Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE CHALCIS: "Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the
      Delian Leagues. In the Hellenistic period it gained importance as a
      fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece".
      'importance' amended from 'inportance'.

    ARTICLE CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON: "He often deals with gloomy and
      sometimes with ghastly and repulsive subjects; and even in his
      lighter and gayer productions there is an undertone of sadness or
      of satire". 'productions' Amended from 'proudctions'.

    ARTICLE CHANNEL ISLANDS: "... Burhou and Ortach, and numerous other
      islets west of it, and west again the notorious Casquets, an angry
      group of jagged rocks, on the largest of which is a powerful
      lighthouse". 'an' amended from 'and'.

          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION

            VOLUME V, SLICE VII

        Cerargyrite to Charing Cross

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

  CERARGYRITE                     CHAMBERS
  CERBERUS                        CHAMBERSBURG
  CERDIC                          CHAMBÉRY
  CERDONIANS                      CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES DIEUDONNÉ
  CEREALIS, PETILLIUS             CHAMBORD
  CERES                           CHAMBRE ARDENTE
  CERIGNOLA                       CHAMELEON
  CERIGOTTO                       CHAMFER
  CERINTHUS                       CHAMFORT, SEBASTIEN ROCH NICOLAS
  CERIUM                          CHAMIER, FREDERICK
  CERNUSCHI, HENRI                CHAMILLART, MICHEL
  CEROGRAPHY                      CHAMINADE, CÉCILE
  CERRO DE PASCO                  CHAMISSO, ADELBERT VON
  CERTALDO                        CHAMKANNI
  CERUSSITE                       CHAMOIS
  CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE GIACHIMO      CHAMOMILE
  CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE   CHAMONIX
  CERVERA, PASCUAL TOPETE         CHAMPAGNE
  CESAREVICH                      CHAMPAGNY, JEAN BAPTISTE NOMPÈRE DE
  CESARI, GIUSEPPE                CHAMPAIGN
  CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE            CHAMPAIGNE, PHILIPPE DE
  CESENA                          CHAMPARAN
  CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI         CHAMPEAUX, WILLIAM OF
  CESPEDES, PABLO DE              CHAMPERTY
  CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE  CHAMPION
  CESS                            CHAMPIONNET, JEAN ÉTIENNE
  CESSIO BONORUM                  CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE
  CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO            CHAMPLAIN
  CESTIUS, LUCIUS                 CHAMPMESLÉ, MARIE
  CESTUI, CESTUY                  CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS
  CETACEA                         CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, JACQUES JOSEPH
  CETHEGUS                        CHANCE
  CETINA, GUTIERRE DE             CHANCEL
  CETTE                           CHANCELLOR
  CETTIGNE                        CHANCELLORSVILLE
  CETUS                           CHANCE-MEDLEY
  CETYWAYO                        CHANCERY
  CEUTA                           CHANDA
  CEVA                            CHANDAUSI
  CÉVENNES                        CHAND BARDAI
  CEYLON                          CHANDELIER
  CHABAZITE                       CHANDERNAGORE
  CHABLIS                         CHANDLER, HENRY WILLIAM
  CHABOT, FRANÇOIS                CHANDLER, RICHARD
  CHABOT, GEORGES ANTOINE         CHANDLER, SAMUEL
  CHABOT, PHILIPPE DE             CHANDLER, ZACHARIAH
  CHABRIAS                        CHANDOS, BARONS AND DUKES OF
  CHABRIER, ALEXIS EMMANUEL       CHANDOS, SIR JOHN
  CHACMA                          CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
  CHACO                           CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE
  CHACONNE                        CHANG-CHOW
  CHAD, SAINT                     CHANG CHUN, KIU
  CHAD                            CHANGE
  CHADDERTON                      CHANGELING
  CHADERTON, LAURENCE             CHANGOS
  CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN             CHANGRA
  CHAEREMON (Athenian dramatist)  CHANNEL ISLANDS
  CHAEREMON (Stoic philosopher)   CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY
  CHAERONEIA                      CHANSONS DE GESTE
  CHAETOGNATHA                    CHANT
  CHAETOPODA                      CHANTABUN
  CHAETOSOMATIDA                  CHANTADA
  CHAFER                          CHANTAGE
  CHAFF                           CHANTARELLE
  CHAFFARINAS                     CHANTAVOINE, HENRI
  CHAFFEE, ADNA ROMANZA           CHANTILLY
  CHAFFINCH                       CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT
  CHAFING-DISH                    CHANT ROYAL
  CHAGOS                          CHANTRY
  CHAGRES                         CHANUTE
  CHAIN                           CHANZY, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED
  CHAIR                           CHAOS
  CHAISE                          CHAPBOOK
  CHAKRATA                        CHAPE
  CHALCEDON                       CHAPEL
  CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF           CHAPELAIN, JEAN
  CHALCEDONY                      CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH
  CHALCIDICUM                     CHAPEL HILL
  CHALCIS                         CHAPELLE ARDENTE
  CHALCONDYLES                    CHAPERON
  CHALDAEA                        CHAPLAIN
  CHALDEE                         CHAPLIN, HENRY
  CHALICE                         CHAPMAN, GEORGE
  CHALIER, JOSEPH                 CHAPMAN
  CHALK                           CHAPONE, HESTER
  CHALKHILL, JOHN                 CHAPPE, CLAUDE
  CHALKING THE DOOR               CHAPPELL, WILLIAM
  CHALLAMEL, JEAN AUGUSTIN        CHAPRA
  CHALLEMEL-LACOUR, PAUL AMAND    CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE CLAUDE
  CHALLENGE                       CHAPTER
  "CHALLENGER" EXPEDITION         CHAPTER-HOUSE
  CHALLONER, RICHARD              CHAPU
  CHALMERS, ALEXANDER             CHAR
  CHALMERS, GEORGE                CHAR-À-BANC
  CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL           CHARACTER
  CHALMERS, JAMES                 CHARADE
  CHALMERS, THOMAS                CHARCOAL
  CHALONER, SIR THOMAS            CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN
  CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE               CHARD, JOHN ROUSE MERRIOTT
  CHALON-SUR-SAÔNE                CHARD
  CHALUKYA                        CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON
  CHALYBÄUS, HEINRICH MORITZ      CHARDIN, SIR JOHN
  CHALYBITE                       CHARENTE
  CHAMBA                          CHARENTE-INFÉRIEURE
  CHAMBAL                         CHARENTON-LE-PONT
  CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH             CHARES
  CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE    CHARES
  CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES CHARES
  CHAMBERLAIN                     CHARGE
  CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM           CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES
  CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM               CHARGING ORDER
  CHAMBERS, GEORGE                CHARIBERT
  CHAMBERS, ROBERT                CHARIDEMUS
  CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM           CHARING CROSS

CERARGYRITE, a mineral species consisting of silver chloride; an
important ore of silver. The name cerargyrite is a Greek form (from
[Greek: keras], horn, and [Greek: argyros], silver) of the older name
hornsilver, which was used by K. Gesner as far back as 1565. The
chloro-bromide and bromide of silver were also included under this term
until they were distinguished chemically in 1841 and 1842, and described
under the names embolite and bromargyrite (or bromyrite) respectively;
the chloride then came to be distinguished as chlorargyrite, though the
name cerargyrite is often now applied to this alone. Chloro-bromo-iodide
of silver has also been recognized as a mineral and called iodembolite.
All these are strikingly alike in appearance and general characters,
differing essentially only in chemical composition, and it would seem
better to reserve the name cerargyrite for the whole group, using the
names chlorargyrite (AgCl), embolite (Ag(Cl, Bl)), bromargyrite (AgBr)
and iodembolite (Ag(Cl, Br, I)) for the different isomorphous members of
the group. They are cubic in crystallization, with the cube and the
octahedron as prominent forms, but crystals are small and usually
indistinct; there is no cleavage. They are soft (H = 2½) and sectile to
a high degree, being readily cut with a knife like horn. With their
resinous to adamantine lustre and their translucency they also present
somewhat the appearance of horn; hence the name hornsilver. The colour
varies somewhat with the chemical composition, being grey or colourless
in chlorargyrite, greenish-grey in embolite and bromargyrite, and
greenish-yellow to orange-yellow in iodembolite. On exposure to light
the colour quickly darkens. The specific gravity also varies with the
composition: for the pure chloride it is 5.55, and the highest recorded
for an iodembolite is 6.3.

The hornsilvers all occur under similar conditions and are often
associated together; they are found in metalliferous veins with native
silver and ores of silver, and are usually confined to the upper
oxidized parts of the lodes. They are important ores of silver (the pure
chloride contains 75.3% of silver), and have been extensively mined at
several places in Chile, also in Mexico, and at Broken Hill in New South
Wales. The chloride and chloro-bromide have been found in several
Cornish mines, but never in very large amounts.     (L. J. S.)

CERBERUS, in Greek mythology, the dog who guarded the entrance to the
lower world. He allowed all to enter, but seized those who attempted to
escape. According to Hesiod (_Theog._ 311), he was a fifty-headed
monster with a fearful bark, the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. He was
variously represented with one, two or (usually) three heads, often
with the tail of a snake or with snakes growing from his head or twined
round his body. One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles was to fetch
Cerberus from below to the upper world, a favourite subject of ancient
vase-paintings.

CERDIC (d. 534), founder of the West Saxon kingdom, is described as an
ealdorman who in 495 landed with his son Cynric in Hampshire, where he
was attacked at once by the Britons. Nothing more is heard of him until
508, when he defeated the Britons with great slaughter. Strengthened by
fresh arrivals of Saxons, he gained another victory in 519 at
Certicesford, a spot which has been identified with the modern Charford,
and in this year took the title of king. Turning westward, Cerdic
appears to have been defeated by the Britons in 520 at Badbury or Mount
Badon, in Dorset, and in 527 yet another fight with the Britons is
recorded. His last work was the conquest of the Isle of Wight, probably
in the interest of some Jutish allies. All the sovereigns of England,
except Canute, Hardicanute, the two Harolds and William the Conqueror,
are said to be descended from Cerdic.

  See _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899);
  Gildas, _De excidio Britanniae_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898);
  Nennius, _Historia, Brittonum_, edited by Th. Mommsen (Berlin, 1898);
  Bede, _Historiae ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum libri v._, ed. C.
  Plummer (Oxford, 1896); E. Guest, _Origines Celticae_ (London, 1883);
  J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London, 1897).

CERDONIANS, a Gnostic sect, founded by Cerdo, a Syrian, who came to Rome
about 137, but concerning whose history little is known. They held that
there are two first causes--the perfectly good and the perfectly evil.
The latter is also the creator of the world, the god of the Jews, and
the author of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ is the son of the good
deity; he was sent into the world to oppose the evil; but his
incarnation, and therefore his sufferings, were a mere appearance.
Regarding the body as the work of the evil deity, the Cerdonians formed
a moral system of great severity, prohibiting marriage, wine and the
eating of flesh, and advocating fasting and other austerities. Most of
what the Fathers narrate of Cerdo's tenets has probably been transferred
to him from his famous pupil Marcion, like whom he is said to have
rejected the Old Testament and the New, except part of Luke's Gospel and
of Paul's Epistles. (See MARCION, and GNOSTICISM.)

CEREALIS (CERIALIS), PETILLIUS (1st century A.D.), Roman general, a near
relative of the emperor Vespasian. He is first heard of during the reign
of Nero in Britain, where he was completely defeated (A.D. 61) by
Boadicea. Eight years later he played an important part in the capture
of Rome by the supporters of Vespasian. In 70 he put down the revolt of
Civilis (q.v.). In 71, as governor of Britain, where he had as a
subordinate the famous Agricola, he inflicted severe defeats upon the
Brigantes, the most powerful of the tribes of Britain. Tacitus says that
he was a bold soldier rather than a careful general, and preferred to
stake everything on the issue of a single engagement. He possessed
natural eloquence of a kind that readily appealed to his soldiers. His
loyalty towards his superiors was unshakable.

  Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv. 32; _Histories_, iii. 59, 78, iv. 71, 75, 86,
  v. 21; _Agricola_, 8, 17.

CERES, an old Italian goddess of agriculture. The name probably means
the "creator" or "created," connected with _crescere_ and _creare_. But
when Greek deities were introduced into Rome on the advice of the
Sibylline books (in 495 B.C., on the occasion of a severe drought),
Demeter, the Greek goddess of seed and harvest, whose worship was
already common in Sicily and Lower Italy, usurped the place of Ceres in
Rome, or rather, to Ceres were added the religious rites which the
Greeks paid to Demeter, and the mythological incidents which originated
with her. At the same time the cult of Dionysus and Persephone (see
LIBER AND LIBERA) was introduced. The rites of Ceres were Greek in
language and form. Her priestesses were Italian Greeks and her temple
was Greek in its architecture and built by Greek artists. She was
worshipped almost exclusively by plebeians, and her temple near the
Circus Maximus was under the care of the plebeian aediles, one of whose
duties was the superintendence of the corn-market. Her chief festivals
were the _ludi Cereris_ or _Cerealia_ (more correctly, _Cerialia_),
games held annually from April 12-19 (Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 392 ff.); a
second festival, in August, to celebrate the reunion of Ceres and
Proserpine, in which women, dressed in white, after a fast of nine days
offered the goddess the first-fruits of the harvest (Livy xxii. 56); and
the _Jejunium Cereris_, a fast also introduced (191 B.C.) by command of
the Sibylline books (Livy xxvi. 37), at first held only every four
years, then annually on the 4th of October. In later times Ceres was
confused with Tellus. (See also DEMETER.)

