which I examined of another species of this genus (_H. longistylum_,
Becc.), that occurs on the coast trees, contained a few cockroaches, but
no ants; and, on the outer surface of one of the swollen masses, I found
a small crab. From my own cursory notes, it would therefore seem
probable that these epiphytes may thrive without the presence of ants.
. . . . With this digression, I return to my description of the ascent
of the stream.

    [424] “A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago,” p. 81.
    (1885.)

    [425] This species was obtained at Ugi.

Leaving behind the slime and gloom of the swamp, the rising ground is
reached, at the base of which the vegetation is of the most luxuriant
character, and often have I lingered here in my Rob Roy canoe to admire
the luxuriance of plant-growth that surrounded me. For on account of the
lowness of the district, it shares the dampness though not the
infertility of the swamps below. The soft clayey rock, which is exposed
in the banks of the stream, affords a rich and even too productive soil.
Nature runs riot and becomes prodigal in her profusion; and thus growth
is too often associated with decay to present on all occasions a
pleasing picture to the eye. Here the tree-fern, the croton, the wild
plantain, and numerous areca palms flourish; but the alpinias,
heliconias, and other scitamineous plants form the chief feature of the
vegetation on this gently rising ground.

Higher up the stream, tall forest trees rise on each side often
enveloped partially by a drapery of runners and climbing plants, their
leafy branches spreading over the water. Stout lianas hang in festoons
across the stream. Partly hidden amongst the greater vegetation may be
seen the fan-palm of the district (_Licuala_, the “firo” of the
natives), and another pretty little palm known as the “sensisi,”
_Cyrtostachys_, together with the handsome foliage of a _Plerandra_
(“fo”) and numerous areca palms. An occasional _Dolicholobium_
(“lowasi”) with white flowers distributes its fragrance around. Ferns
abound along the banks, varying in size from the small _Trichomanes_ to
the tree-fern, twenty feet in height, and the _Angiopteris_ with its
magnificent spreading fronds fifteen feet and more in length. If one
leaves the stream for a few minutes at the foot of the hills, a moist,
low-lying district is traversed, the home of the scitamineæ and the
areca-palms, which latter are distinguished amongst the natives as the
“momo,” “niga-solu,” “niga-torulo,” and “au-au.”

Ascending the hill slopes towards the source of the stream, numerous
palms rise up on either side. The _Caryota_ (“eala”) with its branches
resembling the fronds of a huge adiantum, the handsome “kisu” (probably
a species of _Drymophloeus_) and a tall areca known as the “poamau,” are
those which frequently meet the eye. Interspersed among them we notice
the lesser areca-palms and the fan-palm before alluded to. On the crest
of the hill, at a height of some 200 or 300 feet above the sea, are
found tall forest trees, some of them of gigantic size and attaining a
height of 150 feet and upwards. Amongst them occur the banyan (“chim”),
other ficoid trees with the flange-like buttresses, and the “katari,” a
species of _Calophyllum_ which supplies the natives with a resin for
their torches. In the following description of the interior of the
forest in this region I have referred at some length to the larger
trees.

_The interior of the forest. . . ._ To obtain a true idea of the
forest-growth in these islands, it is necessary to traverse one of the
more level districts in the interior, which is removed from the vicinity
of the cultivated patches of the natives. Entering the confines of the
forest direct from the full glare of the tropical sun, one experiences a
peculiar and often oppressive sensation, which may be attributed to the
combined influences of the warmth, the humidity, and the effluvia
arising from the decaying vegetation, to the impressive silence that
reigns, and to the subdued light or dusky atmosphere that there
prevails. Meeting overhead at a height of some 150 feet from the ground,
the foliage and the smaller branches of the lofty trees form a dense
leafy screen roofing over, as it were, a series of lofty corridors in
which the palms and the lesser trees flourish. The gloom that there
prevails is rarely lightened by the direct rays of the sun, except here
and there through the gap left by the downfall of one of the huge trunks
that now lies rotting on the ground. Nor is the silence that reigns
often broken, except by the cooing of the fruit-pigeons overhead or by
the rushing flight of the hornbill startled from its repose. Here the
steady blast of the trade is no longer felt and is only perceptible in
the movements of the foliage of the tallest trees. Yet there is little
in such a scene that would strike the mind of the merely æsthetic lover
of nature. Flowers he rarely sees: they are only to be found where the
sunlight can reach them in the partially cleared spaces in the midst of
the forest, or on the sides of ravines, or along the coasts. On the
other hand, however, he cannot fail to be impressed by the luxuriance
and magnificence of the vegetation in this conservatory of Nature.

Under such conditions the palms flourish. The _Caryota_, the “kisu”
palm, numerous areca-palms, with the tree-fern, give the character to
the lesser vegetation. Huge climbing stems, such as the “droau,” the
“aligesi” (_Aleurites?_), the “nakia” (_Uvaria_), the “awi-sulu”
(_Lyonsia_) lie in coils on the ground and rising vertically reach the
lower branches of the trees some fifty to a hundred feet overhead. The
large purple papilionaceous flowers of the “droau” sometimes strew the
ground at the bases of the tallest trees. If the forest be situated on a
hill-side, the slope is clothed by _Selaginellæ_ which often display in
the midst of their dark-green foliage pretty bleached fronds that form a
striking contrast to the prevailing hue. Mosses, small ferns, and fungi,
such as the massive expansions of _Polyporus_ and the more delicate
plates of _Hexagona apiaria_ and others, conceal in some degree the
unsightliness of the decaying log. A drapery of lycopods and of trailing
and climbing ferns, such as _Trichomanes_ and _Lygonia_ more or less
completely invests the lower portions of the trunks of the larger trees.
Seventy or eighty feet overhead the wide-spreading fronds of the
birds-nest fern (_Asplenium nidus_) appear half-suspended in mid-air, as
they project from their point of attachment to the tree. Lower down the
trunk, the handsome aroid _Epipremnum_ may be observed. Epiphytic
orchids form no marked feature in this forest-scene, preferring, as they
do, those situations where the direct sunlight can reach them, as at the
coast and on the sides of ravines. Terrestrial orchids, however, with
inconspicuous and sombre-coloured flowers thrive in the gloom and
moisture of the forest.

The larger trees, to which I have not yet referred, often attain a
height of 150 feet and over. Here the banyan and more than one species
of _Canarium_ including the “ka-i” or Solomon Island Almond tree,
together with a _Ratonia_ (“nekale”), a _Vitex_ (“fasala”), the “katari”
(_Calophyllum_) before mentioned, and numerous ficoid trees known to the
natives as the “uri,” the “ilimo,” and the “nie,” figure amongst the
more conspicuous of the forest trees. Many of them possess at the base
of the trunk large buttresses or flanges, which, as in the “tobu,”
“ilimo,” “nie,” and “maranato” (_Sapotacea?_), may rise twelve to
fifteen feet up the trunk and extend some twenty feet away along the
ground. Some of the ficoid trees throw off at a height of from twenty to
thirty feet, large flange-like buttresses, which, on reaching the
ground, form natural arches. These lofty trees, as I have already
remarked, meet together overhead to form a leafy screen, which, whilst
it excludes the direct rays of the sun, admits and confines both the
moisture and the heat. This conservatory of nature contains within its
own precincts the conditions for its preservation. Here the young tree
grows up, its safety ensured, until at length it becomes a pillar in the
edifice in which it was itself reared. The open character of the wood
and the absence of scrub and undergrowth, more especially on level
ground, have often been a cause of surprise to me. I have often walked
without impediment through the gloomy corridors of such a forest,
brushing past the huge trunks of the tallest trees, and winding in and
out amongst the palms that number as many years in age as their giant
compeers count decades.

On first treading in such a forest, the visitor is much impressed by the
imposing appearance and size of the banyans and the buttress-trees. With
mingled feelings of awe and pity he will perceive that between these
monarchs of the forest there is waged an unequal struggle, in which the
huge buttress-tree always succumbs to the rough embraces of its foe. He
will observe all the stages in the struggle. Here the buttress-tree may
be seen in its prime, but in part embraced at its lower part by the
tightly clasping offshoots of the young banyan. Further on, in the midst
of the interlacing columns of the banyan, the buttress-tree may be seen
partially strangled. Dry rot has attacked its trunk reaching almost to
the core, so that a sheath-knife sinks readily up to the handle in its
substance; yet, far overhead the wide-spreading branches of this forest
potentate are covered with green foliage, and still wave defiantly in
the trade. In the prolonged contest the buttress-tree is dying hard, and
in fact it is the stout investing trunks of the banyan that alone hold
its victim erect. Near by may be another banyan of larger size and
presenting the appearance of a maze of columns which may cover an area
thirty to forty feet across. Its victim has long since disappeared, and
a hollow in the centre of the maze of stems alone marks the former
situation of the huge buttress-tree.

What finer or more impressive simile could be employed to illustrate the
gradual degeneration and final downfall of a nation under the choking
influences of vice, corruption, luxury, and misgovernment? A mighty
forest tree is slowly strangled by the caresses of an insidious creeper.
With advancing decay its tottering stem is alone supported by the
tightening grasp of its foe. Yet its higher branches retain their
vitality to the last; and when the end comes, its ashes add fertility to
the soil and vigour to the growth of its destroyer.

It is not to be surprised that this battle of the trees should be
included in the mythical lore of some of the inhabitants of the Pacific
islands. Dr. George Turner, in his recent work entitled “Samoa, a
hundred years ago and long before,” gives the following legend of the
banyan. . . . . . “A report reached Samoa that the trees of Fiji had
fought with the Banian tree, and that it had beaten them all. On this
the Tatangia (_Acacia laurifolia_) and another tree went off from Samoa
in two canoes to right the Fijian champion. They reached Fiji, went on
shore, and there stood the Banian tree. ‘Where is the tree,’ they
inquired, ‘which has conquered all the trees?’ ‘I am the tree,’ said the
Banian. Then said the Tatangia, ‘I have come to fight with you.’ ‘Very
Good, let us fight,’ replied the Banian. They fought. A branch of the
Banian tree fell, but the Tatangia sprung aside and escaped. Another
fell--ditto, ditto--the Tatangia. Then the trunk fell. The Tatangia
again darted aside and escaped unhurt. On this the Banian tree ‘buried
its eyes in the earth’ and owned itself conquered.”

_An ascent to the summit of the Faro Island. . . ._ In making an ascent
to the higher districts of this island, which attains an elevation of
about 1900 feet above the sea, a little may be learned perhaps of the
vertical distribution of the coast flora in this portion of the Solomon
Group. The cycad (_Cycas circinalis_) grows most frequently just within
the trees that immediately line the beach and may be often observed at
all heights up to 400 feet above the sea, but it is not usually found at
greater elevations.[426] The following large trees commonly occur on the
hill-slopes up to an elevation of a thousand feet, the “fasala”
(_Vitex_), the “toa” (_Elæocarpus_), the “opi-opi,” the “ka-i”
(_Canarium_), the “katari” (_Calophyllum_), and others; whilst the palms
such as the fan-palm (_Licuala_), the _Caryota_ (“eala”), the “kisu”
(_Pinanga_) and the arecas, fill up the intermediate ground, the
fan-palm growing in great numbers and often monopolising the slope.[427]
The smaller trees, of a height usually of sixty or seventy feet, which
are more frequently observed during the lower half of the ascent, are, a
species of _Cerbera_ (“anumi”), the “kunuka” (_Gnetum_), the
“palinoromus” (_Couthovia_), the “poporoko,” and others; whilst on the
hill-slopes below the elevation of 500 feet the small conifer _Gnetum
Gnemon_ (“meriwa”) may be commonly seen. In three different localities,
at elevations of between 1,000 and 1,100 feet above the sea, I came upon
brakes of fine bamboos (_Schizostachyum?_) 35 to 40 feet in length which
are employed as fishing-poles by the natives. This bamboo, both in
Treasury and Faro Islands, does not appear to occur below this height;
whilst in the Shortland Islands, although found at a lower elevation, it
selects the higher regions of the island.

    [426] At Treasury Island I found a solitary cycad at a height of a
    thousand feet above the sea. As it was in the vicinity of a
    plantation of sago palms, it is probable that it had been planted by
    the natives who employ the fruits for medicinal purposes.

    [427] This fan-palm, the “firo” of the natives, was in 1884 only
    represented in Treasury by a single individual which had been
    brought a few years before from Bougainville, where the leaves are
    employed in making a conical hat that is commonly worn.

Above a thousand feet, many of the trees and palms so frequent below
become less common or disappear. The fan-palm (_Licuala_) which grows in
such numbers in the lower levels did not come under my notice above this
elevation. On account of the absence of large trees near the summit, the
lesser vegetation receives more of the sun’s rays; and thus at 1,600
feet above the sea the alpinias, such as the “vitoko” and the “kokuru”
re-appear, plants which usually abound in the lower levels in all open
situations, as on the banks of streams. For the same reason, we find
near the summit of the island at elevations of 1,600 to 1,700 feet the
tall composite shrub, _Wedelia biflora_, which is one of the commonest
of the plants that grow at the margin of the beach. On account of this
absence of large trees, and the consequent increased exposure to the
sun’s rays, the smaller trees with conspicuous flowers find a congenial
situation at this elevation: here are found the species of
_Dolicholobium_ (“lowasi”), which is common on the banks of the streams
in the lower levels, the _Fagræa Berteriana_ (“bubulata”) which grows
also at the coast, a wild nut-meg tree (_Myristica_), a species of
_Harpullia_ (“wawaupoko”), the “pakuri” (_Eugenia_), the “baimoloi” and
others. In these higher regions tree-ferns grow to a height of thirty
feet; and here the areca-palms, “momo” and “niga-torulo,” are also
found. Here flourishes the _Gleichenia_, a fern which does not usually
grow at elevations under 700 feet above the sea, and which is
represented by two common species: it is the “sinimi” of the natives
who, as I have already remarked, work the fine strips of its vascular
tissue into armlets which they commonly wear. Near the summit and all
down the slopes is found a species of _Begonia_, a genus, as I am
informed by Baron von Mueller, not before recorded from islands east of
New Guinea.[428] A dense growth of the trailing stems of a _Freycinetia_
and of ferns clothes the rocky sides of the highest peak, which is
almost bare of trees. Here however I found a new genus of the
_Pandanaceæ_, which, like some other pandanus trees, is known to the
natives as “sararang.” It grows to a height of fifty feet, and was only
observed by me on the highest peak of the island and for two or three
hundred feet below. It has a very conspicuous white “branching female
spadix,” three to four feet in length; and I learn from Professor Oliver
that the same or a near ally of it, though not in a condition to
describe, was collected by Signor Beccari in Jobi Island off the
north-west coast of New Guinea.

    [428] A species of _Ophiorrhiza_ is in Treasury Island usually
    associated with this _Begonia_ and is found at all elevations.

