slipped eccentric?

_A._--The forward motion eccentric being in proper position by placing
the reverse-lever in full forward gear, the valve is brought into
proper position on the ports; and the mark gives the position of the
valve when the back motion eccentric is in its proper position, thus
setting the slipped eccentric by the good one.

_Q._--Should a valve-yoke break, how would you test in order to
determine which side was disabled?

_A._--Would first place the engine at half stroke on right side, and
admit a little steam to the cylinders; then move the reverse-lever from
back to forward motion, and, if the steam could be shifted from the
back to the forward cylinder-cock, would conclude that the right yoke
was good, and would test the left side in the same way.

_Q._--Why would you place your engine at half stroke on the side you
wished to test?

_A._--In order to get the full movement of the valve over the ports on
that side.

_Q._--After locating the broken yoke, how would you disconnect?

_A._--Would take off the steam-chest lid, place the valve over the
ports, and block it there securely; replace the lid, take off the
valve-rod, take off the main rod, block the cross-head, and proceed
with half train, if freight; if passenger, would take the full train to
the next telegraph office, report, and give judgment as to whether the
engine would take entire train to its destination.

_Q._--Should you blow or break out a cylinder-head, how would you
disconnect?

_A._--First, take off the valve-rod, and close the ports with the
valve, and secure it by cramping with the stuffing-box gland; take off
main rod, and block the cross-head.

_Q._--Should the cylinder packing drop and blow badly on the road, how
would you determine which side was down?

_A._--In starting from a station, would notice the right cross-head,
and, if the blow occurred when it was leaving each extreme end of the
stroke, would locate the blow in the right cylinder.

_Q._--Should it blow so badly as to make it necessary to set it out on
the road, what would be important for you to observe in setting it out?

_A._--Would be careful to set the piston central in the cylinder, using
calipers if at hand, and, if not, would use a stick of proper length,
and be careful only to set the packing to fill the cylinder neatly,
using as little power on the bolts as practicable; lock the nuts
securely, and replace the follower, being careful to screw the follower
bolts home solid.

_Q._--Should you be running an engine which had but one pump, it being
on the right side, and that side became disabled, so that it would be
necessary to disconnect it, the injector be too small or fail to supply
the boiler, what would you do to avoid drawing the fire, and being
hauled home?

_A._--Would disconnect the piston from the cross-head on the disabled
side, and take it out, put up the main rod, and work the cross-head,
which would give the use of the pump.

_Q._--Should you break the top rocker-arm, how would you disconnect?

_A._--Take off the valve-rod and broken arm, close the ports, and
secure the valve with the stuffing-box gland, and disconnect, as in
case of broken cylinder-head.

_Q._--Should the bottom rocker-arm break, how would you disconnect?

_A._--As a rule, would not take off eccentric-straps; but with an
engine badly worn, and loose in link-hanger, so that the link could
play about freely when running, would take off the eccentric-straps,
and disconnect, as in case of broken cylinder-head.

_Q._--Should you break a link-hanger, how would you disconnect?

_A._--If but a short distance to run, and no stopping or shifting to
do, would run in without disconnecting, after cautioning the crew to
keep the train under good control, and stop promptly when signaled to
do so. But, if a long distance to run, would disconnect, as in case of
broken cylinder-head.

_Q._--In what way would you have lost control of your engine with
broken link-hanger?

_A._--Would only be able to reverse one side of the engine.

_Q._--Should you break an eccentric-strap, how would you disconnect?

_A._--Take off both eccentric-straps on that side, and disconnect as in
case of broken cylinder-head.

_Q._--Should you break the back section of a side rod on a six-wheel
connected engine, what would you do?

_A._--Would take off both back sections, and run in with main and
forward wheels connected, with about two-thirds of train.

_Q._--Should you break a forward section, how would you disconnect?

_A._--Would take off all side rods, and run in without train.

_Q._--Should you break a main crank-pin close up to the wheel, how
would you disconnect?

_A._--Would take off all side rods and the main rod on disabled side,
and run in without train.

_Q._--Should you be running an engine which had a slide throttle-valve,
and it would strip or disconnect inside the boiler partly open, how
would you manage?