CERIGNOLA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, 26 m.
S.E. by rail from the town of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 34,195. It was rebuilt
after a great earthquake in 1731, and has a considerable agricultural
trade. In 1503 the Spaniards under Gonzalo de Cordoba defeated the
French under the duc de Nemours below the town--a victory which made the
kingdom of Naples into a Spanish province in Italy. Cerignola occupies
the site of Furfane, a station on the Via Traiana between Canusium and
Herdoniae.

CERIGOTTO, called locally LIUS (anc. _Aegilia_ or _Ogylos_; mod. Gr.
officially _Antikythera_), an island of Greece, belonging to the Ionian
group, and situated between Cythera (Cerigo) and Crete, about 20 m. from
each. Some raised beaches testify to an upheaval in comparatively recent
times. With an area of about 10 sq. m. it supports a population of about
300, who are mainly Cretan refugees, and in favourable seasons exports a
quantity of good wheat. It was long a favourite resort of Greek pirates.
It is famous for the discovery in 1900, close to its coast, of the wreck
of an ancient ship with a cargo of bronze and marble statues.

CERINTHUS (c. A.D. 100), an early Christian heretic, contemporary with
the closing years of the apostle John, who, according to the well-known
story of Polycarp, reported by Irenaeus (iii. 3) and twice recorded in
Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iii. 28, iv. 14), made a hasty exit from a bath
in Ephesus on learning that Cerinthus was within. Other early accounts
agree in making the province of Asia the scene of his activity, and
Hippolytus (_Haer_. vii. 33) credits him with an Egyptian training.
There can be no truth in the notice given by Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxviii.
4) that Cerinthus had in earlier days at Jerusalem led the judaizing
opposition against Paul.

The difficulty of defining Cerinthus's theological position is due not
only to the paucity of our sources but to the fact that the witness of
the two principal authorities, Irenaeus (1. 26, iii. 11) and Hippolytus
(_Syntagma_), does not agree. Further, Irenaeus himself in one passage
fails to distinguish between Cerinthian and Valentinian doctrines. It
would appear, however, that Cerinthus laid stress on the rite of
circumcision and on the observance of the Sabbath. He taught that the
world had been made by angels, from one of whom, the god of the Jews,
the people of Israel had received their Law, which was not perfect. The
only New Testament writing which he accepted was a mutilated Gospel of
Matthew. Jesus was the offspring of Joseph and Mary, and on him at the
baptism descended the Christ,[1] revealing the hitherto unknown Father,
and endowing him with miraculous power. This Christ left Jesus again
before the Passion, and the resurrection of Jesus was still in the
future. Together with these somewhat gnostic ideas, Cerinthus, if we may
trust the notices of Gaius the Roman presbyter (c. 290) and Dionysius of
Alexandria (c. 340), held a violent and crude form of chiliasm. But the
chief significance of the man is his "combination of zeal for legal
observances with bold criticism of the Law itself as a whole and of its
origin," which reminds us of the Clementine _Recognitions_. Cerinthus is
a blend of judaizing christian and gnostic.

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] So Irenaeus. According to Hippolytus and Epiphanius it was the
    Holy Ghost that thus descended.

CERIUM (symbol Ce, atomic weight 140.25), a metallic chemical element
which occurs with the rare earths in the minerals cerite, samarskite,
euxenite, monazite, parisite and many yttrium minerals. The particular
earth containing cerium was discovered by M.H. Klaproth in 1803, whilst
J. Berzelius at about the same time also examined it and came to the
conclusion that it was the oxide of a new metal, which he termed
cerium. The crude oxide of the metal is obtained from cerite, by
evaporating the mineral with strong sulphuric acid, removing excess of
acid and dissolving the residue in ice-cold water; sulphuretted hydrogen
is passed through the solution, which is then filtered, acidified with
hydrochloric acid, and precipitated as oxalate by oxalic acid; the
oxalate is then converted into oxide by ignition. From the crude oxide
so obtained (which contains lanthanum and didymium oxides) the cerium
may be separated by conversion into its double sulphate on the addition
of potassium sulphate, the sulphates of the cerium group being insoluble
in a saturated solution of potassium sulphate. The sulphate is
subsequently boiled with water, when a basic sulphate is precipitated.
For the preparation of pure cerium compounds see Auer v. Welsbach,
_Monatshefte_, 1884, v. 508.

The metal was first obtained, in an impure state, by C.G. Mosander, by
fusing its chloride with sodium. W.F. Hillebrand and T. Norton have
prepared it by the electrolysis of the melted chloride (_Pogg. Ann._,
1875, 156, p. 466); and C. Winkler (_Berichte_, 1891, xxiv. 884)
obtained it by heating the dioxide with magnesium powder. The metal has
somewhat the appearance of iron, and has a specific gravity of 6.628,
which, after melting, is increased to 6.728. Its specific heat is
0.04479 (W.F. Hillebrand). It is permanent in dry air, but tarnishes in
moist air; it can be hammered and rolled; it melts at 623° C. It burns
readily on heating, with a brilliant flame; and it also combines with
chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus and cyanogen. In the case
of the two former elements the combination is accompanied by combustion
of the metal. With water it is slowly converted into the dioxide. Cold
concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids are without action on the metal,
but it reacts rapidly with dilute nitric and hydrochloric acids. The
dioxide is used in incandescent gas mantles (see LIGHTING).

  Three oxides of cerium are known. The sesquioxide, Ce2O3, is obtained
  by heating the carbonate in a current of hydrogen. It is a
  bluish-green powder, which on exposure rapidly combines with the
  oxygen of the air. By the addition of caustic soda to cerous salts, a
  white precipitate of cerous hydroxide is formed. Cerium dioxide, CeO2,
  is produced when cerium carbonate, nitrate, sulphate or oxalate is
  heated in air. It is a white or pale yellow compound, which becomes
  reddish on heating. Its specific gravity is 6.739, and its specific
  heat 0.0877. It is not reduced to the metallic condition on heating
  with carbon. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves this oxide, forming
  a yellowish solution and ozone. By suspending the precipitated cerous
  hydroxide in water and passing chlorine through the solution, a
  hydrated form of the dioxide, 2CeO2·3H2O, is obtained, which is
  readily soluble in nitric and sulphuric acids, forming ceric salts,
  and in hydrochloric acid, where it forms cerous chloride, with
  liberation of chlorine. A higher hydrated oxide, CeO3·xH2O, is formed
  by the interaction of cerous sulphate with sodium acetate and hydrogen
  peroxide (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, _Comptes rendus_, 1885, 100, p. 605).

  Cerous chloride, CeCl3, is obtained when the metal is burned in
  chlorine; when a mixture of cerous oxide and carbon is heated in
  chlorine; or by rapid heating of the dioxide in a stream of carbon
  monoxide and chlorine. It is a colourless substance, which is easily
  fusible. A hydrated chloride of composition 2CeCl3·15H2O is also
  known, and is obtained when a solution of cerous oxide in hydrochloric
  acid is evaporated over sulphuric acid. Double salts of cerous
  chloride with stannic chloride, mercuric chloride, and platinic
  chloride are also known. Cerous bromide, 2CeBr3·3H2O, and iodide,
  CeI3·9H2O, are known. Cerous sulphide, Ce2S3, results on heating
  cerium with sulphur or cerium oxide in carbon bisulphide vapour. It is
  a red infusible mass of specific gravity 5.1, and is slowly decomposed
  by warm water. The sulphate, Ce2(SO4)3, is formed on dissolving the
  carbonate in sulphuric acid, or on dissolving the basic sulphate in
  sulphuric acid, in the presence of sulphur dioxide, evaporating the
  solution, and drying the product obtained, at high temperature (B.
  Brauner, _Monatshefte_, 1885, vi. 793). It is a white powder of
  specific gravity 3.912, easily soluble in cold water. Many hydrated
  forms of the sulphate are known, as are also double salts of the
  sulphate with potassium, sodium, ammonium, thallium and cadmium
  sulphates. Ceric fluoride, CeF4·H2O, is obtained when the hydrated
  dioxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and the solution evaporated
  on the water bath (B. Brauner). The sulphate, Ce(SO4)2·4H2O, is formed
  when the basic sulphate is dissolved in sulphuric acid; or when the
  dioxide is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporated _in
  vacuo_ over sulphuric acid. It forms yellow crystals soluble in water;
  the aqueous solution on standing gradually depositing a basic salt.
  Double sulphates of composition 2Ce(SO4)2·2K2SO4·2H2O,
  Ce(SO4)2·3(NH4)2SO4·4H2O are known. Nitrates of cerium have been
  described, as have also phosphates, carbonates and a carbide.

  Cerium compounds may be recognized by the red precipitate of ceric
  hydroxide, which is formed when sodium hypochlorite is added to a
  colourless cerous salt. For the quantitative determination of the
  metal, the salts are precipitated by caustic potash, the precipitate
  washed, dried and heated, and finally weighed as the dioxide.

  The atomic weight of cerium has been determined by B. Brauner (_Chem.
  News_, 1895, lxxi. 283) from the analysis of the oxalate; the values
  obtained varying from 140.07 to 140.35.

CERNUSCHI, HENRI (1821-1896), Italian politician and economist, was born
of wealthy parents at Milan in 1821, and was destined for the legal
profession. During his studies he became involved in the revolutionary
movement. He played a conspicuous part in the insurrection at Milan in
1848, and also at Rome in 1849, where he had a seat in the National
Assembly. On the collapse of the revolutionary government he was
arrested (1850), but managed to escape to France, where he engaged in
commerce and banking, became naturalized, and acquired a large fortune.
He took a prominent part in opposing the Socialist movement, and in
April 1870, having subscribed a large sum to the funds of a committee
formed to combat the Napoleonic plebiscite, had to leave the country. In
September the formation of the Third Republic enabled him to return, but
he soon left Paris to travel in the East, whence he returned with a fine
art collection, particularly of Japanese objects. Cernuschi is best
known for his publications on financial questions, more especially
bimetallism. Of the latter he was an ardent champion, and the word
itself is commonly supposed to have originated with him--at least in its
English form it is first found in his _Silver Vindicated_ (1876). Among
his other works may be mentioned: _Mécanique de l'échange_ (1861);
_Illusion des sociétés coopératives_ (1886); _Le Bimétallisme en
Angleterre_ (1879); _Le Grand Procès de l'Union latine_ (1884). He died
at Mentone on the 12th of May 1896.

CEROGRAPHY (from the Gr. [Greek: kêros], wax, and [Greek: graphein], to
write), the art of painting in wax. (See ENCAUSTIC PAINTING.)

CERRO DE PASCO, or PASCO, a mining town of Peru, capital of the
department of Junin, 107 m. (221 m. by rail, via Oroya) N.E. of Lima.
Pop. (1907 est.) 10,000. It is situated on the plateau of Bombon, 14,280
ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of one of the oldest and richest
silver-mining districts of Peru. There were 342 silver mines in this
district in 1890, and at the end of the 19th century the average annual
output since the discovery of the mines in 1630 was estimated at
1,600,000 oz. A decline in the silver production having set in, the
American company which had become owners of three-fourths of the mining
properties in the district turned its attention to the extensive copper
deposits there, built a railway to Oroya 83 m. distant, another, 25 m.
long, to the coal-fields of Gollarisquisga, north of Pasco, and then
erected large smelting works (in which 2500 men were regularly employed
in 1907) 8 m. out of town and 4 m. from limestone beds. The railway to
Oroya was completed in 1903, the coal mine branch and smelter later on,
and in 1907 the copper output was 20,152,000 lb. The town of Pasco is
badly built and unattractive, and is inhabited chiefly by mining
labourers and their families. Its population is increased 50% in times
of great mining activity. The name Cerro de Pasco is that of a "knot" of
mountains uniting the two great ranges of the Andes at this point.

CERTALDO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, 35 m.
S.S.W. by rail and 18 m. direct from the town of Florence. Pop. (1901)
town, 4552; commune, 9120. It was the home of the family of Giovanni
Boccaccio, who died and was buried here in 1375. His house (of red
brick, like the other old houses of the town) was restored in 1823 and
fitted up with old furniture. A statue of him was erected in the
principal square in 1875. The Palazzo Pretorio, or Vicariale, the
residence of the Florentine governors, recently restored to its original
condition, has a picturesque facade and court adorned with coats of
arms, and in the interior are various frescoes dating from the 13th to
the 16th century. The town as a whole is picturesque, and lies on a hill
426 ft. above sea-level.

  See R. Pantini, _S. Gimignano e Certaldo_ (Bergamo, 1904), p. 101 seq.