_The coast vegetation of the larger islands. . . ._ It is in the coasts
of such an island as Treasury or Faro Island, where the strictly
littoral and more inland plants become intermingled, that the Solomon
Island vegetation in some degree redeems its character. Here the
prevailing sombreness and inconspicuous inflorescences give place to
bright hues and to a variety of flowers. Here are seen the handsome
white flowers of a rubiaceous tree, a species of _Bikkia_; the yellowish
flowers and bright red fruits of _Harpullia capanioides_ (“koloa”); the
crimson flowers of an _Erythrina_ (perhaps _indica_); the yellow flowers
of _Cæsalpinia Nuga_; the large pods of _Pongamia glabra_; and the
fruits of a wild nutmeg (_Myristica_, sp.). _Hernandia peltata_ and
_Clerodendron inerme_ may also be here found. The conspicuous flowers of
_Hibiscus tiliaceus_, _Thespesia populnea_, and of other littoral trees
such as _Cerbera Odollam_ and _Guettarda speciosa_, add their brightness
to the scene. Amongst the foliage of the trees twine a species of
_Ipomœa_ with handsome white flowers, and here are seen the wax-like
flowers of more than one species of asclepiad (_Hoya_, sp). Orchids,
some of striking beauty, hang from the trunks of the trees and form a
conspicuous feature in the scene. Among them occur species of
_Dendrobium_, _Coelogyne_, _Cleisostoma_, etc.

_The littoral vegetation, as exhibited in a coral islet. . . ._ I will
take the case of one of the many wooded islets that have been formed on
the coral reefs by the action of the waves. On the weather side of such
an islet, which may be termed its growing edge, the vegetation is
scanty, and there are but few trees. A binding weed and more than one
species of _Ipomœa_ loosely cover a surface composed almost entirely of
calcareous sand, broken shells, coral debris, and pumice pebbles; and it
is on such an unproductive soil that two or more species of _Pandanus_
and _Casuarina angustifolia_ flourish. Here at the margin of the beach
may be seen in profusion the tall composite shrub, _Wedelia biflora_,
and another common shrub, _Scævola Kœnigii_. Two climbing peas prefer
the sandy soil in this situation, one with yellow flowers, _Vigna
lutea_, and the other with pink flowers, _Canavalia turgida_; whilst a
dense growth of _Flagellaria indica_ often conceals from view any rocky
slope overlooking the beach. Just within the line of vegetation
immediately bordering the beach, the following trees commonly occur,
_Ochrosia parviflora_ (“pokosola”), _Heritiera littoralis_ (“pipilusu”),
_Terminalia catappa_ (“saori”), _Cycas circinalis_, and one or more
species of _Pandanus_. Here also a species of _Crinum_ (the “papau” of
the natives) and the _Tacca pinnatifida_ (“mamago”) may be usually
found. (I hoped to have referred to the ferns of such a coral islet; but
my endeavours to obtain any information of my collection have been
unavailing).

On the lee side of such an islet, which is the oldest portion of its
surface, the vegetation is much denser and of a different character.
Here, the trees form a thick belt, their branches overhanging the rising
tide. Those of most frequent occurrence are, _Barringtonia speciosa_,
_Calophyllum inophyllum_, _Hibiscus tiliaceus_, _Thespesia populnea_,
_Guettarda speciosa_, _Morinda citrifolia_, _Cerbera Odollam_, _Pongamia
glabra_, _Tournefortia argentea_, and others. The trunks of the larger
trees often lean over the beach or lie partly procumbent on the sand.
Amongst the foliage of these coast trees, many of which have large
conspicuous flowers, climbing asclepiads of the genus _Hoya_ with their
equally conspicuous flowers may be frequently observed. Orchids, often
of considerable beauty, hang from the reclining trunks of the trees.
Here, as in the case of the coasts of the large islands, we perceive how
pleasant is the contrast which the littoral vegetation presents when
compared with the gloomy and apparently flowerless forests, where the
tallest trees possess but an inconspicuous greenish inflorescence.

In the interior of such a coral islet, huge banyans and other trees
having wide-spreading buttresses are to be found. Many of them attain a
height of 150 feet and upwards, and afford a home to numbers of
fruit-eating pigeons which largely subsist on their fruits, and through
whose agency the interiors of coral islets are stocked with these large
trees. Conspicuous amongst the trees is a species of _Canarium_ (the
“ka-i” of the natives), the disgorged nuts of which frequently strew the
ground beneath; a banyan (_Ficus_) with large oblong fruits and another
species with small spherical fruits; other ficoid trees with large
buttresses, such as the “uri”; a species of _Eugenia_, probably a
variety of _Eugenia jambos_; together with several other trees.

This description of the vegetation of a coral islet brings me to refer
to the manner in which such an islet, which is usually of very recent
origin, has become stocked with its plants: and in so doing I shall be
treating of a very important matter, _the oceanic dispersal of plants_.
Fortunately for me, my notes and collections relating to this subject
had an increased value at the time of my arrival in England, and in this
respect I have been able to accomplish one of the principal aims of a
young traveller, that of supplying trustworthy materials to those
engaged in the particular line of research to which his notes and
collections relate.[429]

    [429] Mr. Botting Hemsley was on the point of completing his report
    on the oceanic dispersal of plants in connection with the Botany of
    the “Challenger” Expedition. Such of my collections, as referred to
    his work, were placed at his disposal by Sir Joseph Hooker; and my
    notes were incorporated in volume I. of the Botany of the
    “Challenger” (Part III. p. 309), to which I must refer my readers
    who are more specially interested in this subject.

The picturesquely wooded islets of these seas have been stocked through
two principal agencies. Winds and currents drift to their shores the
fruits and seeds of the littoral trees which ultimately form the margin
of the vegetation; whilst the fruit pigeons disgorge the seeds or fruits
of those often colossal trees which occupy the interior.

I will first refer to the former of these agencies. Lines of vegetable
drift, intermingled with floating pumice, are frequently observable
whilst cruising among the islands of the Solomon Group. The floating
fruits commonly found belong to the most familiar littoral trees of this
region, those of _Barringtonia speciosa_ and _Calophyllum inophyllum_
being especially frequent; and on more than one occasion the solitary
fruits of the former were noticed at sea by Lieutenant Oldham and myself
at distances of from 130 to 150 miles to the southward of the group,
being probably derived from one of the islands of the New Hebrides to
the eastward. Other fruits or seeds occurring frequently in the drift
are those of _Nipa fruticans_ and of two or more species of _Pandanus_;
numerous beans (species of _Mucuna_, _Canavalia_, _Dioclea_), the long
germinated seeds of the mangrove (_Rhizophora_), an occasional
cocoa-nut, the cones of _Casuarina equisetifolia_, _Terminalia catappa_,
_Lumnitzera coccinea_, _Guettarda speciosa_, _Ochrosia parviflora_,
_Heritiera littoralis_ and others.[430]

    [430] Other fruits found floating were a second species of
    _Calophyllum_, a species of _Gomphandra_, _Harpullia_ sp., and some
    _Scitamineæ_.

The foregoing seeds and seed-vessels with many others may be observed
washed up by the waves on the surface of the bare sandy islets or
sand-keys, which exhibit the first stage in the growth of those
picturesquely wooded coral islets that are ultimately formed on the
reefs. On such a sand-key, not more than some 25 or 30 yards across, I
have counted as many as 30 different kinds of seeds and fruits, all
collected together in the centre, which was only washed over at
spring-tides. One of the first trees to establish itself is the mangrove
(_Rhizophora_), which by its reclaiming agency adds to the area of the
islet and enables other trees, such as _Lumnitzera coccinea_, to take up
their abode. _Pari passu_ with the seaward extension of the reef, the
islet increases in size; and in time the winds and currents bring other
fruits and seeds which germinate and form ultimately the belt of
littoral trees bordering the beach. In this manner _Barringtonia
speciosa_, _Calophyllum inophyllum_, _Thespesia populnea_, _Hibiscus
tiliaceus_, _Cerbera odollam_, _Ochrosia parviflora_, _Heritiera
littoralis_, _Terminalia catappa_, different species of _Pandanus_,
_Casuarina equisetifolia_, and _Cycas circinalis_ with many others
referred to on a previous page, become established. It is worthy of note
that the fruits of the great majority of trees which form the margin of
the vegetation, whether on the lee or weather side of such an islet,
float in salt water.[431] The small cones of the _Casuarina_ however,
require a certain amount of drying before they can be transported by the
waves. The green fruits of the _Cycas_ usually sink in salt water; but I
found that one out of ten specimens floated, an exceptional circumstance
which sufficiently accounts for the occurrence of _Cycas circinalis_ on
these coral islets.

    [431] The results of some experiments I made are given on page 305.

Whilst through the agency of the winds and currents the waves have
stocked the islet with its marginal vegetation, the fruit pigeons have
been unconsciously stocking its interior with huge trees, that have
sprung from the fruits and seeds they have transported in their crops
from the neighbouring coasts and islets. Perched up in the branches of
the trees, these birds disgorge the seeds they have brought from other
localities; and the rejected seeds and seed-vessels lie strewn on the
ground beneath. The soft and often fleshy fruits, on which the fruit
pigeons subsist, belong to numerous species of trees. Some of them are
as large even as a hen’s egg, as in the case of those of the species of
_Canarium_ (“ka-i”) which have a pulpy exterior that is alone digested
and retained by the pigeon. The fruits of the banyans and other ficoid
trees, which with the _Canarium_ are amongst the most conspicuous trees
in the interior of the coral islets, are apparently preferred by the
fruit pigeons, since they occur commonly in their crops. A species of
_Eugenia_ common in the interior of these islets possesses fruits found
in the crops of these birds. Amongst other fruits and seeds on which
these pigeons subsist, and which they must transport from one locality
to another, are those of a species of _Elæocarpus_ (“toa”), a species of
laurel (_Litsea_), a nutmeg (_Myristica_), an _Achras_,[432] one or more
species of _Areca_, and probably a species of _Kentia_. There is,
however, another bird common on these coral islets, the ground pigeon
_Geophilus nicobaricus_, known commonly as the Nicobar pigeon, which
transports seeds in its gizzard cavity that on account of their hardness
are not fed upon by the ordinary fruit pigeon (_Carpophaga_). The
peculiar structure of the gizzard, which is described on page 323,
enables the Nicobar pigeon to crack seeds that can only be broken by a
sharp blow with a stone. I have found inside this organ, the hard red
seeds of a leguminous plant, very probably _Adenanthera pavonina_, of
which one seed is occasionally found to be cracked. We may therefore
consider that many small hard seeds and seed-vessels, which would be
refused by the common fruit pigeon of these islands, are transported
from one locality to another in the gizzard cavity of the Nicobar
pigeon.

    [432] I am indebted to Mr. Charles Moore of Sydney N.S.W., for the
    identification of this fruit. (_Vide_ also “Journal and Proceedings
    of the Royal Society, N.S.W.,” XVII., p. 226.)

From the foregoing remarks it may be inferred that the pigeons in these
islands play a very important part in the dispersal of plants, to which,
as Mr. Botting Hemsley remarks in his report (page 313), they have
perhaps contributed more than any other animal. In the Solomon Islands
the fruit pigeons, as dusk approaches, frequent the islets on the coral
reefs in great numbers, and from their unwillingness to leave their
roosts in the trees they fall an easy prey to the sportsman. In one
afternoon, on one of the islets of Choiseul Bay, 57 birds fell to the
guns of Lieutenant Heming and Lieutenant Leeper; and it is to these two
officers that I am indebted for my opportunities of collecting the
fruits taken from the crops of these pigeons.

In drawing my botanical remarks to a close, it may be fitting to recall
the more lasting impressions which I have received of the vegetation of
these islands; and I may do so in a very few words. The characteristic
features of the vegetation are to be found in the number and variety of
the areca palms; in the abundance of the alpinias, heliconias, and other
scitamineous plants; in the imposing size and form of the banyans and
the buttress trees; and in the profusion of the ferns. I have not
previously dwelt upon the important part which the ferns take in the
vegetation of these islands, because I had hoped to have heard something
of my collection which I presented to the British Museum eighteen months
ago; but, to my great chagrin, I have been unable, after repeated
application, to learn anything concerning it. I may here state that
ferns abound everywhere; in moist and dry situations; in sheltered and
exposed districts; now decking the tree-trunks with their draperies, or
concealing the unsightliness of the decaying log; here covering the bare
slopes of some lofty hill-top, or clothing the surface of some treeless
tract. The tree-fern and the wide-spreading _Angiopteris_ are to be
found on the banks of streams or in some inland dell. The former avoids
the coast, and occurs at all elevations up to 2000 feet and over: it
flourishes at the heads of valleys.

LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED IN THE ISLANDS OF BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS, SOLOMON
GROUP, DURING 1884.[433]

    [433] I am mainly indebted to the kindness of Professor Oliver for
    the list of the plants collected by me in the Solomon Islands, most
    of which were sent to Kew. The ferns are in the British Museum, but
    I can learn nothing of them. Fortunately, the fungi were not
    included; and for a list of them I am indebted to Mr. Baker. Most of
    the orchids, and some of the asclepiads, were given by me to Baron
    von Mueller, who intends to examine them in connection with
    subsequent collections. I take this opportunity of expressing my
    sense of the great kindness he showed me with reference to my plant
    collections. To Signor Beccari I am also indebted. Owing to my
    inexperience in botanical collecting, the specimens were often
    inadequate for descriptive and specific determination; but my
    deficiencies will appear more excusable when I state that I devoted
    my attention more particularly to the trees. Professor Oliver,
    however, informs me that, in spite of its defects, my collection
    gives an excellent conception of the flora of the islands visited.

    ANONACEÆ.

    Uvaria, sp. . . vulgo “Nakia.” A stout climber.

    GUTTIFERÆ.

    Ochrocarpus ovalifolius, T. And v. O (Calysaccion) tinctorium,
    Seem.? vulgo “Kokoilo.” A littoral tree about thirty feet high.

    Calophyllum Inophyllum, L., vulgo “Bogoau.”

    Calophyllum sp. . . vulgo “Katari.” Two tall trees apparently
    distinguished by the size of the fruits. (Flowers not obtained.) A
    dark resin oozes from the bark, which the natives burn in torches.

    MALVACEÆ.

    Hibiscus tiliaceus, L.: vulgo “Dakatako.”

    Thespesia populnea, Corr.: vulgo “Kai-kaia.”

    STERCULIACEÆ.

    Kleinhovia Hospita, L.: vulgo “Lafai.”

    Heritiera an H. littoralis, var. angustifolia? vulgo “Pipilusu.”

    TILIACEÆ.

    Triumfetta procumbens, Forst.