_A._--Would reduce the steam-pressure within easy control, and state
the trouble to the crew, and caution them to act promptly when called
upon to do so. Would work the train, if freight, to the nearest siding,
and back it off; if passenger, would keep the pressure within easy
handling, and work the train to the nearest telegraph office, report,
and ask for orders.

_Q._--Should one of the forward tires on a ten-wheel engine break, how
would you manage?

_A._--Would jack the wheel up the thickness of the tire, take out the
oil-cellar, and cut a block to fit the bottom of the box and journal
sufficiently thick to hold the axle up in its place when resting on the
pedestal-brace; would then run in without disconnecting, provided the
rod had not been bent or damaged by the broken tire. Would take in full
train.

_Q._--Should you break a main tire, how would you manage?

_A._--Would first send messenger to nearest telegraph office, and ask
for assistance. Would then block up the axle and wheel the thickness
of the tire, slack off the side-rod keys, and run in carefully without
train.

_Q._--Should the back tire break, how would you manage?

_A._--Would take off the back section of rods, block up the axle, run
very carefully, especially around curves, to nearest telegraph office,
report, and ask for orders.

INDEX.

  Accidents to cylinders and steam connections, 162–171.

  ---- ---- eccentric-strap, 383.

  ---- ---- link-hanger, 383.

  ---- ---- running-gear, 172–181.

  ---- ---- valve-motion, 143–161.

  Adhesion of locomotives, 346.

  Air-pump disorders, 322.

  Angularity of connecting-rod, 219.

  Angularity of connecting-rod, effect of, in valve-motion, 220.

  Appliances for testing water, 363.

  Ash-pan, neglecting, 42.

  Axles, broken, 179.

  Baldwin locomotives, 284.

  Boiler, blowing off, 139.

  ---- careful feeding preserves, 70.

  ---- care of, 136–138.

  ---- explosions, 137.

  ---- feeding, 65, 86, 103.

  ---- incrustation, 101, 362.

  ---- injudicious feeding of, 69.

  ---- inspection of, 36.

  ---- over-pressure on, 140.

  ---- precautions against scorching, 40.

  ---- preservation of, 138.

  ---- temperature of, 67.

  ---- water for locomotive, 359–375.

  Boilers and fire-boxes, 136–142.

  Books, prejudice against, 8.

  ---- mechanical, recommended, 9.

  Brakes, advantage of good, 310.

  ---- atmospheric, 312.

  ---- Eames vacuum, 340–345.

  ---- to apply and release, 336.

  ---- to prevent creeping on of, 335.

  ---- Westinghouse air, 309–339.

  Brooks locomotives, 284.

  Chemicals for testing water, 363.

  ---- ---- purifying boiler water, 374.

  Collisions, 173.

  Connecting-rods, side rods, and wedges, 182–198.

  ---- ---- angularity of, 219.

  ---- ---- functions of, 182.

  Crank, attempts to abolish, 217.

  Cross-head, methods of securing, 157.

  ---- pin broken, 164, 383.

  Curves, resistance of, 353.

  Cut-off, ascertaining point of, 253.

  ---- adjustment of, 255.

  Cylinders, accidents to, 162, 381.

  ---- action of steam, in reverse-motion, 224.

  ---- back pressure in, 211.

  ---- compression in, 213.

  ---- operation of steam in, 210.

  Dampers, operating, 71.

  ---- loss of heat from, 73.

  Dead center, 251.

  Diagram, indicator, 306.

  Diaphragm-plate, 99.

  ---- vacuum brake, 341.

  Disconnecting engine, 379.

  Draught appliances, 98.

  ---- obstructions to, 97, 98.

  Driving-axles, broken, 179.

  Driving-box, 179, 190, 196.

  Driving-trusses, 193.

  Driving-springs, broken, 177.

  Dry pipe, broken, 166.

  Dynagraph car, 355.

  Eames vacuum brake, 340–345.

  Eccentric, angular advance of, 218.

  ---- slipped, 234, 380.

  ---- description of, 214.

  ---- early application of, 215.

  ---- throw, influence of, 238.

  ---- position of, 152, 218.

  ---- rods, position of, 243.