CERUSSITE, a mineral consisting of lead carbonate (PbCO3), and an
important ore of lead. The name (sometimes erroneously spelt cerusite)
is from the Lat. _cerussa_, "white lead." "Cerussa nativa" was mentioned
by K. Gesner in 1565, and in 1832 F.S. Beudant applied the name céruse
to the mineral, whilst the present form, cerussite, is due to W.
Haidinger (1845). Popular names in early use were lead-spar and
white-lead-ore.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

Cerussite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous
with aragonite. Like aragonite it is very frequently twinned, the
compound crystals being pseudo-hexagonal in form. Three crystals are
usually twinned together on two faces of the prism m{110}, producing
six-rayed stellate groups (figs, 1 and 2) with the individual crystals
intercrossing at angles of nearly 60°. Twinning on the faces of the
prism r{130}, the angles of which are also nearly 60°, produces a
similar kind of grouping, but is much less common. Crystals are of
frequent occurrence, and they usually have very bright and smooth faces.
The mineral also occurs in compact granular masses, and sometimes in
fibrous forms. It is usually colourless or white, sometimes grey or
greenish in tint; it varies from transparent to translucent, and has an
adamantine lustre. It is very brittle, and has a conchoidal fracture.
Hardness 3-3½; sp. gr. 6.5. A variety containing 7% of zinc carbonate,
replacing lead carbonate, is known as iglesiasite, from Iglesias in
Sardinia, where it is found.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

The mineral may be readily recognized by its characteristic twinning, in
conjunction with the adamantine lustre and high specific gravity. It
dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe
it fuses very readily, and gives reactions for lead. Cerussite occurs in
metalliferous veins in association with galena, and has been formed by
the action of carbonated waters on the galena; it is therefore found in
the upper parts of the lodes together with other secondary minerals,
such as limonite. Finely crystallized specimens have been obtained from
the Friedrichssegen mine near Ems in Nassau, Johanngeorgenstadt in
Saxony, Mies in Bohemia, Phenixville in Pennsylvania, Broken Hill in New
South Wales, and several other localities. Delicate acicular crystals of
considerable length were found long ago in the Pentire Glaze mine near
St Minver in Cornwall. It is often found in considerable quantities, and
contains as much as 77½% of lead.     (L. J. S.)

CERUTTI, GIUSEPPE ANTONIO GIACHIMO (1738-1792), French author and
politician, was born at Turin on the 13th of June 1738. He joined the
Society of Jesus and became professor at the Jesuit college at Lyons. In
1762, in reply to the attacks on his order, he published an _Apologie
générale de l'institut et de la doctrine des Jésuites_, which won him
much fame and some exalted patronage; notably that of the ex-king
Stanislaus of Poland and of his grandson the dauphin. During the
agitations that preceded the Revolution Cerutti took the popular side,
and in 1788 published a pamphlet, _Mémoire pour le peuple français_, in
which in a clear and trenchant style he advocated the claims of the
_tiers état_. In May 1789 he presided over the electors of Paris, by
whom in January 1791 he was chosen member of the administration of the
department and afterwards deputy to the Legislative Assembly. He was a
friend of Mirabeau, whose policy he supported and whose funeral oration
he pronounced. He himself died on the 3rd of February 1792. Of Cerutti's
literary enterprises the most interesting, and probably the most
influential, was the popular newspaper founded by him, on the 30th of
September 1790, in collaboration with Rabaut Saint-Étienne and Philippe
Antoine Grouvelle. Its character and objects are explained by its
title: _La Feuille villageoise, adressée chaque semaine à tous les
villages de France pour les instruire des lois, des événements, des
découvertes qui interessent tout ban citoyen, &c._ It was continued by
Grouvelle after Cerutti's death, the last number appearing on the 2nd of
August 1795.

  Cerutti's works were published in 1793 in 3 volumes. On the _Mémoire
  pour le peuple français_, see F.A. Aulard in _La Révolution
  française_, tom. xv. (1888).

CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE (1547-1616), Spanish novelist, playwright
and poet, was born at Alcalá de Henares in 1547. The attempts of
biographers to provide him with an illustrious genealogy are
unsuccessful. The family history begins with the author's grandfather,
Juan de Cervantes (b. 1490), a lawyer who at one time (1545-6)
administered the estates of the duke de Osuna, and resided later at
Cordova, where he died about 1555. Cervantes' father was Rodrigo de
Cervantes, an apothecary-surgeon, who married Leonor de Cortinas in 1540
or 1541. The children of this marriage were Andrés (b. 1543), Andrea (b.
1544), Luisa (b. 1546), Miguel, Rodrigo (b. 1550), Magdalena (b. 1554)
and Juan (of whom nothing is known beyond the mention of him in his
father's will).

The exact date of Cervantes' birth is not recorded: he was baptized on
the 9th of October 1547, in the church of Santa Maria la Mayor at
Alcalá. There are indications that Rodrigo de Cervantes resided at
Valladolid in 1554, at Madrid in 1561, at Seville in 1564-1565, and at
Madrid from 1566 onwards. It may be assumed that his family accompanied
him, and it seems likely that either at Valladolid or at Madrid
Cervantes saw the famous actor-manager and dramatist, Lope de Rueda, of
whose performances he speaks enthusiastically in the preface to his
plays. In 1569 a Madrid schoolmaster, Juan Lopez de Hoyos, issued a work
commemorative of Philip II.'s third wife, Isabel de Valois, who had died
on the 3rd of October 1568. This volume, entitled _Historia y relación
verdadera de la enfermedad, felicisimo tránsito y sumptuosas exequias
fúnebres de la Serenisima Reyna de Españia Doña Isabel de Valoys_,
contains six contributions by Cervantes: a sonnet, four _redondillas_,
and an elegy. Lopez de Hoyos introduces Cervantes as "our dear and
beloved pupil," and the elegy is dedicated to Cardinal Espinosa "in the
name of the whole school." It has been inferred that Cervantes was
educated by Lopez de Hoyos, but this conclusion is untenable, for Lopez
de Hoyos' school was not opened till 1567. On the 13th of October 1568,
Giulio Acquaviva reached Madrid charged with a special mission to Philip
II.; he left for Rome on the 2nd of December, and Cervantes is supposed
to have accompanied him. This conjecture is based solely on a passage in
the dedication of the _Galatea_, where the writer speaks of having been
"_camarero_ to Cardinal Acquaviva at Rome." There is, however, no reason
to think that Cervantes met Acquaviva in Madrid; the probability is that
he enlisted as a supernumerary towards the end of 1568, that he served
in Italy, and there entered the household of Acquaviva, who had been
raised to the cardinalate on the 17th of May 1570. There exists a
warrant (dated September 15, 1569) for the arrest of one Miguel de
Cervantes, who had wounded Antonio de Sigura, and had been condemned in
absence to have his right hand cut off and to be exiled from the capital
for ten years; and it has been sought to identify the offender with the
future author of _Don Quixote_. No evidence is available. All that is
known with certainty is that Cervantes was in Rome at the end of 1569,
for on the 22nd of December of that year the fact was recorded in an
official information lodged by Rodrigo de Cervantes with a view to
proving his son's legitimacy and untainted Christian descent.

If it is difficult to say precisely when Cervantes was in Acquaviva's
service, it is no less difficult to say when he left it to join the
regular army. There is evidence, more or less satisfactory, that his
enlistment took place in 1570; in 1571 he was serving as a private in
the company commanded by Captain Diego de Urbina which formed part of
Miguel de Moncada's famous regiment, and on the 16th of September he
sailed from Messina on board the "Marquesa," which formed part of the
armada under Don John of Austria. At the battle of Lepanto (October 7,
1571) the "Marquesa" was in the thickest of the conflict. As the fleet
came into action Cervantes lay below, ill with fever; but, despite the
remonstrances of his comrades, he vehemently insisted on rising to take
his share in the fighting, and was posted with twelve men under him in a
boat by the galley's side. He received three gunshot wounds, two in the
chest, and one which permanently maimed his right hand--"for the greater
glory of the right," in his own phrase. On the 30th of October the fleet
returned to Messina, where Cervantes went into hospital, and during his
convalescence received grants-in-aid amounting to eighty-two ducats. On
the 29th of April 1572 he was transferred to Captain Manuel Ponce de
León's company in Lope de Figueroa's regiment; he shared in the
indecisive naval engagement off Navarino on the 7th of October 1572, in
the capture of Tunis on the 10th of October 1573, and in the
unsuccessful expedition to relieve the Goletta in the autumn of 1574.
The rest of his military service was spent in garrison at Palermo and
Naples, and shortly after the arrival of Don John at Naples on the 18th
of June 1575, Cervantes was granted leave to return to Spain; he
received a recommendatory letter from Don John to Philip II., and a
similar testimonial from the duke de Sessa, viceroy of Sicily. Armed
with these credentials, Cervantes embarked on the "Sol" to push his
claim for promotion in Spain.

On the 26th of September 1575, near Les Trois Maries off the coast of
Marseilles, the "Sol" and its companion ships the "Mendoza" and the
"Higuera" encountered a squadron of Barbary corsairs under Arnaut Mami;
Cervantes, his brother Rodrigo and other Spaniards were captured, and
were taken as prisoners to Algiers. Cervantes became the slave of a
Greek renegade named Dali Mami, and, as the letters found on him were
taken to prove that he was a man of importance in a position to pay a
high ransom, he was put under special surveillance. With undaunted
courage and persistence he organized plans of escape. In 1576 he induced
a Moor to guide him and other Christian captives to Oran; the Moor
deserted them on the road, the baffled fugitives returned to Algiers,
and Cervantes was treated with additional severity. In the spring of
1577 two priests of the Order of Mercy arrived in Algiers with a sum of
three hundred crowns entrusted to them by Cervantes' parents; the amount
was insufficient to free him, and was spent in ransoming his brother
Rodrigo. Cervantes made another attempt to escape in September 1577, but
was betrayed by the renegade whose services he had enlisted. On being
brought before Hassan Pasha, the viceroy of Algiers, he took the blame
on himself, and was threatened with death; struck, however, by the
heroic bearing of the prisoner, Hassan remitted the sentence, and bought
Cervantes from Dali Mami for five hundred crowns. In 1577 the captive
addressed to the Spanish secretary of state, Mateo Vazquez, a versified
letter suggesting that an expedition should be fitted out to seize
Algiers; the project, though practicable, was not entertained. In 1578
Cervantes was sentenced to two thousand strokes for sending a letter
begging help from Martín de Córdoba, governor of Oran; the punishment
was not, however, inflicted on him. Meanwhile his family were not idle.
In March 1578 his father presented a petition to the king setting forth
Cervantes' services; the duke de Sessa repeated his testimony to the
captive's merits; in the spring of 1579 Cervantes' mother applied for
leave to export two thousand ducats' worth of goods from Valencia to
Algiers, and on the 31st of July 1579 she gave the Trinitarian monks,
Juan Gil and Antón de la Bella, a sum of two hundred and fifty ducats to
be applied to her son's ransom. On his side Cervantes was indefatigable,
and towards the end of 1579 he arranged to secure a frigate; but the
plot was revealed to Hassan by Juan Blanco de Paz, a Dominican monk, who
appears to have conceived an unaccountable hatred of Cervantes. Once
more the conspirator's life was spared by Hassan who, it is recorded,
declared that "so long as he had the maimed Spaniard in safe keeping,
his Christians, ships and city were secure." On the 29th of May 1580 the
two Trinitarians arrived in Algiers: they were barely in time, for
Hassan's term of office was drawing to a close, and the arrangement of
any ransom was a slow process, involving much patient bargaining. Hassan
refused to accept less than five hundred gold ducats for his slave; the
available funds fell short of this amount, and the balance was collected
from the Christian traders of Algiers. Cervantes was already embarked
for Constantinople when the money was paid on the 19th of September
1580. The first use that he made of his liberty was to cause affidavits
of his proceedings at Algiers to be drawn up; he sailed for Spain
towards the end of October, landed at Denia in November, and made his
way to Madrid. He signed an information before a notary in that city on
the 18th of December 1580.

These dates prove that he cannot, as is often alleged, have served under
Alva in the Portuguese campaign of 1580: that campaign ended with the
battle of Alcántara on the 25th of August 1580. It seems certain,
however, that he visited Portugal soon after his return from Algiers,
and in May 1581 he was sent from Thomar on a mission to Oran. Construed
literally, a formal statement of his services, signed by Cervantes on
the 21st of May 1590, makes it appear that he served in the Azores
campaigns of 1582-83; but the wording of the document is involved, the
claims of Cervantes are confused with those of his brother Rodrigo (who
was promoted ensign at the Azores), and on the whole it is doubtful if
he took part in either of the expeditions under Santa Cruz. In any case,
the stories of his residence in Portugal, and of his love affairs with a
noble Portuguese lady who bore him a daughter, are simple inventions.
From 1582-3 to 1587 Cervantes seems to have written copiously for the
stage, and in the _Adjunta al Parnaso_ he mentions several of his plays
as "worthy of praise"; these were _Los Tratos de Argel, La Numancia, La
Gran Turquesa, La Batalla naval, La Jerusalem, La Amaranta ó la de Mayo,
El Bosque amoroso, La Unica y Bizarra Ársinda_--"and many others which I
do not remember, but that which I most prize and pique myself on was,
and is, one called _La Confusa_ which, with all respect to as many
sword-and-cloak plays as have been staged up to the present, may take a
prominent place as being good among the best." Of these only _Los Tratos
de Argel_ (or _El Trato de Argel_) and _La Numancia_ have survived, and,
though _La Numancia_ contains many fine rhetorical passages, both plays
go to prove that the author's genius was not essentially dramatic. In
February 1584 he obtained a licence to print a pastoral novel entitled
_Primera parte de la Galatea_, the copyright of which he sold on the
14th of June to Blas de Robles, a bookseller at Alcalá de Henares, for
1336 _reales_. On the 12th of December he married Catalina de Palacios
Salazar y Vozmediano of Esquivias, eighteen years his junior. The
_Galatea_ was published in the spring of 1585, and is frequently said to
relate the story of Cervantes' courtship, and to introduce various
distinguished writers under pastoral names. These assertions must be
received with great reserve. The birth of an illegitimate daughter,
borne to Cervantes by a certain Ana Francisca de Rojas, is referred to
1584, and earlier in that same year the _Galatea_ had passed the censor;
with few exceptions, the identifications of the characters in the book
with personages in real life are purely conjectural. These
circumstances, together with the internal evidence of the work, point to
the conclusion that the _Galatea_ was begun and completed before 1583.
It was only twice reprinted--once at Lisbon (1590), and once at Paris
(1611)--during the author's lifetime; but it won him a measure of
repute, it was his favourite among his books, and during the thirty
years that remained to him he repeatedly announced the second part which
is promised conditionally in the text. However, it is not greatly to be
regretted that the continuation was never published; though the
_Galatea_ is interesting as the first deliberate bid for fame on the
part of a great genius, it is an exercise in the pseudo-classic
literature introduced into Italy by Sannazaro, and transplanted to Spain
by the Portuguese Montemõr; and, ingenious or eloquent as the
Renaissance prose-pastoral may be, its innate artificiality stifles
Cervantes' rich and glowing realism. He himself recognized its defects;
with all his weakness for the _Galatea_, he ruefully allows that "it
proposes something and concludes nothing." Its comparative failure was
a serious matter for Cervantes who had no other resource but his pen;
his plays were probably less successful than his account of them would
imply, and at any rate play-writing was not at this time a lucrative
occupation in Spain. No doubt the death of his father on the 13th of
June 1585 increased the burden of Cervantes' responsibilities; and the
dowry of his wife, as appears from a document dated the 9th of August
1586, consisted of nothing more valuable than five vines, an orchard,
some household furniture, four beehives, forty-five hens and chickens,
one cock and a crucible.