    Elæocarpus sp. . . vulgo “Toa.” A tree about seventy feet high, with
    conspicuous blue fruits, eaten by fruit-pigeons.

    OXALIDACEÆ

    Oxalis corniculata, L.

    SIMARUBEÆ

    Soulamca amara, Lam.

    RUTACEÆ.

    Evodia hortensis, Forst.: vulgo “Luk-a-luk.”

    Rutacea (§ Toddaliæ?). Detached leaves and flowers picked up from
    the ground at the foot of a tall forest tree. Flowers “4-meri;
    petala imbricata libera; stamina 4 libera, pet. alterna, ovarium
    liberum integrum, 4-loc?”

    BURSERACEÆ.

    Canarium sp. . . No flowers obtained. A tall forest tree, a hundred
    feet and upwards in height. Vulgo “Kai.” Known as the Solomon Island
    almond tree. The kernels afford a common article of food in August
    and September.

    Canarium? vulgo “Nie.” A tree with buttresses, a hundred feet high.

    Canarium? vulgo “Nie.” A tall forest tree, with buttresses, 100 to
    150 feet high.

    OLACINEÆ.

    Gomphandra sp. . . vulgo “Ninilo,” or “Ningilo.” A tree thirty to
    forty feet high. Fruit eaten by wild pigs.

    Lasianthera sp. . . nov? vulgo “Porutolo.” A tree sixty to seventy
    feet high.

    Olacinea (dub): vulgo “Poporoko.” A tree sixty feet high, having a
    light reddish wood, and a dark red sap.

    CELASTRINEÆ.

    Salacia sp. . . nov.

    RHAMNACEÆ.

    Colubrina asiatica, Bngn.

    AMPELIDEÆ.

    Leea sambucina, L. (A Gr. U.S. Expl. Expn.)

    SAPINDACEÆ.

    Schmidelia aff. S. obovatæ, A Gr. A littoral tree, thirty feet high.

    Harpullia cupanioides, Roxb.: vulgo “Koloa.” Littoral.

    Sapindacea an aff. Harpulliæ? vulgo “Wawau-poko.” Growing 1400 feet
    above the sea.

    Ratonia sp. . . vulgo “Nekale.” A forest tree, a hundred feet high
    and over, with inconspicuous buttresses.

    Ratonia sp. . . vulgo “Nekale.” A forest tree, a hundred feet high
    and over, with buttresses.

    ANACARDIACEÆ.

    Mangifera indica. L.? vulgo “Faise.” Mango tree, growing in
    plantations. Fruit ripens in August. Height, thirty feet.

    LEGUMINOSÆ.

    Crotalaria quinquefolia, L.: vulgo “Kokila.”

    Desmodium umbellatum, D.C., vulgo “Meki,” forma stenocarpa.

    Desmodium ormocarpoides, D.C.?

    Desmodium polycarpum D.C.

    Erythrina: flowers only. E. monosperma perhaps, or E. indica.

    Mucuna gigantea, D.C.? vulgo “Faso-gasuga.”

    Mucuna sp. . . vulgo “Wassa-wassawa.”

    Mucuna sp. . .

    Papilionacea (dub); vulgo “Droau.” A stout climber on forest trees,
    with large purple flowers.

    Canavalia turgida, Grah.

    Vigna lutea, A. Gray.

    Pongamia glabra, Vent.? vulgo “Ansapo.”

    Sophora tomentosa, L.

    Cæsalpinia Nuga, Ait.

    Adenanthera Pavonina, L. (probably). Seeds only obtained.

    Leucæna sp. . .?? vulgo “Gehala.” A tree thirty to forty feet high.

    CHRYSOBALANEÆ.

    Parinarium laurinum, A. Gr.: vulgo “Tita.” A tree about sixty feet
    high. From the fruit is obtained a resin used by the natives for
    caulking the seams of their canoes.

    ROSACEÆ.

    Rubus tilaceus, Sm.

    COMPRETACEÆ.

    Terminalia Catappa, L.: vulgo “Saori.” Seeds eaten by the natives.

    Lumnitzera coccinea, W. and Arn.

    MYRTACEÆ.

    Eugenia sp. . . vulgo “Pakuri.” A tree thirty feet high, growing
    1600 feet above the sea.

    Eugenia clusiæfolia, A. Gray (allied to E. Jambolana).

    Eugenia sp. . . vulgo “Tsugi.” A littoral tree.

    Eugenia, aff. E. Richii, A. Gr.: vulgo “Malapo.” A tree eighty feet
    high, with buttresses, growing on coral islets.

    Barringtonia speciosa, F.

    Barringtonia cf. B. edulis, Seem. and B. excelsa, Huds. (New
    Hebrides): vulgo “Borolong.” A tree thirty to thirty-five feet in
    height, growing in plantations. Flowers gathered into very
    conspicuous pendent yellow spikes, two and a half feet long. Kernel
    of fruit edible.

    Barringtonia aff. B. racemosæ, Bl.: vulgo “Misioko.” A tree forty
    feet high, growing near coast.

    Barringtonia?? vulgo “Sioko.” A tree fifteen to twenty feet high,
    growing in plantations. Fruit edible.

    MELASTOMACEÆ.

    Medinilla sp. . . A climbing plant around the trunks of trees.

    LYTHRACEÆ.

    Pemphis acidula, Forst.

    CUCURBITACEÆ.

    Cucumis Melo, L., forma?

    ARALIACEÆ.

    Panax fruticosum, L.

    Plerandra, near Pickeringii, A. Gray: vulgo “Fo.”

    Araliacea (dub?): vulgo “Bubolio.” A littoral tree, fifteen feet
    high.

    RUBIACEÆ.

    Hedyotis Auricularia, L.

    Ophiorrhiza aff. O. cantonensis, Hance.

    Ophiorrhiza sp. . .

    Dolicholobium aff. D. longissimo an D. longissimum, Seem. forma
    macranthus: vulgo “Lowasi.” A tree fifty feet high and under, common
    along the sides of streams.

    Geophila reniformis, C. and S.

    Morinda citrifolia, L.: vulgo “Urati.”

    Guettarda speciosa, L.: vulgo “Orgoi.”

    Myrmecodia salomonensis, Becc. A new species separated from M.
    samoensis, Becc. Noticed commonly on tall mangrove trees bordering
    the sides of streams in the lower part of their courses. The swollen
    tuberous stem measures as much as one and a half feet in length, and
    is usually occupied by many ants.

    Hydnophytum longistylum, Becc. Found on coast trees. Those I
    examined contained no ants, but, instead, a few cockroaches. On the
    outside of one of them I found a crab.

    Hydnophytum Guppyanum, Becc. A new species. Noticed commonly on the
    tall mangrove trees bordering the sides of streams in the lower part
    of their courses. The swollen tuberous portion of the stem has a
    characteristic scaphoid form; those I examined being nearly full of
    dirty rain-water, and almost free from ants; a few cockroaches
    occurred in all; some of them are one and a half feet in length.

    (Hydnophytum inerme, a specimen I obtained from Ugi Island, at the
    east end of the group in 1882, and identified by Mr. C. Moore of
    Sydney.)

    Psychotria sp. . . vulgo “Popotu.”

    Psychotria, aff. P. Forsterinæ, A. Gr.

    Bikkia sp. . . A littoral tree, twenty feet high, with large
    handsome white flowers.

    COMPOSITÆ.

    Vernonia cinerea, Less

    Adenostemma viscosum, Forst.

    Blumea aft. B. glandulosæ, D.C.

    Eclipta alba, Hassk.

    Bidens pilosa, L.

    Wedelia biflora, D.C. A very common littoral plant, but in one
    instance I found it 1600 feet above the sea.

    GOODENIACEÆ.

    Scævola Kœnigii, Vahl. vulgo “Nano.” A very common littoral shrub.

    SAPOTACEÆ.

    Sapotacea? Seeds only obtained.

    Sapotacea (dub): vulgo “Maranato.” A forest tree, a hundred feet
    high with large plank-like buttresses.

    APOCYNEÆ.

    Ochrosia parviflora, Hensl: vulgo “Pokosola.”

    Ochrosia aff. 0. (Lactaria) calycarpæ (Miq.). Tree 30 feet high.

    Ochrosia sp. . . vulgo “Bararai.” A tree 30 to 40 feet high.

    Cerbera Odollam, Gærtn: vulgo “Lukapau.”

    Cerbera sp. . . vulgo “Anoumi.” A tree about 50 feet high, growing
    away from the coast.

    Lyonsia??: vulgo “Awi-sulu.” A stout climber: its bark supplies the
    fibres used for making fishing-lines.

    ASCLEPIADEÆ.

    Hoya australis, Br.? (H. bicarinata, A. Gr.) forma: vulgo “Alulu.”

    Hoya sp. . . (narrow-leaved species).

    Hoya Guppyi, Oliv. sp. nov. Ramulis ultimis parce hirtellis dense
    glabratis, foliis petiolatis coriaceis late ellipticis breviter
    acuminatis cuspidatisve base late rotundatis subcordatisve supra
    glabris, subtus præcipue versus basin plus minus hirtellis, umbellis
    pedunculatis, pedunculis pedicellisque glabris, calyce parvo tubo
    corollæ 2-4-plo breviore 5-partito lobis ovatis obtusis ciliolatis,
    corolla rotata lobis patentibus ovatis v. late ovato-lanceolatis
    acutatis medio depressis intus hirtellis extus glabris sinubus
    reflexis, coronæ foliolis cartilagineo-incrassatis disco ovato
    lanceolatis concavis obtusis basi angustatis dorso profunde
    excavatis marginibus lateralibus utrinque carinatis, folliculis
    subteretibus parce hirtellis.

    Folia 3½-4½ poll. longis, 2¼-2½ poll. latis; petiolo hirtello ½-¾
    poll. longo; umbella 10-14 flora; pedunculo 2 poll. longo,
    pedicellis 1½ poll. longis. Corolla 1½ poll. diam. rubro-purpurea.
    Follicula 8-9 poll, longa.

    Faro Island: Bougainville Straits: “A climber on coast trees.”

    LOGANIACEÆ.

    Couthovia, nearly allied to C. Seemanni A.Gr., if not a variety with
    inflorescence throughout tawny-puberulous. Vulgo “Palinoromus.” A
    forest tree 70 feet high.

    Fagræa Berteriana A.Gr.? vulgo “Bubulata.”

    Fagræa morindæfolia, Bl. forma. Vulgo “Kirofe.”

    Fagræa sp. . . vulgo “Mamuli.” A tree twenty-five feet high.

    BORAGINEÆ.

    Tournefortia argentea, L. f. vulgo “Diave.”

    Cordia subcordata, Lam.

    Cordia? (Corollas picked off ground.)

    CONVOLVULACEÆ.

    Ipomœa denticulata, Chy.

    Ipomœa (Calonyction) grandiflora, Lam?

    Ipomœa pes-capræ, Roth.

    Ipomœa sp. . .

    SOLANACEÆ.

    Solanum repandum, F? vulgo “Kirkami.” }

    Solanum repandum, F? vulgo “Kobureki.”}

    Natives distinguish these two plants, which grow in their
    plantations, as shrubs 4 to 6 feet high. Fruits edible when cooked.

    Solanum vitiense, Seem. vulgo “Koriele.”

    Physalis angulata, L.

    SCROPHULARINEÆ.

    Vandellia Crustacea, Bth.

    CYRTANDREÆ.

    Cyrtandra v. gen. nov. aff.

    ACANTHACEÆ.

    Adenosma cærulea, R.Br.?

    Bæa Commersoni, R.Br. fide F. von. Mueller.

    Hemigraphis reptans, T. And.

    Hemigraphis reptans, forma.

    Ruellia sp. R. arvensis. S. Moore var? v. sp. nov. aff. Growing
    beside a stream, 1½ feet high, with light-yellow flowers.

    Acanthus ebracteatus, V.

    Eranthemum variabile, Br. var.? Very common in the waste ground of
    plantations and by the sides of paths: 1½ to 2 feet in height.

    VERBENACEÆ.

    Premna obtusifolia, R.Br. an P. taitensis Schr? vulgo “Demoko.” A
    littoral tree 12 to 15 feet in height.

    Vitex an V. acuminata, Br.? vulgo “Fasala.” A large forest tree, a
    hundred feet and over in height, with small buttresses, supplying
    wood for paddles and canoes.

    Clerodendron inerme, Br.

    Verbenacea dubia? vulgo “Au-au.” A tree fifty to sixty feet high.

    LABIATÆ.

    Moschosma polystachyum: Bth: vulgo “Pipituan.”

    Ocymum sanctum, L: vulgo “Kiramma.”

    Plectranthus v. Coleus? vulgo “Momauri.” Leaves, when crushed, give
    a reddish-brown stain, and used for staining the skin. Height 1½
    feet.

    Plectranthus parviflorus, W.

    AMARANTACEÆ.

    Amarantus melancholicus, L.

    Cyathula prostrata, Bl.

    PIPERACEÆ.

    Piper Betel var. (Chavica Siriboa, Miq.) vulgo “Kolu.”

    MYRISTICACEÆ.

    Myristica sp. . . vulgo “Ito-ito.” Coast tree fifteen feet in
    height.

    Myristica sp. . . vulgo “Baimoloi.” A tree fifty feet high, growing
    1600 feet above the sea.

    LAURACEÆ.

    Litsea sp. . . vulgo “Pitoponkano.” A tall forest tree.

    HERNANDIACEÆ.

    Hernandia peltata, Meiss: vulgo “Koli.”

    EUPHORBIACEÆ.

    Euphorbia pilulifera, L.

    Euphorbia Atoto, Forst.

    Phyllanthus (§ Emblica) sp., allied to P. bæobotryoides, Wall? vulgo
    “Mefuan.” A tree 15 to 20 feet high.

    Mallotus tiliæfolius, M. Arg. M. acuminatus, Juss? Tree twenty feet
    high, growing at the coast on the border of swampy ground.

    Macaranga sp. . . vulgo “Balako.” A tree forty to fifty feet high,
    with ringed trunk.

    Aleurites? vulgo “Aligesi.” A stout climber on forest trees. Kernels
    of fruit edible.

    Sapium indicum, Willd? vulgo “Aligesi.” A tree seventy feet high,
    growing on the verge of a mangrove swamp.

    Excæcaria Agallocha, L.

    Codiæum sp. . . (♂)

    Codiæum variegatum. A. Juss: vulgo “Tiatakush.”

    URTICEÆ.

    Trema (Sponia) sp. . .: vulgo “Kio.” A tree seventy to eighty feet
    high.

    Ficus nr F. theophrastoides. Seem? vulgo “Tutubolo.” Growing in
    plantations. Probably 10 to 12 feet high.

    Ficus sp. . . vulgo “Uri.” A tree eighty to ninety feet high, with
    buttress roots. Growing on coral islets.

