attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the centre of the
allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van and rear of his
enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape Barfleur, the battle
was formerly often called by the name. On the centre, where Tourville
was directly opposed to Russell, the fighting was severe. The British
flag-ship the "Britannia" (100), and the French, the "Soleil Royal"
(100), were both completely crippled. After several hours of conflict,
the French admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies
could outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals in
his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The wind now
fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two fleets remained
off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting west with the ebb tide or
east with the flood, save when they anchored. During the night of the
19th/20th some British ships became entangled, in the fog, with the
French, and drifted through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd
both fleets were near La Hague. About half the French, under
D'Amfreville, rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the
dangerous passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard). The
others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide set in,
and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now transferred his own
flag, and left his captains free to save themselves as they best could.
He left the "Soleil Royal," and sent her with two others to Cherbourg,
where they were destroyed by Sir Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round
Cape Barfleur, and sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the
anchorage of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops
destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them were burnt by
Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French generals and of the
exiled king James II. From the name of the place where the last blow was
struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue.

  Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's _Naval
  History_ (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's
  _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, 1867). The escape of
  D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem "Hervé
  Riel."     (D. H.)

LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab,
which gives its name to a district and division. It lies in 31° 35' N.
and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the
sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same
latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably
hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the
summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and
bright. The native city is walled, about 1¼ m. in length W. to E. and
about ¾ m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early
times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding
country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habitations.
Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now below the
present surface of the ground. This is well seen in the mosque now
called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in 1560, the mosque of Mullah
Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali, a very old Hindu temple, about 12
ft. below the surrounding ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of
Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the _Ramayana_. The
absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact
that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins,
lead to the belief that it was not a place of any importance during the
earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsüan Tsang, the
Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his _Itinerary_ (A.D. 630); and it
seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence
between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family
of Chauhan Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell
successively under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who
made it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with
numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under the Mogul
empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and magnificence. The
reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb form the
golden period in the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged
and repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of
which remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed
the capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the second
Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under the British
dominion.

The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of Delhi. Jahangir
in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or "sleeping-place," a fine palace
much defaced by the Sikhs but to some extent restored in modern times;
the Moti Masjid or "pearl mosque" in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and
afterwards by the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of
Anarkali, used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah
Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah, including
the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its cost of nine lakhs,
which was inlaid with precious stones. The mosque of Wazir Khan (1634)
provides the finest example of _kashi_ or encaustic tile work.
Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or "great mosque," is a huge bare building,
stiff in design, and lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings
at Delhi. The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are
common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible for much
of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets of the native
city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen from the back of an
elephant. Two of the chief features of Lahore lie outside its walls at
Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens respectively. Shahdara, which contains the
tomb of the emperor Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the
city. It consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove of
trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in A.D.
1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They are somewhat neglected
except on festive occasions, when the fountains are playing and the
trees are lit up by lamps at night.

The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population of 202,964 in
1901, may be divided into four parts: the native city, already
described; the civil station or European quarter, known as Donald Town;
the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of the city wall; and the cantonment,
formerly called Mian Mir. The main street of the civil station is a
portion of the grand trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known
as the Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east,
are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco-Buddhist
sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the Yusufzai country, and
arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a former curator of the museum; the
cathedral, begun by Bishop French, in Early English style, and
consecrated in 1887; the Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls,
surrounded by a garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans
in the afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official
residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to this is the
Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three miles beyond is the
Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is stationed, except a company of
British infantry, which occupies the fort. It is the headquarters of the
3rd division of the northern army. Lahore is an important junction on
the North-Western railway system, but has little local trade or
manufacture. The chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace,
metal work and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also
cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories for
mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is an important
educational centre. Here are the Punjab University with five colleges,
medical and law colleges, a central training college, the Aitchison
Chiefs' College for the sons of native noblemen, and a number of other
high schools and technical and special schools.

The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its population in
1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi Mahommedans with a
large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs. In the north-west the district
includes a large part of the barren Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi
is a desolate alluvial tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau,
however, between the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the
Bari Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets, maize,
oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for ginning and
pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main line of the Bari
Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation-cuts from the Sutlej. The
district is crossed in several directions by lines of the North-Western
railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian and Raiwind are the chief trade centres.

The DIVISION OF LAHORE extends along the right bank of the Sutlej from
the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six districts of Sialkot,
Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur. Total area,
17,154 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5,598,463. The commissioner for the division
also exercises political control over the hill slate of Chamba. The
common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi;
while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from
the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer
temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the
shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In midsummer the
thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the shade, and remains on some
occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning
temperature is sometimes as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain,
ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a
whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation.

LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (1630?-1710?), Spanish dramatist, was
born in Madrid. He became a knight of Santiago in 1653, and soon
afterwards succeeded his father as _regidor_ of Burgos. In 1665 he was
nominated to an important post at the Treasury, and in his later years
acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the 13th of August
1709 he signed his play entitled _Josef, salvador de Egipto_, and is
presumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remarkable for
originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers
are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in
which he was held by his contemporaries. _El Montañés Juan Pascal_ and
_El castigo de la miseria_, reprinted in the _Biblioteca de Autores
Españoles_, give a just idea of his adaptable talent.

LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter, about 9 m. S.
of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr. Pop. (1900) 13,577.
One of the busiest towns in Baden, it carries on manufactures of tobacco
and cigars, woollen goods, chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and
numerous other articles, has considerable trade in wine, while among its
other industries are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a
town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden
in 1803.

  See Stein, _Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr_ (Lahr, 1827);
  and Sütterlin, _Lahr und seine Umgebung_ (Lahr, 1904).

LAIBACH (Slovenian, _Ljubljana_), capital of the Austrian duchy of
Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 36,547, mostly
Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its influx into the Save,
and consists of the town proper and eight suburbs. Laibach is an
episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral in the Italian style, several
beautiful churches, a town hall in Renaissance style and a castle, built
in the 15th century, on the Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the
town. Laibach is the principal centre of the national Slovenian
movement, and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for
the promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The
Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal
administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include manufactures
of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth, fire-hose and paper.

  Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or Aemona,
  founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was besieged by Alaric
  in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns. In 900 Laibach
  suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however, defeated there in
  914. In the 12th century the town passed into the hands of the dukes
  of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of Bohemia; and in 1277
  it came under the Habsburgs. In the early part of the 15th century the
  town was several times besieged by the Turks. The bishopric was
  founded in 1461. On the 17th of March 1797 and again on the 3rd of
  June 1809 Laibach was taken by the French, and from 1809 to 1813 it
  became the seat of their general government of the Illyrian provinces.
  From 1816 to 1849 Laibach was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria.
  The town is also historically known from the congress of Laibach,
  which assembled here in 1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on
  the 14th of April 1895 from an earthquake.

_Congress or Conference of Laibach._--Before the break-up of the
conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn it till the
following January, and to invite the attendance of the king of Naples,
Laibach being chosen as the place of meeting. Castlereagh, in the name
of Great Britain, had cordially approved this invitation, as "implying
negotiation" and therefore as a retreat from the position taken up in
the Troppau Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three
autocratic powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the 8th
of December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the
principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers
responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress any
revolutionary movement by which they might conceive that peace to be
endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this view Castlereagh once more
protested in a circular despatch of the 19th of January 1821, in which
he clearly differentiated between the objectionable general principles
advanced by the three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in
Italy, the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria and
of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves endangered
(Hertslet, No. 107).

The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its constitution
emphasized the divergences revealed in the above circulars. The emperors
of Russia and Austria were present in person, and with them were Counts
Nesselrode and Capo d'Istria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and
France were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on the
ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian question, was
represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador at Vienna, who was not
armed with full powers, his mission being to watch the proceedings and
to see that nothing was done beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of
the Italian princes, Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in
person; the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries.