It had become evident that Cervantes could not gain his bread by
literature, and in 1587 he went to Seville to seek employment in
connexion with the provisioning of the Invincible Armada. He was placed
under the orders of Antonio de Guevara, and before the 24th of February
was excommunicated for excessive zeal in collecting wheat at Écija.
During the next few months he was engaged in gathering stores at Seville
and the adjacent district, and after the defeat of the Armada he was
retained as commissary to the galleys. Tired of the drudgery, and
without any prospect of advancement, on the 21st of May 1590 Cervantes
drew up a petition to the king, recording his services and applying for
one of four posts then vacant in the American colonies: a place in the
department of public accounts in New Granada, the governorship of
Soconusco in Guatemala, the position of auditor to the galleys at
Cartagena, or that of _corregidor_ in the city of La Paz. The petition
was referred to the Council of the Indies, and was annotated with the
words:--"Let him look for something nearer home." Cervantes perforce
remained at his post; the work was hard, uncongenial and ill-paid, and
the salary was in constant arrears. In November 1590 he was in such
straits that he borrowed money to buy himself a suit of clothes, and in
August 1592 his sureties were called upon to make good a deficiency of
795 _reales_ in his accounts. His thoughts turned to literature once
more, and on the 5th of September 1592, he signed a contract with
Rodrigo Osorio undertaking to write six plays at fifty ducats each, no
payment to be made unless Osorio considered that each of these pieces
was "one of the best ever produced in Spain." Nothing came of this
agreement, and it appears that, between the date of signing it and the
19th of September, Cervantes was imprisoned (for reasons unknown to us)
at Castro del Río. He was speedily released, and continued to
perquisition as before in Andalusia; but his literary ambitions were not
dead, and in May 1595 he won the first prize--three silver spoons--at a
poetical tourney held in honour of St Hyacinth at Saragossa. Shortly
afterwards Cervantes found himself in difficulties with the exchequer
officials. He entrusted a sum of 7400 _reales_ to a merchant named Simón
Freire de Lima with instructions to pay the amount into the treasury at
Madrid; the agent became bankrupt and absconded, leaving Cervantes
responsible for the deficit. By some means the money was raised, and the
debt was liquidated on the 21st of January 1597. But Cervantes' position
was shaken, and his unbusinesslike habits lent themselves to
misinterpretation. On the 6th of September 1597 he was ordered to find
sureties that he would present himself at Madrid within twenty days, and
there submit to the exchequer vouchers for all official moneys collected
by him in Granada and elsewhere. No such sureties being available, he
was committed to Seville jail, but was released on the 1st of December
on condition that he complied with the original order of the court
within thirty days. He was apparently unable to find bail, was dismissed
from the public service, and sank into extreme poverty. During a
momentary absence from Seville in February 1590, he was again summoned
to Madrid by the treasury, but does not appear to have obeyed: it is
only too likely that he had not the money to pay for the journey. There
is some reason to think that he was imprisoned at Seville in 1602, but
nothing positive is known of his existence between 1600 and the 8th of
February 1603: at the latter date he seems to have been at Valladolid,
to which city Philip III. had removed the court in 1601.

Since the publication of the _Galatea_ in 1585 Cervantes' contributions
to literature had been limited to occasional poems. In 1591 he published
a ballad in Andrés de Villalta's _Flor de varios y nuevos romances_; in
1595 he composed a poem, already mentioned, to celebrate the
canonization of St Hyacinth; in 1596 he wrote a sonnet ridiculing Medina
Sidonia's tardy entry into Cadiz after the English invaders had retired,
and in the same year his sonnet lauding Santa Cruz was printed in
Cristóbal. Mosquera de Figueroa's _Comentario en breve compendio de
disciplina militar_; to 1597 is assigned a sonnet (the authenticity of
which is disputed) commemorative of the poet Herrera; in 1598 he wrote
two sonnets and a copy of _quintillas_ on the death of Philip II.; and
in 1602 a complimentary sonnet from his pen appeared in the second
edition of Lope de Vega's _Dragontea_. Curiously enough, it is by Lope
de Vega that _Don Quixote_ is first mentioned. Writing to an unknown
correspondent (apparently a physician) on the 14th of August 1604, Lope
de Vega says that "no poet is as bad as Cervantes, nor so foolish as to
praise _Don Quixote_," and he goes on to speak of his own plays as being
odious to Cervantes. It is obvious that the two men had quarrelled since
1602, and that Lope de Vega smarted under the satire of himself and his
works in Cervantes' forthcoming book; _Don Quixote_ may have been
circulated in manuscript, or may even have been printed before the
official licence was granted on the 26th of September 1604. It was
published early in 1605, and was dedicated to the seventh duke de Béjar
in phrases largely borrowed from the dedication in Herrera's edition
(1580) of Garcilaso de la Vega, and from Francisco de Medina's preface
to that work.

The mention of Bernardo de la Vega's _Pastor de Iberia_ shows that the
sixth chapter of _Don Quixote_ cannot have been written before 1591. In
the prologue Cervantes describes his masterpiece as being "just what
might be begotten in a jail"; on the strength of this passage, it has
been thought that he conceived the story, and perhaps began writing it,
during one of his terms of imprisonment at Seville between 1597 and
1602. Within a few weeks of its publication at Madrid, three pirated
editions of _Don Quixote_ were issued at Lisbon; a second authorized
edition, imperfectly revised, was hurried out at Madrid; and another
reprint appeared at Valencia with an _aprobación_ dated 18th July 1605.
With the exception of Alemán's _Guzmán de Alfarache_, no Spanish book of
the period was more successful. Modern criticism is prone to regard _Don
Quixote_ as a symbolic, didactic or controversial work intended to bring
about radical reforms in church and state. Such interpretations did not
occur to Cervantes' contemporaries, nor to Cervantes himself. There is
no reason for rejecting his plain statement that his main object was to
ridicule the romances of chivalry, which in their latest developments
had become a tissue of tiresome absurdities. It seems clear that his
first intention was merely to parody these extravagances in a short
story; but as he proceeded the immense possibilities of the subject
became more evident to him, and he ended by expanding his work into a
brilliant panorama of Spanish society as it existed during the 16th
century. Nobles, knights, poets, courtly gentlemen, priests, traders,
farmers, barbers, muleteers, scullions and convicts; accomplished
ladies, impassioned damsels, Moorish beauties, simple-hearted
country-girls and kindly kitchen-wenches of questionable morals--all
these are presented with the genial fidelity which comes of sympathetic
insight. The immediate vogue of _Don Quixote_ was due chiefly to its
variety of incident, to its wealth of comedy bordering on farce, and
perhaps also to its keen thrusts at eminent contemporaries; its reticent
pathos, its large humanity, and its penetrating criticism of life were
less speedily appreciated.

Meanwhile, on the 12th of April 1605, Cervantes authorized his publisher
to proceed against the Lisbon booksellers who threatened to introduce
their piratical reprints into Castile. By June the citizens of
Valladolid already regarded Don Quixote and Sancho Panza as proverbial
types. Less gratifying experiences awaited the popular author. On the
27th of June 1605 Gaspar de Ezpeleta, a Navarrese gentleman of dissolute
life, was wounded outside the lodging-house in which Cervantes and his
family lived; he was taken indoors, was nursed by Cervantes' sister
Magdalena, and died on the 29th of June. That same day Cervantes, his
natural daughter (Isabel de Saavedra), his sister Andrea and her
daughter were lodged in jail on suspicion of being indirectly concerned
in Ezpeleta's death; one of the witnesses made damaging charges against
Cervantes' daughter, but no substantial evidence was produced, and the
prisoners were released. Little is known of Cervantes' life between 1605
and 1608. A _Relación_ of the festivities held to celebrate the birth of
Philip IV., and a certain _Carta á don Diego Astudillo Carrillo_ have
been erroneously ascribed to him; during these three years he apparently
wrote nothing beyond three sonnets, and one of these is of doubtful
authenticity. The depositions of the Valladolid enquiry show that he was
living in poverty five months after the appearance of _Don Quixote_, and
the fact that he borrowed 450 _reales_ from his publisher before
November 1607 would convey the idea that his position improved slowly,
if at all. But it is difficult to reconcile this view of his
circumstances with the details concerning his illegitimate daughter
revealed in documents recently discovered. Isabel de Saavedra was stated
to be a spinster when arrested at Valladolid in June 1605; the
settlement of her marriage with Luis de Molina in 1608 describes her as
the widow of Diego Sanz, as the mother of a daughter eight months old,
and as owning house-property of some value. These particulars are
perplexing, and the situation is further complicated by the publication
of a deed in which Cervantes declares that he himself is the real owner
of this house-property, and that his daughter has merely a life-interest
in it. This claim may be regarded as a legal fiction; it cannot easily
be reconciled with Cervantes' statement towards the end of his life,
that he was dependent on the bounty of the count de Lemos and of
Bernardo de Sandoval, cardinal-archbishop of Toledo. In 1609 he joined
the newly founded confraternity of the Slaves of the Most Blessed
Sacrament; in 1610 Lemos was appointed viceroy of Naples, and Cervantes
was keenly disappointed at not being chosen to accompany his patron. In
1611 he lost his sister Magdalena, who was buried by the charity of the
Tertiaries of Saint Francis; in 1612 he joined the Academia Selvaje, and
there appears to have renewed his former friendly relations with Lope de
Vega; in 1613 he dedicated his _Novelas exemplares_ to the count de
Lemos, and disposed of his rights for 1600 _reales_ and twenty-four
copies of the book. The twelve tales in this volume, some of them
written very much later than others, are of unequal merit, but they
contain some of the writer's best work, and the two picaresque
stories--_Rinconete y Cortadillo_ and the _Coloquio de los perros_--are
superb examples of their kind, and would alone entitle Cervantes to take
rank with the greatest masters of Spanish prose. In 1614 he published
the _Viage del Parnaso_, a burlesque poem suggested by the _Viaggio in
Parnaso_ (1582) of the Perugian poet Cesare Caporali. It contains some
interesting autobiographical passages, much flattery of contemporary
poetasters, and a few happy satirical touches; but, though it is
Cervantes' most serious bid for fame as a poet, it has seldom been
reprinted, and would probably have been forgotten but for an admirably
humorous postscript in prose which is worthy of the author at his best.
In the preface to his _Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses nuevos_ (1615) he
good-humouredly admits that his dramatic works found no favour with
managers, and, when this collection was first reprinted (1749), the
editor advanced the fantastic theory that the _comedias_ were deliberate
exercises in absurdity, intended to parody the popular dramas of the
day. This view cannot be maintained, but a sharp distinction must be
drawn between the eight set plays and the eight interludes; with one or
two exceptions, the _comedias_ or set plays are unsuccessful experiments
in Lope de Vega's manner, while the _entremeses_ or _interludes_,
particularly those in prose, are models of spontaneous gaiety and
ingenious wit.