    Ficus sp. . . vulgo “Sii.” A banyan growing at or near the coast and
    on coral islets. Multiple trunks, some cylindrical and erect, others
    plank-like and arching. Height eighty or ninety feet and over.

    Ficus sp. . . vulgo “Chim.” A banyan often growing on the crest of
    inland ridges. The multiple trunks are all cylindrical and erect,
    and individually smaller than in the case of the Sii: they are also
    more closely arranged. Height a hundred and fifty feet and over.

    Ficus? vulgo “Ilimo.” A tall forest tree over a hundred feet in
    height, with magnificent buttresses.

    Artocarpus incisa, L. There appears to be but one variety of the
    Bread-fruit tree in the islands of Bougainville Straits. The fruit
    is stalked, seedless, and rough externally, the leaves pinnatisect,
    with smooth surfaces. Fruit ripens in August. Vulgo “Balia.”

    Artocarpus sp. . . vulgo “Tafati.” Perhaps a variety of the
    Jack-fruit Tree (A. integrifolia). Sixty feet high. Fruit larger
    than the common bread-fruit, but more irregular in shape: seeded:
    edible.

    Fleurya interrupta, Gaud. (F. spicata, var.)

    Elatostemma integrifolium, Wedd.?

    Elatostemma? vulgo “Obu-obu.”

    Procris integrifolia, Don??

    Pellionia sp. . .

    Leucosyke an L. corymbulosa? Coast tree fifteen feet high.

    Pipturus velutinus, Wedd? v. P. argenteus? vulgo “Dilipoa.” A tree
    thirty to fifty feet high; trunk partially ringed; aerial roots.

    CONIFERÆ.

    Gnetum Gnemon, L. vulgo “Mariwa.”

    Gnetum sp. . .: vulgo “Kunuka.” A tree sixty feet high, prominently
    ringed. Kernels of fruits eaten by the natives.

    CASUARINEÆ.

    Casuarina angustifolia F.

    ORCHIDEÆ.

    Dendrobium hispidum, Rich. (fide F. v. Mueller).

    Dendrobium sp. . . near D. dactylodes, R. fil?

    Cœlogyne sp. . .

    Cleisostoma sp. . .

    SCITAMINEÆ.

    Alpinia sp. . . vulgo “Karu.”

    Alpinia sp. . . vulgo “Vitoko.”

    Alpinia sp. . . vulgo “Konkoku.”

    Costus or Alpinia sp. . . vulgo “Makisa.”

    Alpinia Boia, Seem? v. sp. aff. vulgo “Pai-yang-pipiula.”

    Riedelia curviflora, Oliv? vulgo “Kokuru.”

    Canna indica, L.? vulgo “Sati.”

    Marantacea aff. Phrynio? vulgo “Sinoili.” Flowers in two collateral
    pairs in each spathe with linear bracts between the pairs. Ovary
    shortly stipitate, ovule erect. Fruit 3-locular, cells 1-seeded,
    seeds with crustaceous muricate testa.

    Heliconia? vulgo “Kiari.” Clinogyne grandis Bth and Hook? (near C.
    dichotoma and affs) vulgo “Nini.”

    Scitaminea (dub): vulgo “Temuli.” A plant 1 to 1¼ feet high growing
    in the waste ground of plantations. The roots have medicinal
    properties, according to the accounts of the natives, and they have
    a yellow juice which is used for staining.

    Scitaminea (dubia): vulgo “Nakia:” a wild ginger.

    AMARYLLIDEÆ.

    Crinum sp. . . vulgo “Papau.” Grows near the beach. Height four
    feet.

    Curculigo sp. . . vulgo “Bulami.” Growing 2 to 2½ feet high on the
    banks of streams.

    LILIACEÆ.

    Cordyline sp. . . vulgo “Dendiki.” Tree twenty feet high; growing
    near the coast.

    COMMELYNACEÆ.

    Commelyna nudiflora, L.

    DIOSCOREÆ.

    Dioscorea sativa, L.? vulgo “Alapa.”

    JUNCACEÆ.

    Flagellaria indica, L. var.

    TACCACEÆ.

    Tacca pinnatifida, Forst.: vulgo “Mamago.” The natives do not appear
    to make use of the arrowroot-like starch obtainable from the tubers.

    PANDANACEÆ.

    Pandanacea: genus novum,[434](♀ flowers only and leaf collected).
    The only locality where I found it was the summit of Faro Island,
    where it grows to a height of fifty feet, and has a long white
    female branching spadix, three to four feet in length. The same, or
    a near ally, was obtained by Signor Beccari in Jobi Island, off New
    Guinea. (_Vide_ page 289.)

    [434] I learn from Professor Oliver that Count Solins confirms the
    generic distinctness.

    The natives distinguish several species of Pandanus trees, of which
    I was only able to obtain the fruit. The “darashi” “sararang,” and
    “pota,” grow at the coast, and have a height of from thirty to forty
    feet. The “darashi” has narrow leaves, and, if the ground is not
    rocky, aerial roots are often absent: the fruit is smaller than that
    of the two other littoral pandanus trees. The “sararang” has broad
    leaves, and always aerial roots: the fruit is often more than a foot
    in diameter. The “pota” has broad leaves, with contracted acuminate
    apices, two inches long: the fruit is about a foot in diameter:
    aerial roots are always present, and rise often fifteen feet from
    the ground. The segments of these pandanus trees all contain edible
    kernels. The broad leaves of the “pota” are employed in making
    mats. . . . There is another pandanus tree, the “samala” of the
    natives, which often grows away from the coast, as on the banks of
    streams: it has an erect, stout trunk, thirty-five to forty feet
    high, without aerial roots, and does not branch.

    Freycinetia sp. . .

    Freycinetia sp. . .

    Nipa fruticans.

    PALMACEÆ.

    Cyrtostachys sp. . . vulgo “Sensisi.” Growing up to fifty feet high
    on the banks of streams.

    Palmacea dub. (cf. Drymophloeus): vulgo “Kisu.” Growing seventy to
    eighty feet high. The tough sheathing at the bases of the branches
    is employed for making the native dishes.

    Pinanga sp. . . vulgo “Kisu”: conf. the “Kisu” above. Growing up to
    seventy or eighty feet high.

    Caryota sp. . . vulgo “Eala.” Growing up to fifty feet high.

    Licuala sp. . . vulgo “Firo.” Grows up to thirty-five or forty feet
    in height. More common on volcanic soils. Absent from Treasury
    Island, with the exception of one imported tree. Said to be very
    numerous in the large adjacent island of Bougainville, the leaves
    being there used in making conical hats.

    Palmacea dub.: vulgo “Poamau.” Grows up to seventy or eighty feet
    high. Its fruit, which is eaten by the women, is said to have a
    stimulant effect like the betel-nut. Its wood supplies the material
    for spears.

    Areca sp. . . vulgo “Momo.” Grows up to thirty-five or forty feet
    high. Small fruits (½ inch) sessile on a branching stalk.

    Areca sp. . . vulgo “Niga-torulo,” or “Torulo.” Grows up to
    thirty-five or forty feet high. Fruits larger (1-1½ inch) sessile,
    and gathered thickly together on an undivided stalk.

    Areca sp. . . vulgo “Niga-solu.” Grows up to fifty feet high. Fruits
    (1-1½ inch) sessile, gathered thickly together on an undivided
    stalk.

    [_Note._--The three kinds of areca palms just mentioned are very
    common on the low ground at the foot of hills. They all have a
    general resemblance, and their fruits are often chewed in lieu of
    “betel-nuts.” They are distinguished from each other readily by the
    size and mode of attachment of the fruits, and by the number of ribs
    on the lateral pinnæ.]

    Areca sp. . . vulgo “Poamau.” Growing up to eighty feet high.

    Areca sp. . . vulgo “Au-Au.” Grows up to twelve feet high. Aerial
    roots rising from stem 1½ feet above the ground.

    Areca sp. . . vulgo “Olega.” The betel-nut palm of the Solomon
    Islands. Planted by the natives in the vicinity of their villages.
    Height up to thirty feet.

    Sagus sp. . . vulgo “Bia,” “Nami.” Height up to sixty feet. Dry
    situations.

    AROIDEÆ.

    Schizmatoglottis sp. . . vulgo “Kuraka.” Growing wild along the
    banks of streams. The natives make a savoury vegetable broth of the
    leaves and unopened spathes.

    Epipremnum cf. E. mirabile, Sch. Found on trees.

    Scindapsus sp. . . vulgo “Kurricolo.” Grows on sandy soil near the
    coast. Pothos?

    CYPERACEÆ.

    Cyperus (Mariscus phleoides, Nees). Height two to two and a half
    feet.

    Cyperus canescens, Vahl. Height two feet.

    Cyperus (Mariscus umbellatus, V.). Height one foot.

    Kyllinga monocephala, Rottb. Six to eight inches high.

    Mapania sp. . . Three feet high.

    GRAMINEÆ.

    Eleusine indica, Gærtn.

    Panicum (Digitaria) sanguinale, L.

       „    radicans, Retz?

       „    carinatum, Presl.

       „    neurodes, Sch.

    Pennisetum (Gymnothrix Thouarsii Beauv.?). Also

    Pennisetum macrostachys, Trin. (fide F. v. Mueller): vulgo “Orsopa.”

    Growing in waste ground of plantations to a height of eight or nine
    feet.

    Coix Lachryma, L.: vulgo “Ken-ken.” The natives do not appear to
    make use of the seeds as beads. Growing in the waste ground of
    plantations.

    Pollinia obtusa, Munro? Schizostachyum?? A bamboo usually found at
    elevations of 1000 or 1100 feet above the sea. The canes grow to a
    length of thirty-five to forty feet, and are used as fishing-rods.

    MUSCI.

    Octoblepharum (Leucophanes) squarrosum, Brid.

    HEPATICÆ.

    Marchantia linearis, L. and L.?

    FUNGI.

    Agaricus (perhaps mollic, Schff.).

       „     (Inocybe) maritimus, Fr.

    Hygrophorus metapodius, Fr. prox.

    Lentinus submembranaceus, B.

       „     dactyliophorus, Lev.

       „     velutinus, Fr.

    Polyporus (Mes.) xanthopus, Fr.

       „      (Pleur.) affinis, Nees.

       „      (Pleur.) luteus, Nees.

       „      (Pleur.) lucidus, Fr.

       „      (Placo.) australis Fr.

    Hexagona apiaria, Fr.

       „     similis, B.

    Cladoderris dendritica, Fr.

    Thelephora lamellata, B.

    Hirneola auricula-judæ, Fr.

    Lycoperdon gemmatum, Fr.

    Bovista sp. . . (uncertain).

    Wynnea macrotis, Berk.

_The Flotation of Fruits in Sea-Water._--I made a few experiments on the
fruits of this region, the results of which I here append. The fruits
were all ripe and not dried.

(1.) Fruits that _float_ in sea-water.[435]

  Cocos nucifera
  Areca catechu (Betel-nut).
  Cycas circinalis.[436]
  Pandanus (three littoral species).
  Nipa fruticans.
  Barringtonia speciosa.
  Calophyllum inophyllum.
  Calophyllum sp. (katari).
  Ochrosia parviflora.
  Heritiera littoralis.
  Cerbera odollam.
  Harpullia cupanioides.
  Myristica sp. (ito-ito).
  Riedelia curviflora.?
  Thespesia populnea.
  Gomphandra sp. (ningilo).

    [435] The following fruits and seeds, taken from my dried collection
    of plants, float in sea-water. I did not experiment on them in the
    green condition. . . . Pongamia glabra: Coix Lachryma: Scævola
    Kœnigii: Tournefortia argentea.

    [436] Out of ten fruits experimented on, only one floated.

(2.) Fruits that _sink_ in sea-water.

  Parinarium laurinum.[437]
  Licuala sp. (firo).
  Areca sp. (torulo).
  Areca sp. (momo).
  Caryota sp. (eala).

    [437] This tree is widely distributed throughout the group, which
    may be due to the circumstance of its resin being generally employed
    in caulking canoes.

_The weeds, rubbish-plants, and shrubs, commonly found in old clearings
and in the waste-ground of the cultivated patches in Bougainville
Straits._

One of the commonest plants in the islands of Bougainville Straits is
the _Eranthemum variabile_, which is frequently found growing at the
sides of the paths. The spurges, _Euphorbia pilulifera_ and _E. Atoto_,
are usually found in the waste-ground around villages. In the cultivated
patches clumps of the handsome flowering reed, _Pennisetum macrostachys_
(“orsopa”), which grows to a height of nine or ten feet, are often
conspicuous. In one place may be seen the tall shrub, _Kleinhovia
Hospita_ (“lafai”), the inflated fruits of which are eaten by the
cockatoos. In another place the botanist may recognise the _Canna
indica_ (Indian Shot: “sati”), and near by perhaps _Coix Lachryma_
(Job’s tears: “ken-ken”), both of which plants have been probably
introduced originally from the Malay Archipelago. Solomon Islanders
occasionally wear the seeds of _Coix Lachryma_ as a personal ornament.
They are also used for this purpose by the Admiralty Islanders, and by
the natives of some parts of New Guinea. Scented labiate plants are very
frequent in the waste-ground of the plantations, and the natives are
fond of wearing them in their armlets. Amongst them I may mention
_Moschosma polystachyum_ (“pipituan”) and _Ocymum sanctum_ (“kiramma”).
The “luk-a-luk” (_Evodia hortensis_), which is a favourite scented
plant, is commonly found in the same situations. The tiny plant, _Oxalis
corniculata_, may clothe a bare patch of ground; whilst in another part
of the plantation, _Commelyna nudiflora_ may similarly be observed.
Numerous composite plants, such as _Vernonia cinerea_, _Adenostemma
viscosum_, etc., form a conspicuous feature among the rubbish-plants in
these cultivated patches. The _Codiæum variegatum_ (“tiatakush”), with
its very singularly-shaped leaves, is also to be seen: and, amongst
other plants, I should refer to _Solanum vitiense_ and _Crotalaria
quinquefolia_. Tall sedges, such as _Cyperus canescens_ and _Mariscus
phleoides_, are to be commonly observed. Lastly, I should notice two
small scitamineous plants, the “nakia,” a wild ginger, and the “temuli,”
the root of which has medicinal properties, whilst its yellow juice is
used for staining purposes.