It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between Great Britain
and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich was anxious to secure an
apparent unanimity of the powers to back the Austrian intervention in
Naples, and every device was used to entrap the English representative
into subscribing a formula which would have seemed to commit Great
Britain to the principles of the other allies. When these devices
failed, attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart from
the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally he was forced
to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed on the journals, but
the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the assembled Italian
ministers, who were by no means reconciled to the large claims implied
in the Austrian intervention, a declaration in which as the result of
the "intimate union established by solemn acts between all the European
powers" the Russian emperor offered to the allies "the aid of his arms,
should new revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that
idea of a "universal union" based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.) against
which Great Britain had consistently protested.

The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much to an
Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching principles by
which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand had been invited to
Laibach, according to the circular of the 8th of December, in order
that he might be free to act as "mediator between his erring peoples and
the states whose tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made
of his "freedom" to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is
described elsewhere (see NAPLES, _History_). The result of this action
was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupation of Naples by
Austria, with the sanction of the congress. This was preceded, on the
10th of March, by the revolt of the garrison of Alessandria and the
military revolution in Piedmont, which in its turn was suppressed, as a
result of negotiations at Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at
Laibach, too, that, on the 19th of March, the emperor Alexander received
the news of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which
heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and from Laibach
Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the tsar's repudiation of
his action.

The conference closed on the 12th of May, on which date Russia, Austria
and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet, No. 108) "to proclaim to the
world the principles which guided them" in coming "to the assistance of
subdued peoples," a declaration which once more affirmed the principles
of the Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the
Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly confined to
Italy. The issue of the declaration without the signatures of the
representatives of Great Britain and France proclaimed the disunion of
the alliance, within which--to use Lord Stewart's words--there existed
"a triple understanding which bound the parties to carry forward their
own views in spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two
great constitutional governments."

  No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable references
  are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspondence,
  &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, _Map of Europe_ (London, 1875);
  Castlereagh, _Correspondence_; Metternich, _Memoirs_; N. Bianchi,
  _Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia_ (8 vols.,
  Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON).
  Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record Office
  in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January to
  February 1821, and March to September 1821.     (W. A. P.)

LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott,
was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on the 19th of November 1780, the
son of a sheep farmer. After an elementary education in Peebles he
returned to work upon his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet,
who was employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's friend
and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott by supplying
material for his _Border Minstrelsy_, and Laidlaw, after two failures as
a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire, became Scott's steward at
Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's amanuensis at different times,
taking down a large part of _The Bride of Lammermoor_, _The Legend of
Montrose_ and _Ivanhoe_ from the author's dictation. He died at Contin
near Dingwall, Ross-shire, on the 18th of May 1845. Of his poetry,
little is known except _Lucy's Flittin'_ in Hogg's _Forest Minstrel_.

LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish explorer, the first
European to reach Timbuktu, was born at Edinburgh on the 27th of
December 1793. He was educated by his father, William Laing, a private
teacher of classics, and at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to
Barbados as clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General)
Gabriel Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of
Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry. He was
employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted to a company in
the Royal African Corps. In that year, while with his regiment at Sierra
Leone, he was sent by the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the
Mandingo country, with the double object of opening up commerce and
endeavouring to abolish the slave trade in that region. Later in the
same year Laing visited Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and
ascertained the source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source
of the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however, enabled
to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active part in the
Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home with the despatches
containing the news of the death in action of Sir Charles MacCarthy.
Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary for the colonies, instructed
Captain Laing to undertake a journey, via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to
further elucidate the hydrography of the Niger basin. Laing left England
in February 1825, and at Tripoli on the 14th of July following he
married Emma Warrington, daughter of the British consul. Two days later,
leaving his bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being
accompanied by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his
murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in October 1825, and
in December Laing was in the Tuat territory, where he was well received
by the Tuareg. On the 10th of January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for
Timbuktu across the desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May
and July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering of
his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four places in the
fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu on the 21st of September
announced his arrival in that city on the preceding 18th of August, and
the insecurity of his position owing to the hostility of the Fula
chieftain Bello, then ruling the city. He added that he intended leaving
Timbuktu in three days' time. No further news was received from the
traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he left
Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered on the night of the
26th of September 1826. His papers were never recovered, though it is
believed that they were secretly brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the
French government placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and
the date of his visit on the house occupied by him during his
thirty-eight days' stay in Timbuktu.

  While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier
  journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled _Travels in the
  Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa_.

LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of William Laing,
a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city on the 20th of April
1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar School, when fourteen he was
apprenticed to his father. Shortly after the death of the latter in
1837, Laing was elected to the librarianship of the Signet Library,
which post he retained till his death. Apart from an extraordinary
general bibliographical knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong
student of the literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published
no original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works of
others. Of these, the chief are--_Dunbar's Works_ (2 vols., 1834), with
a supplement added in 1865; _Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals_ (3
vols., 1841-1842); _John Knox's Works_ (6 vols., 1846-1864); _Poems and
Fables of Robert Henryson_ (1865); _Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale
Cronykil of Scotland_ (3 vols., 1872-1879); _Sir David Lyndsay's
Poetical Works_ (3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a
member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed
upwards of a hundred separate papers to their _Proceedings_. He was also
for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne Club, many of the
publications of which were edited by him. He was struck with paralysis
in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on
recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of
Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards,
on the 18th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold
by auction, and realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he
bequeathed his collection of MSS.

  See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to _Select Remains of Ancient,
  Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland_, edited by John Small
  (Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, _Notices of David Laing with
  List of his Publications, &c._ (privately printed 1878).

LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of Robert Laing, and
elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder, was born on his paternal estate
on the Mainland of Orkney. Having studied at the grammar school of
Kirkwall and at Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in
1785, but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he
completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's _History of Great
Britain_, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly liberal tone
at variance with the preceding part of the work; and in 1802 he
published his _History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the
Union of the Kingdoms_, a work showing considerable research. Attached
to the _History_ was a dissertation on the Gowrie conspiracy, and
another on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's poems. In another
dissertation, prefixed to a second and corrected edition of the
_History_ published in 1804, Laing endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen
of Scots, wrote the Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the
murder of Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the _Life and
Historie of King James VI._, and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an
edition of Ossian's poems. Laing, who was a friend of Charles James Fox,
was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland from 1807 to 1812. He
died on the 6th of November 1818.

LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway administrator, was
born at Edinburgh on the 12th of December 1810. He was the nephew of
Malcolm Laing, the historian of Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing
(1780-1868), was also a well-known author, whose books on Norway and
Sweden attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered St
John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as second
wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow, and remained at
Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was called to the bar in 1837, and
became private secretary to Mr Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the
president of the Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the
railway department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then
become an authority on railway working, and had been a member of the
Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion that the
"parliamentary" rate of a penny a mile was instituted. In 1848 he was
appointed chairman and managing director of the London, Brighton & South
Coast Railway, and his business faculty showed itself in the largely
increased prosperity of the line. He also became chairman (1852) of the
Crystal Palace Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he
entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his seat in
1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was appointed financial
secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was made finance minister in
India. On returning from India, he was re-elected to parliament for Wick
in 1865. He was defeated in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney
and Shetland, and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been
reappointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued in that
post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable
administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture Trust and
the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became well known as an
author, his _Modern Science and Modern Thought_ (1885), _Problems of the
Future_ (1889) and _Human Origins_ (1892) being widely read, not only by
reason of the writer's influential position, experience of affairs and
clear style, but also through their popular and at the same time
well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day. Laing
died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897.

LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg, South Africa,
immediately north of Majuba (q.v.), at an elevation of 5400 to 6000 ft.
It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes from Majuba to the Buffalo
river, and before the opening of the railway in 1891 the road over the
nek was the main artery of communication between Durban and Pretoria.
The railway pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers
rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek to oppose the
entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal. On the 28th of
January 1881 a small British force endeavoured to drive the Boers from
the pass, but was forced to retire.

LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant, pioneer of British
trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in 1808, the younger son of
William Laird, founder of the Birkenhead firm of shipbuilders of that
name. In 1831 Laird and certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for
the commercial development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the
Niger having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander. In
1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger, one, the
"Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed by Laird, being
the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage. Macgregor Laird went with
the expedition, which was led by Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight
Europeans, of whom all but nine died from fever or, in the case of
Lander, from wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the
Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the first white
man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but formed an accurate
idea as to its source and course. The expedition returned to Liverpool
in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K. Oldfield being the only surviving
officers besides Captain (then Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who
accompanied the expedition by order of the Admiralty to survey the
river. Laird and Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the
_Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River
Niger ... in 1832, 1833, 1834_. Commercially the expedition had been
unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to his
successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth devoted himself
largely to the development of trade with West Africa and especially to
the opening up of the countries now forming the British protectorates of
Nigeria. One of his principal reasons for so doing was his belief that
this method was the best means of stopping the slave trade and raising
the social condition of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own
charges, but with the support of the British government, a small
steamer, the "Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a
voyage that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual
trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the Niger
and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger, and though
government support was withdrawn after the death of Laird and Baikie,
British traders continued to frequent the river, which Laird had opened
up with little or no personal advantage. Laird's interests were not,
however, wholly African. In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a
company formed to run steamships between England and New York, and in
1838 the "Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to cross
the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird died in London on
the 9th of January 1861.

His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first to use
iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an iron lighter of 60
tons which was used on canals and lakes in Ireland; in 1834 he built the
paddle steamer "John Randolph" for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the
first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company he built in
1839 the first iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of
the famous "Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he represented
Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death.

LAÏS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distinguished as
follows. (1) The elder, a native of Corinth, born _c._ 480 B.C., was
famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname
of _Axine_ (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus
and Diogenes, and Eubatas (or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner.
In her old age she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the
Craneion near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The
younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born at
Hyccara in Sicily _c._ 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the Sicilian
expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the
fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model.
Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain
in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many
anecdotes are told of a Laïs by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she
forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to
the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they
refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a
courtesan.

  See F. Jacobs, _Vermischte Schriften_, iv. (1830).

LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841-   ), French politician, was born at Nantes
on the 1st of November 1841, and was educated at the École Polytechnique
as a military engineer. He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of
Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned
his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the
republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the _Petit
Parisien_. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper
he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions;
and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation,
resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the
abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the
revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of
Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the 18th Parisian
arrondissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted
himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France
the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the
École Polytechnique, and in 1903-1904 was president of the French
Association for the Advancement of Science.

  In addition to his political pamphlets _Pourquoi et comment je suis
  Boulangiste_ (1887) and _L'Anarchie bourgeoise_ (1887), he published
  mathematical works, among them _Introduction à l'étude des
  quarternions_ (1881) and _Théorie et applications des équipollences_
  (1887).

LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37° N., 120°
55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway
running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-tsu harbour. It is
surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets
are spanned by large _pailous_ or monumental arches, some dating from
the time of the emperor Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There
are extensive suburbs both to the north and south, and the total
population is estimated at 50,000. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced
by _Saturnia cynthia_ is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric; and the
manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from the la-shu or
wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity.

LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres
(Ariège) on the 14th of July 1762. His name, originally Lacanal, was
altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of
the teaching congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their
schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792
he was acting as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the
constitutional bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from
the various party sections, although he voted for the death of Louis
XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by his practical
knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public
Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the
preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the
reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he
brought forward on the 26th of June his _Projet d'éducation nationale_
(printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden
or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary
education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public
festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational
questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyès, was refused by
the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission
of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by
Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death.
Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now began to work for the
organization of higher education, and abandoning the principle of his
_Projet_ advocated the establishment of state-aided schools for primary,
secondary and university education. In October 1793 he was sent by the
Convention to the south-western departments and did not return to Paris
until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became president of the
Education Committee and promptly abolished the system which had had
Robespierre's support. He drew up schemes for departmental normal
schools, for primary schools (reviving in substance the _Projet_) and
central schools. He presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own
system, but continued his educational reports after his election to the
Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the Directory to
organize the defence of the four departments on the left bank of the
Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the Consulate he resumed his
professional work, and after Waterloo retired to America, where he
became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France
in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a
second time. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1845; his widow
survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of
France. He published in 1838 an _Exposé sommaire des travaux de Joseph
Lakanal_.

  His _éloge_ at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he
  was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Rémusat (February 16,
  1845), and a _Notice historique_ by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the
  2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Émile Darnaud (Paris, 1874),
  "Marcus" (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in _Hommes de la révolution_
  (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, _Lakanal et l'instruction publique_ (Paris,
  1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government
  see M. Tourneux, "Histoire de l'instruction publique, actes et
  déliberations de la convention, &c." in _Bibliog. de l'hist. de Paris_
  (vol. iii., 1900); also A. Robert and G. Cougny, _Dictionnaire des
  parlementaires_ (vol. ii., 1890).

LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British general, was born
on the 27th of July 1744. He entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming
lieutenant (captain in the army) 1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776,
major 1784, and lieut.-colonel in 1792, by which time he was a general
officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762
and with a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. After
this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. In
1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the
Guards Brigade in the duke of York's army in Flanders. He was in command
at the brilliant affair of Lincelles, on the 18th of August 1793, and
served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill)
until April 1794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards,
and had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick. In
1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year the Irish
rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in Ireland, succeeded
Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the troops in April 1798, issued a
proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population
of Ulster, and on the 21st of June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill
(near Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not
unjustified, severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis
now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent Lake to
oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala Bay. On the 29th of
the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar, but only in time to witness
the disgraceful rout of the troops under General Hely-Hutchinson
(afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore); but he retrieved this disaster by
compelling the surrender of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on
the 8th of September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon
afterwards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over his
duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement
of the Indian army, especially in the direction of making all arms,
infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In
1802 he was made a full general.

On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in 1803 General
Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within two months defeated the
Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr, took Delhi and Agra, and won the
great victory of Laswari (November 1st, 1803), where the power of
Sindhia was completely broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined
battalions, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of
ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur
Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to terms, and a
treaty with him was signed in December 1803. Operations were, however,
continued against his confederate, Holkar, who, on the 17th of November
1804, was defeated by Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore
held out against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who
succeeded Wellesley as governor-general in July of that
year--superseding Lake at the same time as
commander-in-chief--determined to put an end to the war. But after the
death of Cornwallis in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar
into the Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December
1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war
to Lake's "matchless energy, ability and valour." For his services Lake
received the thanks of parliament, and was rewarded by a peerage in
September 1804. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and
in 1807 he was created a viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House
of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish
parliament by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to vote for
the Union. He died in London on the 20th of February 1808.

  See H. Pearse, _Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake_
  (London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (1883); J.
  Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (1873); short memoir in _From
  Cromwell to Wellington_, ed. Spenser Wilkinson.

LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of
limnology (Gr. [Greek: limnê], a lake), defines a lake (Lat. _lacus_) as
a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without
direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to
widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie
along sea-coasts, even at sea-level and in direct communication with the
sea. The terms _pond_, _tarn_, _loch_ and _mere_ are applied to smaller
lakes according to size and position. Some lakes are so large that an
observer cannot see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to
the lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's surface.
Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more abundant in high
than in low latitudes. They are abundant in mountainous regions,
especially in those which have been recently glaciated. They are
frequent along rivers which have low gradients and wide flats, where
they are clearly connected with the changing channel of the river. Low
lands in proximity to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous
lakes, as, for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt,
according to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than
the sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South
America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake in the
United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand, the surface
of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft. and the Dead
Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean.