In the preface to the _Novelas exemplares_ Cervantes had announced the
speedy appearance of the sequel to _Don Quixote_ which he had vaguely
promised at the end of the first part. He was at work on the fifty-ninth
chapter of his continuation when he learned that he had been anticipated
by Alonso Fernandez de Avellaneda of Tordesillas, whose _Segunde tamo
del ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha_ was published at
Tarragona in 1614. On the assumption that Fernandez de Avellaneda is a
pseudonym, this spurious sequel has been ascribed to the king's
confessor, Luis de Aliaga, to Cervantes' old enemy, Blanco de Paz, to
his old friend, Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola, to the three great
dramatists, Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina and Ruiz de Alarcón, to Alonso
Fernandez, to Juan José Martí, to Alfonso Lamberto, to Luis de Granada,
and probably to others. Some of these attributions are manifestly
absurd--for example, Luis de Granada died seventeen years before the
first part of _Don Quixote_ was published--and all of them are
improbable conjectures; if Avellaneda be not the real name of the
author, his identity is still undiscovered. His book is not devoid of
literary talent and robust humour, and possibly he began it under the
impression that Cervantes was no more likely to finish _Don Quixote_
than to finish the _Galatea_. He should, however, have abandoned his
project on reading the announcement in the preface to the _Novelas
exemplares_; what he actually did was to disgrace himself by writing an
insolent preface taunting Cervantes with his physical defects, his moral
infirmities, his age, loneliness and experiences in jail. He was too
intelligent to imagine that his continuation could hold its own against
the authentic sequel, and malignantly avowed his intention of being
first in the field and so spoiling Cervantes' market. It is quite
possible that _Don Quixote_ might have been left incomplete but for this
insulting intrusion; Cervantes was a leisurely writer and was, as he
states, engaged on _El Engaño à los ojos, Las Semanas del Jardín_ and
_El Famoso Bernardo_, none of which have been preserved. Avellaneda
forced him to concentrate his attention on his masterpiece, and the
authentic second part of _Don Quixote_ appeared towards the end of 1615.
No book more signally contradicts the maxim, quoted by the Bachelor
Carrasco, that "no second part was ever good." It is true that the last
fourteen chapters are damaged by undignified denunciations of
Avellaneda; but, apart from this, the second part of _Don Quixote_ is an
improvement on the first. The humour is more subtle and mature; the
style is of more even excellence; and the characters of the bachelor and
of the physician, Pedro Recio de Agüero, are presented with a more vivid
effect than any of the secondary characters in the first part. Cervantes
had clearly profited by the criticism of those who objected to "the
countless cudgellings inflicted on Señor Don Quixote," and to the
irrelevant interpolation of extraneous stories in the text. Don Quixote
moves through the second part with unruffled dignity; Sancho Panza loses
something of his rustic cunning, but he gains in wit, sense and manners.
The original conception is unchanged in essentials, but it is more
logically developed, and there is a notable progress in construction.
Cervantes had grown to love his knight and squire, and he understood his
own creations better than at the outset; more completely master of his
craft, he wrote his sequel with the unfaltering confidence of a renowned
artist bent on sustaining his reputation.

The first part of _Don Quixote_ had been reprinted at Madrid in 1608; it
had been produced at Brussels in 1607 and 1611, and at Milan in 1610; it
had been translated into English in 1612 and into French in 1614.
Cervantes was celebrated in and out of Spain, but his celebrity had not
brought him wealth. The members of the French special embassy, sent to
Madrid in February 1615, under the Commandeur de Sillery, heard with
amazement that the author of the _Galatea_, the _Novelas exemplares_ and
_Don Quixote_ was "old, a soldier, a gentleman and poor." But his trials
were almost at an end. Though failing in health, he worked assiduously
at _Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda_, which, as he had jocosely
prophesied in the preface to the second part of _Don Quixote_, would be
"either the worst or the best book ever written in our tongue." It is
the most carefully written of his prose works, and the least animated or
attractive of them; signs of fatigue and of waning powers are
unmistakably visible. Cervantes was not destined to see it in print. He
was attacked by dropsy, and, on the 18th of April 1616, received the
sacrament of extreme unction; next day he wrote the dedication of
_Persiles y Sigismunda_ to the count de Lemos--the most moving and
gallant of farewells. He died at Madrid in the Calle del León on the
23rd of April; he was borne from his house "with his face uncovered,"
according to the rule of the Tertiaries of St Francis, and on the 24th
of April was buried in the church attached to the convent of the
Trinitarian nuns in the Calle de Cantarranas. There he rests--the story
of his remains being removed in 1633 to the Calle del Humilladero has no
foundation in fact--but the exact position of his grave is unknown.
Early in 1617 _Persiles y Sigismunda_ was published, and passed through
eight editions within two years; but the interest in it soon died away,
and it was not reprinted between 1625 and 1719. Cervantes' wife died
without issue on the 31st of October 1626; his natural daughter, who
survived both the child of her first marriage and her second husband,
died on the 20th of September 1652. Cervantes is represented solely by
his works. The _Novelas exemplares_ alone would give him the foremost
place among Spanish novelists; _Don Quixote_ entitles him to rank with
the greatest writers of all time: "children turn its leaves, young
people read it, grown men understand it, old folk praise it." It has
outlived all changes of literary taste, and is even more popular to-day
than it was three centuries ago.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Leopold Rius, _Bibliografía crítica de las obras de
  Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ (Madrid, 1895-1905, 3 vols.); _Obras
  completas_ (Madrid, 1863-1864, 12 vols.), edited by Juan Eugenio
  Hartzenbusch; _Complete Works_ (Glasgow, 1901-1906, 8 vols. in
  progress), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid,
  1833-1839, 6 vols.), edited by Diego Clemencíu; _Don Quixote_ (London,
  1899-1900, 2 vols.), edited by James Fitzmaurice-Kelly and John
  Ormsby; _Don Quijote_ (Madrid, 1905-1906, 2 vols. in progress), edited
  by Clemente Cortejón; _Rinconete y Cortadillo_ (Sevilla, 1905), edited
  by Francisco Rodriguez Marín; _Epístola á Mateo Vázquez_ (Madrid,
  1905), edited by E[milio] C[otarelo]; Julián Apráiz, _Estudio
  histórico-crítico sobre las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_ (Madrid,
  1901); Francisco A. de Icaza, _Las Novelas ejemplares de Cervantes_
  (Madrid, 1901); Francisco Rodríguez Marín, _El Loaysa de "El Celoso
  Extremeño"_ (Sevilla, 1901); Narciso Díaz de Escovar, _Apuntes
  escénicos cervantinos_ (Madrid, 1905); Manuel José García, _Estudio
  crítico acerca del entremés "El Vizcaino fingido"_ (Madrid, 1905);
  Alfred Morel-Fatio, _L'Espagne de Don Quichotte_ in _Études sur
  l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1895, 2me série); Julio Puyol y Alonso, _Estado
  social que refleja "El Quijote"_ (Madrid, 1905); James
  Fitzmaurice-Kelly, _Cervantes in England_ (London, 1905); Raymond
  Foulché-Delbose, _Étude sur "La tia fingida,"_ in the _Revue
  hispanique_ (Paris, 1899), vol. vi. pp. 256-306; Benedetto Croce, _Due
  illustrazioni al "Viage del Parnaso,"_ in the _Homenaje á Menéndez y
  Pelayo_ (Madrid, 1899), vol. i. pp. 161-193; Paul Groussac, _Une
  Énigme littéraire: le Don Quichotte d'Avellaneda_ (Paris, 1903);
  Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, _El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de
  la Mancha_ (Barcelona, [1905]), edited by Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo;
  Julio Cejador y Franca, _La Lengua de Cervantes_ (Madrid, 1905, &c.);
  Martin Fernández de Navarrete, _Vida de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_
  (Madrid, 1819); Cristóbal Perez Pastor, _Documentos Cervantinos hasta
  ahora inéditos_ (Madrid, 1897-1902, 2 vols.); Emilio Cotardo y Mori,
  _Efemérides Cervantinas_ (Madrid, 1905); Francisco Rodríguez Marín,
  _Cervantes estudió en Sevilla, 1564-1565_ (Seville, 1905).
       (J. F.-K.)

CERVERA, PASCUAL CERVERA Y TOPETE (1839-1909), Spanish admiral, was born
at Medina Sidonia on the 18th of February 1839. He showed an early
inclination for the sea, and his family sent him to the naval cadet
school at the age of twelve. As a sub-lieutenant he took part in the
naval operations on the coast of Morocco during the campaign of 1859-60.
Then he was for some time engaged in operations in the Sulu Islands and
the Philippines. Afterwards he was on the West Indian station during the
early part of the first Cuban War (1868-78), returning to Spain in 1873
to serve on the Basque coast against the Carlists. He distinguished
himself in defending the Carraca arsenal near Cadiz against the Federals
in 1873. He won each step in his promotion up to flag-rank through his
steadiness and brilliant conduct in action, and was awarded the crosses
of the Orders of Military and Naval Merit, Isabella the Catholic, and St
Hermengilde, besides several medals. Cervera had a great reputation for
decision, unbending temper and honesty, before he was placed at the head
of the Bilbao building-yards. This post he resigned after a few months
in order to become minister of marine in 1892, in a cabinet presided
over by Sagasta. He withdrew from the cabinet when he found that his
colleagues, from political motives, declined to support him in making
reforms and, on the other hand, unwisely cut down the naval estimates.
When in 1898 the Spanish-American War (q.v.) broke out, he was chosen to
command a squadron composed of four first-class cruisers, the "Maria
Theresa," his flagship, "Oquendo," "Vizcaya," and "Columbus," and
several destroyers. This ill-fated squadron only started upon its
reckless cruise across the ocean after its gallant commander had
repeatedly warned both the minister of marine and the prime minister,
Sagasta, in despatches from Cadiz and from the Canary and Cape Verde
Islands, that the ships were insufficiently provided with coal and
ammunition. Some of them, indeed, even lacked proper guns. In compliance
with the instructions of the government, Admiral Cervera made for the
landlocked harbour of Santiago de Cuba, where he co-operated in the
defence, landing some guns and a naval brigade. In spite of his
energetic representations, Cervera received an order from Madrid,
dictated by political considerations, to sally forth. It meant certain
destruction. The gallant squadron met forces trebly superior to it, and
was totally destroyed. The admiral, three of his captains, and 1800
sailors and marines were taken by the victors to Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, U.S.A. After the war, Cervera and his captains were tried
before the supreme naval and military court of the realm, which
honourably acquitted them all. In 1901 he became vice-admiral, in 1902
was appointed chief of staff of the Spanish navy, and in 1903 was made
life senator. He died at Puerto Real on the 3rd of April 1909.

CESAREVICH, or more properly TSESAREVICH, the title of the heir-apparent
to the Russian throne. The full official title is _Nasliednik
Tsesarevich_, i.e. "heir of Caesar," and in Russia the heir to the
throne is commonly called simply _Nasliednik_, the word _Tsesarevich_
never being used alone. _Tsarevich_, a form now much used in England,
means simply any "king's son"; it is an antiquated term now out of use
in Russia, and was last borne as heir to the throne by the unfortunate
Alexius, son of Peter the Great. The style of the wife of the
tsesarevich is _Tsesarevna_. The Cesarewitch handicap race at Newmarket,
founded in 1839, was named after the prince who was afterwards Alexander
II. of Russia, who paid a state visit to England that year.

CESARI, GIUSEPPE, called Il Cavaliere d' Arpino (born in or about 1568
and created a "Cavaliere di Cristo" by Pope Clement VIII.), also named
Il Giuseppino, an Italian painter, much encouraged at Rome and
munificently rewarded. His father had been a native of Arpino, but
Giuseppe himself was born in Rome. Cesari is stigmatized by Lanzi as not
less the corrupter of taste in painting than Marino was in poetry;
indeed, another of the nicknames of Cesari is "Il Marino de' Pittori"
(the pictorial Marino). There was spirit in Cesari's heads of men and
horses, and his frescoes in the Capitol (story of Romulus and Remus,
&c.), which occupied him at intervals during forty years, are well
coloured; but he drew the human form ill. His perspective is faulty, his
extremities monotonous, and his chiaroscuro defective. He died in 1640,
at the age of seventy-two, or perhaps of eighty, at Rome. Cesari ranks
as the head of the "Idealists" of his period, as opposed to the
"Naturalists," of whom Michelangelo da Caravaggio was the leading
champion,--the so-called "idealism" consisting more in reckless
facility, and disregard of the common facts and common-sense of nature,
than in anything to which so lofty a name could be properly accorded. He
was a man of touchy and irascible character, and rose from penury to the
height of opulence. His brother Bernardino assisted in many of his
works.

CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE (1730-1808), Italian poet, was born at Padua in
1730, of a noble but impoverished family. At the university of his
native place his literary progress procured for him at a very early age
the chair of rhetoric, and in 1768 the professorship of Greek and
Hebrew. On the invasion of Italy by the French, he gave his pen to their
cause, received a pension, and was made knight of the iron crown by
Napoleon I., to whom, in consequence, he addressed a bombastic and
extravagantly flattering poem called _Pronea_. Cesarotti is best known
as the translator of Homer and Ossian. Much praise cannot be given to
his version of the _Iliad_, for he has not scrupled to add, omit and
modernize. Ossian, which he held to be the finest of poems, he has, on
the other hand, considerably improved in translation; and the appearance
of his version attracted much attention in Italy and France, and raised
up many imitators of the Ossianic style. Cesarotti also produced a
number of works in prose, including a _Course of Greek Literature_, and
essays _On the Origin and Progress of the Poetic Art_, _On the Sources
of the Pleasure derived from Tragedy_, _On the Philosophy of Language_
and _On the Philosophy of Taste_, the last being a defence of his own
great eccentricities in criticism. His weakness was a straining after
novelty. His style is forcible, but full of Gallicisms.

  A complete edition of his works, in 42 vols. 8vo. began to appear at
  Pisa in 1800, and was completed in 1813, after his death. See
  _Memoirs_, by Barbieri (Padua, 1810), and _Un Filosofo delle lettere_,
  by Alemanni (Turin, 1894).

CESENA (anc. _Caesena_), a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
the province of Forlì, 12 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Forlì, on the
line between Bologna and Rimini, 144 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1905)
12,245 (town); 43,468 (commune). The town is picturesquely situated at
the foot of the slopes of the Apennines, and is crowned by a medieval
fortress (Rocca), begun by the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa)
probably, but altered and added to later. The cathedral has two fine
marble altars by the Lombardi of Venice (or their school). The library,
built for Domenico Malatesta in 1452 by Matteo Nuzio, is a fine early
Renaissance building, and its internal arrangements, with the original
desks to which the books are still chained, are especially well
preserved (see J.W. Clark, _The Care of Books_, Cambridge, 1901, p.
199). In it are valuable MSS., many of which were used by Aldus
Manutius. It also contains a picture gallery with a good "Presentation
in the Temple" by Francesco Francia. There are some fine palaces in the
town. Three-quarters of a mile south-east on the hill stands the
handsome church of S. Maria del Monte, after the style of Bramante, with
carved stalls of the 16th century. Wine, hemp and silk are the main
articles of trade. About the ancient Caesena little is said in classical
authors: it is mentioned as a station on the Via Aemilia and as a
fortress in the wars of Theodoric and Narses. During the middle ages it
was at first independent. In 1357 it was unsuccessfully defended by the
wife of Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of Forlì, against the papal troops
under Albornoz. In 1377 it was sacked by Cardinal Robert of Geneva
(afterwards Clement VII., antipope). It was then held by the Malatesta
of Rimini until 1465, when it came under the dominion of the church.
Both Pius VI. (1717) and Pius VII. (1742) were born at Cesena.
     (T. As.)

CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI (1832-1904), Italian-American soldier and
archaeologist, was born near Turin on the 29th of July 1832. Having
served in the Austrian and Crimean Wars, in 1860 he went to New York,
where he taught Italian and French and founded a military school for
officers. He took part in the American Civil War as colonel of a cavalry
regiment, and at Aldie (June 1863) was wounded and taken prisoner. He
was released from Libby prison early in 1864, served in the Wilderness
and Petersburg campaigns (1864-65) as a brigadier of cavalry, and at the
close of the war was breveted brigadier-general. He was then appointed
United States consul at Larnaca in Cyprus (1865-1877). During his stay
in the island he carried on excavations, which resulted in the discovery
of a large number of antiquities. The collection was purchased by the
Metropolitan Museum of New York, and Cesnola became director in 1879.
Doubt having been thrown by Gaston L. Feuerdant, in an article in the
New York _Herald_ (August 1880), upon the genuineness of his
restorations, the matter was referred to a special committee, which
pronounced in his favour.[1] He is the author of _Cyprus, its ancient
Cities, Tombs and Temples_ (1877), an interesting book of travel and of
considerable service to the practical antiquary; and of a _Descriptive
Atlas of the Cesnola Collection of Cypriote Antiquities_ (3 vols.,
1884-6). He died in New York on the 21st of November 1904. He was a
member of several learned societies in Europe and America, and in 1897
he received a Congressional medal of honour for conspicuous military
services.

His brother, ALESSANDRO PALMA DI CESNOLA, born in 1839, conducted
excavations at Paphos (where he was U.S. vice-consul) and Salamis on
behalf of the British government. The results of these are described in
_Salaminia_ (1882).

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] For the Cesnola controversy see C.D. Cobham's _Attempt at a
    Bibliography of Cyprus_ (4th ed., 1900). See also article CYPRUS.

CESPEDES (in Ital. CEDASPE), PABLO DE (1538-1608), Spanish poet,
painter, sculptor and architect, was born at Cordova, and was educated
at Alcalá de Henares, where he studied theology and Oriental languages.
On leaving the university, he went to Rome, where he became the pupil
and friend of Federigo Zuccaro, under whose direction he studied
particularly the works of Raphael and of Michelangelo. In 1560, while
yet in Rome, proceedings were taken against him by the Inquisition at
Valladolid on account of a letter which, found among the papers of the
archbishop of Toledo, had been written by Cespedes during the preceding
year, and in which he had spoken with great freedom against the holy
office and the inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdés. Cespedes remained
in Rome at this critical moment, and he appears rightly to have treated
the prosecution with derision. It is not known how he contrived to bring
the proceedings to an end; he returned, however, to Spain a little
before 1577, and in that year was installed in a prebend of the
cathedral at Cordova, where he resided till his death. Pablo de Cespedes
has been called the most _savant_ of Spanish artists. According to his
friend Francisco Pacheco, to whom posterity is indebted for the
preservation of all of Cespedes's verse that is extant, the school of
Seville owes to him its introduction to the practice of chiaroscuro. He
was a bold and correct draughtsman, a skilful anatomist, a master of
colour and composition; and the influence he exerted to the advantage of
early Spanish art was considerable. Cristobal de Vera, Juan de Peñalosa
and Zambrano were among his pupils. His best picture is a Last Supper at
Cordova, but there are good examples of his work at Seville and at
Madrid. Cespedes was author of several opuscules in prose on subjects
connected with his profession. Of his poem on _The Art of Painting_
enough was preserved by Pacheco to enable us to form an opinion of the
whole. It is esteemed the best didactic verse in Spanish; and it has
been compared, not disadvantageously, with the _Georgics_. It is written
in strong and sonorous octaves, in the majestic declamatory vein of
Fernando Herrera, and is not altogether so dull and lifeless as is most
didactic verse. It contains a glowing eulogy of Michelangelo, and some
excellent advice to young painters, insisting particularly on hard work
and on the study of nature. The few fragments yet remaining, amounting
in all to some six hundred lines, were first printed by Pacheco in his
treatise _Del arte de la pintura_, in 1649.

CÉSPEDES Y MENESES, GONZALO DE (1585?-1638), Spanish novelist, was born
at Madrid about 1585. Nothing positive is known of him before the
publication of his celebrated romance, the _Poema trágico del Español
Gerardo, y desengaño del amor lascivo_ (1615-1617); there is evidence
that he had been sentenced to eight years at the galleys previous to the
1st of January 1620, and that the penalty had been remitted; but the
nature of his offence is not stated. His treatment of political
questions in the _Historia apologética en los sucesos del reyno de
Aragón, y su ciudad de Zaragoza, años de 91 y 92_ (1622), having led to
the confiscation of the book, Céspedes took up his residence at
Saragossa and Lisbon. While in exile he issued a collection of short
stories entitled _Historias peregrinas y exemplares_ (1623), the
unfinished romance _Varia fortuna del soldado Píndaro_ (1626), and the
first part of his _Historia de Felipe IV._ (1631), a fulsome eulogy
which was rewarded by the author's appointment as official
historiographer to the Spanish king. Céspedes died on the 27th of
January 1638. His novels, though written in a ponderous, affected style,
display considerable imagination and insight into character. The _Poema
trágico_ has been utilized by Fletcher in _The Spanish Curate_ and in
_The Maid of the Mill_.

  The _Historias peregrinas_ has been reprinted (1906) with a valuable
  introduction by Sr. Cotarelo y Mori.

CESS (a shortened form of "assess"; the spelling is due to a mistaken
connexion with "census"), a tax; a term formerly more particularly
applied to local taxation, in which sense it still is used in Ireland;
otherwise it has been superseded by "rate." In India it is applied, with
the qualifying word prefixed, to any taxation, such as "irrigation-cess"
and the like, and in Scotland to the land-tax.

CESSIO BONORUM (Latin for a "surrender of goods"), in Roman law, a
voluntary surrender of goods by a debtor to his creditors. It did not
amount to a discharge unless the property ceded was sufficient for the
purpose, but it secured the debtor from personal arrest. The creditors
sold the goods in satisfaction, _pro tanto_, of their claims. The
procedure of _cessio bonorum_ avoided infamy, and the debtor, though his
after-acquired property might be proceeded against, could not be
deprived of the bare necessaries of life. The main features of the Roman
law of _cessio bonorum_ were adopted in Scots law, and also in the
French legal system. (See further BANKRUPTCY.)

CESTI, MARC' ANTONIO (1620?-1669?), Italian musical composer, was born
at Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, and after holding a
post somewhere in Florence as _maestro di cappella_ entered the papal
chapel in 1660. In 1666 he became _Vice-Kapellmeister_ at Vienna, and
died at Venice in 1669. Cesti is known principally as a composer of
operas, the most celebrated of which were _La Dori_ (Venice, 1663) and
_Il Pomo d' oro_ (Vienna, 1668). He was also a composer of
chamber-cantatas, and his operas are notable for the pure and delicate
style of their airs, more suited to the chamber than to the stage.

CESTIUS, LUCIUS, surnamed Pius, Latin rhetorician, flourished during the
reign of Augustus. He was a native of Smyrna, a Greek by birth.
According to Jerome, he was teaching Latin at Rome in the year 13 B.C.
He must have been living after A.D. 9, since we are told that he taunted
the son of Quintilius Varus with his father's defeat in the Teutoburgian
forest (Seneca, _Controv._ i. 3, 10). Cestius was a man of great
ability, but vain, quarrelsome and sarcastic. Before he left Asia, he
was invited to dinner by Cicero's son, then governor of the province.
His host, being uncertain as to his identity, asked a slave who Cestius
was; and on receiving the answer, "he is the man who said your father
was illiterate," ordered him to be flogged (Seneca, _Suasoriae_, vii.
13). As an orator in the schools Cestius enjoyed a great reputation, and
was worshipped by his youthful pupils, one of whom imitated him so
slavishly that he was nicknamed "my monkey" by his teacher (Seneca,
_Controv._ ix. 3, 12). As a public orator, on the other hand, he was a
failure. Although a Greek, he always used Latin in his declamations,
and, although he was sometimes at a loss for Latin words, he never
suffered from lack of ideas. Numerous specimens of his declamations will
be found in the works of Seneca the rhetorician.

  See the monograph _De Lucio Cestio Pio_, by F.G. Lindner (1858); T.
  Brzoska in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2 (1899);
  Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist, of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr.), § 268, 6; M.
  Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Litteratur_, ii.

CESTUI, CESTUY, an Anglo-French word, meaning "that person," which
appears in the legal phrases _cestui que trust_, _use_, or _vie_. It is
usually pronounced as "cetty." _Cestui que trust_ means literally "the
person for whose benefit the trust" is created. The _cestui que trust_
is the person entitled to the equitable, as opposed to the legal,
estate. Thus, if land be granted unto, and to the use of A. in trust for
B., B. is _cestui que trust_, and A. trustee. The term, principally
owing to its cumbersomeness, is being gradually superseded in modern law
by that of "beneficiary." _Cestui que use_ (sometimes _cestui à que
use_) means "the person for whose benefit a use" is created (see TRUST).
_Cestui que vie_ is "the person for whose life" lands are held by
another (see REMAINDER).

CETACEA (from the Gr. [Greek: ketos], a whale), the name of the
mammalian order represented by whales, dolphins, porpoises, &c. From
their fish-like form, which is manifestly merely an adaptation to their
purely aquatic life, these creatures are often regarded as fishes,
although they are true mammals, with warm blood, and suckle their young.

The general form is essentially fish-like, the spindle-shaped body
passing anteriorly into the head without any distinct neck, and
posteriorly tapering gradually towards the extremity of the tail, which
is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin supported
by fibrous tissue, called "flukes," forming a horizontal triangular
propelling organ, notched behind in the middle line. The head is
generally large, in some cases attaining more than one-third the entire
length; and the mouth is wide, and bounded by stiff, immobile lips. The
fore-limbs are reduced to flattened paddles, encased in a continuous
skin, showing no external sign of division, and without trace of nails.
There are no signs of hind-limbs visible externally. The surface of the
skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many
species there are a few bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth which
may persist through life or be present only in the young state.
Immediately beneath the skin is a thick layer of fat, held together by a
mesh of tissue, constituting the "blubber," which retains the heat of
the body. In nearly all species a compressed dorsal fin is present. The
eye is small, and not provided with a true lacrymal apparatus. The
external ear is a minute aperture in the skin situated at a short
distance behind the eye. The nostrils open separately or by a single
crescentic aperture, near the vertex of the head.

  The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled
  with oil. In the vertebral column, the cervical region is short and
  immobile, and the vertebrae, always seven in number, are in many
  species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid
  process of the second cervical vertebra, when that bone is free, is
  usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. In a paper on the form and
  function of the cervical vertebrae published in the _Jenaische
  Zeitschrift_ for 1905, Dr O. Reche points out that the shortening and
  soldering is most pronounced in species which, like the right-whales,
  live entirely on minute organisms, to capture which there is no
  necessity to turn the head at all. Accordingly we find that in these
  whales the whole seven cervical vertebrae are fused into an immovable
  solid mass, of which the compound elements, with the exception of the
  first and second, are but little thicker than plates. On the other
  hand, in the finner-whales, several of which live exclusively on fish,
  and thus require a certain amount of mobility in the head and neck, we
  find all the cervical vertebrae much thicker and entirely separate
  from one another. Among the dolphin group the narwhal and the white
  whale, or beluga, are distinguished from all other cetaceans by the
  great comparative length of their cervical vertebrae, all of which are
  completely free. In the case of the narwhal such an abnormal structure
  is easily accounted for, seeing that to use effectively the long tusk
  with which the male is armed a considerable amount of mobility in the
  neck is absolutely essential. The beluga, too, which is believed to
  feed on large and active fishes, would likewise seem to require
  mobility in the same region in order to effect their capture. On the
  other hand, the porpoise preys on herrings, pilchards and mackerel,
  which in their densely packed shoals must apparently fall an easy prey
  with but little exertion on the part of their captor, and we
  accordingly find all the neck-vertebrae very short, and at least six
  out of the seven coalesced into a solid immovable mass. None of the
  vertebrae are united to form a sacrum. The lumbar and caudal vertebrae
  are numerous and large, and, as their arches are not connected by
  articular processes (zygapophyses), they are capable of free motion in
  all directions. The caps, or epiphyses, at the end of the vertebral
  bodies are flattened disks, not uniting until after the animal has
  attained its full dimensions. There are largely developed
  chevron-bones on the under side of the tail, the presence of which
  indicates the distinction between caudal and lumbar vertebrae.

  In the skull, the brain-case is short, broad and high, almost
  spherical, in fact (fig. 1). The supra-occipital bone rises upwards
  and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the frontals at the
  vertex, completely excluding the parietals from the upper region; and
  the frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits.
  The nasal aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a more or
  less horizontally prolonged beak, formed of the maxillae, premaxillae,
  vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards to form the upper
  jaw or roof of the mouth.

  There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula
  at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb
  are imperfect; the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact, with
  fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any motion. The radius
  and ulna are distinct, and about equally developed, and much
  flattened, as are all the bones of the flippers. There are four, or
  more commonly five, digits, and the number of the phalanges of the
  second and third always exceeds the normal number in mammals,
  sometimes considerably; they present the exceptional character of
  having epiphyses at both ends. The pelvis is represented by a pair of
  small rod-like bones placed longitudinally, suspended below and at
  some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement of the
  tail. In some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other
  small bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind-limb.

  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--A Section of the Skull of a Black-Fish
  (_Globicephalus melas_).

    PMx, Premaxilla.
    Mx, Maxilla.
    ME, Ossified portion of the mesethmoid.
    an, Nostrils.
    Na, Nasal.
    IP, Inter-parietal.
    Fr, Frontal.
    Pa, Parietal.
    SO, Supra-occipital.
    ExO, Ex-occipital.
    BO, Basi-occipital.
    Sq, Squamosal.
    Per, Periotic.
    AS, Alisphenoid.
    PS, Presphenoid.
    Pt, Pterygoid.
    pn, Posterior nares.
    Pl, Palatine.
    Vo, Vomer.
    s, Symphysis of lower jaw.
    id, Inferior dental canal.
    cp, Coronoid process of lower jaw.
    cd, Condyle.
    a, Angle.
    sh, Stylo-hyal.
    bh, Basi-hyal.
    th, Thyro-hyal.]

  Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In
  existing species, they are of simple, uniform character, with conical
  or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded by
  milk-teeth. In the whalebone whales teeth are absent (except in the
  foetal condition), and the palate is provided with numerous
  transversely placed horny plates, forming the "whalebone." Salivary
  glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is complex, and the
  intestine simple, and only in some species provided with a small
  caecum. The liver is little fissured, and there is no gall-bladder.
  The blood-vascular system is complicated by net-like expansions of
  both arteries and veins, or _retia mirabilia_, The larynx is of
  peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being
  elongated, and forming a tubular prolongation, which projects into the
  posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate forms a
  continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, or wind-pipe,
  in a more perfect manner. The brain is relatively large, round in
  form, with its surface divided into numerous and complex convolutions.
  The kidneys are deeply lobulated; the testes are abdominal; and there
  are no vesiculae seminales nor an os penis. The uterus is bicornuate;
  the placenta non-deciduate and diffuse. The two teats are placed in
  depressions on each side of the genital aperture. The ducts of the
  milk-glands are dilated during suckling into large reservoirs, into
  which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the action
  of a muscle into the mouth of the young animal, so that sucking under
  water is greatly facilitated.

Whales and porpoises are found in all seas, and some dolphins and
porpoises are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and
Asia. Their organization necessitates their passing their life entirely
in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have,
however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of
respiration; and, in relation to the upward and downward movement in the
water thus necessitated, the principal instrument of motion, the tail,
is expanded horizontally. The position of the nostril on the highest
part of the head is important for this mode of life, as it is the only
part of the body the exposure of which above the surface is absolutely
necessary. Of numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history,
few are so widespread as that whales spout through their blow-holes
water taken in at the mouth. But the "spouting," or "blowing," of whales
is nothing more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place
at longer intervals than land-animals, is performed with a greater
emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels
from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration, which is
charged with vapour in consequence of the respiratory changes. This
rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is
often observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been taken
for water. It happens, however, especially when the surface of the ocean
is agitated into waves, that the animal commences its expiratory puff
before the orifice has cleared the top of the water, some of which may
thus be driven upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion.
From photographs of spouting rorquals, it appears that the height and
volume of the "spout" of all the species is much less than was supposed
to be the case by the older observers; even that of the huge
"sulphur-bottom" (_Balaenoptera sibbaldi_) averaging only about 14 ft.
in height, although it may occasionally reach 20 ft.

As regards their powers of hearing, the capacity of cetaceans for
receiving (and acting upon) sound-waves is demonstrated by the practice
of shouting on the part of the fishermen when engaged in driving a shoal
of porpoises or black-fish into shallow water, for the purpose of
frightening their intended victims. As regards the possession of a voice
by cetaceans, it is stated that one species, the "buckelwal" of the
Germans, utters during the breeding-season a prolonged scream,
comparable to the scream of a steam-siren, and embracing the whole
musical scale, from base to treble. In respect of anatomical
considerations, it is true that the external ear is much reduced, the
"pinna" being absent, and the tube or "meatus" of very small calibre. On
the other hand, the internal auditory organs are developed on the plan
of those of ordinary mammals, but display certain peculiar modifications
(notably the remarkable shell-like form of the tympanic bone) for
intensifying and strengthening the sound-waves as they are received from
the water. It seems, therefore, perfectly evident that whales must hear
when in the water. This inference is confirmed by the comparatively
small development of the other sense-organs. The eye, for instance, is
very small, and can be of little use even at the comparatively small
depths to which whales are now believed to descend. Again, the sense of
smell, judging from the rudimentary condition of the olfactory organs,
must be in abeyance; and whales have no sense-organs comparable to the
lateral-line-system of fishes. Consequently, it would seem that when
below the surface of the water they must depend chiefly upon the sense
of hearing. Probably this sense is so highly developed as to enable the
animals, in the midst of the vibrations made by the screw-like movements
of the tail, or flukes, to distinguish the sound (or the vibrations)
made by the impact of water against rocks, even in a dead calm, and, in
the case of piscivorous species, to recognize by the pulse in the water
the presence of a shoal of fish. Failing this explanation, it is
difficult to imagine how whales can find their way about in the
semi-darkness, and avoid collisions with rocks and rock-bound coasts.

  In the Christiania _Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, vol.
  xxxviii., Dr G. Guldberg has published some observations on the
  body-temperature of the Cetacea, in which he shows how extremely
  imperfect is our knowledge of this subject. As he remarks, it is a
  matter of extreme difficulty to obtain the temperature of living
  cetaceans, although this has been taken in the case of a white-whale
  and a dolphin, which some years ago were kept in confinement in a pond
  in the United States. With the larger whales such a mode of procedure
  is, however, obviously quite impracticable, and we have, accordingly,
  to rely on _post-mortem_ observations. The layer of blubber by which
  all cetaceans are protected from cold renders the _post-mortem_
  refrigeration of the blood a much slower process than in most mammals,
  so that such observations have a much higher value than might at first
  be supposed to be the case. Indeed, the blood-temperature of a
  specimen of Sibbald's rorqual three days after death still stood at
  34° C. The various observations that have been taken have afforded the
  following results in individual cases: Sperm-whale, 40° C.; Greenland
  right-whale, 38.8° C.; porpoise, 35.6° C.; liver of a second
  individual, 37.8° C.; common rorqual, 35.4° C.; dolphin, 35.6° C. The
  average blood-temperature of man is 37° C., and that of other mammals
  39° C.; while that of birds is 42 C. The record of 40° C. in the case
  of the sperm-whale seems to indicate that at least some cetaceans have
  a relatively high temperature.

With the possible exception of one West African dolphin, all the Cetacea
are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of some kind. One kind
alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as seals, and even
members of its own order, both large and small. Many feed on fish,
others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods and jelly-fishes, while
the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by cuttle-fishes
and squids. In size cetaceans vary much, some of the smaller dolphins
scarcely exceeding 4 ft. in length, while whales are the most colossal
of all animals. It is true that many statements of their bulk are
exaggerated, but the actual dimensions of the larger species exceed
those of all other animals, not even excluding the extinct dinosaurian
reptiles. With some exceptions, cetaceans are generally timid,
inoffensive animals, active in their movements and affectionate in their
disposition towards one another, especially the mother towards the
young, of which there is usually but one, or at most two at a time. They
are generally gregarious, swimming in herds or "schools," sometimes
amounting to many thousands in number; though some species are met with
either singly or in pairs.

Commercially these animals are of importance on account of the oil
yielded by the blubber of all of them; while whalebone, spermaceti and
ambergris are still more valuable products yielded by certain species.
Within the last few years whalebone has been sold in America for £2900
per ton, while it is also asserted that £3000 per ton has been paid for
two and a quarter tons at Aberdeen, although there seems to be some
degree of doubt attaching to the statement. Soon after the middle of the
last century, the price of this commodity was as low as £150 per ton,
but, according to Mr Frank Buckland, it suddenly leapt up to £620 with
the introduction of "crinoline" into ladies' costume, and it has
apparently been on the rise ever since. Ambergris, which is very largely
used in perfumery, is solely a product of the sperm-whale, and appears
to be a kind of biliary calculus. It generally contains a number of the
horny beaks of the cuttle-fishes and squids upon which these whales
chiefly feed. Its market-price is subject to considerable variation, but
from £3 to £4 per oz. is the usual average for samples of good quality.
In 1898 a merchant in Mincing Lane was the owner of a lump of ambergris
weighing 270 lb., which was sold in Paris for about 85 s. per oz., or
£18,360.

  _Whalebone Whales_.--Existing Cetacea are divisible into two sections,
  or suborders, the relationships of which are by no means clearly
  apparent. The first section is that of the whalebone whales, or
  Mystacoceti, in which no functional teeth are developed, although
  there are tooth-germs during foetal life. The palate is furnished with
  plates of baleen or whalebone; the skull is symmetrical; and the nasal
  bones form a roof to the nasal passages, which are directed upwards
  and forwards. The maxilla is produced in front of, but not over, the
  orbital process of the frontal. The lacrymal is small and distinct
  from the jugal. The tympanic is welded with the periotic, which is
  attached to the base of the skull by two strong diverging processes.
  The olfactory organ is distinctly developed. The two halves of the
  lower jaw are arched outwards, their anterior ends meeting at an
  angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any symphysis. All the
  ribs at their upper extremity articulate only with the transverse
  processes of the vertebrae; their capitular processes when present not
  articulating directly with the bodies of the vertebrae. The sternum is
  composed of a single piece, and articulates only with a single pair of
  ribs; and there are no ossified sternal ribs. External openings of
  nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short conical
  caecum.

  When in the foetal state these whales have numerous minute teeth lying
  in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are best
  developed about the middle of foetal life, after which they are
  absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth. The
  whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth; and consists
  of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four hundred
  in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along the
  middle line. The plates are placed transversely to the long axis of
  the palate, with short intervals between them. Each plate or blade is
  somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate and
  the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and
  smooth, but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres,
  so that the roof of the whale's mouth looks as if covered with hair,
  as described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade
  are two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal
  blades are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually
  diminish towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates
  grow from a fibrous and vascular matrix, which covers the palatal
  surface of the maxillae, and sends out plate-like processes, one of
  which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the free edges of
  these processes are covered with long vascular thread-like papillae,
  one of which forms the central axis of each of the hair-like fibres
  mainly composing the blade. A transverse section of fresh whalebone
  shows that it is made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillae,
  circular in outline, and surrounded by concentrically arranged
  epidermic cells, the whole bound together by other epidermic cells,
  that constitute the smooth (so-called "enamel") surface of the blade,
  which, disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres
  to become loose and assume a hair-like appearance.

  Whalebone really consists of modified papillae of the mucous membrane
  of the mouth, with an excessive and horny epithelial development. The
  blades are supported and bound together for a certain distance from
  their base, by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the
  surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the
  intervals of the plate-like processes. This is the "gum" of the
  whalers. Whalebone varies much in colour in different species; in some
  it is almost jet black, in others slate colour, horn colour, yellow,
  or even creamy-white. In some descriptions the blades are variegated
  with longitudinal stripes of different hues. It differs also greatly
  in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and stiff in some
  cases, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species in
  which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to
  strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish
  upon which the whales subsist. In feeding, whales fill the immense
  mouth with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then,
  on closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the
  cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow
  intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and
  escapes through the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.

  Although sometimes divided into two families, _Balaenidae_ and
  _Balaenopteridae_, whalebone-whales are best included in a single
  family group under the former name. The typical members of this family
  are the so-called right-whales, forming the genus _Balaena_, in which
  there are no folds on the throat and chest, and no back-fin; while the
  cervical vertebrae are fused into a single mass. The flippers are
  short and broad, with five digits; the head is very large and the
  whalebone very long and narrow, highly elastic and black; while the
  scapula is high, with a distinct coracoid and coronoid process. This
  genus contains the well-known Greenland right-whale (_B. mysticetus_)
  of the Arctic seas, the whalebone and oil of which are so much valued
  in commerce, and also other whales, distinguished by having the head
  somewhat smaller in proportion to the body, with shorter whalebone and
  a larger number of vertebrae. These inhabit the temperate seas of both
  northern and southern hemispheres, and have been divided into species
  in accordance with their geographical distribution, such as _B.
  biscayensis_ of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North
  Pacific, _B. australis_ of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_
  and _novae-zelandiae_ of the South Pacific; but the differences
  between them are so small that they may probably be regarded as races
  of a single species, the black whale (_B. australis_). On the head
  these whales carry a peculiar structure which is known to whalers as
  the "bonnet." This is a large horny excrescence, worn into hollows
  like a much-denuded piece of limestone rock, growing probably in the
  neighbourhood of the blow-hole. More than one theory has been
  suggested to account for its presence. One suggestion is that it
  indicates the descent of whales from rhinoceros-like mammals; another
  that this species of whale is in the habit of rubbing against rocks in
  order to free itself from barnacles, and thus produces a kind of
  corn--although why on the nose alone is not stated. Dr W.G. Ridewood,
  however, considers that the structure is due to the fact that the
  horny layers which are produced all over the skin are not shed on this
  particular spot.

  The pigmy whale (_Neobalaena marginata_) represents a genus agreeing
  with the right-whales in the absence of throat-flutings, and with the
  rorquals in the presence of a dorsal fin. The cervical vertebrae are
  united, and there are only 43 vertebrae altogether. The flippers are
  small, narrow, and with only four digits. The ribs remarkably expanded
  and flattened; the scapula low and broad, with completely developed
  acromion and coracoid processes. The whalebone is long, slender,
  elastic and white. The species which inhabits the South American,
  Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest of the
  whalebone-whales, being not more than 20 ft. in length.

  In contrast to the preceding is the great grey whale (_Rachianectes
  glaucus_) of the North Pacific, which combines the relatively small
  head, elongated shape, and narrow flippers of the fin-whales, with the
  smooth throat and absence of a back-fin distinctive of the
  right-whales. The whalebone is shorter and coarser than in any other
  species. In the skeleton the cervical vertebrae are free, and the
  first two ribs on each side expanded and united to form a large bony
  shield. In the humpback-whale (_Megaptera longimana_ or _boops_) the
  head is of moderate size, the whalebone-plates are short and wide, and
  the cervical vertebrae free. The skin of the throat is fluted so as to
  form an expansible pouch; there is a low back-fin; and the flippers,
  which have four digits each, are extremely long, equalling about
  one-fourth the total length of the animal. The acromion and coracoid
  processes of the scapula are rudimentary. See HUMPBACK-WHALE.

  The right-whales are built for cruising slowly about in search of the
  shoals of small floating invertebrates which form their food, and are
  consequently broad in beam, with a float-shaped body and immovable
  neck. The humpback is of somewhat similar build, but with a smaller
  head, and probably attains considerable speed owing to the length of
  its flippers. The finners, or rorquals (_Balaenoptera_), which prey
  largely on fish, are built entirely for speed, and are the ocean
  greyhounds of the group. Their bodies are consequently long and
  attenuated, and their necks are partially mobile; while they are
  furnished with capacious pouches for storing their food. They chiefly
  differ from the humpback by the smaller head, long and slender build,
  small, narrow, and pointed flippers, each containing four digits, and
  the large acromion and coracoid processes to the low and broad
  scapula. Rorquals are found in almost every sea. Among them are the
  most gigantic of all animals, _B. sibbaldi_, which attains the length
  of 80 ft., and the small _B. rostrata_, which does not exceed 30.
  There are certainly four distinct modifications of this genus,
  represented by the two just mentioned, and by _B. musculus_ and _B.
  borealis_, all inhabitants of British seas, but the question whether
  almost identical forms found in the Indian, Southern and Pacific
  Oceans are to be regarded as specifically identical or as distinct
  awaits future researches, although some of these have already received
  distinct names. See RORQUAL.

  In the report on the zoology of the "Discovery" expedition, published
  in 1907 by the British Museum, E.A. Wilson describes a whale
  frequenting the fringe of the Antarctic ice which indicates a new
  generic type. Mainly black in colour, these whales measure about 20 or
  30 ft. in length, and have a tall dorsal fin like that of a killer.

  _Toothed Whales._--The second suborder is represented by the toothed
  whales, or Odontoceti, in which there is no whalebone, and teeth,
  generally numerous, though sometimes reduced to a single pair, and
  occasionally wanting, are normally developed. Unlike that of the
  whalebone-whales, the upper surface of the skull is more or less
  unsymmetrical. The nasal bones are in the form of nodules or flattened
  plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of
  the roof to the nasal passage, which is directed upwards and
  backwards. The olfactory organ is rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of
  the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the orbital
  plate of the frontal bone. Lacrymal bone either inseparable from the
  jugal, or, if distinct, large, and forming part of the roof of the
  orbit. Tympanic bone not welded with the periotic, which is usually
  only attached to the rest of the skull by ligament. Two halves of the
  lower jaw nearly straight, expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide
  funnel-shaped aperture to the dental canal, and coming in contact in
  front by a flat surface of variable length, but constituting a
  symphysis. Several of the anterior ribs with well-developed capitular
  processes, which articulate with the bodies of the vertebrae. Sternum
  almost always composed of several pieces, placed one behind the other,
  with which several pairs of ribs are connected by well-developed
  cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture
  single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the surface,
  usually in the form of a transverse sub-crescentic valvular aperture,
  situated on the top of the head. Flippers with five digits, though the
  first and fifth are usually little developed. No caecum, except in
  _Platanista_.

  The first family, _Physeteridae_, is typified by the sperm-whale, and
  characterized by the absence of functional teeth in the upper jaw; the
  lower teeth being various, and often much reduced in number. Bones of
  the skull raised so as to form an elevated prominence or crest behind
  the nostrils. Pterygoid bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in
  the middle line, and not involuted to form the outer wall of the
  post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed on their outer side.
  Transverse processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebrae, to which
  the tubercles of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end
  of the series, and replaced by processes on the body at a lower level,
  and serially homologous anteriorly with the heads of the ribs, and
  posteriorly with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
  Costal cartilages not ossified.

  The first group, or _Physeterinae_, includes the sperm-whale itself
  and is characterized by the presence of a full series of lower teeth,
  which are set in a groove in place of sockets, the groove being
  imperfectly divided by partial septa, and the teeth held in place by
  the strong, fibrous gum. No distinct lacrymal bone. Skull strikingly
  asymmetrical in the region of the nasal apertures, in consequence of
  the left opening greatly exceeding the right in size.

  In the sperm-whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_) the upper teeth are
  apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary and functionless, being
  embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side,
  stout, conical, recurved and pointed at the apex until they are worn,
  without enamel. Upper surface of the skull concave; its posterior and
  lateral edges raised into a very high and greatly compressed
  semicircular crest or wall (fig. 2). Zygomatic processes of jugal
  bones thick and massive. Muzzle greatly elongated, broad at the base,
  and gradually tapering to the apex. Lower jaw exceedingly long and
  narrow, the symphysis being more than half the length. Vertebrae: C 7,
  D 11, L 8, Ca 24; total 50. Atlas, or first vertebra, free; all the
  other cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and spines into a
  single mass. Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third
  the length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather
  compressed in front; owing its huge size and form mainly to the
  accumulation of a mass of fatty tissue filling the large hollow on the
  upper surface of the skull and overlying the long muzzle. The single
  blow-hole is longitudinal, slightly S-shaped, and placed at the upper
  and anterior extremity of the head to the left side of the middle
  line. The opening of the mouth is on the under side of the head,
  considerably behind the end of the snout. Flippers short, broad and
  truncated. Dorsal fin represented by a low protuberance. See
  SPERM-WHALE.

  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skull of Sperm-Whale (_Physeter
  macrocephalus_).]

  In the lesser or pigmy sperm-whale (_Cogia breviceps_) there may be a
  pair of rudimentary teeth in the upper jaw, while on each side of the
  lower jaw there are from 9 to 12 rather long, slender, pointed and
  curved teeth, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface of the skull
  concave, with thick, raised, posterior and lateral margins, massive
  and rounded at their anterior terminations above the orbits. Muzzle
  not longer than the cranial position of the skull, broad at the base,
  and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal
  rod-like. Lower jaw with symphysis less than half its length.
  Vertebrae: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and Ca 30; total 50 or 51. All the
  cervical vertebrae united by their bodies and arches. The head is
  about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely pointed in
  front; the mouth small and placed far below the apex of the snout; the
  blow-hole crescentic, and placed obliquely on the crown of the head in
  advance of the eyes and to the left of the middle line; while the
  flippers are bluntly sickle-shaped, and the back-fin triangular. This
  species attains a length of from 9 to 13 ft.

  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Bottle-nose (_Hyperoödon rostratus_). From a
  specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.]

  A second subfamily is represented by the bottle-noses and beaked
  whales, and known as the _Ziphiinae_. In this group the lower teeth
  are rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or rarely two,
  pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male. There is
  a distinct lacrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a
  slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed
  by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blow-hole
  rises somewhat abruptly. The blow-hole is single, crescentic and
  median, as in the _Delphinidae_. Flippers small, ovate, with five
  digits moderately well developed. A small obtuse dorsal fin situated
  considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on
  each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly
  meeting in front. In external characters and habits the whales of this
  group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost
  exclusively feeders on cuttle-fishes, and occur either singly, in
  pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters
  they are easily separated into four genera.

  In the first of these, _Hyperoödon_, or bottle-nose, there is a small
  conical pointed tooth at the apex of each half of the lower jaw,
  concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the upper ends of the
  premaxillae rising suddenly behind the nostrils to the vertex and
  expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and their
  anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nostrils; the
  right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between
  the upper extremities of the premaxillae, strongly concave in the
  middle line and in front; their outer edges, especially that of the
  right, expanded over the front of the inner border of the maxilla.
  Very high longitudinal crests on the maxillae at the base of the beak,
  extending backwards almost to the nostrils, approaching each other in
  the middle line above; sometimes compressed and sometimes so massive
  that their inner edges come almost in contact. Preorbital notch
  distinct, and mesethmoid cartilage slightly ossified. Vertebrae: C 7,
  D 9, L 10, Ca 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebrae united. Upper
  surface of the head in front of the blow-hole very prominent and
  rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout. Two
  species are known. See BOTTLE-NOSE WHALE.

  The typical representative of the beaked whales is _Ziphius cuvieri_,
  in which there is a single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
  close to the anterior extremity of the lower jaw, directed forwards
  and upwards. Skull with the premaxillae immediately in front and at
  the sides of the nostrils expanded, hollowed, with elevated lateral
  margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards,
  the right being considerably more developed than the left. The
  conjoint nasals form a pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of
  the skull, projecting forwards over the nostrils, flat above,
  prominent and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a
  notch on each side from the premaxillae. Preorbital notch not
  distinct. Rostrum (seen from above) triangular, tapering from the base
  to the apex; upper and outer edges of maxillae at base of rostrum
  raised into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
  ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
  the rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10, Ca 22; total 49. The three
  anterior cervical vertebrae united, the rest free.

  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sowerby's Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon bidens_).]

  In the numerous species of the allied genus _Mesoplodon_ there is a
  much-compressed and pointed tooth in each half of the lower jaw,
  variously situated, but generally at some distance behind the apex;
  its point directed upwards, and often somewhat backwards, occasionally
  developed to a great size. In the skull the region round the nostrils
  is as in _Hyperoödon_, except that the nasals are narrow and more sunk
  between the upper ends of the premaxillae; like those of _Hyperoödon_,
  they are concave in the middle line in front and above. No maxillary
  tuberosities. Preorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long and
  narrow. Mesethmoid in the adult ossified in its entire length, and
  coalescing with the surrounding bones. Vertebrae: C 7, D 10, L 10 or
  11, Ca 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals
  united, the rest usually free.

  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Skull of a Beaked Whale (_Mesoplodon
  densirostris_).]

  Though varying in form, the lower teeth of the different members of
  this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and
  pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of dentine, which, instead of
  surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid
  mass of osteo-dentine, the continuous growth of which greatly alters
  the form and general appearance of the tooth as age advances, as in
  the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like
  teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, meet over the rostrum,
  and interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (_M.
  grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of
  ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, is present even in the adults,
  on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by
  their roots only in the gum, and not in bony sockets. This, with the
  frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of this genus,
  indicates that the beaked whales are derived from ancestral forms with
  teeth of normal character in both jaws. The species are distributed in
  both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the
  latter. Among them are _M. bidens_, _M. europaeas_, _M. densirostris_,
  _M. layardi_, _M. grayi_ and _M. hectori_; but there is still much to
  be learned with regard to their characters and distribution. This
  group was abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency
  with which the imperishable long, cylindrical rostrum of the skull, of
  more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled and waterworn
  animal remains which compose the "bone-bed" at the base of the Red
  Crag of Suffolk.

  Finally, in Arnoux's beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_), of New
  Zealand, which grows to a length of 30 ft., there are two
  moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth, on each side of the
  symphysis of the lower jaw, with their summits directed forwards, the
  anterior being the larger of the two and close to the front of the
  jaw. Upper ends of the premaxillae nearly symmetrical, moderately
  elevated, slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nostrils.
  Nasals broad, massive and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the
  vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle
  line. Preorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid
  partially ossified. Small rough eminences on the outer edge of the
  upper surface of the maxillae at base of rostrum. Vertebrae: C 7, D
  10, L 12, Ca 19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals welded, the
  rest free and well developed. Apparently this whale has the power of
  thrusting its teeth up and down, exposing them to view when attacked.

  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Susu, or Ganges Dolphin (_Platanista
  gangetica_).]

  In a family by themselves--the _Platinistidae_--are placed three
  cetaceans which differ from the members of the preceding and the
  following groups in the mode of articulation of the ribs with the
  vertebrae, as the tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at
  the commencement of the series, gradually blend together, as in most
  mammals. The cervical vertebrae are all free. The lacrymal bone is not
  distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous
  teeth in both; the symphysis of the lower one exceeding half its
  length. Externally the head is divided from the body by a slightly
  constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin small
  or obsolete. In habits these dolphins are fluviatile or estuarine. In
  the Indian susu, or Ganges dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_), the teeth
  number about 30/30 on each side, are set near together, are rather
  large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young, but in old animals
  acquire a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part
  of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical
  enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old
  animals have a totally different appearance. The beak and
  tooth-bearing portion of the lower jaw are so narrow that the teeth of
  the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillae supporting large,