_A species of Pachyma??_

Whilst at the island of Santa Anna in October, 1882, my attention was
directed by Mr. William Macdonald and Mr. Heughan to a curious vegetable
substance, not unlike a yam in appearance, which is found _lying loose
on the soil_. The specimens I obtained varied between one and five
pounds in weight, but much larger examples have been obtained. The
interior of the substance is white in colour, and sometimes has a waxy
look. A large slab which had been whittled out by a native resembled a
cake of compressed flour. There were many curious speculations as to the
nature of these growths. In the estimation of the inhabitants of the
island, they are poisonous, and they have received from them the name of
“testes diaboli;” but I could gather but little information from the
natives on the subject except to the effect that they are also commonly
found on St. Christoval.[438] However, some time later I was informed by
Mr. Stephens of Ugi that some mushroom-like growths were borne by a
specimen that he kept, which after a few weeks fell away. I subsequently
gave some of these singular masses to Mr. Charles Moore, the Director of
the Sydney Botanic Gardens.

    [438] In the event of it proving edible, Mr. Heughan cooked a
    specimen, but only a tasteless substance resulted.

Three years passed away and I had almost forgotten about the matter,
when I accidentally came upon some substances, closely resembling these
masses, which are exhibited in the Botanical Department of the British
Museum. They are labelled _Pachyma Cocos_ (Fries) from China. On my
asking Mr. George Murray concerning their nature, I was pleased to learn
that he had been taking a special interest in these growths; and he
showed me a specimen obtained by the Rev. Mr. Whitmee in Samoa, from
which a funnel-shaped fungus, about six inches high, was growing. This
specimen was very similar to those of the Solomon Islands.

Very recently, Mr. G. Murray has embodied the results of his
investigations of these growths in a short paper read before the Linnean
Society, in which Mr. Whitmee’s specimen is figured (Trans. Linn. Soc.,
2nd ser. Bot., vol. ii., part 11). From this source I learn that
Rumphius was the first to describe these tuberous masses and their
associated fungi from Amboina. The former, which he named _Tuber
regium_, were stated to afford remedies useful in diarrhœa, fevers, &c.
The fungi were said to shoot out from them during showers of warm rain
on a fine day, or when there was thunder in the air. From the
description and illustration given by Rumphius, Mr. Fries regarded the
growth as a fungus belonging to the genus _Lentinus_, springing from a
_Pachyma_ (of which the Indian Bread of North America, _Pachyma cocos_,
is an example). Strange to say, however, these tubers, which are found
also in China and other parts of the world, have never been found with a
fungus attached since the time of Rumphius. Mr. Whitmee’s specimen,
therefore, had considerable interest. It is shown by Mr. Murray to
correspond strikingly with _Tuber regium_ and to have the structure of a
true “sclerotium” (not of _Pachyma_), with a fungus of a species of
_Lentinus_ growing from it. All the facts go to prove that the fungus
and the tuberous mass do not form part of the same growth, but are
distinct organisms. A spore having germinated on the surface of the
mass, its mycelium penetrates the interior, and becoming perennial,
produces successive crops of fungi.

Residents in the Indian Archipelago and in the Pacific Islands might
throw considerable light on the subject of these growths by careful
notes and collections. It is important to discover the origin of the
tuberous mass which becomes, so to speak, a convenient nidus for the
fungus. How do such masses perpetuate themselves? A considerable number
should be kept under observation, and the mode of appearance of the
fungus carefully noticed. Experiments might be made with the spores of
the fungus by dusting them over the surface of the masses. Such notes
and collections should be forwarded to Mr. Murray, at the British Museum
of Natural History.

CHAPTER XIV.

REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS.

IN a memoir on the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands,
which was read before the Zoological Society, on May 6th, 1884,[439] Mr.
Boulenger remarked that very little was known about the herpetology of
these islands until two important collections, which I sent to the
British Museum in 1883 and 1884, brought to light several new and
interesting forms, such as could hardly have been expected from this
region. “The position of this group of islands on the limits of two
great zoological districts,”--this author proceeded to observe--“renders
the study of its fauna of special interest, as it is the point where
many of the Papuasian and Polynesian forms intermingle. Curiously, all
the Batrachians belong to species not hitherto found elsewhere, and one
of them is even so strongly modified as to be the type of a distinct
family.”

    [439] Published in the Transactions of the Society; vol. xii., part
    i., 1886. The diagnoses of most of the new species in my collections
    were given in the Proceedings for 1884: p. 210. Vide also “Annals
    and Magazine of Natural History” (5) xii., 1883.

According to Mr. Boulenger, the Reptiles may be grouped under four
headings, viz.:--

1. Species belonging to both the Papuasian and Polynesian districts.

2. Indo-Malayan or Papuasian species, not extending further east or
south-east.

3. Polynesian species, not extending further north and west than New
Ireland.

4. Species not hitherto found elsewhere than in the Solomons (and New
Ireland.)

1

  Gymnodactylus pelagicus
  Gehyra oceanica
  Mabuia cyanura
  Platurus fasciatus.

2

  Crocodilus porosus
  Gecko vittatus
  Varanus indicus
  Keneuxia smaragdina
  Enygrus carinatus
  Dipsas irregularis.

3

  Gonyocephalus godeffroyi
  Mabuia carteretii
     „   nigra
  Enygrus bibronii.

4

  Lepidodactylus guppyi, _n. sp._
  Lipinia anolis, _n. sp._
  Corucia zebrata
  Dendrophis solomonis
  Hoplocephalus par, _n. sp._

All of these 19 Reptiles were included in my collection, with the
exception of _Corucia zebrata_, which, however, came under my
observation. I will now proceed to refer more particularly to the
Reptile-fauna of this region.

CROCODILES.--The species of Crocodile (_Crocodilus porosus_, Schneid),
which is so common in the Solomon Group, ranges from India and South
China through the Malay Archipelago and Papuan Islands to North
Australia. In these islands crocodiles appear to frequent in greatest
numbers the swamps and sandy shores of uninhabited coral islands, such
as those of the Three Sisters, and the coasts of the larger islands in
the vicinity of the mouths of the streams and rivers. I frequently
surprised them basking on the sand under the shade of a tree. On one
occasion I was standing on the spreading roots of a tree that were
exposed on the beach, when one of these reptiles darted out from under
my feet and dived into the sea. Of the marks that they make on the sand
when lying at rest, an oblong shallow impression corresponding to the
head, and a curved well-defined grove caused by the tail are alone
specially recognisable. When they are not alarmed and move leisurely
along, they leave a double row of footprints on the sand, with a narrow
median furrow produced by the weight of the tail; but when they have
been disturbed and make a rush to escape, they raise their tail and
leave only the tracks of their feet on the sand. These crocodiles are
equally at home in salt and fresh water. I have frequently passed them
in my Rob Roy canoe when they have been floating as though asleep at the
surface of the sea; and it was always in the sea that they found a
refuge when my little craft intruded itself within their haunts. They
came under my notice in the fresh-water lakes of Santa Anna and Stirling
Island, and in the lower courses of the streams in several localities.
They are apparently in no uncongenial conditions in the salt-water
lagoon of Eddystone Island, although its waters receive the hot
sulphureous vapours of submerged fumaroles.

These crocodiles do not apparently attain a greater length than 12 or 13
feet. Mr. Sproul shot one at Santa Anna which measured 9½ feet. A female
that I shot in the Shortland Islands, measured 11 feet. One of the
seamen of the “Lark,” named Prior, obtained from the natives the skull
of a rather larger specimen. Out of half-a-dozen individuals seen on the
Three Sisters, not one measured more than 7 or 8 feet.[440] Mr. Bateman,
a trader resident at Ugi, told me that at Wano on the St. Christoval
coast he saw a very large crocodile which, from his description, appears
to have been twice as long as any that I saw. It was, however, dusk at
the time; and in connection with this circumstance I should add that I
have found actual measurement to reduce the apparent length of a
crocodile from 14 to 11 feet.

    [440] A skull given to me by Mr. Nisbet, the government-agent of the
    “Redcoat,” at Ugi, was 12 inches long. It was obtained from the
    natives of Guadalcanar.

Natives are rarely attacked by these reptiles, and they show little or
no fear of them. I have seen a full-grown crocodile dart under a line of
swimmers without causing any dismay. Of the numbers I saw, all were but
too anxious to get out of my way; and their cowardly nature is well
shown in the account of my capture of a specimen which is given below.
However, I came upon a man of Santa Anna who had had his leg broken by
one of these reptiles. The natives of Rubiana hold the crocodile in
veneration and work without fear in the places which it frequents. They
believe that only faithless wives are seized and carried off by the
monster. Pigs are occasionally the prey of the crocodile; but its usual
diet appears to be opossums (_Cusci_), large lacertilians, and fish.

The following account of the capture of a crocodile may interest some of
my readers. It was effected by no more formidable weapons than by a
number of long staves and a small “bull-dog” revolver. Accompanied by
six natives I was making the ascent of a large stream on the north-west
side of Alu, when some of my companions espied a large crocodile at the
bottom of a deep pool about 200 yards from the mouth of the stream. In
setting to work to effect its capture my men proceeded very methodically
to work, and evidently knew the tactics which the creature would employ.
Standing in the water just below the pool, we stood awaiting the descent
of the crocodile down the stream, whilst one of the natives was rousing
it up with a long pole to make it leave its hiding-place. After a little
time it began to get uneasy, and leaving the pool began to descend the
stream. Where we were standing, the stream was only knee-deep, and as
the reptile passed us in the shallow water some natives hit it on the
head with their poles, whilst others hurled their poles sharpened at the
ends, striking it in several places, and I planted a bullet behind its
neck. The creature showed no fight and immediately hid itself in the
pools near the mouth of the stream. During two hours, after we had been
driving it from one pool to another by means of our pointed poles and
staves, we seemed no nearer to its capture. At length there was a loud
out-cry from the natives. The crocodile was making a final rush for life
to cross the bar at the mouth of the stream and escape into the sea. We
all followed, some in the canoe and some through the water; and for a
short time I thought that the creature would escape. But being a little
disabled by our previous attacks, its progress across the bar was
somewhat checked; and the foremost of my men caught hold of its tail
just as it was getting into deep water. Very quickly we all came up, and
assisted in drawing it high and dry on the beach; and whilst two of our
number kept hold of its tail, the remainder belaboured its neck with
rocks and sticks until it died.[441] Its length proved to be 11 feet.
Throughout the whole chase the reptile made no outcry, and even when we
were belabouring it to death it only gave a kind of growl. In its
stomach I found a large quantity of partially digested food with the
remains of an opossum (_Cuscus_) and a large lizard 1½ feet long
(probably _Corucia zebrata_). It was a female, and, in the oviduct I
came upon an egg, which my natives appropriated, saying that it was very
good food; but they do not usually eat the flesh. I was unable from want
of space to keep more than the head of the animal, which I cut off and
carried back in my canoe to the ship. The skull is now in the British
Museum.

    [441] An illustration in Mr. Bates’ “Naturalist on the Amazons”
    represents a very similar scene.

LIZARDS. The Lacertilians are well represented in these islands. Those
at present described are given in the subjoined list.

_Geckonidæ_

  Gymnodactylus pelagicus
  Gehyra oceanica
  Lepidodactylus guppyi. _n. sp._
  Gecko vittatus
    „   var. bivittatus.

_Agamidæ_

  Gonyocephalus godeffroyi.

_Varanidæ_

  Varanus indicus.

_Scincidæ_

  Mabuia carteretii
    „    cyanura
    „    nigra
  Keneuxia smaragdina
  Lipinia anolis _n. sp._
  Corucia zebrata.

The lizards, which most frequently meet the eyes of the visitors in the
vicinity of the beaches, are the two skinks, _Mabuia nigra_ and
_cyanura_. As a rule those species that are common at the coast have a
wide range, extending either into Polynesia or Papuasia or into both
these regions (_vide_ page 307). The species peculiar to these islands
came less frequently under my observation. Thus, that of _Lepidodactylus
guppyi_, is founded on a single (female) specimen I found in Faro or
Fauro Island in Bougainville Straits. _Corucia zebrata_ never came under
my notice alive; it is said at Ugi to find its home in the foliage of
the higher trees. Doubtless if I could have penetrated to the higher
regions of the large islands, I should have obtained a large number of
new species. My collections refer for the most part to the sea-border
and its vicinity. In the elevated interior of such an island as
Guadalcanar there is _a region of great promise_ for the collector; but
I shall have a further occasion to refer to this topic.

The Monitor, _Varanus indicus_, may be often seen at the coast, basking
in the glare of the mid-day sun on the trunks of prostrate trees or on
the bare rocks. It is considered edible by the natives of Bougainville
Straits. Whilst we were anchored at Oima Atoll, Lieutenant Leeper
captured a very large specimen (5 feet 7¾ inches long)[442] on the rocks
close to the sea, and towed it off alive to the ship. After we had tried
in vain to strangle it by a cord, a lead was fastened to it and it was
sunk overboard, but an hour passed before we could say that the reptile
was really dead. This Monitor is probably able to swim considerable
distances. It very likely owes its wide range (from Celebes to the
Solomon Group including Cape York) to the agency of floating trees. On
examining the stomach and intestines, I found them empty. An enormous
quantity of fat, developed in two large lobes in connection with the
_omentum_ or some other part of the _peritoneum_, almost filled the
abdominal cavity. With this store of sustenance and heat, these reptiles
must be able to live without food for a long time.[443]

    [442] A specimen shot in the Florida Islands measured 3 feet 8
    inches.

    [443] As an instance of the tenacity of life that some reptiles
    possess, I may refer to the case of a young terrapin which I kept
    inadvertently for nearly five months on the coast of China without
    any sustenance except the dry rust of a tin can.

SNAKES. Hitherto, the following six species of Ophidians have been found
in the Solomon Group. All of them were included in my collection and one
of them has been described by Mr. Boulenger as a new species.

_Boidæ_

  Enygrus carinatus
     „    bibronii

_Colubridæ_

  Dendrophis solomonis
  Dipsas irregularis

_Elapidæ_

  Hoplocephalus par _n. sp._

_Hydrophiidæ_ (_Water-snakes_)

  Platurus fasciatus[444]

    [444] I was indebted to Lieutenant Symonds of H.M.S. “Diamond” for
    this snake.