The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation, which may
reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow, springs, rivers and
immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. The surface of the earth, with
which we are directly in touch, is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere
and atmosphere, and these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the
water-vapour of the atmosphere and the water of hydration of the
lithosphere, must all be regarded as outlying portions of the
hydrosphere, which is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be
compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many
peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation
from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculiarities
and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological features,
owing to its position and separation from the waters of the great
oceans.

  _Origin of Lakes._--From the geological point of view, lakes may be
  arranged into three groups: (A) Rock-Basins, (B) Barrier-Basins and
  (C) Organic Basins.

  A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways:--

  1. _By slow movements of the earth's crust_, during the formation of
  mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of Annecy in
  France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the Alps; on
  the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf, Albert Nyanza, Tanganyika and
  Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, are all believed to
  lie in a great rift or sunken valley.

  2. _By Volcanic Agencies._--Crater-lakes formed on the sites of
  dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width,
  have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet.
  Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the province of
  Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Delebecque
  found the Lake of Issarlès 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid
  crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern
  Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth.

  3. _By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Limestone
  Rocks._--When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground lakes
  fall in, they produce at the surface what are called _limestone
  sinks_. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in
  rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes.

  4. _By Glacier Erosion._--A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable
  lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by
  underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in synclinal
  folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many flat
  alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the
  Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald Geikie
  calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up by
  sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams.

  B. BARRIER-BASINS.--These may be due to the following causes:--

  1. _A landslip_ often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata,
  dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers; the hard rocks slip
  into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which
  then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps and
  Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way.

  2. _By a Glacier._--In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a
  glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing
  therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake
  of this kind is the Märjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch
  Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it
  is 2 or 3 m. long and 1 m. in width when at its highest level; it
  discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-sheet. The
  famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are successive terraces
  formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial
  epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the
  valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg is a
  remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great
  ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length, and to have
  covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the total area of
  the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200), Michigan
  (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960) and Ontario
  (7240).

  3. _By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier._--These lakes
  sometimes occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees
  Mountains.

  4. _By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier._--The barrier in
  this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier.
  Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in
  Scotland and the Alps.

  5. _By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift._--After the retreat of
  continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the
  land-surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses
  were deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with
  water. Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water
  frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so
  numerous in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace
  the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern
  limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens of
  thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great
  Laurentian lakes above mentioned.

  6. _By Sand drifted into Dunes._--It is a well-known fact that sand
  may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the
  prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake may
  be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses Lake in the
  state of Washington; but the sand-dunes may also fill up or submerge
  river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara, where the Shotts
  are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in the afternoon, when
  much evaporation has taken place, like vast plains of white salt.

  7. _By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams._--If the current
  of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter
  brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake.
  These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the
  Highlands of Scotland.

  8. _By Flows of Lava._--Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic
  regions.

  C. ORGANIC BASINS.--In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic Ocean in
  both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen ponds and
  lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. Snow-banks are
  generally accumulated every season at the same spots. During summer
  the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, and the snow-drifts
  that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. When such
  accumulations of snow finally melt, the vegetation on the place they
  occupied is much less than along their borders. Year after year such
  places become more and more depressed, comparatively to the general
  surface, where vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin
  to lakes.

  It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off
  from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately
  fresh-water basins are formed.

_Life History of Lakes._--From the time of its formation a lake is
destined to disappear. The historical period has not been long enough to
enable man to have watched the birth, life and death of any single lake
of considerable size, still by studying the various stages of
development a fairly good idea of the course they run can be obtained.

In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a lake, viz.
the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the lowering of the
lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream on the barrier. These
outgoing streams, however, being very pure and clear, all detrital
matter having been deposited in the lake, have less eroding power than
inflowing streams. One of the best examples of the action of the
filling-up process is presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the
Callander district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs
formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently
became divided into three different basins by the deposition of
sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones
laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an
alluvial flat that stretches for 1½ m., formed by the Lochlarig river
and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch
Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie,
by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides
of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point ¾ m. beyond its
present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the
denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier.

In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins. in the
year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust is more in
evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evaporation greater
than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail in these regions.
Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, are
descended from fresh-water ancestors, while others, like the Caspian and
Aral Seas, are isolated portions of the ocean. Lakes of the first group
have usually become salt through a decrease in the rainfall of the
region in which they occur. The water begins to get salt when the
evaporation from the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring
in a small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes more and
more concentrated as the evaporation increases. In lakes of the second
group the waters were salt at the outset. If inflow exceeds evaporation
they become fresher, and may ultimately become quite fresh. If the
evaporation exceeds the inflow they diminish in size, and their waters
become more and more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the
basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then
with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another change of
climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it overflowed,
the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then became fresh. This
expanded lake has been called Lake Bonneville, which covered an area of
about 17,000 sq. m. Another change of climate in the direction of
aridity reduced the level of the lake below the level of the outlet, the
waters became gradually salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has
been reduced gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the
present day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial
quantities.

  _The Water of Lakes._--(a) _Composition._--It is interesting to
  compare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition
  of, the water of fresh and salt lakes:--

                                   Total Solids by Evaporation
                                  expressed in Grams per Litre.
    Great Salt Lake (Russell)                 238.12
    Lake of Geneva (Delebecque)                 0.1775

  The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt Lake
  (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:--

                Grams per Litre.         Probable Combination.

    Na              75.825        NaCl          192.860
    K                3.925        K2SO4           8.756
    Li               0.021        Li2SO4          0.166
    Mg               4.844        MgCl2          15.044
    Ca               2.424        MgSO4           5.216
    Cl             128.278        CaSO4           8.240
    SO3             12.522        Fe2O3 + Al2O3   0.004
    O in sulphate    2.494        SiO2            0.018
    Fe2O3 + Al2O3    0.004        Surplus SO_3    0.051
    SiO2             0.018
    Bo2O3            trace
    Br3        faint trace

  The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given by
  Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. "Lake," _Ency. Brit._, 9th Ed.), an analysis
  of sea-water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison:--