  ---- rods slipped, 154.

  ---- strap broken, 155, 383.

  Educating engineers, 25.

  Ejector, Eames brake, 342.

  Emergencies, dealing with sudden, 172.

  Engineers, attributes that make good, 1, 89.

  ---- causes of anxiety to, 78.

  ---- education for, 25.

  ---- examination for, 376–384.

  ---- first duties of, 43, 376.

  ---- duties, growing importance of, 3.

  ---- how made, 11, 29.

  ---- illiterate men not wanted for, 3.

  Engineers, individuality of, 3.

  ---- interest in valve-motion among, 149.

  ---- learning duties of, 20.

  ---- public interest in, 2.

  ---- their duties, 1–10.

  Engines, hard-steaming, 92–108.

  ---- high-speed, 83.

  ---- essentials of good-steaming, 92.

  ---- slippery, 62.

  ---- power of different kinds of, 357.

  ---- rough-riding, 197.

  Equalizer lever broken, 178.

  Examination for engineers, 376–384.

  ---- ---- firemen, 24.

  Exhaust, detecting cause of lame, 155.

  ---- locating the four sounds of, 144.

  ---- note, neglecting warning of false, 148.

  ---- watching sound of, 144.

  Finishing the trip, 74–81.

  Fire, attending to, 79.

  ---- effect of excessive air on, 72.

  ---- management of, 54.

  ---- making up, 84.

  ---- starting the, 40.

  Fire-boxes and boilers, 136–142.

  Firemen, bad, 59.

  ---- first duties of, 41.

  ---- first trips as, 18.

  ---- highest types of, 57.

  ---- learning duties of, 19.

  ---- make best engineers, 14.

  ---- medium, 58.

  ---- men chosen for, 16.

  ---- method of promoting, 23.

  ---- method of selecting, 17.

  Firemen, misconception of duties of, 19.

  ---- qualifications for, 27.

  Firing, conditions that demand good, 56.

  ---- good, 55.

  ---- effect of heavy, 72.

  ---- engine of fast train, 90.

  ---- scientific methods of, 57, 107.

  ---- whom to blame for bad, 59.

  Flues, bursted, 141.

  ---- leaky, 102.

  Frames, broken, 179.

  Freight train, running a, 48–60.

  Gauge, water-glass, 43.

  Getting ready for the road, 39–47.

  Getting up the hill, 61–73.

  Grade, getting train up a, 61.

  Grant locomotives, 285.

  Grates, saving the, 42.

  ---- defects of, 100.

  Giffard injector, 119.

  Hancock inspirator, 134, 135.

  Hard-steaming engines, 92–108.

  How engineers are made, 11–29.

  Ignorance, where disaster came of, 7.

  Indicator, 303–308.

  ---- advantage of using, 308.

  ---- description of, 303.

  ---- diagram, 306.

  ---- operation of, 304.

  ---- Tabor, 304.

  Injectors, chapter on, 119–135.

  ---- care of, 124–128.

  ---- choice of, for feeding, 66, 109.

  ---- disorders of, 125–127.

  ---- forms of, 123.

  ---- Hancock, 135.

  Injectors, invention of, 109.

  ---- Korting, 133.

  ---- Monitor, 132.

  ---- principle of action of, 121.

  ---- repairing, 123.

  ---- Sellers, 129.

  ---- trying to learn philosophy of, 120.

  Inspection of locomotives, 30–38.

  Inspection of locomotives, neglecting, 31.

  Inspirator, Hancock, 135.

  Joy valve-gear, 292–302.

  ---- valve, action of, 296.

  ---- ---- advantage claimed for, 295.

  ---- ---- construction directions, 294.

  ---- ---- how applied, 292.

  ---- ---- rules for laying out, 298.

  Knowledge and skill in engineering, 1.

  ---- _versus_ ignorance, 2.

  ---- practical, needed, 15.

  ---- of train-rights, 75.

  Korting injector, 133.

  Laying out link-motion, 257–286.

  Lime, effects of its presence in water, 101, 359.

  ---- tests for salts of, 364.

  Link-hanger, broken, 383.

  Link-motion, adjustment of, 239.

  ---- conditions of laying out, 259.

  ---- hanger-stud, 241.

  ---- increase of lead, 243.

  ---- invention of, 230.

  ---- laying out, 257–286.

  ---- position of rocker, 264.

  Link-motion, position of crank-pin and eccentrics, 265.

  ---- problems of laying out, 260.

  ---- radius, 242.

  ---- slip, 240.

  ---- weak points of, 235–258.

  Links, hooking up, 50.

  Locomotives, adhesion of, 346.

  ---- difficulty of running at night, 14–21.

  ---- dimensions of, 284–286.

  ---- hard-steaming, 92.

  ---- high-speed, 83.

  ---- horse-power of, 350.

  ---- importance of, steaming freely, 92.

  ---- inspection of, 30–38.

  ---- learning to keep, in order, 22.

  ---- power of different kinds, 357.

  ---- running worn-out, 143.

  ---- slippery, 64.

  ---- traction of, 347.

  Mason locomotives, 286.

  Monitor injector, 132.

  Mud-drums, 102.

  Mud in boilers, 101, 139, 373.

  Nathan injector, 132.

  Netting choked with oil, 98.

  Night, difficulty of running at, 14.

  Nozzles, exhaust, 105.

  Off the track, 172–181.

  Oil-cups, inspection of, 34, 84.

  Oil, quality of, needed for machinery, 45.

  Passenger train, running fast, 82–91.

  Petticoat-pipe, influence on steam-making of, 93.

  ---- ---- size and position of, 94.

  Piston, clearance, 104, 184.

  ---- events of stroke, 222.

  ---- irregular speed of, 215.

  ---- setting out packing, 382.

  Pittsburg locomotives, 285.

  Point of suspension of link, 241.

  Pounding of working-parts, 168–170.

  ---- in driving-boxes and wedges, 190.

  Power of locomotives, 357.

  Pumps, care of air, 326.

  ---- ---- ---- water, 113.

  ---- causes that induce pounding in air, 331.

  ---- choice of, for feeding water, 66.

  ---- disorders of air, 322.

  ---- disorders of water, 109–118.

  ---- gradual degeneration of air, 329.

  ---- lift of valves for water, 115.

  ---- sand in chambers, 116.

  ---- testing water, 113.

  ---- Westinghouse air, 318.

  Raising steam, 39.

  Radius of link, 242.

  Relief-valve on dry pipe, 227.

  Reversing motions, early, 229.

  Road, acquaintance with the, 79.

  ---- getting ready for the, 39–47.

  Rocker-arm, broken, 158.

  ---- position of, 264.

  Rocker-shaft, broken, 158.

  Rods, eccentric, 154, 243, 248, 268.

  ---- keying up, 186, 189, 379, 380.

  ---- main, 164, 182, 183.

  Rods, side, 182, 187, 188.

  ---- watching, on road, 185.

  ---- valve, 250.

  Rough-riding, cause of, 197.

  Running-gear, inspection of, 35, 197.

  ---- understanding the, 176.

  Running fast freight train, 48–60.

  ---- ---- passenger train, 82–91.

  Saddle-pin, center of, 271.

  Sand, use of, 63.

  ---- in pump-chamber, 116.

  Scale agencies that make lime, 362.

  ---- effects on steam-making, 101.

  Schenectady locomotives, 286.

  Self-improvement, methods of, 5.

  Sellers injector, 129–131.

  Setting the valves, 246–256.

  Shop, observing work in, 6.

  Soap-test for hard water, 369–372.

  Short of water, 109–118.

  Smoke-box, extended, 99.

  ---- temperature of, 106.

  Shifting-link, 229–245.

  ---- action of, 233.

  ---- construction of, 232.

  ---- slip, 240.

  Side-rods, 182, 187, 188.

  ---- adjustment of, 187, 189, 379, 380.

  Slide-valves, clearance, 208.

  ---- described, 200.

  ---- detecting leakage of, 145.

  ---- effect of changing travel, 236.

  ---- increase of lead, 243.

  ---- invention of, 199.

  ---- lap, 202–205, 212.

  ---- lead, 209.

  ---- primitive form of, 201.

  Slide-valves, movement of, 217.

  ---- setting of, 246–256.

  ---- testing for leaks, 161.

  Speed, average of fast train, 82, 86–88.

  ---- requisites of high, 83.

  Springs, broken driving, 177.

  Smoke-stack, badly proportioned, 105.

  ---- functions of, 97.

  Steam-engine indicator, 303–308.

  Steam, action of, in reverse-motion, 244.

  ---- back pressure, 211.

  ---- causes detrimental to making, 93.

  ---- chest-cover broken, 159.

  ---- compression of, 213.

  ---- operation in cylinders, 210.

  ---- pipes broken, 160.

  ---- pipes leaking, 100.

  ---- pressure best for economy, 52.

  ---- raising, 39.

  ---- running with low pressure of, 54.

  ---- working expansively, 51.

  Stephenson link, 231.

  Stevens valve-gear, 287–291.

  Stevens valve-gear, control of exhaust-lead, 290.

  Stevens valve-gear, description of, 287.

  ---- ---- valve-movement, 289.

  Strainers, 113.

  Supplies, 42.

  Tests of feed-water, 363–372.

  ---- ---- valves, 161.

  Throttle, accidents to, 167.

  ---- disconnected, 165, 166, 383.

  Throttle, position of lever, 54.

  Tires, broken, 179–384.

  Track, engine off the, 172.

  ---- operating single, 77.

  ---- replacing engine on, 174.

  Traction of locomotives, 346.

  Train, conditions that increase resistance of, 352.

  Train, fast passenger, 82.

  ---- knowledge of rights of, 75.

  ---- resistance formula, 351.

  ---- resistances, 346–358.

  ---- running freight, 48.

  Travel of slide-valve, 236.

  Triple valve, 332.

  Trucks, accidents to, 178.

  Tumbling-shaft, broken, 157.

  ---- length of arms, 277.

  Valve, Allen, 206.

  Valve-motion, accidents to, 143, 150, 158.

  ---- aids to study of, 221.

  ---- chapter on, 199–228.

  ---- compression, 213.

  ---- effect of excessive inside lap, 212.

  ---- effect of main-rod angularity on, 220.

  ---- interest in, 149.

  ---- Joy’s, 292–303.

  ---- locating defects of, 151.

  ---- of fast passenger engine, 235.

  ---- Stevens, 287–291.

  Valve-setting, 246–286.

  ---- best way to learn, 247.

  ---- cut-off, 253.

  Valve-setting, lead-opening, 252.

  ---- men who learn, 246.

  ---- preliminary operations, 247.

  Valve-stem, broken, 158.

  ---- marking, 249.

  Valve-travel, effect of changing, 235.

  Valve-yoke, broken, 158, 380.

  Water, expense of using bad, 360.

  ---- for locomotive boilers, 359–375.

  ---- how carried, 89, 376.

  ---- how to avoid getting short of, 111.

  ---- loss of faith in purifying methods, 361.

  ---- master-mechanics’ attempts to purify, 361.

  ---- soap-test for hardness, 369–372.

  ---- short of, 110, 112, 377, 378.

  ---- tests of quality, 363–372.

  Watching the exhaust, 144.

  Wedges, 182, 190, 192, 194–196.

  Wheels, broken, 179.

  ---- slipping, 63.

  Westinghouse brake, 309–339.

  ---- air-pump, 318.

  ---- air-pump disorders, 322.

  ---- air-brake, essential parts, 317.

  ---- air-brake, first trials of, 311.

  ---- air-brake, invention of, 309.

  Working-parts, harmony of, 239.

  ---- pounding of, 168.

  WM. SELLERS & CO. (INCORPORATED),

  SOLE PATENTEES AND MAKERS OF

  THE
  SELF-ACTING
  INJECTOR
  OF 1887.

Range of capacity over 60 per cent., and can therefore be regulated
to work continuously for the lightest or heaviest trains. Never fails
to lift promptly hot or cold water. No service on a locomotive is
sufficiently severe to permanently stop its working. Should the jet
break from any interruption of the steam or water supply, the Injector
will RESTART ITSELF as soon as the supply is resumed. ADJUSTS ITSELF to
varying steam pressures without waste of water. Increases quantity of
water with increase of steam, and _vice versa_. Very simple to operate.
Started by pulling out the lever. Stopped by pushing in the lever.

Descriptive Circular Price List sent on application to office and works,

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

  Established, 1831.      Annual Capacity, 600.

  Baldwin Locomotive Works

  BURNHAM, PARRY, WILLIAMS & CO.,
  PROPRIETORS,
  PHILADELPHIA, PA.

  Broad and Narrow Gauge Locomotives.
    Mine Locomotives.
      Plantation Locomotives.
        Compressed Air Locomotives.
                   Logging Locomotives.
  Noiseless Motors and Steam Street Cars.

All important parts made to Standard Gauges and Templates. Like parts
of different engines of same class perfectly interchangeable.

  GEO. WESTINGHOUSE, JR., President.
  JOHN CALDWELL, Treasurer.
  T. W. WELSH, Superintendent.
  W. W. CARD, Secretary.
  H. H. WESTINGHOUSE, General Agent.

  THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE
  COMPANY,
  Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.,

  MANUFACTURERS OF THE

  WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE,
      WESTINGHOUSE LOCOMOTIVE DRIVER BRAKE,
          VACUUM BRAKES (Westinghouse & Smith Patents),
              WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE.

The Automatic Freight Brake is essentially the same apparatus as the
Automatic Brake for passenger cars, except that the various parts are
one piece of mechanism, and is sold at a very low price. The saving
in accidents, flat wheels, brakemen’s wages, and the increased speed
possible with perfect safety, will repay the cost of its application
within a very short time.

The “AUTOMATIC” has proved itself to be the most efficient train
and safety brake known. Its application is instantaneous; it can be
operated from any car in the train, if desired, and should the train
separate, or a hose or pipe fail, it applies automatically. A GUARANTEE
is given customers against LOSS from PATENT SUITS on the apparatus sold
them.

FULL INFORMATION FURNISHED ON APPLICATION.

  PITTSBURGH
  LOCOMOTIVE AND CAR WORKS,
  PITTSBURGH, PA.

  MANUFACTURERS OF
  LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES
  FOR
  BROAD OR NARROW GAUGE ROADS

  From standard designs, or according to specifications,
  to suit purchasers.

  TANKS, LOCOMOTIVE OR STATIONARY BOILERS
  Furnished at Short Notice.

  D. A. STEWART, Pres’t.
  D. A. WIGHTMAN, Sup’t.
  WILSON MILLER, Sec. and Treas.

BROOKS LOCOMOTIVE WORKS

DUNKIRK, N. Y.

  H. G. BROOKS, President and Superintendent.
  M. L. HINMAN, Secretary and Treasurer.
  R. J. GROSS, Traveling Agent.

Builders of all classes of LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. All work constructed
accurately to Standard Gauges and Steel-Bushed Templates. We guarantee
the interchangeability of like parts of different Engines of the same
class.

  THE STANDARD STEEL WORKS.
  TIRES STANDARD TIRES
  PHILADELPHIA
]

  STEEL CASTINGS
  From 1-4 to 15,000 lbs. weight,

  True to pattern, sound and solid, of unequalled strength, toughness,
  and durability. An invaluable substitute for forgings, or for cast-
    iron requiring three-fold strength. Gearing of all kinds, Shoes,
         Dies, Hammer-Heads, Cross-Heads for Locomotives, etc.
          40,000 Crank Shafts, and 30,000 Gear Wheels of this
             Steel now running, prove its superiority over
                         other Steel Castings.

SPECIALTIES:

 CRANK SHAFTS, CROSS-HEADS, AND GEARINGS,
 Steel Castings of Every Description.

_Please send for Circulars. Address_

  CHESTER STEEL CASTINGS CO.,
  _Works, CHESTER, PENN._

Office, No. 407 LIBRARY STREET, PHILADELPHIA.

Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
preference was found in the original book; otherwise they were not
changed. Inconsistent hyphenation was not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
unbalanced.

Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs,
outside quotations, and usually close to their first reference in the
text.

The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
references.

Text uses both “employés” and “employes”.

Some tables have been rearranged to make them narrower.