One of the commonest of snakes throughout these islands is _Enygrus
carinatus_, a harmless species of the Boa family. It often possesses
considerable bulk in proportion to its length. One specimen which I
obtained in Treasury Island measured 3½ feet in length and 6 inches in
girth. I handled a good many living snakes whilst in these islands,
since the natives used to bring them in numbers to me both on board and
on shore. The statements of the natives and of the white men resident in
this region and the general appearance of the snakes had led me to
believe that there were no poisonous species in the group. I was
therefore somewhat surprised when, on my arrival in England, I learned
from Dr. Günther that I had found a new species as poisonous as the
Cobra. On being shown the specimen by Mr Boulenger, I at once recognised
an old friend which had been brought on board in a bamboo by the natives
at Faro Island and had got loose on the deck. Whilst the men standing
round were preparing to kill it with more regard for their own safety
than for my feelings, I caught it quickly around the neck and held it
under water until it was dead. The natives certainly were not aware of
its venomous character, nor was Mr. Isabell, who was my right-hand man
in these matters, and used to manage the ticklish progress of removing
the snakes from their bamboo-tubes in a manner only suitable in the case
of harmless species. I only obtained one specimen of this snake, which
was about 2½ feet in length. It is named _Hoplocephalus par_ and belongs
to the _Elapidæ_, a family of poisonous colubrine snakes which possess
the physiognomy of the harmless snakes of the same sub-order, and
include the Indian and African Cobras with other well known venomous
species. In the footnote I have quoted Mr. Boulenger’s description of
its general appearance for the information of those who visit the
group.[445]

    [445] The upper surface of the head is uniform blackish brown. The
    body is crossed above by broad red-brown bands separated by narrow
    white interspaces. The lower surface of the head and body are
    uniform white, except on the posterior extremity of the body where
    the red and black extend as lines along the sutures of the ventral
    shields. On the tail the red forms complete rings. Nearly every one
    of the dorsal scales have a blackish brown border. The head is
    depressed, moderately large, and slightly widened posteriorly. The
    eye has a vertical pupil.

BATRACHIANS.--The Spanish discoverers in 1567 remarked that the natives
of Isabel worshipped the toad (_vide_ page 203), and one of the officers
of Surville’s expedition in 1769, described in his journal a remarkable
toad from the same island;[446] yet it is only within recent years that
any Batrachians have been collected in this region. Before I arrived in
the group only two species were known to science, and to this number my
collections, which were made in the islands of Bougainville Straits,
have added seven new species, including a type of a new family. The
following list represents the Batrachian fauna of the Solomon Islands,
as far as it is at present known:

    [446] “Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769,” &c., by M.
    Fleurieu: London, 1791; p. 134.

_Ranidæ._

  Rana buboniformis, _n. sp._
  Rana guppyi, _n. sp._
  Rana opisthodon, _n. sp._
  Rana krefftii.
  Cornufer guppyi, _n. sp._
  Cornufer solomonis, _n. sp._

_Ceratobatrachidæ._

(New family characterised by both jaws being toothed, and by the
diapophyses of the sacral vertebra not being dilated.) Ceratobatrachus
guentheri, _n. sp._

_Hylidæ_ (Tree-frogs.)

  Hyla macrops, _n. sp._
  Hyla thesaurensis.

The natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits, where, as I have
just remarked, my batrachian collection was chiefly made, have given
frogs the general name of “appa-appa” in imitation of their noise, just
as they have named the smaller lizards “Kurru-rupu” for the same reason.
Amongst the particular species of frogs, I may refer to the large
toad-like _Rana buboniformis_, which I found in Treasury Island, and on
the highest peak of the island of Faro. _Rana guppyi_, according to Mr.
Boulenger’s report, attains a larger size than any other species of the
genus, with the exception of the Bull-Frog of North America. _Rana
opisthodon_ affords an instance of a Batrachian[447] which dispenses
with the usual larval or tadpole stage, “the metamorphoses being hurried
through within the egg.” On this subject I made the following notes.
Whilst descending from one of the peaks of Faro Island, I stopped at a
stream some 400 feet above the sea, where my native boys collected from
the moist crevices of the rocks close to the water a number of
transparent gelatinous balls rather smaller than a marble.[448] Each of
these balls contained a young frog about 4 lines in length, apparently
fully developed, with very long hind legs and short fore legs, no tail,
and bearing on the sides of the body small tufts of what seemed to be
branchiæ. On my rupturing the ball or egg in which the little animal was
doubled up, the tiny frog took a marvellous leap into its existence and
disappeared before I could catch it. When I reached the ship an hour
after, I found that some of the eggs which had been carried in a tin had
been ruptured on the way by the jolting, and the liberated frogs were
leaping about with great activity. On placing some of them in an open
bottle 8 inches high, I had to put the cover on as they kept leaping
out. Mr. Boulenger remarking on this observation says, that there are no
gills, but that on each side of the abdomen there are regular transverse
folds (with an arrangement like that of the gill-openings of
Plagiostomous Fishes), the function of which probably is that of
breathing-organs. The tip of the snout is, he says, furnished with a
small conical protuberance, projecting slightly through the delicate
envelope of the egg, and evidently used to perforate that covering. In
the instance also of _Cornufer solomonis_, another new species included
in my collection, Mr. Boulenger remarks that there is every reason to
believe that the young undergo the metamorphoses within the egg.

    [447] Hylodes martinicensis affords another instance. Mon. Berl.
    Ac., 1876, p. 714.

    [448] According to Mr. Boulenger, they measure from 6 to 10 mm. in
    diameter.

With regard to the interesting species, _Ceratobatrachus guentheri_,
which forms the type of a new family, _Ceratobatrachidæ_, the same
writer observes that it is remarkable for the numerous appendages and
symmetrical folds which ornate its skin. It is, in fact, “all points and
angles,” and may be truly termed a horned frog. There is great variation
both in the coloration and in the integuments. “Out of the twenty
specimens before me,” thus Mr. Boulenger writes, “no two are perfectly
alike.” The development is presumed to be of the type in which the
metamorphoses are hurried through within the egg. These horned frogs are
very numerous in the islands of Bougainville Straits, and so closely do
they imitate their surroundings, both in colour and pattern, that on one
occasion I captured a specimen by accidentally placing my hand upon it
when clasping a tree.

It is particularly important to notice not only that the Batrachians of
the Solomon Islands, as far as we at present know, do not occur
elsewhere, but also that in this region a distinct family has been
produced. These facts support the conclusions deducible from the
geological evidence that these islands are of considerable geological
age (_vide_ page x.). The insular and isolated conditions have been
preserved during a period sufficiently extended for the development of a
peculiar Batrachian fauna.

The modes of dispersal of frogs and toads, and, in truth, of the whole
Batrachian class, are matters of which we are to a great extent
ignorant. Frogs are usually stated to be absent from oceanic islands, a
peculiarity of distribution which apparently accords with the
circumstance that neither they nor their spawn can sustain submersion in
sea-water. The occurrence, however, of three species of _Cornufer_ in
the Caroline and Fiji Islands, and of a species of _Bato_ in the
Sandwich Islands,[449] affects the general application of this
conclusion. It may be suggested that these exceptions are due to human
agency; but if so, it is difficult to understand why they have not been
found in such a well explored island as New Caledonia.[450]

    [449] Boulenger’s “Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia,” &c., 2nd
    edit., 1882.

    [450] Perhaps the peculiar geographical distribution of the
    Batrachia may throw light on this subject. _Ibid._

In concluding this chapter I will refer to the circumstance that my
collections of the Reptiles and Batrachians of this large group have
only in a manner broken ground in a region which promises the richest
results to the collector. It cannot be doubted that in the elevated
interiors of the large islands, such as those of Bougainville and
Guadalcanar, there will be found a peculiar Reptilian and Batrachian
fauna, the study of which will be of the highest importance for the
furtherance of our knowledge of these geologically ancient classes of
animals. I believe I am correct in stating that it was on account of the
highly interesting Batrachian collections I sent to the British Museum,
that I received a grant for further exploration from the Royal Society,
which, however, I was unfortunately prevented from turning to account.
The work has yet to be done, and there can be little doubt that the man
who is first able to examine the lofty interior of such an island as
Guadalcanar will bring back collections, the importance of which will
amply recompense him for any hardship or personal risk he may have
endured. My experience was confined to the sea-border and its vicinity.
The future explorer will find his field in the mountainous interiors and
on the highest peaks.

    NOTE (April 19th, 1887).--Since I penned the above, further
    collections of reptiles and batrachians, made in these islands by
    Mr. C. M. Woodford, have been described by Mr. Boulenger at a recent
    meeting of the Zoological Society. I had the pleasure of meeting Mr.
    Woodford before he left England, and I hope that he has been able to
    accomplish his purpose of penetrating into the interior of one of
    the larger islands of the group.

CHAPTER XV.

GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.

AMONGST the numerous strange acquaintances which I made in the Solomon
Islands, was that of the well known cocoa-nut crab, or _Birgus latro_;
and I take this opportunity of giving my evidence towards the
establishment of the fact of its cocoa-nut-eating propensity, for the
following reason. When I read my notes on the subject before the Linnean
Society of New South Wales on Dec. 27th, 1882,[451] I was surprised at
the incredulity shown with reference to this extraordinary habit; and on
inquiry, I learned that the evidence on the subject was deficient in one
vital point, viz., the production of the writer who had witnessed this
habit of the Robber Crab. Accordingly I referred to the various authors
who have recorded this habit of the _Birgus_, and in no single account
could I find that the writer had witnessed what he described. Neither
Mr. Darwin, Dr. Seemann, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, Mr. T. H. Hood, the
Rev. Wyatt Gill, nor the numerous authors whose accounts I also
examined, seem to have actually witnessed the _Birgus_ opening and
eating a cocoa-nut. Herbst[452] was among the first to refer to this
habit; whilst, long ago, M. M. Quoy and Gaimard[453] asserted, from
their own observation, that the crab was fond of cocoa-nuts, and could
be supported on them alone for many months, but they made no allusion to
its capability of husking and opening them. The evidence on this point
appears to have been always tendered by natives, excepting the account
given to Mr. Darwin by Mr. Liesk, which is conclusive in itself.[454]
Yet, credulous persons had fair grounds to retain their doubts, although
in various works on natural history, popular and otherwise, this habit
of the _Birgus_ was described as an undoubted fact. I therefore submit
my evidence; leaving to my reader to reply to the query--Can there be
any reasonable doubt on the subject?

    [451] Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W.

    [452] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1832, p. 17.

    [453] Freycinet’s “Voyage autour du Monde,” 1817-20: Zoologie, p.
    536. (Paris, 1824.)

    [454] “Journal of Researches,” p. 462.

The _Birgus_ was to be found in most of the islands we visited. It is to
be usually observed at or near the coast; but on one occasion, in St.
Christoval, I found an individual at a height of 300 feet above the sea.
Whilst traversing, in September, 1882, the belt of screw-pines, which
borders the beach on the east coast of Malaupaina, the southern island
of the Three Sisters, I came upon one of these large crabs, ensconced in
the angle between the buttressed roots of a tree, with a full sized
cocoa-nut within the reach of its pair of big claws. From the
fresh-looking appearance of the shell, it had been evidently, but
recently, husked, which operation had been performed more cleanly than
if a native had done it. There was an opening at the eye-hole end of the
shell of a somewhat regular oblong form, which measured 2 by 1½ inches,
and was large enough to admit the powerful claws of the crab.[455] The
white kernel, which had the firm consistence of that of the mature nut,
had been scooped out to the extent of from 1 to 1½ inches around the
aperture; small pieces of the kernel lay on the ground outside the nut,
and others were floating about in the milk inside, of which the shell
was about a fourth-part full.

    [455] This shell was presented to the Australian Museum, Sydney.

I had, without a doubt, disturbed the _Birgus_ in the middle of its
meal; but, curiously enough, there were no cocoa-nut palms to be seen
within fifty paces of the spot where the crab was found in its retreat.
Not only had the shell been very recently husked, but it was evident,
from the fresh condition of the milk and kernel, that an interval of
less than a couple of hours had elapsed since the opening had been made.
There was no possible explanation of the crab having got at the edible
portion of the cocoa-nut, except through its own agency. The island is
uninhabited, being only occasionally visited by fishing-parties of
natives from St. Christoval, none of whom were on the island during the
ship’s stay. There was, therefore, the strongest presumptive evidence
that the _Birgus_ had not only husked the cocoa-nut, but had also broken
the hole at the end, in order to get at the kernel.

I kept the crab alive on board on a diet of cocoa-nuts for three weeks,
when, one morning, to my great disappointment, I found it dead. Other
foods, such as bananas, were offered to it but were left untouched, and
its appetite for cocoa-nuts continued unimpaired to the last day of its
life. Being desirous of observing the manner in which the husk was
removed, I had a cocoa-nut with its husk placed in the coop in which the
crab was kept. On one occasion the _Birgus_ was surprised with the nut
between its large claws; but, notwithstanding that no other food was
offered to it for a day and a half, it did not attempt to strip off the
husk. So the operation was done for it, and a small hole was knocked in
the top of the shell. On the following day I found the shell--a young
and somewhat thin one--broken irregularly across the middle, with the
soft white kernel already removed and eaten. It was afterwards found
necessary to break the nuts for its daily food.

In 1884, when the “Lark” was in Bougainville Straits, three of these
crabs were kept on board with the intention of taking them down to
Sydney. Mr. W. Isabell, leading-stoker of the ship, looked well after
them, as he had also done in the case of the previous crab, but within
three or four weeks they had all died. The cocoa-nuts had to be husked
and broken for them, as they were in vain tempted to do it for
themselves. One crab, however, was frequently observed clasping between
its claws a full-grown unhusked nut, the upper end of which showed deep
grooves and dents from the blows of its claws; and Mr. Isabell and I
came to the conclusion that the coop, in which these crabs were placed,
was too low to allow of the free play of the great claws.

My evidence alone would be sufficient to convict the _Birgus_ of this
offence: for an offender it would certainly be in the eyes of the owner
of a plantation of cocoa-nut palms. I learned from Mr. Isabell that the
first crab we had on board consumed, on the average, two cocoa-nuts in
three days. A number of these crabs in a cocoa-nut plantation, might
therefore prove a considerable pest: for, if this betokens the quantity
of food which the _Birgus_ consumes in a state of nature, a single crab
in the course of twelve months would dispose of about 250 cocoa-nuts,
which represent the annual production of three palms and between 20 and
30 quarts of oil.

As these crabs disliked observation, I was unable to gain much knowledge
of their habits by watching. During the day-time they were sluggish, did
not eat, and kept themselves in the further corner of the coop, as far
from the light as possible. At night they moved about very actively and
fed vigorously on the cocoa-nuts. The natives of the Shortlands, who
were well-acquainted with the cocoa-nut eating habit of the _Birgus_,
described to me the mode of husking and breaking the nut, just as Mr.
Liesk described it to Mr. Darwin. They esteem as an especial luxury the
fat which gives the chief bulk to the abdomen of the crab.

The habit of the _Birgus_, when surprised away from its burrow, is not
to turn round and run away, but to retreat in an orderly manner with its
front to the foe. Having reached some root or trunk of a tree which
protects in the rear its less perfectly armoured abdomen, it makes a
regular stand, waves one of the long second pair of claws in the air,
and courageously awaits the attack. The attitude of defence is worthy of
remark. The two large claws are held up close together to defend the
mouth and eyes, but with the pincers pointing downward--the posture
reminding me of the guard for the head and face in sword-exercise. One
of the long second pair of claws is planted firmly on the ground to give
the crab additional support; whilst the other claw is raised in the air
and moved up and down in a sparring fashion. The whole attitude of the
_Birgus_, when on the defensive, is one of dogged and determined
resistance. The big pincers that point downward are ready to seize
anything which touches the unprotected under surface of the abdomen; but
on account of the position of these claws in front of the eyes, it can
only foresee attacks from above, and it therefore cannot ward off a
sudden thrust directed against the abdomen, although it may afterwards
inflict severe injuries on the aggressor.

There seems to be some doubt whether the _Birgus_ ascends the tree to
get the cocoa-nuts or whether it contents itself with those that have
fallen. Almost every author who refers to this crab alludes to its
climbing the tree, and it is also said to climb the pandanus. The
testimony in support of its climbing powers is almost conclusive, yet
Mr. Darwin was informed by Mr. Liesk that in Keeling Atoll the _Birgus_
lives only on the fallen cocoa-nuts, and Mr. H. O. Forbes,[456] who has
recently visited this island, confirms this statement.

    [456] “A Naturalist’s Wanderings,” etc.: London, 1885, p. 27.

My readers, after perusing the foregoing remarks, will agree with me
that from the lack of actual observation on the part of the authors, who
describe the cocoa-nut eating habit of this crab, there has been fair
grounds for scepticism. Even now, we are but imperfectly acquainted with
the mode of life of the _Birgus_, which is a subject I would commend to
the attention of residents in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

I may add that the _Birgus_ is partial to other kinds of fruits beside
cocoa-nuts. Different writers mention candle-nuts, nutmegs, figs, and
other rich and oily nuts and fruits. In some islands it would seem that
the Pandanus fruit is its only diet; and for breaking open these tough
fruits, its heavy claws are well adapted, though from personal
experience, I should remark that the crab would have its strength and
ingenuity taxed almost as much as in the case of the cocoa-nut.

The handsome ground-pigeon, known as the Nicobar pigeon (_Geophilus
nicobaricus_), is commonly observed in the wooded islets on the coral
reefs of the Solomon Group. As I have remarked on page 293, this bird is
probably instrumental in transporting from one locality to another the
small hard seeds and fruits which the common fruit-pigeon (_Carpophaga_)
refuses. That it is able to crack such hard seeds as those of the
leguminous plant _Adenanthera pavonina_,[457] is shown by the fact that
I have found these seeds cracked in the cavity of the gizzard, which is
in its structure and mechanism _a veritable pair of nutcrackers_. In
this bird the muscular stomach or gizzard is of a surprising thickness,
and is provided with a very singular mechanical contrivance to assist
its crushing power. As shown in the accompanying diagram, it is composed
of two muscular halves, each having a maximum thickness of five-eighths
of an inch and united with each other in front and behind by a stout
distensible membrane, which is the proper wall of the organ. Developed
in the horny epithelial lining membrane there are two cartilaginous
bodies of hemispherical shape, one in each muscular segment of the
gizzard, which measure about one-third of an inch in thickness and
three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The outer or convex surface of
each cartilaginous body fits into a cup-shaped cavity which is lined by
a semi-cartilaginous membrane, the whole constituting a
“ball-and-socket” joint with well lubricated surfaces. The two surfaces
of this pseudo-articulation are capable of easy movement on each other,
being retained in close apposition by the attachment to the subjacent
tissues of the horny epithelial lining membrane in which the
cartilaginous body is developed. The inner or free surface of each
hemispherical body, that which looks into the gizzard cavity, is
somewhat concave, and projects a little above the surface of the lining
membrane; it is much harder than the opposite convex side of the
cartilage and has almost the consistence of bone, the arrangement of the
cells into densely packed rows with but little intervening matrix
indicating an approach towards ossification.

    [457] The Kuara tree of India, of whose hard seeds necklaces are
    made.

The firm consistence of these hemispherical cartilages combined with the
mechanism of a moveable articulation must greatly assist the already
powerful muscular walls of the gizzard; but there is an additional
factor in the crushing power in the constant presence of a small quartz
pebble, usually about half-an-inch across. With such a apparatus, I can
well conceive that very hard seeds and nuts may be broken, as in the
case of the seeds of _Adenanthera pavonina_ already alluded to. The
Nicobar pigeon is in fact possessed of a nut-cracking mechanism in its
gizzard, by which nuts like those of our hazel tree would be cracked
with comparative ease.

With reference to the small quartz pebbles found in the gizzards of
these birds, I should remark that there is usually only one present, and
that it varies in weight between 30 and 60 grains. I was sometimes able
to say where the pigeon had obtained its pebble. Thus, in Faro Island
the bird often selects one of the bipyramidal quartz crystals, which
occur in quantities in the beds of the streams in the northern part of
the island, where they have been washed out of the quartz-porphyry of
the district. In other instances the pebble seems to have been
originally a small fragment of chalcedonic quartz, such as composes some
of the flakes and worked flints that are found in the soil which has
been disturbed for cultivation. Sometimes the pebble is of greasy
quartz; and now and then in the absence of quartz the bird has chosen a
pebble of some hard volcanic rock. It is a singular circumstance that
although these pigeons frequent coral islets where they can easily find
hard pebbles of coral-rock, they prefer the quartz pebbles which are of
comparatively rare occurrence. I never found any calcareous pebble in
their gizzards, and was often at a loss to explain how the bird was able
to ascertain for itself the different degree of hardness between the two
pebbles, when the quartz was of the dull white variety. . . . . I learn
from a recent work on New Guinea by the missionaries, Messrs. Chalmers
and Gill, that inside the gizzard of each Goura pigeon there is a
good-sized pebble much prized by the natives as a charm against
spear-thrusts and club blows.[458] The Goura pigeon resembles the
Nicobar pigeon in habits; and I think it probable that its gizzard will
be found to present a similar structure and mechanism for cracking nuts
and hard seeds. The common fruit pigeons (_Carpophaga_) of the Solomon
Islands, living as they do on soft fleshy fruits, and rejecting the hard
seeds and kernels, have no peculiar structure of the gizzard, the walls
of which are comparatively thin, and are thrown into permanent rugæ
somewhat warty oh the surface.

    [458] “Work and Adventure in New Guinea” (p. 317): London, 1885.

One of the most familiar birds in these islands is the “bush-hen,” which
belongs to the family of the mound-builders (_Megapodiidæ_). They bury
their eggs in the sand at a depth of between three and four feet. On one
occasion in the island of Faro, Lieutenant Heming and his party found
eight eggs, in different stages of hatching, thus buried: they were
scattered about in the sand; and according to the account of the natives
only one egg was laid by each bird. The eggs are sometimes found on the
surface of the sand. The young birds are able to fly short distances
soon after they are hatched. One that was brought on board astonished us
all by flying some thirty or forty yards from the ship and then
returning to the rigging.

The account recently published by Mr. H. Pryer of his visit to the
birds’ nest caves of Borneo[459] has opened up the discussion as to the
nature of the substance of which the edible bird’s nest is composed.
Many and varied have been the surmises as to the source of this
material; but nearly all of them have been based on mere speculation,
and have been relegated to the limbo of sea-tales. Amongst the earlier
explanations, I may allude to those which have been given by early
writers. The swiftlets (_Collocalia_), which build their nests in this
extraordinary fashion, were considered to gather a gelatinous material
from the ocean-foam, or from the bodies of holothurians, or from the
skin of the sun-fish. The Chinese fishermen assured Kæmpfer that their
nests were composed of the flesh of the great poulpe. A more probable
explanation, however, was found by Rumphius in the occurrence on the
sea-coasts of a soft almost cartilaginous plant which he with confidence
asserted was the material from which these swiftlets constructed their
nests; but subsequently this naturalist inclined to the opinion that the
substance of which the edible birds’ nests are composed is merely a
secretionary product. In these two views of Rumphius we have the two
sides of the controversy very much as it at present stands. On the one
hand, there are those who hold that this substance is a secretionary
product: on the other hand, the opinion is held that the nest is
constructed of a vegetable matter, usually resulting from the growth of
a microscopic alga, which is found in the caves and on the faces of the
cliffs where the nests occur. All the weight of experiment and of actual
observation tends to negative the view of the vegetable origin of this
substance. Sir Everard Home in 1817 declared his opinion that certain
peculiar gastric glands, which he found in one of these birds, secreted
the mucus of which the nest was formed. In 1859, Dr. Bernstein[460],
after having carefully studied the habits of the birds in question, came
to the conclusion that their nests are formed from the secretion of
certain salivary glands which are abnormally developed during the
nest-building season. M. Trécul, who held the same opinion, showed that
the bird constructs its nest by means of a mucus which flows abundantly
from its beak at the pairing time.[461] This last view is strongly
supported by Mr. Layard, who unhesitatingly pronounces his opinion that
these swiftlets build their nests from the secretionary products of
their own salivary glands.[462] However, when Mr. Pryer visited in
March, 1884, the birds’ nest caves in British North Borneo, he
considered that he had found the source of the material of which the
nests were composed in the occurrence of a “fungoid growth,” which
incrusted the rock in damp places, and which, when fresh, resembled
half-melted gum tragacanth. Without at present expressing an opinion as
to the validity of the inference Mr. Pryer drew from his observations in
these caves, I may observe that the “fungoid growth” has been determined
by Mr. George Murray,[463] of the Botanical Department of the British
Museum, to be the result of the growth of a microscopic alga, a
species, probably new, of _Glœocapsa_; whilst the edible nests from
these caves, according to a chemical and microscopical examination made
by Mr. J. R. Green,[464] have been shown to be formed in the great mass
of _mucin_, which is the chief constituent of the mucous secretions of
animals. After examining various specimens of edible nests from other
localities, Mr. Green subsequently confirmed the results of his first
experiments. The nest-substance, as he unhesitatingly states, is
composed of _mucin_, or of a body closely related to it.[465] So far,
therefore, there would appear to be but little evidence to support the
view of Mr. Pryer that the species of alga, which he found incrusting
the rock in the vicinity of the Borneo caves, supplied the material for
the construction of the nests of the swiftlets. However, before
proceeding to state my own opinion on the matter, I will refer briefly
to my observations in the Solomon Islands relating to this question.

    [459] Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1884: p. 532.

    [460] Journ. für Ornithologie, 1859, pp. 112-115; also Proceed.
    Zoolog. Soc., 1885, p. 610.

    [461] “A General System of Botany,” by Le Maout and Decaisne:
    London, 1873, p. 983.

    [462] “Nature,” Nov. 27th, 1884.

    [463] Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1884: p. 532.

    [464] Proc. Zool. Soc., 1884, p. 532.

    [465] “Nature,” Dec. 11th, 1884 and May 27th, 1886.

A species of _Collocalia_, which usually frequents inaccessible
sea-caves and cliffs, is frequently to be observed on the coasts of the
islands of this group. The natives of Treasury Island call this bird
“kin-kin;” but they have no knowledge of the nutrient qualities of the
substance of which it builds its nest, and they were much amused when I
told them of its being a Chinese luxury. I only came upon the nests of
this bird on one occasion, and that was in some caves on Oima Atoll in
Bougainville Straits. A description of these caves will be here
unnecessary. As in the instance of the birds of the Borneo caverns,
these swiftlets shared their retreats with a number of large bats, the
accumulation of whose droppings had produced a thick reddish-brown
deposit on the floors of the caves. The nests, which were formed for the
most part of fibres derived evidently from the vegetable drift[466] at
the mouths of the caves, were thickly incrusted with the gelatinous
incrustation which projected as winglets from the sides and fastened
them to the rock.

    [466] The husks of pandanus seeds more particularly.

A reddish soft gelatinous incrustation occurred on the faces of some of
the cliffs in the vicinity of the caves. It was composed of an
aggregation of the cells of a microscopic unicellular alga which measure
1/2500 of an inch in diameter. Unfortunately the specimens of this
growth which I collected have been mislaid, but there can be little
doubt that it is similar to the “fungoid growth” which Mr. Pryer
describes in connection with the Borneo caves, and which, through the
kindness of Mr. George Murray, I had the opportunity of seeing at the
British Museum. On the faces of the coral limestone cliffs of some
islands, such as on the east coast of Santa Anna, a like growth occurs
in considerable quantity. In its freshest condition, it may be described
as a reddish-yellow, gum-like substance forming a layer ¼ to ⅛ of an
inch in thickness. Where it incrusts the overhanging face of a cliff, it
is more fluid in consistence and sometimes hangs in little pendulous
masses, one to two inches in length, the extremities of which are often
distended with water. This alga decomposes the hard coral limestone,
making the surface of the rock soft and powdery. All stages in the
growth of this substance may be observed. The older portions are very
dark in colour and have a tough consistence; and in the final stage it
occurs as a black powder covering the rock surface. On examining this
alga with the microscope, I found it to be formed almost entirely of
granular matter apparently resulting from the death of the cells; whilst
the presence of a few cellular bodies alone gave me an indication of its
true nature.

From my observations relating to the subject of the edible bird’s nest,
it may be therefore inferred that in the Solomon Islands, as in Borneo,
the occurrence of these nests is associated with the presence of a
protophytic alga, which incrusts the rocks of the locality as a
gelatinous or gum-like substance. Whether or not the birds employ this
material in forming their nests, is a question which would appear to
have been already answered in the negative; but it seems to me that
those who hold that this material is used for this purpose might justly
claim that the final judgment should be suspended, until a chemical
examination of this vegetable substance has been made with the object of
determining whether it might not yield a material closely resembling
_mucin_. Amongst the nitrogenous constituents of plants occurs the
so-called _vegetable albumen_, which in its chemical composition and in
its behaviour with re-agents does not differ materially from the
_blood-albumen_ of the animal organism, of which in fact it is the
source. In suggesting, therefore, that a _vegetable mucin_ may be found
in this low plant-growth, I do not pass beyond the bounds of
probability.[467]

    [467] _Vide_ a letter by the writer in “Nature,” June 3rd, 1886.

Small scorpions came under my notice in Faro Island. They are not
usually more than 1½ in length and occur in narrow clefts of rocks and
in the crevices of trees. I was stung by one on the thumb, but the pain
was trifling and soon passed away.[468]

    [468] Specimens of these scorpions were given by me to the
    Australian Museum, Sydney.

A species of _Iulus_ or Millipede, which attains a length of from 6 to 7
inches, is commonly found in the eastern islands of the Solomon Group on
the trunks of fallen trees and amongst decaying vegetable débris. It is
often to be seen amongst the rotting leaves that have gathered inside
the bases of the fronds of the Bird’s-nest Fern (_Asplenium nidus_).
These Myriapods seem to be less frequent in the islands of Bougainville
Straits towards the opposite end of the group, as I do not remember
seeing any large _Iuli_ in that locality: their place appears to be
taken by another Myriapod, apparently a _Polydesmus_, growing to a
length of 2½ inches, which I found amongst decaying vegetation at all
elevations up to 1900 feet above the sea, as on the summit of Faro
Island. But to return to the _Iuli_, I should remark that this genus of
Myriapods evidently possesses some means of transportal across wide
tracts of sea, since, amongst other islands similarly situated, it is
found in Tristan da Cunha,[469] in the South Atlantic Ocean, and I have
found it in the Seychelles, in the Indian Ocean. The habits of these
Millipedes would render it highly probable that they have reached the
oceanic islands on vegetable drift, such as floating logs. It is,
however, a noteworthy circumstance that they do not seem to be able to
withstand immersion in sea-water for any length of time. In
experimenting on the Solomon Island species, I found that they were able
to survive an hour-and-a-half’s complete immersion in sea-water, but
that an immersion of three hours killed them. One individual, out of
several experimented on, survived for twelve hours after it was taken
out, but only in a half lifeless condition.[470] It may, therefore, have
been that the _Iulus_ has been transported to oceanic islands by such
agencies as canoes and ships, rather than by means of floating
trees.[471]

    [469] Moseley’s “Naturalist on the Challenger,” p. 134.

    [470] This species of _Iulus_ was able to sustain a longer
    submersion in fresh-water, without apparently any injurious effects.
    Those experimented on recovered after being kept under water for
    four hours, but died after a submersion of six hours.

    [471] As bearing on this point, it might be interesting to determine
    whether these large _Iuli_ occur on islands far from land which are
    believed never to have been inhabited.

Like other species of the genus, the Solomon Island _Iulus_ exhales a
very pungent and disagreeable odour, which is caused by an acrid fluid
secreted by small vesicles, of which each segment of the body contains
a pair.[472] On holding my nose for a moment over the mouth of a bottle,
containing two of these large Millipedes, I experienced a strong
sensation in the nasal passages, reminding me much of the effects of an
inhalation of chlorine gas. I had previously learned from resident
traders that these Millipedes have a habit of ejecting an acrid fluid
when disturbed, which, if it entered the eye, was liable to cause acute
inflammation; and the instance was related to me of the captain of some
ship, trading in these islands, who lost the sight of one of his eyes
from this cause. Mr. C. F. Wood learned from the natives of St.
Christoval, in 1873, that these Myriapods “could squirt out a poisonous
juice, which was dangerous if it happened to touch one’s eye;” but he
adds, “there seemed no great probability of their doing this.”[473]
However, I usually found that native testimony, in such matters, was
very reliable; and in the instance of this reputed habit of the _Iulus_,
my personal experience has convinced me of its reality. Whilst handling
one of these Millipedes as it lay on the trunk of a fallen tree in Ugi
Island, I felt a sudden smarting sensation in the right eye, caused
apparently by some fluid ejected into it. Remembering the injurious
effect attributed to this habit of the _Iulus_, I at once plunged my
head under the water of a stream, in which I happened to be standing up
to my waist, and I kept my eye open to wash away the offending fluid.
During the remainder of the day, there was an uncomfortable feeling in
the eye and somewhat increased lachrymation; but on the following
morning these effects had disappeared. At the time of this occurrence,
my face was removed about a foot from the Millipede; and, although I was
uncertain from what part of the body the fluid was ejected, I did not
care, under the circumstances, to continue the inquiry.

    [472] Hoeven’s Zoology. (Eng. edit.) Vol. I., p. 291.

    [473] “A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas,” p. 131. (London, 1875.)

Amongst the first living creatures to greet the visitor as he lands on
the beach of a coral island in the Pacific, is a small species of
Hermit-Crab, belonging to the genus _Coenobita_, which frequents the
beach in great numbers. The crab withdraws itself just within the mouth
of the shell, where it forms a perfect operculum, by means mainly of the
large flattened _chelæ_ of the left great claw which is arched over by
the left leg of the third pair, whilst the right claw and the right leg
of the second pair serve to complete the shield The most plucky and
pugnacious of these little crabs are those which occupy cast-off
_Nerita_ shells, a character which probably arises from their
consciousness of the solid strength of the home they have chosen: and,
strange to say, the tiny bosses on the surfaces of the large pincers,
which are outermost in the improvised operculum, resemble similar
markings on the outer side of the operculum of the _Nerita_ (_N.
marmorata_, Hombr and Jacq), whose shell they often inhabit. Mr.
Darwin[474] observed that the different species of hermit-crabs, which
he found on the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean, used always certain
kind of shells; but I could not satisfy myself that such was the case in
the instance of the Solomon Island hermit-crabs. In the case of the
common beach species of _Coenobita_, I found, after carefully examining
a number of individuals to satisfy myself of their being of the same
species, that shells of the genera _Turbo_, _Nerita_, _Strombus_,
_Natica_, _Distorsio_, Truncatella, _Terebra_, _Melania_, &c., &c.,
contained the same species of _Coenobita_, whether the individual was
large enough to occupy a _Turbo_ shell of the size of a walnut or
sufficiently small to select the tiny shell of the _Truncatella_ for its
home. Another species of the same genus prefers usually the vicinity of
the beach; but it may occur at heights up to 200 feet above the sea. It
is rather larger than the beach species, and differs amongst other
characters in the more globose form of the large claws and in the
greater relative size of the left one. It occupies shells of different
kinds, such as those of _Nerita_, _Turbo_, &c. A still larger species,
which frequents the vicinity of the beach, usually selects _Turbo_
shells, apparently because of their larger size. All the other species
of _Coenobita_, which I met with, used, when I touched them, to withdraw
themselves within their shells and close them up at once with their
claws; but this kind, when I caught hold of the _Turbo_ shell that it
carried, left the shell behind in my fingers with apparent unconcern and
crawled leisurely away, displaying, somewhat indecorously, the
rudimentary plates on the back of its abdomen. These are the plates that
attain their greatest development in the Cocoa-nut Crab (_Birgus
latro_), which is thus able to dispense with a shell altogether. The
greatest heights at which I found hermit-crabs were in the island of
Faro on the two highest peaks, which are elevated respectively 1600 and
1900 feet above the sea. In both these localities, the crab had reached
the very summit and could not have climbed higher. The species was
apparently different from, though closely allied to, the common beach
species, and frequented the shells of a land-snail (_Helix_). I was
indebted to Lieutenant Heming for directing my attention to the
hermit-crab, found 1900 feet above the sea. It appears to me likely that
these hermit-crabs will be found at much greater heights in this group,
since, in this island, their ambition to rise had carried them up as far
as they could go.

    [474] “Journal of the Beagle,” p. 457.

Other species of hermit-crabs, that are common in these islands, belong
to the genus _Pagurus_. They are conspicuously distinguished from the
species of _Coenobita_, above described, by their first pair of claws,
which are small and weak and ill-adapted for defensive purposes. For
this reason, these species are less able to look after themselves; and
since they cannot form the operculum-like shield with their claws at the
mouth of the shell, they always choose shells which will permit of their
retiring well within it, so as to be out of the reach of their enemies.
Some species are found in the stream-courses and in the brackish water
near their mouths, when they often frequent cast-off _Melania_ shells.
Other species (?) prefer the sea-water on the reef-flats. I noticed one
individual that displayed its eccentricity of disposition, in selecting,
as its abode, the hollow tube of a small water-logged stick, about six
inches long, which it dragged about after it during its peregrinations,
and into which it retreated when alarmed. On one occasion, I observed a
large _Dolium_ shell, moving briskly about in a pool of salt-water,
which, on picking up, I found to be tenanted by a _Pagurus_, so
ridiculously small, in comparison with the size of the shell, that when
frightened it retreated to the very uppermost whorl, and,
notwithstanding the wide mouth of the shell, could not be seen. So light
was the weight of the crab, that, on account of the buoyancy of its
shell, it floated lightly on the surface of the water, on which I had
placed it with the mouth of the shell uppermost, and was blown by a
slight breeze across a pool of water, some twenty yards in width. While
it was afloat, the shrewd little occupant retired to the innermost
recess of its home; but as soon as the shell had grounded, it protruded
its head and pincers and endeavoured to overturn the shell, which it
finally succeeded in accomplishing.

In the case of these two genera of hermit-crabs, _Coenobita_ and
_Pagurus_, it was interesting to notice the relation existing between
the defensive capabilities of the crab, and the relative size of the
shell it selected as its home. The _Pagurus_, with its weak slender
pincers, chooses large shells within which it can retire well out of
reach when alarmed. The _Coenobita_, with its stout pincers, prefers
shells much smaller, relatively speaking, and ensconces itself snugly in
the body whorl, forming an operculum with its claws. As the hermit-crab,
_Coenobita_, crawls along the dry sand of a beach, it leaves behind it
characteristic pinnate tracks which may be often traced for several
feet. The lateral markings are produced by the claws and legs working on
each side of the shell; whilst a central groove is formed by the weight
of the shell itself. As shown by the arrow in the diagram, the lateral
markings point in the direction of the course which the hermit-crab has
taken. Sometimes only a single row of lateral tracks accompanies the
grooves produced by the shell. Such markings were produced by a
hermit-crab when frightened by my approach. It turned its front towards
me, and crawled backwards, by working most of his claws and legs on one
side of the shell. In the case of the larger hermit-crabs, which are
much less frequent on the beach, each limb produces a distinct print on
the sand; but with the small species of _Coenobita_ which infests the
beach, each lateral marking, as shown in the diagram, is produced by a
single movement of the claws situated on the same side of the shell. The
hermit-crabs only leave their tracks on the dry loose sand. One
individual, that I placed on sand, still wet from the retreating tide,
crawled along without leaving any impression. I have described these
impressions with some care, as they bear on the origin of the
surface-markings of rocks of shallow-water formation, a subject recently
discussed in the geological world. It is highly probable that some of
the larger and heavier forms of the Anomura (and, in fact, of the
Decapoda generally) would produce prints such as I have here described,
both on mud-flats left dry by the tide, and on the soft bottom in
shallow depths. A cast of the impressions thus produced would have an
unmistakeable plant-like form.

Whilst examining the island of Simbo, I noticed some singular Medusæ in
a small mangrove-swamp, which is inclosed in the low point that forms
the south shore of the anchorage. Numbers of these organisms of a large
size (8 or 9 inches across the umbrella), and of a dirty-white colour,
were lying on the mud with their tentacles, uppermost in depths of from
one to three feet of water. I was struck by the handsome mass of
arborescent tentacles which they displayed, and by the peculiarity of
their lying upside-down. The dark mud which formed the bottom of the
swamp was composed of decayed vegetable matter, confervoid growths,
diatoms, and a few infusoria: but when I raised up these Medusæ, I found
underneath each a patch of white sand corresponding with the outline of
the organism, but completely concealed by the umbrella when the Medusa
lay in its usual position. The sand was derived from corals, shells, and
the volcanic rocks of the island; and the light patches formed a marked
contrast with the dark mud around. I was unable to find any satisfactory
explanation of these curious patches of sand; and I, therefore,
proceeded to interrogate the Medusæ on the subject by watching them, but
to no purpose. So I had my revenge by turning them all over on their
tentacles, when each one immediately began to contract its umbrella in a
most methodical fashion, and, after swimming a short distance,
deliberately resumed its former position of tentacles upward. I had an
extensive experience of mangrove-swamps after we left Simbo; but these
self-willed Medusæ never came under my notice again.[475]

    [475] I referred to the habits of these Medusæ in “Nature,” Nov.
    9th, 1882.

With regard to these Medusæ, I should remark that they belong to a
species of _Polyclonia_, and are classed amongst the Scypho-Medusæ.[476]
Two species of _Polyclonia_ seem to be known, _P. frondosa_ (Agassiz)
and _P. Mertensii_(Brandt), the first found in the Florida seas, and the
latter in the Carolines. I am inclined to think that the Solomon Island
species is more nearly allied to _P. Mertensii_. Both species, however,
have similar habits, lying on the mud of mangrove-swamps, with their
tentacles uppermost.

    [476] I compared my notes with the description and figures given by
    Agassiz in his “Contrib. Nat. Hist. U.S.A.” (1862: vols. iii. and
    iv.). In the Solomon Island species, the dendriform mass resolves
    itself into 8 principal branches, each ramose, and all united at
    their bases by a common membrane. The umbrella, which was finely
    lobed or crenulated at its margin, displayed about 40 radiating
    canals, each communicating by an anastomosing network with the canal
    on either side of it.

The singular habits of these Scypho-Medusæ were noticed by Brandt in
1838. They have since been remarked by Mosely[477] in the Philippines,
and by Archer[478] in the West Indies. L. Agassiz in his “Contributions
to the Natural History of the United States,” describes and figures the
Florida species (_Polyclonia frondosa_); and some additional notes on
its habits have been made by A. Agassiz, to whose communication in
“Nature” (Sept. 29th, 1881) I have been much indebted.

    [477] Mosely’s “Notes by a Naturalist,” p. 404.

    [478] “Nature” Aug. 4th, 1881.

Whilst we lay at anchor in Treasury Harbour, in April, 1884, a cetacean,
unknown to the natives and to ourselves, got partly stranded in the
shallow water, and was captured by the villagers. It was nine feet long,
and possessed this remarkable character that, although no teeth showed
through the gums, each lower jaw possessed a short, conical, hollow
tooth an inch long, placed at the anterior extremity. I obtained the
head from the natives, and placed it in a safe place, as I thought; but
when we returned to Treasury a few weeks after, I found only portions of
the skull with the lower jaw-bones, the wild pigs having held a feast
over it. The remains, however, together with my notes and a sketch by
Lieutenant Leeper were sent to the British Museum. I there learned that
it is a species of Ziphius, probably unknown.

The Solomon Islanders believe in the existence of anthropoid apes in the
interiors of the large islands, regarding them, however, like the Dyaks
of Borneo in the case of the Orang-utan, as “wild men of the woods.” In
Malaita they are said to be 4½ to 5 feet high, and to come down in
troops to make raids on the banana plantations. Captain Macdonald
informed me that the natives allege that one of these apes was caught,
and, after being kept for some time, escaped. Taki, the St. Christoval
chief, told Mr. Stephens that he had seen one of these apes, and pointed
out the locality. Tanowaio, the Ugi chief, also made a similar
statement. In Guadalcanar, they are believed to live in the trees, and
to attack men. Dr. Codrington refers to the prevalence of these beliefs
throughout Melanesia (Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. x. p. 261). Such
beliefs, as experience has shown in the case of the Gorilla and other
anthropoids, have undoubtedly some foundation; but whether these
mysterious animals are apes is quite another question.

CHAPTER XVI.

LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS.

DURING my numerous excursions in these islands, I had in the majority of
instances to follow up the stream-courses in order to examine their
geological structure. I had therefore good opportunities in these
regions of making a collection of the fresh-water shells, which,
together with the land shells I collected, formed a total of between
sixty and seventy species, amongst which there were 11 new species and