    +-----------------------+---------+--------+-------------------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    |                       |         |        |    Caspian Sea.   |          |         |         |Suez Canal,|
    |                       |Koko-nor.|Aral Sea+--------+----------+Urmia Sea.|Dead Sea.|Lake Van.| Ismailia. |
    |                       |         |        |  Open. |Karabugas.|          |         |         |           |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    | Specific Gravity      | 1.00907 |   ..   | 1.01106|  1.26217 | 1.17500  |    ..   |  1.01800|  1.03898  |
    | Percentage of Salt    | 1.11    |   1.09 | 1.30   | 28.5     |22.28     | 22.13   |  1.73   |  5.1      |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    |      Name of Salt.    |                     Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water.                      |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    | Bicarbonate of Lime   | 0.6804  | 0.2185 | 0.1123 |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |    ..   |  0.0072   |
    |      "      Iron      | 0.0053  |   ..   | 0.0014 |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |    ..   |  0.0069   |
    |      "      Magnesia  | 0.6598  |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  0.4031 |    ..     |
    | Carbonate of Soda     |   ..    |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  5.3976 |    ..     |
    | Phosphate of Lime     | 0.0028  |   ..   | 0.0021 |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  5.3976 |  0.0029   |
    | Sulphate of Lime      |   ..    | 1.3499 | 0.9004 |    ..    |  0.7570  |  0.8600 |    ..   |  1.8593   |
    |      "      Magnesia  | 0.9324  | 2.9799 | 3.0855 | 61.9350  | 13.5460  |    ..   |  0.2592 |  3.2231   |
    |      "      Soda      | 1.7241  |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  2.5673 |    ..     |
    |      "      Potash    |   ..    |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |    ..    |    ..   |  0.5363 |    ..     |
    | Chloride of Sodium    | 6.9008  | 6.2356 | 8.1163 | 83.2840  |192.4100  | 76.5000 |  8.0500 | 40.4336   |
    |      "      Potassium | 0.2209  | 0.1145 | 0.1339 |  9.9560  |    ..    | 23.3000 |    ..   |  0.6231   |
    |      "      Rubidium  | 0.0055  |   ..   | 0.0034 |  0.2510  |    ..    |    ..   |    ..   |  0.0265   |
    |      "      Magnesium |   ..    | 0.0003 | 0.6115 |129.3770  | 15.4610  | 95.6000 |    ..   |  4.7632   |
    |      "      Calcium   |   ..    |   ..   |   ..   |    ..    |  0.5990  | 22.4500 |    ..   |    ..     |
    | Bromide of Magnesium  | 0.0045  |   ..   | 0.0081 |  0.1930  |    ..    |  2.3100 |    ..   |  0.0779   |
    | Silica                | 0.0098  |   ..   | 0.0024 |    ..    |    ..    |  0.2400 |  0.0761 |  0.0027   |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+
    |   Total Solid Matter  |11.1463  |10.8987 |12.9773 |284.9960  |222.2600  |221.2600 | 17.2899 | 51.0264   |
    +-----------------------+---------+--------+--------+----------+----------+---------+---------+-----------+

  This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the
  Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the
  moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch gulf
  of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of saturated
  waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an example of the
  alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary and other countries.
  Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of carbonate of soda
  dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the inhabitants for
  domestic and commercial purposes.

  The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical
  composition of the water of fresh-water lakes in grams per litre:--

    +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
    |               | Tanay. |  Bleu. |Märjelen.|St Gothard.|
    +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+
    | SiO2          | 0.003  | 0.0042 | 0.0014  |  0.0008   |
    | Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 0.0012 | 0.0006 | 0.0008  |   trace   |
    | NaCl          | 0.0017 |   ..   |   ..    |    ..     |
    | Na2SO4        | 0.0011 | 0.0038 | 0.0031  |  0.00085  |
    | Na2CO3        |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |  0.00128  |
    | K2SO4         | 0.0021 | 0.0028 | 0.0044  |    ..     |
    | K2CO3         |   ..   |   ..   | 0.0003  |  0.00130  |
    | MgSO4         | 0.006  | 0.0305 |   ..    |    ..     |
    | MgCO3         | 0.0046 | 0.0158 | 0.0008  |  0.00015  |
    | CaSO4         |   ..   |   ..   |   ..    |    ..     |
    | CaCO3         | 0.107  | 0.1189 | 0.0061  |  0.00178  |
    | MnO           | 0.001  |   ..   |   ..    |    ..     |
    +---------------+--------+--------+---------+-----------+

  (b) _Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters._--(1) In addition to
  the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and
  evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of
  wind which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind
  is blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are
  also stationary waves or "seiches" which are less apparent. A seiche
  is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction of the
  longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion of this
  kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates synchronously
  with every other, the periods and phases being the same for all, and
  the orbits similar but of different dimensions and not similarly
  situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier,
  a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first systematically studied by
  Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva. Large numbers of observations
  have been made by various observers in lakes in many parts of the
  world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396
  kilometres in length, and Endros recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds
  in a small pond only 111 metres in length. Although these waves cause
  periodical rising and falling of the water-level, they are generally
  inconspicuous, and can only be recorded by a registering apparatus, a
  limnograph. Standard work has been done in the study of seiches by the
  Lake Survey of Scotland under the immediate direction of Professor
  Chrystal, who has given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories
  of the phenomenon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting
  together or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric
  pressure, changes in the strength or direction of the wind.
  Explanations such as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown
  to be untenable as a general cause of seiches.

  2. _The water temperature of lakes_ may change with the season from
  place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are brought
  about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the
  atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but
  the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial
  radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of
  39.2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats
  to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water
  stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is
  much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of
  fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the
  temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the
  temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases
  from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of
  temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the
  tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep Scottish lochs the
  temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly
  uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air
  temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the
  surface waters gain heat, and this heating goes on till the month of
  August. About this time the mean air temperature falls below the
  surface temperature, and the loch begins to part with its heat by
  radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond
  300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the
  autumn the waters of the loch are divided into two compartments, the
  upper having a temperature from 49° to 55° F., the deeper a
  temperature from 41° to 45°. Between these lies the
  discontinuity-layer (_Sprungschicht_ of the Germans), where there is a
  rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this
  discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of about 150
  ft.; as the season advances this layer gradually sinks deeper, and the
  layer of uniform temperature above it increases in depth, and slowly
  loses heat, until finally the whole loch assumes a nearly uniform
  temperature. Many years ago Sir John Murray showed by means of
  temperature observations the manner in which large bodies of water
  were transferred from the windward to the leeward end of a loch, and
  subsequent observations seem to show that, before the
  discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents produced by
  winds are distributed through the whole mass of the loch. When,
  however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into two
  current-systems, as shown in the following diagram:--

  [Illustration: Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the
  surface. (After Wedderburn.)

    AB, Discontinuity layer.
    C, Surface current.
    D, Primary return current.
    E, Secondary surface current.
    F, Secondary return current.]

  Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments by
  the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the
  temperature-seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers
  a large quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the
  result that the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at
  the windward end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is
  started, just as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water
  which has been tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied
  experimentally and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of
  paraffin on a layer of water.

  Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness and is
  given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient to
  raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to
  boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which
  they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing its
  range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere by
  evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a vast
  amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of
  temperature.

  Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods, and
  to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of mechanical
  power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the sediment which
  enters them to settle, they become valuable sources of water-supply
  for towns and cities. In temperate regions small and shallow lakes are
  likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep lakes in similar regions
  do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that the low temperature of
  the air does not continue long enough to cool down the entire body of
  water to the maximum density point. Deep lakes are thus the best
  sources of water-supply for cities, for in summer they supply
  relatively cool water and in winter relatively warm water. Besides,
  the number of organisms in deep lakes is less than in small shallow
  lakes, in which there is a much higher temperature in summer, and
  consequently much greater organic growth. The deposits, which are
  formed along the shores and on the floors of lakes, depend on the
  geological structure and nature of the adjacent shores.

_Biology._--Compared with the waters of the ocean those of lakes may
safely be said to contain relatively few animals and plants. Whole
groups of organisms--the Echinoderms, for instance--are unrepresented.
In the oceans there is a much greater uniformity in the physical and
chemical conditions than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature
varies widely. To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in
these some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind
crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_) and the blind fish (_Amblyopsis
spelaeus_) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are fresh, while
some are so salt that no organisms have been found in them. The peaty
matter in other lakes is so abundant that light does not penetrate to
any great depth, and the humic acids in solution prevent the development
of some species. Indeed, every lake has an individuality of its own,
depending upon climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition
and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains many families
and genera not represented in lakes, almost every genus in lakes is
represented in the ocean.

  The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary
  much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to
  zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only recently
  been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know much about
  tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who has studied the
  Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724 species (the
  fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the flora
  comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the list
  must not be regarded as in any way complete:--

        _Fauna._                     _Flora._

    Mollusca        7 species    Phanerogamia    65 species
    Hydrachnida    17    "       Equisetaceae     1    "
    Tardigrada     30    "       Selaginellaceae  1    "
    Insecta         7    "       Characeae        6    "
    Crustacea      78    "       Musci           18    "
    Bryozoa         7    "       Hepaticae        2    "
    Worms          25    "       Florideae        2    "
    Rotifera      181    "       Chlorophyceae  142    "
    Gastrotricha    2    "       Bacillariaceae  26    "
    Coelenterata    1    "       Myxophyceae     10    "
    Porifera        1    "       Peridiniaceae    4    "
    Protozoa       91    "
                  -----------                   -----------
                  447    "                      277    "

  These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters, and in
  the surface waters of the lakes.

  The _littoral region_ is the most populous part of lakes; the
  existence of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in
  turn supports a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water
  along the margins also favours growth. The great majority of the
  species in Scottish lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae
  of many kinds are found under stones or among weeds. Most of the
  Cladocera, and the Copepoda of the genus _Cyclops_, and the
  Harpacticidae are only found in this region. Water-mites, nearly all
  the Rotifers, Gastrotricha, Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here,
  and Rhizopods are abundant. A large number of the littoral species in
  Loch Ness extends down to a depth of about 300 ft.

  _The abyssal region_, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than
  300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals
  appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar to
  it: they all extend into the littoral zone, from which they were
  originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population was
  recorded:--

    1 Mollusc:    _Pisidium pusillum_ (Gmel).
    3 Crustacea:  _Cyclops viridis_, Jurine.
                  _Candona candida_ (Müll).
                  _Cypria ophthalmica_, Jurine.
    3 Worms:      _Stylodrilus gabreteae_, Vejd.
                  Oligochaete, not determined.
                  _Automolos morgiensis_ (Du Plessis).
    1 Insect:     _Chironomus_ (larva).
      Infusoria:  Several, ectoparasites on _Pisidium_ and _Cyclops_,
                    not determined.

  In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in Loch
  Ness: _Hydra_, _Limnaea peregra_, _Proales daphnicola_ and _Lynceus
  affinis_.

  The _pelagic region_ of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous
  microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phytoplankton.
  Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea, Rotifera
  and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the second group
  150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids. Some of these
  species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish
  lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the
  year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in
  winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called
  "flowering of the water" (_Wasserblüthe_), was observed in August in
  Loch Lomond; a distinct "flowering," due to Chlorophyceae, has been
  observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in
  August and September, but has also been observed in winter.

  The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over Scotland
  and the rest of Europe, are:--

    _Diaptomus gracilis._
    _Daphnia kyalina._
    _Diaphanosoma brachyurum._
    _Leptodora kindtii._
    _Conochilus unicornis._
    _Asplanchna priodonta._
    _Polyarthra platyptera._
    _Anuraea cochlearis._
    _Notholca longispina._
    _Ceratium hirundinella._
    _Asterionella._

  All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton
  association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan.

  The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of the
  central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh-water
  plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton in
  species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the
  Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species
  commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity is the
  local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids.

  The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish
  lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms have
  been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible
  modifications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and
  arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by
  ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could be
  annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a few
  years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up without
  injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one lake to
  another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might be carried in
  mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various other ways.
  The arctic species may be survivors from a period when arctic
  conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are known as
  "relicts" of a marine fauna have not been found in the Scottish
  fresh-water lochs.

  It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in
  fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of
  phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs a
  few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar depths
  in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life when
  compared with that found in fresh-water lochs.

_Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes._--In the following table will
be found the length, depth, area and volume of some of the principal
lakes of the world.[1] Sir John Murray estimates The volume of water in
the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed at 7 cub. m., and the
approximate volume of water in all the lakes of the world at about 2000
cub. m., so that this last number is but a small fraction of the volume
of the ocean, which he previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It
may be recalled that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is
estimated at 29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of
the globe at 6524 cub. m.

  BRITISH LAKES

  +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+
  |                    |Length |     Depth     |  Area  | Volume in |
  |                    |   in  |      in       |   in   |  million  |
  |                    | Miles.|     Feet.     | sq. m. |  cub. ft. |
  +--------------------+-------+------+--------+--------+-----------+
  |I. _England_--      |       | Max. | Mean.  |        |           |
  |   Windermere       | 10.50 |  219 |  78.5  |  5.69  |  12,250   |
  |   Ullswater        |  7.35 |  205 |  83    |  3.44  |   7,870   |
  |   Wastwater        |  3.00 |  258 | 134.5  |  1.12  |   4,128   |
  |   Coniston Water   |  5.41 |  184 |  79    |  1.89  |   4,000   |
  |   Crummock Water   |  2.50 |  144 |  87.5  |  0.97  |   2,343   |
  |   Ennerdale Water  |  2.40 |  148 |  62    |  1.12  |   1,978   |
  |   Bassenthwaite    |       |      |        |        |           |
  |    Water           |  3.83 |   70 |  18    |  2.06  |   1,023   |
  |   Derwentwater     |  2.87 |   72 |  18    |  2.06  |   1,010   |
  |   Haweswater       |  2.33 |  103 |  39.5  |  0.54  |     589   |
  |   Buttermere       |  1.26 |   94 |  54.5  |  0.36  |     537   |
  |II. _Wales_--       |       |      |        |        |           |
  |   Llyn Cawlyd      |  1.62 |  222 | 109.1  |  0.18  |     941   |
  |   Llyn Cwellyn     |  1.20 |  122 |  74.1  |  0.35  |     713   |
  |   Llyn Padarn      |  2.00 |   94 |  52.4  |  0.43  |     632   |
  |   Llyn Llydaw      |  1.11 |  190 |  77.4  |  0.19  |     409   |
  |   Llyn Peris       |  1.10 |  114 |  63.9  |  0.19  |     344   |
  |   Llyn Dulyn       |  0.31 |  189 | 104.2  |  0.05  |     156   |
  |III. _Scotland_--   |       |      |        |        |           |
  |   Ness             | 24.23 |  754 | 433.02 | 21.78  | 263,162   |
  |   Lomond           | 22.64 |  623 | 121.29 | 27.45  |  92,805   |
  |   Morar            | 11.68 | 1017 | 284.00 | 10.30  |  81,482   |
  |   Tay              | 14.55 |  508 | 199.08 | 10.19  |  56,550   |
  |   Awe              | 25.47 |  307 | 104.95 | 14.85  |  43,451   |
  |   Maree            | 13.46 |  367 | 125.30 | 11.03  |  38,539   |
  |   Lochy            |  9.78 |  531 | 228.95 |  5.91  |  37,726   |
  |   Rannoch          |  9.70 |  440 | 167.46 |  7.37  |  34,387   |
  |   Shiel            | 17.40 |  420 | 132.73 |  7.56  |  27,986   |
  |   Arkaig           | 12.00 |  359 | 152.71 |  6.24  |  26,573   |
  |   Earn             |  6.46 |  287 | 137.83 |  3.91  |  14,421   |
  |   Treig            |  5.10 |  436 | 207.37 |  2.41  |  13,907   |
  |   Shin             | 17.22 |  162 |  51.04 |  8.70  |  12,380   |
  |   Fannich          |  6.92 |  282 | 108.76 |  3.60  |  10,920   |
  |   Assynt           |  6.36 |  282 | 101.10 |  3.10  |   8,731   |
  |   Quoich           |  6.95 |  281 | 104.60 |  2.86  |   8,345   |
  |   Glass            |  4.03 |  365 | 159.07 |  1.86  |   8,265   |
  |   Fionn (Carnmore) |  5.76 |  144 |  57.79 |  3.52  |   5,667   |
  |   Laggan           |  7.04 |  174 |  67.68 |  2.97  |   5,601   |
  |   Loyal            |  4.46 |  217 |  65.21 |  2.55  |   4,628   |
  |IV. _Ireland_--     |       |      |        |        |           |
  |   Neagh            | 17    |  102 |  40    |153     | 161,000   |
  |   Erne (Lower)     | 24    |  226 |  43    | 43     |  62,000   |
  |   Erne (Upper)     | 13    |   89 |  10    | 15     |   5,000   |
  |   Corrib           | 27    |  152 |  30    | 68     |  59,000   |
  |   Mask             | 10    |  191 |  52    | 35     |  55,000   |
  |   Derg             | 24    |  119 |  30    | 49     |  47,000   |
  +--------------------+-------+---------------+--------+-----------+

  EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES

  +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+
  |            |Length |     Depth    |  Area  | Volume in  |
  |            |   in  |       in     |   in   |  million   |
  |            | Miles.|      Feet.   | sq. m. |  cub. ft.  |
  +------------+-------+------+-------+--------+------------+
  |            |       | Max. | Mean. |        |            |
  | Ladoga     |  125  |  732 |  300  | 7000   | 43,200,000 |
  | Onega      |  145  |  740 |  200  | 3800   | 21,000,000 |
  | Vener      |   93  |  292 |  108  | 2149   |  6,357,000 |
  | Geneva     |   45  | 1015 |  506  |  225   |  3,175,000 |
  | Vetter     |   68  |  413 |  128  |  733   |  2,543,000 |
  | Mjösen     |   57  | 1483 |   ..  |  139   |  2,882,000 |
  | Garda      |   38  | 1124 |  446  |  143   |  1,766,000 |
  | Constance  |   42  |  827 |  295  |  208   |  1,711,000 |
  | Ochrida    |   19  |  942 |  479  |  105   |  1,391,000 |
  | Maggiore   |   42  | 1220 |  574  |   82   |  1,310,000 |
  | Como       |   30  | 1345 |  513  |   56   |    794,000 |
  | Hornafvan  |    7  | 1391 |  253  |   93   |    777,000 |
  +------------+-------+--------------+--------+------------+

  AFRICAN LAKES

  +----------------+------+-------------+--------+-------------+
  |                |Length|    Depth    |  Area  |  Volume in  |
  |                |  in  |     in      |   in   |   million   |
  |                |Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |   cub. ft.  |
  +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+
  |                |      | Max. | Mean.|        |             |
  | Victoria Nyanza|  200 |  240 |  ..  | 26,200 |   5,800,000 |
  | Nyasa          |  350 | 2580 |  ..  | 14,200 | 396,000,000 |
  | Tanganyika     |  420 | 2100 |  ..  | 12,700 | 283,000,000 |
  +----------------+------+------+------+--------+-------------+

  ASIATIC LAKES

  +----------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+
  |          |Length |    Depth    |  Area  | Volume in  |
  |          |  in   |     in      |   in   |  million   |
  |          | Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |  cub. ft.  |
  +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+
  |          |       | Max. | Mean.|        |            |
  | Aral     |  265  |  222 |  52  | 24,400 | 43,600,000 |
  | Baikal   |  330  | 5413 |  ..  | 11,580 |274,000,000 |
  | Balkash  |  323  |   33 |  ..  |  7,000 |  4,880,000 |
  | Urmia    |   80  |   50 |  15  |  1,750 |    732,000 |
  +----------+-------+------+------+--------+------------+

  AMERICAN LAKES

  +------------+-------+-------------+--------+-------------+
  |            |Length |    Depth    |  Area  |  Volume in  |
  |            |  in   |     in      |   in   |   million   |
  |            | Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |   cub. ft.  |
  +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+
  |            |       | Max. | Mean.|        |             |
  | Superior   |  412  | 1008 |  475 | 31,200 | 413,000,000 |
  | Huron      |  263  |  730 |  250 | 23,800 | 166,000,000 |
  | Michigan   |  335  |  870 |  325 | 22,450 | 203,000,000 |
  | Erie       |  240  |  210 |   70 |  9,960 |  19,500,000 |
  | Ontario    |  190  |  738 |  300 |  7,240 |  61,000,000 |
  | Titicaca   |  120  |  924 |  347 |  3,200 |  30,900,000 |
  +------------+-------+------+------+--------+-------------+

  NEW ZEALAND LAKES

  +--------------+-------+-------------+--------+-----------+
  |              |Length |    Depth    |  Area  | Volume in |
  |              |  in   |     in      |   in   |  million  |
  |              | Miles.|    Feet.    | sq. m. |  cub. ft. |
  +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+
  |              |       | Max. | Mean.|        |           |
  | Taupo        | 25    |  534 |  367 |  238.0 | 2,435,000 |
  | Wakatipu     | 49    | 1242 |  707 |  112.3 | 2,205,000 |
  | Manapouri    | 19    | 1458 |  328 |   56.0 |   512,000 |
  | Rotorua      |  7.5  |  120 |   39 |   31.6 |    34,000 |
  | Waikarimoana |  7.25 |  846 |  397 |   14.7 |   166,000 |
  | Wairaumoana  |  5.25 |  375 |  175 |    6.1 |    30,000 |
  | Rotoiti      | 10.7  |  230 |   69 |   14.2 |    27,000 |
  +--------------+-------+------+------+--------+-----------+

  AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Forel, "Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemeine
  Limnologie," _Bibliothek geogr. Handbücher_ (Stuttgart, 1901), _Le
  Léman, monographie limnologique_ (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1901); A.
  Delebecque, _Les Lacs français_, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R.
  Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," _Geogr. Journ._
  vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, "Bathymetrical and Geological
  Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xl. p.
  419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, "Bathymetrical Survey
  of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," _Geogr. Journ._ (1900 to 1908,
  re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, "Die
  Morphometrie der europäischen Seen," _Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde
  Berlin_ (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, _Lakes of
  North America_ (Boston and London, 1895); O. Zacharias,
  "Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station zu Plön" (Stuttgart);
  F. E. Bourcart, _Les Lacs alpins suisses: étude chimique et physique_
  (Geneva, 1906); G. P. Magrini, _Limnologia_ (Milan, 1907).     (J. Mu.)

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted
    elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different
    results arrived at by various authorities.

LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish,
30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New
Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes);
(1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific
System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the
Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the
shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some
dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the
Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a
Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court
house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club.
Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N.
of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of
long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland growths of oak, ash, magnolia,
cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the
N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up
the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely
given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber
manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important
trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about
362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the
total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the
centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing
importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others
lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people
from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857
under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name,
and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire
in April 1910.

LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida,
U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of
whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by
the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern
& Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and
the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia
College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened
here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was
abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the
northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products
of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton,
lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826
as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in
1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated.

LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal
English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and "the
Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland,
Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being
within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines
of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual
physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius
of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within
this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point
in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but 10½ m. in length, and
covers an area of 5.69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in
height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open
expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and
soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity,
less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines
of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer
cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the
higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The
streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are
characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat
coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and
Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District,
while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from
the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its
centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the
Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district
as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south
along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere,
surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary
depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale,
Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and
Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the 15-m. radius lies on the
lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however,
be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, "the dissected skeleton of
which, worn by the warfare of air and rain and ice, now alone remains"
(Dr H. R. Mill, "Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes,"
_Geographical Journal_, vi. 48). The principal features of the district
may be indicated by following this circle round from north, by west,
south and east.

  The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and "gills" or "ghylls"
  (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head
  Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale
  and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a
  class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and
  quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct
  from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief
  lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwentwater (q.v.),
  studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all.
  Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath,
  and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the
  town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and
  Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain
  separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses
  Honister Pass (1100 ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the
  majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the
  valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water
  (144 ft.), drained by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley
  the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.); southward a steep narrow
  ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing
  Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and
  drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale
  and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar
  (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and
  Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is
  peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above
  its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock,
  Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all
  (258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking
  below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes.
  East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points
  being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and
  Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass
  (2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags,
  2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to
  Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a
  vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range
  continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with
  the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale
  drains south to Coniston Lake (5½ m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east
  of which a lower, well-wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser
  lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.).
  This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of
  which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very fine;
  and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of Grasmere
  and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay valley and
  Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 ft.),
  Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at several
  places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. These
  dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in area),
  and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies the
  ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still
  traceable from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again
  to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake
  nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the
  Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by
  means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water-supply
  of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the
  Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief
  summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak
  of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy waterfalls are--Scale Force
  (Dano-Norwegian _fors_, _foss_), beside Crummock, Lodore near
  Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in
  Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Wordsworth, Stock Gill Force and
  Rydal Falls near Ambleside.

  The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwentwater),
  Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Windermere), Coniston and
  Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which
  nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable
  village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that
  name; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an
  ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the
  hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular
  steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars
  traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest
  dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the
  mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as
  Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and
  Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers.

  This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an
  unusually heavy rainfall. Near Seathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the
  largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average
  (1870-1899) being 133.53 in., while 173.7 was measured in 1903 and
  243.98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60.02, at Grasmere
  about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seathwaite are
  November, December and January and September.

  Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in
  Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the
  gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the
  Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining,
  and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making.

  Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles
  is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as
  the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first
  connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in
  1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the
  outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for
  lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty
  were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at
  Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and
  Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and
  his wife lie buried; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley
  Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick,
  Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Wordsworth, was a
  resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in
  Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at
  Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815
  Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey
  spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the
  first cottage which Wordsworth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its
  environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who
  spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of
  Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick
  Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston
  Lake, was the home of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In
  addition to these residents or natives of the locality, Shelley,
  Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats,
  Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less
  reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of
  friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near
  Keswick, recalls Scott's _Bridal of Triermain_. But there is a deeper
  connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters.
  German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of
  writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the
  same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable
  instance--indeed it is almost the only instance--of the kind in
  English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the
  acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it
  professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous
  preface to the edition of _The Lyrical Ballads_ which he published in
  1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry--the objects best suited for
  poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice
  of diction suitable for the purpose--may be said to have grown out of
  the soil and substance of the lakes and mountains, and out of the
  homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmoreland.

  See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection
  from the literature of the subject: Harriet Martineau, _The English
  Lakes_ (Windermere, 1858); Mrs Lynn Linton, _The Lake Country_
  (London, 1864); E. Waugh, _Rambles in the Lake Country_ (1861) and _In
  the Lake Country_ (1880); W. Knight, _Through the Wordsworth Country_
  (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, _Literary Associations of the English
  Lakes_ (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and _Life and Nature of the English
  Lakes_ (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, _Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's
  Home from 1800 to 1808_; A. G. Bradley, _The Lake District, its
  Highways and Byeways_ (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, _History of
  the Thirlmere Water Scheme_ (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J.
  Brown, _Mountain Ascents in Westmorland and Cumberland_ (London,
  1888); Haskett-Smith, _Climbing in the British Isles_, part, i.; Owen
  G. Jones, _Rock-climbing in the English Lake District_, 2nd ed. by W.
  M. Crook (Keswick, 1900).

LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations
constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or
creeks at some distance from the shore.

The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by
Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty
piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house
consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of
trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from
the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched
tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the
estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New
Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of
Dorei, containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses,
each block separately built on piles, and consisting of a row of
distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on
piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being
to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions
have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in
Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in
other places.

Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the
Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent
inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds
constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree
trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the 5th century B.C., describes the
people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms
supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from
the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in
the 13th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was
inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts
built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the
Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias "still inhabit wooden cottages built
over the water, as in the time of Herodotus."

The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the
petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds
constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is
record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland.
The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that
such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings
by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see
CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in
prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the
adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and
Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by
lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms
supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal
groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne,
Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes
Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain
range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also
found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted
up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of
settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of
Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake
of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake
dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a
parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in
breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of
Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz,
one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and
was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about
40 ft. wide.

The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings
were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the
lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines
built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass
so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the
rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water,
sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by
hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were
laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the
heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further
steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below
the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed
of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of
boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford
foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree
trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand,
when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they
were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose
stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters
are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at
Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots
laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of
brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed
throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the
platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and
2 or 3 in. in thickness.

On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the
peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or
clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were
quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked
by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards
over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were
supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of
wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each
floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs
were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures
are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the
doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were
any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong
quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a
partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered
by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner
room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed
of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the
flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains
of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore
have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been
accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been
found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest
width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the
number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have
consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the
platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size
of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long
and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by
about 22 ft. wide.

The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements
have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone
and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a
people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the
occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the
relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the
construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the
Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a
lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50
ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots
connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by
fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of
stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in
a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and
arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels,
fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long;
and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted
chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size,
others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered
with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat,
barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were
plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the
sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants,
while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the
horse, the elk and the bison were also found.

The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of
the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation
after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is
estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct
successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been
destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a
layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other
relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by
a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of
charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements
of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft.
of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the
platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the
shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and
second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of
the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts
of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them,
the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of
the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers
that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which
crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds
were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last
for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew,
floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No
spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth,
platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools
of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and
haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly
axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many
varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting
pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating
of the melted bronze.

The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the
richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded
four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads
and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an
anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques
or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various
sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which
plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets
were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred
vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the
fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy,
has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards
of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a
large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone
implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the
occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin
indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times.

The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and
Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We
may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and
bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such
plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a
time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had
become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who
erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who
were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the
implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings
are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials
found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must
therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people.
Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have
exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and
social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even
in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization.
Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to
the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's
horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint
were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and
used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly
finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of
standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also
made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of
spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing
lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several
varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept
horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of
linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their
food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor
incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social
organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and
progressive communities.

There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the
use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and
bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the
conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior
culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become
apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and
ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new
material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake
dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where
the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of
the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both
these conditions of life.

Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings
are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are
settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on
flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly
soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very
considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic
beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of
northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar
constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss.
These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within
which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them
present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and
reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher
levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that
they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some
cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their
inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals,
while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar
character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining
regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions
made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed
longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the
province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the
pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia,
described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms
in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards
the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both
unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From
the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong
to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat
similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low
or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the
terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the
prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and
medieval times.

  AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular
  phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr
  Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen
  der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to
  (1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a
  separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other
  parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by
  John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on
  the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps
  anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou
  constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor
  and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874);
  A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque
  lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest
  Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_
  (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and
  prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and
  Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John
  Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878);
  Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a
  bibliography of the subject.     (J. An.)

LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of
Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449;
(1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The
city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long
and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by
springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of
hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly
for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at
Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University
of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The
first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was
chartered in 1893.

LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario,
Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the
state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains
many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m.
It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg
and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the
waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east,
draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it
discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft.
above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery
both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands
are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora,
a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of
the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity.

LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W.
shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W.
of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by
the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive
in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are
four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club
house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow
strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N.
and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by
S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The
lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the
largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful
sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded
hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are
Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the
lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit
Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain
commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.),
Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains
about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may
be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S.
are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the
village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown,