their steps towards the regions bordering on the Rhine, where more
freedom was to be enjoyed, and where the Reformation was not yet
thoroughly organized. Munster, in Westphalia, was a strong town,
fortified with a citadel, and the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral,
and a numerous body of clergy. Near the town stood a church dedicated
to St. Maurice; here a false reformer preached a false reformation.
This preacher was one Bernard Rottmann, a fiery man, eloquent and
daring, who had to some extent apprehended the reformed doctrine,
but whose heart remained unaffected by it. As he used to deliver
fine discourses, the townspeople flocked to hear him; and at length
requested that he should be called into Munster. Some influential men
among the Roman Catholics, acquainted with the man, and anxious to
avoid any disturbance, offered him money to go away.[503] Rottmann
accepted the money and took his departure, thus giving the measure of
his faith and zeal. He then visited several towns and universities
in Germany, but made no stay anywhere, and in the course of a few
months returned to Munster. Some of the citizens and the populace,
who were very fond of listening to his declamation, joyfully welcomed
him; but the bishop and the clergy were opposed to his preaching
in the churches. His partisans now set up a pulpit for him in the
market-place, and his hearers increased in number daily. Two pastors
from Hesse, taking Rottmann for a minister of good standing, joined
him, and drew up a statement of the errors of Rome in thirty-one
articles, and submitted it to the council. The priests were then
assembled at the town-hall, and the council laid the document before
them. 'This is indeed our doctrine,' they said, 'but we are not
prepared to defend it.' They were consequently deprived. The bishop,
who had quitted Munster, resolved to cut off the supply of food to the
town--a measure not exactly within a pastor's function, whose call is
to feed his flock. The townsmen, provoked, arrested most of the canons
and the priests and imprisoned them; and it was arranged in 1533, that
evangelical doctrine should be preached in the six churches of the
town, and that the old abuses should be no longer allowed except in the
cathedral.[504]

Among the most respected inhabitants of Munster was the syndic Wiggers,
whose wife, continually followed by a host of admirers, was a person
of doubtful character. She had a great admiration for Rottmann, and,
clever woman as she was, knew how to captivate him. Her husband died
shortly afterwards, and the rumor was spread that she had poisoned
him.[505] This is, however, uncertain. Whatever the fact may be,
Rottmann married her, and thus showed again, that although he was a
preacher of the Gospel, he did not practise it. Honorable men now
withdrew from his society. This circumstance, with others, drove him to
take an extreme course.

In 1533 a very large number of enthusiasts from the Netherlands arrived
at Munster. One of these, Stapreda, from Meurs, became Rottmann's
colleague, and preached vigorously their particular doctrines.[506]
Rottmann, abandoned by his old friends, threw himself into the arms
of these new ones, and strongly advocated their views. Great alarm
was excited in Hesse. Hermann Busch, of Marburg, came to Munster to
oppose the fanatics, and in consequence of a dispute between him and
Rottmann the adherents of the latter received orders to leave the town.
They concealed themselves for a time and then reappeared. The pastor
Fabritius, sent to Munster by the landgrave of Hesse, who was growing
more and more alarmed, earnestly exhorted the senate and the people to
be steadfast in sound doctrine. But one of the visionaries, pretending
to be led by divine inspiration, went about the town towards the end of
December, 1533, exclaiming: 'Repent ye and be baptized, or the wrath of
God will destroy you.'[507] Ignorant men were filled with terror and
hastened to obey.

[Sidenote: MATTHISSON AND BOCKHOLD.]

At the beginning of 1534, the strength of the party was augmented
by the arrival of some famous recruits. On January 13 two men made
their entrance into Munster, strangely apparelled, with an air of
enthusiasm in their countenances and in their actions, and honored by
the visionaries as their leaders. These were a prophet and an apostle;
the former, John Matthisson, a baker from Haarlem, the latter, John
Bockhold, a tailor from Leyden.[508] Bockhold had made his journeyman's
tour, had run over Germany, and also, it was said, had visited Lisbon.
On returning to his native land, he had taken a shop at Leyden, near
the gate which leads to the Hague. The working men who rallied round
the prophet had in general very little relish for work. This youthful
tailor, for example, felt it very irksome to sit all day with his legs
crossed, threading needles and sewing pieces of stuff and buttons.
General tradition represents Bockhold as a tailor, but it is stated
by some writers that he was a cloth-merchant. His father held some
office in the magistracy at the Hague; but his mother, a native of
Westphalia, belonged to the servant class. However this may be, he gave
up his shop, and took, in conjunction with his wife, a public-house for
the sale of beer and other drinks; and here he led a gay and even a
dissolute life. The new tavern-keeper had not read much, but he had a
certain amount of education and a good address. He was keen, crafty,
ambitious, daring, eloquent, and full of animation.[509] There were at
this time in most of the towns in the Netherlands, and particularly at
Leyden, poetical societies; and John Bockhold was ambitious to shine
as an orator. He made speeches which were remarkable for fluency and
copiousness of diction. He even composed comedies and acted in them. He
took part in the conversations, and caught the spirit of opposition to
the church which prevailed in these assemblies. He made acquaintance
with some of the enthusiasts; was fascinated by the notion of a new
kingdom in which they were to be leading men; and thought that he
should be able to find there better than elsewhere a great part to play
himself. Matthisson, as we have stated, chose Bockhold for one of his
apostles.

[Sidenote: THEIR PROCEEDINGS AT MUNSTER.]

At the time of the arrival of these two men, there was living at
Munster a notable townsman named Bernard Knipperdolling. This man
having been in Sweden had associated with some of the enthusiasts of
that country. He was now eager to receive into his house two persons
already so famous. The latter set to work without delay. Their wish
was to make Munster the capital of the sect, and with a view to this
they made use of all means calculated to gain over men's minds. By
their figure, their unusual attire, their fervor, their eloquence, and
their enthusiasm, they produced a powerful impression. These men were
bold, but also shrewd, and sought to propitiate every body. Bockhold
succeeded even in gaining access to the evangelical ministers. He spoke
to them at first in the pure language of the Gospel; then he asked
one or another, what he thought of this or that point on which the
visionaries had peculiar views. If their answers were not such as he
required, or if passages of Scripture were noted in support of their
opinions, he would smile, and sometimes shrug his shoulders. It was
not long before his friends and he openly proclaimed the new kingdom of
which they were the fore-runners. But the evangelical ministers implored
the people to remain faithful to pure doctrine and to maintain it
against the fanatics.[510]

Women were the first to believe in that earthly and heavenly kingdom
which was thus proclaimed, and which was flattering at the same time
to their senses and their understanding. First some nuns, then some
women of the middle class, and afterwards men embraced the doctrines
published by Bockhold. Rottmann, who by his wrong-doing had forfeited
the good opinion of the evangelicals, now threw himself into the
arms of the new party, which received him most favorably; and he
began to preach with his utmost eloquence the fantastic kingdom of
the visionaries. The crowd that flocked to listen to his sermons was
immense, and to hear, people said, was to be converted. The report
became current that he possessed a secret charm, of such sovereign
power that all persons on whom he chose to practise it were immediately
enchanted and bound to the sect. It was the charm of novelty, of
pride, and of error. Women, who joined the party, sharply rebuked the
burgomaster because he was friendly to Fabritius, the pious evangelical
minister from Hesse, who declined to become a convert to the new
kingdom. Working men wanted to be reputed masters. A blacksmith's boy
began to preach the new Gospel; and when the council ordered him to be
imprisoned, all his comrades assembled and compelled the magistrate to
release him.

A collision between the two parties seemed inevitable. On February 8
(1534), the enthusiasts, believing themselves strong enough, took up
arms and suddenly seized the great square; the evangelicals remaining
masters of the walls and the gates of the city. The latter were the
stronger party, and many talked of making an attack with artillery
upon the fanatical multitude and of expelling the intruders from the
town. While the most prudent men were engaged in deliberation, the
_illuminés_ had the strangest visions. 'I see,' said one, 'a man with
a golden crown; in one hand he holds a sword, in the other a rod.'
Many declared that 'the town was filled with ruddy-brown flames, and
that the horseman of the Apocalypse, mounted on a white horse, was
advancing, conquering and to conquer.' The good pastor Fabritius,
whom they had scandalously insulted, pleaded on behalf of them. He
entreated that the mad ones should be leniently dealt with. In other
quarters it was expected that there would be a vigorous resistance
and great slaughter. Men of conciliatory disposition would fain avoid
shedding the blood of their fellow-citizens; and some were afraid that
the bishop, who was near with his troops, would take advantage of the
conflict to get possession of the town.[511] Two proposals were made to
the visionaries; liberty secured to both sides in matters of religion,
but submission to the magistrates in civil matters. This was a victory
for the enthusiasts; they were triumphant, and 'their countenances,'
says one of themselves, 'became of a magnificent color.'[512]

[Sidenote: A MOURNFUL SPECTACLE.]

This was, indeed, the beginning of their kingdom. They now summoned
their adepts to Munster from all quarters, and these came in crowds,
especially from Holland. The period for the election of the Council
having arrived (February 20, 1534), not one of the former magistrates
was re-elected. Some working men, who pretended to be illuminated by
the Spirit, superseded them and distributed all offices among their
own friends. Knipperdolling was named burgomaster. A few days later
(February 27) there was held at the town-hall a great meeting of the
Christians, as they called themselves. The prophet Matthisson remained
for some time motionless, and seemed to be asleep. Suddenly he rose
and exclaimed: 'Drive away the children of Esau (the Evangelicals);
the inheritance belongs to the children of Jacob.' The streets were at
the time almost impassable in consequence of a storm of wind with rain
and snow; but the enthusiasts dashed into the midst of it, impetuously
rushing about, and crying out with all their might, 'Wicked ones,
begone!' They forcibly entered people's houses, and expelled from them
all who would not join their party. All the magistrates, the nobles,
and the canons who were still in the town, were compelled to leave it;
the poor likewise. The unfortunate city presented at this time the most
mournful spectacle. Mothers, in terror, would snatch up their children
half-naked in their arms and go away pale and trembling from their
abodes, carrying with them nothing but some beverage to refresh the
poor little ones on the way. Young lads with a scared look, holding
in their hands a bit of bread which their school-masters had given
them to comfort them or to allay their hunger, went side by side with
their parents, with bare feet, through the snow; and old men, leaning
on their staffs, quitted the town at a slow pace. But on reaching the
gates, the wanderers were searched; from the mothers the fanatics took
away the beverage intended for their young children, from the lads the
bread which they were carrying to their mouths, and from the old men
the last small coins which they had taken up at the moment of their
departure,[513] and then they drove them all out of the town. They
went forth at hap-hazard, not knowing whither they were to go, having
nothing to eat or to drink, and deprived of the pitiful savings of
a long and laborious life.[514] The prophet Matthisson had at first
intended that all those who did not accept the new kingdom should be
put to death. But they did them the favor of only banishing them,
pillaged, however, and almost naked, taking from them their coats if
they happened to be good,[515] and then drove them away, crying out,
'Wicked! Pagans!'

[Sidenote: TERROR.]

The new community was now organized; and Matthisson ere long
exercised over it supreme authority. Prophets who gave themselves
out for inspired did not wait for the millennial kingdom, or for the
resurrection of the dead, or for the advent of the Saviour. They were
quite equal, they thought, to their task. They despised knowledge.
They prohibited all intercourse with the _pagans_, that is to say, the
evangelicals. Those who received the new baptism indispensable for
admission into their imaginary kingdom, and they alone, were saints.
Marriages previously solemnized were annulled; laws were abolished
on the ground that they were opposed to liberty. All distinctions of
rank were suppressed; community of goods was established; and all the
property of those who were banished was thrown into a common fund.
At the same time, seeing that their first duty was to break with a
corrupt world, that irreconcilable enemy of the saints, orders were
given to destroy all those evil things of which the men of the world
made use. Images, organs, painted windows, clocks, seats adorned with
sculptures, musical instruments, and other things of a similar kind,
were removed into the market-place, and there solemnly broken to
pieces. The masterpieces of the painters of the Westphalian school were
not spared. Books and manuscripts, even the rarest, were some of them
burnt and others thrown upon dunghills.[516] This was all done, they
declared, by divine inspiration. People were at the same time ordered
to deliver up all gold, silver, jewels, ornaments, and other precious
things. Property was superseded by communism; and any one who failed
to bring these superfluities to the public office was put to death.
The leading fanatics divided among themselves the fine houses of the
canons, the patricians, and the senators, and settled in them in plenty
and comfort. A large number of adventurers in quest of fortune, and
of fanatics who coveted the good things of the world more than they
acknowledged, arrived at Munster from Holland and the neighboring
countries. They looked upon it as a fine opportunity, and were eager
to have a share of the spoil, and ready enough to lay hands on a large
portion of it. To each handicraft some special duty was assigned. The
tailors for example, were charged to see that no new form of dress was
introduced into the community. These people made it a matter of as much
moment to avoid the fashion as other people did to follow it.

Meanwhile, the main business was the defence of the town. Young lads
even were in training for this task, and not without good reason; for
in the month of May, 1531, the bishop of Munster invested the episcopal
city. He, however, made no progress; for the town, admirably fortified,
was situated on a plain, and there was no rising ground in its
neighborhood on which the besiegers could establish themselves. Some
of the soldiers who were taken prisoners in the sorties were beheaded
by order of the prophets; and their heads were set up on the walls, to
show their comrades what fate awaited them.[517]

The prophet Matthisson, who had at least the virtue of courage, was
killed in an attack made by the besieged. Bockhold took his place.
He was not so brave, but was more ambitious than his predecessor,
and applied himself to the organizing of this strange community. The
magistrates were nominated by Rottmann the preacher and Bockhold the
prophet. Their decrees were executed by Knipperdolling. This man had
authority to put to death, without form of trial, any one who was
detected in violating the new laws. For this purpose he was always
accompanied by four satellites, each carrying a drawn sword; and thus
attended he paraded the streets, at a slow pace, and with a penetrating
glance which spread terror all around.

                              CHAPTER IV.

                 THE ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER. EXCESSES.

                                (1535.)

It was not long before the new king gave the rein to his passions.
Munster became the scene of the grossest debaucheries and the most
revolting cruelties. Fanaticism is usually accompanied by immorality,
and with faith morality is thrown overboard. Bockhold, not contented
with Matthisson's office, wanted also to have his wife, the beautiful
Divara. He was already married, but that was of no consequence. He
began to preach polygamy, adducing the examples of the Old Testament,
but passing by what the New says, that God in the beginning ordained
the union of one man with one woman, an institution confirmed and
sanctioned by the Saviour. This scandalous proceeding was at first
opposed by several members of the community, and there was even an
evangelical reaction. At the head of the gainsayers was a blacksmith.
Some of the prophets were arrested, and there was talk of recalling
the exiles. The evangelical party seemed to be on the point of revival;
but the enthusiasts were the stronger party, and their opponents were
shot or beheaded.

[Sidenote: THE KING OF THE UNIVERSE.]

The prophets became more numerous. A working goldsmith, named
Tausendschur, pretended to great revelations. Urged on, no doubt,
by Bockhold, he called together the whole body of the saints, and
said,--'The will and the commandment of the Father who is in heaven is
that John of Leyden should have the empire of the whole world, that he
should go forth from the town with a powerful army, that he should put
to death indiscriminately all princes and kings, and that destroying
all the wicked he should take possession of the throne of David his
father.'[518] Bockhold, who was present, at first kept silent, and
appeared to know nothing of this revelation. But when Tausendschur
had finished, the Leyden tailor fell on his knees, and said that ten
days before the same things had been revealed to him, but that he had
refrained from announcing them, lest he should seem desirous of the
sovereignty. At length, he said, he submitted to the will of God,
applying to himself this saying of Ezekiel,--'David my servant shall
be their king, and he shall make an everlasting covenant with them.'
He therefore declared himself ready to undertake the conquest of
the world. This scheme was, doubtless, on his part, a mere piece of
trickery, but it abundantly served his ambition. The madmen and fools
who believed in it, voluntarily submitted to the man who was to be king
of the universe; and the hope of occupying the chief places in this
universal kingdom filled them with zeal for the support of Bockhold.
Even if there were any doubters, they knew that the impostor would not
hesitate to cut off their heads, if that should be necessary for the
establishment of his empire. Bockhold, whose mother was a serf of
Westphalia, assumed in the capital of this province the pomp and attire
of a king. He surrounded himself with a court composed of a large
number of officers and magistrates. The churches were pillaged; and
the king and his ministers decked themselves with the silk vestments
enriched with gold and silver which they took out of the churches, from
the officiating ministers and from the most wealthy citizens.[519] He
had a seal made, representing the world with two swords which pierced
it through and through. This he hung about his neck on a gold chain
adorned with precious stones, as a symbol of his power. He bore a
golden sword with a silver hilt; and on his head he had a triple crown
made of the finest gold. To all this ostentation the ex-journeyman,
now a king, added debauchery. Besides Divara, who was his queen, he
took fifteen wives, all under twenty years of age, and he declared that
he would have three hundred.[520] His queen and these young girls he
attired magnificently. Each of his apostles and other adherents also
had several wives. He considered it necessary to keep his followers in
a state of drunkenness, to prevent them from foreseeing the catastrophe
which was impending over them. He assumed the title of king of the
new temple, and rode about the town invested with the insignia of his
office, and escorted by his guards. All who met him were obliged to
fall on their knees. Three times a week he made his appearance in the
public square, and sat upon a lofty throne, a sceptre in his hand and
a crown upon his head, and surrounded by a body of his satellites. In
this position he delivered his judgments. Knipperdolling, one step
below him, with a drawn sword in his hand, held himself in readiness
to execute them. Whosoever wished to bring any matter before him was
compelled to fall on his knees twice in approaching the throne, and
then to prostrate himself with his face to the ground.

[Sidenote: A SUPPER.]

In October there was a great religious festival, which Bockhold called
the Lord's Supper. A table of 4,200 covers was prepared for men and
women. The king, the queen, and their principal officers, served on
the occasion. Bockhold perceiving a stranger in the crowd ordered him
to be arrested and brought before him. 'Wherefore,' said he, 'hast
thou not on a wedding garment?' He pretended to believe that the man
was a Judas, and ordered him to be expelled; then going out himself,
he beheaded him with his own hands. He then re-entered, exulting and
smiling at this exploit.[521]

When the repast was over, he asked if they were all ready to do the
will of God. 'All,' they replied. 'Well, then,' said the king, 'this
will is that some of you should go forth to make known the wonderful
things which God has done for us.' He forthwith nominated six of
them to go to Osnabruck, and the same number to go to various other
towns in the neighborhood. He gave to each of them a piece of gold of
the value of nine florins and a viaticum. On the same evening these
apostles quitted Munster; and on their arrival at the towns which had
been assigned to them, they made their entrance, filling the air with
horrible outcries. 'Be converted,' they said, as they went along the
streets; 'repent! The time which God in his mercy leaves you is short.
The axe is laid at the root of the tree. If you do not receive peace,
your town will soon be destroyed.' Next, presenting themselves to the
assembled senate, they spread their cloaks upon the ground, threw
down their pieces of gold,[522] and said,--'We proclaim peace to you;
if you receive it bring hither what you possess and place it with
this gold. Our king will ere long have conquered the whole world and
subdued it to righteousness.' Those envoys who had been despatched to
the towns belonging to the bishop of Munster were at first favorably
received; but presently they were all arrested, and several were put
to the torture. Not one of them, however, would acknowledge himself in
error. 'We wait for new troops from Friesland and from Holland, and
then,' repeated they, 'the king will go forth and will subdue the whole
earth.' They suffered the extreme penalty of the law, as men guilty of
sedition.

The king encountered difficulties not only in the neighboring towns,
but likewise in his own capital, and even in his harem. There was at
Munster a woman of great courage and determination, who boasted that
no man should ever marry her. John of Leyden commanded that she should
be carried off and placed in the number of his wives; but the woman,
with her independence of character, finding the morals and the manners
of this harem intolerable, made her escape. This was in the king's
eyes a very great crime. He therefore had her arrested, conducted her
himself to the great square, cut off her head with his own hand, and
then, filled with wrath and vengeance, trampled her body in the dust.
Bockhold had ordered that all his other wives should be present at this
hateful scene, and had directed them to sing a hymn of praise after the
execution. These unhappy creatures did, accordingly, strike up their
song in the presence of the mutilated and desecrated body of their
companion.[523]

                              CHAPTER V.

               THE ANABAPTISTS OF MUNSTER. CHASTISEMENT.

                             (1535-1536.)

[Sidenote: CHASTISEMENT.]

The landgrave Philip of Hesse having, meanwhile, entered Westphalia
with the troops which had just made the conquest of Würtemberg, Munster
was soon so completely invested that nothing, and especially no food
supplies, could any longer enter the town. The dearth became more and
more severe, and the miserable people were driven to have recourse for
sustenance to the most unaccustomed food. They ate the flesh of horses,
dogs and cats, dormice, grass, and leather; they tore up books and
devoured the parchment. Half the population of the town, it was said,
died of starvation. These fanatics had trusted in the word of their
king and prophet, and had awaited with confidence the succor which he
promised them; but, as this succor did not arrive, murmurs began to be
heard from some of them, and others appeared to go mad. Bockhold had
told them that, if it were necessary for saving his people, 'the stones
would be turned into bread.' Consequently, some of these votaries might
be seen stopping in the streets, biting the stones and attempting to
tear them to pieces, in expectation of their being converted into
nourishment.[524] At length despair, madness, and inhumanity proceeded
to the bitterest extremities. The wife of the senator Menken, one of
the working men raised to this dignity by Bockhold, killed her three
children, salted their bodies, and placed the parts thus cured in jars,
in this way making abominable provision for her own subsistence, and
on this she fed day by day.[525] The wretched inhabitants of this
ill-fated town wandered with tottering steps about the streets, the
skin wrinkled over their fleshless bones, their necks long and lank,
hardly able to sustain the head, their eyes haggard and opening and
shutting with sudden jerk, their cheeks hollow and emaciated, with
lips which death seemed to be about to close, corpses in appearance
rather than living beings. In the midst of this appalling spectacle
which recalls the greatest distresses recorded in history, even the
destruction of Jerusalem, there was, it is said, in the king's palace
abundance, feasting, and debauchery.[526]

The enthusiasts, during this time, were causing much trouble in
Holland; but they did not succeed in bringing help to their brethren.
At the beginning of 1535 a certain number of them proposed to burn
Leyden; fifteen were arrested and beheaded. In February others ran
naked about the streets of Amsterdam by night, crying out, 'Woe! woe!
woe!' They also were executed. Near Franeker, in Friesland, three
hundred of them assembled and took possession of a convent; but they
were all put to death. Bockhold, impatient to get the succor of which
he was in sore need, delegated Jan van Geelen, a clever, crafty man,
to stir up a revolt in Holland, and to return to his aid with an army
which should raise the siege of Munster, and help him to conquer
the world. Jan van Geelen, by a feigned renunciation of his errors,
obtained a pardon from Queen Mary. Having entered Holland, he was able
secretly to attract a large number of followers; and in a short time
he conceived the project of surprising Amsterdam by night. He did, in
fact, get possession of the town-hall; but the townsmen, aroused by the
tocsin, drove away the fanatics with cannon-shot, not without suffering
great losses themselves, particularly in the death of a burgomaster.
The rebels were cruelly treated. Many of them were stretched upon
butchers' blocks, had their hearts torn out, and were then quartered.
On all these occasions a certain number of women were, as usual,
drowned.[527]

[Sidenote: CAPTURE OF MUNSTER.]

[Sidenote: EXECUTIONS.]

These successive defeats made an impression on Bockhold and his
partisans. They lost all hope of aid from Holland. The landgrave,
Philip of Hesse, one of the most powerful chiefs of Protestantism,
had brought up his forces to put an end to the scandals of Munster.
The bishop of this city, impelled by the desire to reconquer it,
had assembled for the purpose some Roman Catholic soldiers. One of
Bockhold's men escaped from the town and pointed out the way to capture
it.[528] In the night of June 24, 1535, two hundred lansquenets cleared
the foss and scaled the wall at a point where it was very low. They
were no sooner within the town, than they uttered cries and beat the
drum. The men of the king of Zion leaped out of their beds and ran to
arms. The conflict began and was for a moment doubtful; but one of the
city gates having been opened from within, the army of the besiegers
entered and the fight became terrible. A hundred and fifty horse or
foot soldiers lost their lives. On the side of the besieged many also
fell, and amongst others Rottmann who, resolved not to suffer the
disgrace of captivity, threw himself with intrepidity into the midst of
the fire and perished. The king and two of his principal counsellors,
Knipperdolling and the pastor Crechting, made their escape and hid
themselves in a strong tower, where they hoped to escape the notice
of the conquerors.[529] But the soldiers penetrated into their place
of concealment, dragged them out and made them prisoners. Bockhold at
first braved it out, and assuming the air of a king spoke arrogantly
to the bishop. Two theologians of Hesse endeavored to bring him to
repentance; but he obstinately held to his opinion, admitting no
superior to himself on earth. Reflection, however, wrought a change.
Bockhold was not a fanatic, but an impostor; and he felt that the only
way to save his life was to abjure his errors. He asked for a second
conference with the two Hessians and feigned conversion. 'I confess,'
he said to them, 'that the resistance I have offered to authority
was unlawful; that the institution of polygamy was rash, and that
the baptism of children is obligatory. If pardon should be granted
me, I pledge myself to obtain from all my adherents obedience and
submission.' He likewise acknowledged that he had deserved to die ten
times over. This was the behavior of a knave, willing to abandon even
his imposture, if, by so doing, he might save his life. Knipperdolling
and Crechting, on the contrary, persisted in their views, and asserted
that they had followed the guidance of God. Cruelty of various kinds
was inflicted on these wretched men. They were led about publicly,
during the month of their detention, like strange animals, as a
spectacle to the several princes and their courts, to whom they and
their pretended king were made a subject of ridicule.[530] Bockhold did
not derive from his confessions the advantage which he expected. The
three leaders were all sentenced to the same punishment, the penalty of
high treason to a supreme head. This took place in February, 1536. In
the barbarous period of the Middle Ages imagination had been racked for
the invention of the most cruel punishments. These three wretches were
conducted to the great square of Munster, where Bockhold, as king,
had borne the sceptre and the triple crown, and his executive minister
Knipperdolling the sword. They were then laid out naked; and their
bodies were plucked to pieces with hot pincers, until at length, amidst
hideous tortures, pincers, fire, sword and excruciating sufferings had
put an end to their life.[531] This process lasted an hour. Cochlæus
himself exclaims,--'Cruel, horrible punishment! a terrible example
to all rebels!' Knipperdolling and Crechting bore with courage the
frightful infliction, and Bockhold, apparently recovering good sense,
was determined not to die the death of a coward. Not a groan escaped
him. After he had breathed his last they pierced his heart with a
dagger.

It was Philip of Hesse and his soldiers of the reformed party who
chiefly contributed to put an end to the disorders and cruelties of
which Munster had been the scene. The only result of this episode for
Protestantism was to demonstrate that it had no connection with the
fanaticism of these would-be inspired ones. Protestant opinion was on
this occasion distinguished by various characteristic features. Its
intention was that punishment should be inflicted not for the religious
doctrine of the enthusiasts, but only for their rebellion and other
ordinary crimes. There have been, indeed, and there are especially
at the present time a large number of pious and zealous Christians
who advocate adult baptism; and we are bound to respect them although
we do not share their views. Moreover the baptism practised by the
enthusiasts of Munster, was not that of the sect of Baptists; it was a
proceeding which denoted adhesion to the fanatical system the triumph
of which they pretended to insure, a ceremony such as is adopted in
many secret societies. The essential characteristics of their system
were their alleged visions, their unquestionable licentiousness, the
confusion which they brought upon the institutions of social life,
their tyranny and their cruelty.

Various opinions were entertained as to the punishment which ought to
be inflicted on them. Luther by a letter expressed clearly and briefly
what he thought on the subject. He was not greatly troubled. 'It does
not disturb me much,' he said; 'Satan is in a rage, but the Scripture
stands fast.'[532] The landgrave Philip was always an advocate of the
most lenient measures; he had no desire that the punishment of death
should be inflicted upon them, as had been done in other countries. He
consented only to their being imprisoned; and he insisted that they
should be instructed. The evangelical towns of Upper Germany acted upon
the same principle and refused to stain their hands with the blood of
these unhappy men. But it was decreed by a majority of the Germanic
Diet, that all enthusiasts who persisted in their false doctrines
should be put to death. Thus were confounded, as it has been said,
two things as remote from each other as heaven and earth, evangelical
doctrine and the confusion introduced into churches and states by
these fanatics. The unfortunate men were put to death, whether they
were visionaries or not; and not only were culpable disorders put down
with a strong hand, but evangelical doctrine was also banished from
Munster.[533]

[Sidenote: CAUSES OF THE DISORDERS.]

Three causes especially contributed to bring about these hideous
disorders of the fanatics. First, the bloody persecutions carried on
by Charles V. in the Netherlands against all those who desired to
worship God according to their conscience; next, the doctrines of
the enthusiasts, mingled sometimes with immorality, which Tanchelme
of Antwerp, Simon of Tournay, Amalric of Bena, the Turlupines, the
Pseudo-Cathari, and the Brethren of the Free Spirit, had for centuries
professed in different countries, and especially in the Netherlands
and on the banks of the Rhine, and which had lately been revived
there by emissaries from Germany; and finally, the need for a change
in the social order felt at this period by the least industrious and
most fanciful men of the lower orders, and especially of the class of
artisans.

After the terrible catastrophe which put an end to the kingdom of Zion,
there still remained, undoubtedly, some enthusiasts and libertines,
particularly David Joris. But many of them settled down and returned
to more wholesome doctrines. One of these, Ubbo of Leuwarden, had been
consecrated bishop of the new sect and had in turn consecrated others,
Menno Simonis in particular. Ubbo made public confession of his error;
'I have been miserably mistaken,' he said, 'and I shall lament it as
long as I live.'[534]

We have narrated the horrible episode of Munster, and we have exhibited
it like one of those placards which we have sometimes met with in the
Alps, nailed to a post near an abyss, on which were to be read such
words as these,--'Traveller, beware! any one approaching falls and
rolls over, and hurled from rock to rock, is dashed to pieces and
killed, the sad victim of his rashness.'

                           TRIUMPH IN DEATH.

        (The night of the _18th February, 1546_, at Eisleben.)

Luther had throughout his life refused the aid of the secular arm, as
his desire was that the truth should triumph only by the power of God.
However, in 1546, in spite of his efforts, war was on the point of
breaking out, and it was the will of God that his servant should be
spared this painful spectacle.

The Counts of Mansfeld, within whose territories he was born, having
become involved in a quarrel with their subjects and with several Lords
of the neighborhood, had recourse to the mediation of the reformer. The
old man--he was now sixty-three--was subject to frequent attacks of
giddiness, but he never spared himself. He therefore set out, in answer
to the call, and reached the territory of the Counts on the 28th of
January, accompanied by his friend the theologian Jonas, who had been
with him at the Diet of Worms, and by his two sons, Martin and Paul,
the former now fifteen, and the latter thirteen, years of age. He was
respectfully received by the Counts of Mansfeld, attended by a hundred
and twelve horsemen. He entered that town of Eisleben in which he was
born, and in which he was about to die. That same evening he was very
unwell and was near fainting.

Nevertheless, he took courage and, applying himself zealously to the
task, preached four times, attended twenty conferences, received the
sacrament twice, and ordained two ministers. Every evening Jonas and
Michael Coelius, pastor of Mansfeld, came to wish him good-night.
'Doctor Jonas, and you Master Michael,' he said to them, 'entreat of
the Lord to save his church, for the Council of Trent is in great
wrath.'

Luther dined regularly with the Counts of Mansfeld. It was evident from
his conversation that the Holy Scriptures grew daily in importance
in his eyes. 'Cicero asserts in his letters,' he said to the Counts
two days before his death, 'that no one can comprehend the science of
government who has not occupied for twenty years an important place in
the republic. And I for my part tell you that no one has understood the
Holy Scriptures who has not governed the churches for a hundred years,
with the prophets, the Apostles and Jesus Christ.' This occurred on
the 16th of February. After saying these words he wrote them down in
Latin, laid them upon the table and then retired to his room. He had
no sooner reached it than he felt that his last hour was near. 'When
I have set my good lords at one,' he said to those about him, 'I will
return home; I will lie down in my coffin and give my body to the
worms.'

The next day, February 17, his weakness increased. The Counts of
Mansfeld and the prior of Anhalt, filled with anxiety, came to see
him. 'Pray do not come,' they said, 'to the conference.' He rose and
walked up and down the room and exclaimed,--'Here, at Eisleben, I was
baptized. Will it be my lot also to die here?' A little while after he
took the sacrament. Many of his friends attended him, and sorrowfully
felt that soon they would see him no more. One of them said to
him,--'Shall we know each other in the eternal assembly of the blessed?
We shall be all so changed!' 'Adam,' replied Luther, 'had never seen
Eve, and yet when he awoke he did not say "Who art thou?" but, "Thou
art flesh of my flesh." By what means did he know that she was taken
from his flesh and not from a stone? He knew this because he was filled
with the Holy Spirit. So likewise in the heavenly Paradise we shall be
filled with the Holy Spirit, and we shall recognize father, mother, and
friends better than Adam recognized Eve.'

[Sidenote: LUTHER'S PRAYER.]

Having thus spoken, Luther retired into his chamber and, according to
his daily custom, even in the winter time, opened his window, looked
up to heaven and began to pray. 'Heavenly Father,' he said, 'since in
thy great mercy thou hast revealed to me the downfall of the pope,
since the day of thy glory is not far off, and since the light of thy
Gospel, which is now rising over the earth is to be diffused through
the whole world, keep to the end through thy goodness the church of
my dear native country; save it from falling, preserve it in the true
profession of thy word, and let all men know that it is indeed for thy
work that thou hast sent me.' He then left the window, returned to
his friends, and about ten o'clock at night retired to bed. Just as he
reached the threshold of his bedroom he stood still and said in Latin,
'In manus tuas commendo spiritum meum, redemisti me, Deus veritatis!'

The 18th of February, the day of his departure, was now at hand.
About one o'clock in the morning, sensible that the chill of death
was creeping over him, Luther called Jonas and his faithful servant
Ambrose. 'Make a fire,' he said to Ambrose. Then he cried out,--'O Lord
my God, I am in great pain! What a weight upon my chest! I shall never
leave Eisleben.' Jonas said to him, 'Our heavenly Father will come to
help you for the love of Christ which you have faithfully preached to
men.' Luther then got up, took some turns up and down his room, and
looking up to heaven exclaimed again,--'Into thine hand I commit my
spirit; thou hast redeemed me, O God of truth!'

Jonas in alarm sent for the doctors, Wild and Ludwig, the Count
and Countess of Mansfeld, Drachstadt, the town-clerk, and Luther's
children. In great alarm they all hastened to the spot. 'I am dying,'
said the sick man. 'No,' said Jonas, 'you are now in a perspiration and
will soon be better.' 'It is the sweat of death,' said Luther, 'I am
nearly at my last breath.' He was thoughtful for a moment and then said
with faltering voice,--'O my heavenly Father, the God and Father of our
Lord Jesus Christ, the God of all consolation, I thank thee that thou
hast revealed to me thy well-beloved Son, Jesus Christ, in whom I have
believed, whom I have preached, whom I have confessed, whom the pope
and all the ungodly insult, blaspheme, and persecute, but whom I love
and adore as my Saviour. O Jesus Christ, my Saviour, I commit my soul
to thee! O my heavenly Father, I must quit this body, but I believe
with perfect assurance that I shall dwell eternally with thee, and that
none shall pluck me out of thy hands.'

He now remained silent for a little while; his prayer seemed to have
exhausted him. But presently his countenance again grew bright, a holy
joy shone in his features, and he said with fulness of faith,--'God
so loved the world that he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever
believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.' A
moment afterwards he uttered, as if sure of victory, this word of
David,[535]--'He that is our God is the God of salvation; and unto God
the Lord belong the issues from death.' Dr. Wild went to him, and tried
to induce him to take medicine, but Luther refused. 'I am departing,'
he said, 'I am about to yield up my spirit.' Then returning to the
saying which was for him a sort of watchword for his departure, he said
three times successively without interruption,--'Father! into thine
hand I commit my spirit. Thou hast redeemed me, O God of truth! Thou
hast redeemed me, O God of truth!'

[Sidenote: HIS LAST HOURS.]

He then closed his eyes. They touched him, moved him, called to him,
but he made no answer. In vain they applied the cloths which the
town-clerk and his wife heated, in vain the Countess of Mansfeld and
the physicians endeavored to revive him with tonics. He remained
motionless. All who stood round him, perceiving that God was going to
take away from the church militant this mighty warrior, were deeply
affected. The two physicians noted from minute to minute the approach
of death. The two boys, Martin and Paul, kneeling and in tears, cried
to God to spare to them their father. Ambrose lamented the master, and
Coelius the friend, whom they had so much loved. The Count of Mansfeld
thought of the troubles which Luther's death might bring on the Empire.
The distressed Countess sobbed and covered her eyes with her hands that
she might not behold the mournful scene. Jonas, a little apart from the
rest, felt heartbroken at the thought of the terrible blow impending
over the Reformation. He wished to receive from the dying Luther a last
testimony. He therefore rose, and went up to his friend, and bending
over him, said,--'Reverend father, in your dying hour do you rest on
Jesus Christ, and stedfastly rely upon the doctrine which you have
preached?' 'YES,' said Luther, so that all who were present
could hear him. This was his last word. The pallor of death overspread
his countenance; his forehead, his hands, and his feet turned cold.
They addressed him by his baptismal name, 'Doctor Martin,' but in vain,
he made no response. He drew a deep breath and fell asleep in the Lord.
It was between two and three o'clock in the morning. 'Truly,' said
Jonas, to whom we are indebted for these details, 'thou lettest, Lord,
thy servant depart in peace, and thou accomplishest for him the promise
which thou madest us, and which he himself wrote the other day in a
Bible presented to one of his friends: Verily, verily, I say unto you,
if a man keep my saying, he shall never see death.'[536]

Thus passed Luther into the presence of his Master, in full reliance
on redemption, in calm faith in the triumph of truth. Luther was no
longer here below, but Jesus Christ is with his people evermore to the
end of the world, and the work which Luther had begun lives, is still
advancing, and will extend to all the ends of the earth.

                               APPENDIX.

_Transcript of 'Indulgence' of Leo X.--the words which are abbreviated
                in the original being written in full._

Albertus dei et apostolice sedis gratia . sancte Moguntinensis sedis
. ac Magdeburgensis ecclesie Archiepiscopus . primas . et sacri
Romani imperii in germania archicancellarius . princeps : elector
ac administrator Halberstattensis . Marchio Brandenburgensis .
Stettinensis . Pomeranie : Cassuborum Sclauorumque dux | Burggrauius
. Nurenbergensis Rugieque princeps . Et guardianus fratrum ordinis
minorum de obseruantia conuentus Moguntini . Per sanctissimum |
dominum nostrum Leonem Papam decimum per prouincias Moguntinensem ac
Magdeburgensem ac illarum et Halberstattenses ciuitates et dioceses
necnon terras | et loca illustrissimi et illustrium Principum dominorum
Marchionum Brandenburgensium temporali dominio mediate uel immediate
subiecta nuncii et commissarii : ad infrascripta specialiter deputati
. Vniuersis et singulis presentes literas inspecturis Salutem in
domino . Notum facimus quod sanctissimus dominus | noster Leo diuina
prouidentia Papa decimus modernus : omnibus et singulis utriusque
sexus christifidelibus : ad reparacionem fabrice basilice principis
apostolorum sancti Petri de vrbe : iuxta ordinationem nostram manus
porrigentibus adiutrices : vltra plenissimas indulgentias ac alias
gratias et facultates quas christifideles ipsi obtinere possunt
: iuxta literarum apostolicarum desuper confectarum continentiam
misericorditer etiam in domino indulsit atque concessit : vt idoneum
possint | eligere confessorem presbyterum secularem . uel cuiusuis
etiam mendicantium ordinis regularem . qui eorum confessione diligenter
audita . pro commissis per eligentem | delictis et excessibus : ac
peccatis quibuslibet : quantumcumque grauibus et enormibus : etiam in
dicte sedi reseruatis casibus : ac censuris ecclesiasticis : etiam
ab | homine ad alicuius instantiam latis . de consensu partium etiam
ratione interdicti incursis . et quarum absolutio eidem sedi esset
specialiter reseruata. Preterquam machinationis in personam summi
pontificis : occisionis episcoporum aut aliorum superiorum prelatorum
et iniectionis manuum violentarum in illos aut alios prelatos .
falsificationis | literarum apostolicarum . delationis armorum et
aliorum prohibitorum ad partes infidelium ac sententiarum et censurarum
occasione aluminum tulfe[537] apostolice de partibus infidelium ad
fideles contra prohibitionem apostolicam delatorum incursarum semel in
vita et in mortis articulo quotiens ille imminebit . licet mors tunc
non subsequatur | Et in non reseruatis casibus totiens quotiens id
petierint plenarie absoluere et eis penitentiam salutarem iniungere .
necnon semel in vita et in dicto mortis articulo : plenariam omnium
peccatorum indulgentiam et remissionem impendere . Necnon per eos
emissa pro tempore uota quecumque (vltramarino : visitationis | liminum
apostolorum et sancti Jacobi in compostella : religionis et castitatis
votis dumtaxat exceptis) in alia pietatis opera commutare auctoritate
apostolica | possit et valeat . Indulsit quoque idem sanctissimus
dominus noster prefatos benefactores eorumque parentes defunctos qui
cum charitate decesserunt in precibus : | suffragiis : elemosynis
: ieiuniis : orationibus : missis : horis canonicis : disciplinis
: peregrinationibus : et ceteris omnibus spiritualibus bonis que
fiunt : et fieri poterunt in tota vniuersali sacrosancta ecclesia
militante : et in omnibus membris eiusdem in perpetuum participes
fieri . Et quia deuotus | Philippus Kessel[538] presbyter ad ipsam
fabricam et necessariam instaurationem | supradicte basilice principis
apostolorum iuxta sanctissimi domini nostri Pape intentionem et nostram
ordinationem de bonis suis contribuendo se gratum | exhibuit. In cuius
rei signum presentes literas a nobis accepit Ideo eadem auctoritate
apostolica nobis commissa : et qua fungimur in hac parte | ipsi quod
dictis gratiis et indulgentiis vti et eisdem gaudere possit et valeat
per presentes concedimus et largimur. Datum Auguste | sub sigillo per
nos ad hec ordinato. Die xv Mensis Aprilis Anno domini M.D.xvij.

Forma absolutionis totiens quotiens in vita.

Misereatur tui &c. Dominus noster Jesus christus per meritum sue
passionis te absoluat : auctoritate cuius et apostolica mihi in hac
parte commissa: et | tibi concessa ego te absoluo ab omnibus peccatis
tuis. In nomine patris et filii et spiritus sancti Amen.

Forma absolutionis et plenissime remissionis : semel in vita et in
mortis articulo.

Misereatur tui &c. Dominus noster Jesus christus per meritum sue
passionis te absoluat : et ego auctoritate ipsius et apostolica mihi
in hac parte commissa : et tibi | concessa te absoluo . primo ab omni
sententia excommunicationis maioris vel minoris si quam incurristi .
deinde ab omnibus peccatis tuis : conferendo tibi plenissimam omnium |
peccatorum tuorum remissionem remittendo tibi etiam penas purgatorii in
quantum se claues sancte matris ecclesie extendunt . In nomine patris et
filii et spiritus sancti Amen.

NOTE.--If one effect produced by the perusal of this often-talked-of
document be surprise at the extent of the remissions offered to
those who should 'stretch out a helping hand towards the repair of
the fabric of the Church of the prince of the apostles, St. Peter of
Rome,' another surely is amazement at the seeming incongruity of the
exceptions. 'Indulgence' is extended to crimes and excesses and any
kind of sin, however 'grave and enormous,' but is withheld not only
from 'conspiracy against the person of the Pope, murder of Bishops
or other superior prelates, laying violent hands on them or on other
prelates, forgery of apostolic letters, exportation of arms and other
forbidden goods to heathen parts,' but also from _the importation
of alum from heathen to Christian parts, contrary to the apostolic
prohibition, by which the faithful who wanted alum were required to use
only that obtained from Tolfa belonging to the Pope_.

Superficially regarded, this last exception is suggestive of a
commercial monopoly enforced by the threat of spiritual penalties; and
so clearly has it been seen that a damaging significance might readily
be attached to it, that the accuracy of the passage has frequently been
doubted. M. Audin, who in his Histoire de Martin Luther, vol. i. pp.
429-432, gives a copy of the 'Indulgence,' renders the passage thus:
'occasione aluminum (_sic_) sanctæ ecclesiæ,' &c. By using the word
sic, and by appending the note 'Tiré d'une source protestante par un
protestant,' M. Audin would seem to have intended to suggest not merely
that he doubted the correctness of the copy to which he had had access,
but also that the apparently objectionable features of the document
might be attributable to inaccuracy.

But transactions of which the causes are imperfectly understood may
give rise to very erroneous opinions; and in this case even the most
cursory glance at the state of Europe during the pontificate of Pius
II., when the alum-works of Tolfa came into existence, will show that
there were grave reasons for treating the importation of alum as a most
heinous offence--reasons which might well affect the decrees of the
Pope, and which had not lost their importance in the time of Leo X.

Until the discovery that alum could be obtained from the hills near
Tolfa, the Italians had been dependent for their supplies of this
commodity, which they used in very considerable quantities, upon the
Turks, who, it is to be borne in mind, had but a few years previously
taken Constantinople, and who were now the scourge and dread of
Christendom. The Papal view as to the use to which the discovery should
be turned is shown in the following extract from a brief of Pius II.:--

   'Item quoniam diebus nostris faciens nobiscum Dominus
   misericordiam suam de absconditis terræ, uberrimas pretiosi
   aluminis venas antea nunquam inventas miraculo quodam in
   montibus nostris, qui in patrimonio B. Petri in Tuscia prope
   arcem Tolpham sunt patefecit, volens videlicet, ne ultra
   ex fidelium pecunia Turchorum in eos persecutio cresceret,
   sed ilia ad defensionem nostram uti possemus, justum et
   pietati suæ placitum reputantes, fructum omnem, qui antehac
   ex comportato in Christianitatem transmarino alumine penes
   impios Turchos in Christianorum exitium erat, modo ad nos in
   suffragium ecclesiæ catholicæ transeat, præsertim cum alumen
   nostrum, magistra experientia, virtute perfectius, pretio
   vilius, numero autem sit adeo abundans, ut usui Christianorum
   in omnem partem satisfacere possit, ex parte omnipotentis Dei
   Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus sancti, ac nostra ex hoc sancto
   tribunali apostolica voce hortamur atque requirimus omnes,
   et singulos profitentes nomen Christianum, ne posthac alumen
   a Turchis aliisque infidelibus emant, &c. Dat. Romæ apud S.
   Petrum anno MCDLXIII. vii. id. Aprilis, pontificatus nostri
   anno v.' (Raynaldus, 'Annales Ecclesiastici,' tom. 29, p. 376).

In his 'History of Inventions, Discoveries,' &c. (_Bohn's Standard
Library_), Beckmann, who, in treating of Alum, quotes several accounts
of the works at Tolfa, says:--'The Pope himself has left us a very
minute history of this discovery, and of the circumstances which gave
rise to it;' and, alluding to the conflicting statements respecting the
discoverer, he adds:--'But as I do not wish to ascribe a falsehood to
the Pontiff, I am of opinion that the history of this discovery must
have been best known to him. He has not, indeed, established the year
with sufficient correctness; but we may conclude from his relation that
it must have been 1460 or 1465.[539] The former is the year given by
Felician Bussi; and the latter that given in the History of the City
of Civita Vecchia.' Beckmann's rendering of the Pope's history, though
the account is here and there open to criticism, throws much light on
the passage in the Indulgence and is otherwise very interesting. It
is in these terms:--'A little before that period came to Rome John di
Castro, with whom the Pontiff had been acquainted when he carried on
trade at Basle, and was banker to Pope Eugenius. His father, Paul,
was a celebrated lawyer of his time, who sat many years in the chair
of Padua, and filled all Italy with his decisions; for lawsuits were
frequently referred to him, and judges paid great respect to his
authority, as he was a man of integrity and sound learning. At his
death he left considerable riches, and two sons arrived to the age of
manhood, the elder of whom, following the profession of the father,
acquired a very extensive knowledge of law. The other, who was a man
of genius, and who applied more to study, made himself acquainted with
grammar and history; but, being fond of travelling, he resided some
time at Constantinople, and acquired much wealth by dyeing cloth made
in Italy, which was transported thither and committed to his care, on
account of the abundance of alum in that neighborhood. Having by these
means an opportunity of seeing daily the manner in which alum was made,
and from what stones or earth it was extracted, he soon learned the
art. When, by the will of God, that city was taken and plundered about
the year 1453, by Mahomet II., Emperor of the Turks, he lost his whole
property; but, happy to have escaped the fire and sword of these cruel
people, he returned to Italy, after the assumption of Pius II., to whom
he was related, and from whom he obtained, as an indemnification for
his losses, the office of Commissary-General over all the revenues of
the Apostolic Chamber, both within and without the city. While in this
situation he was traversing all the hills and mountains, searching
the bowels of the earth, leaving no stone or clod unexplored, he at
length found some alum-stone in the neighborhood of Tolfa. Old Tolfa
is a town belonging to two brothers, subjects of the Church of Rome,
and situated at a small distance from Civita Vecchia. Here there are
high mountains, retiring inland from the sea, which abound with wood
and water. While Castro was examining these, he observed that the grass
had a new appearance. Being struck with wonder, and inquiring into the
cause, he found that the mountains of Asia, which enrich the Turkish
treasury by their alum, were covered with grass of the like kind.
Perceiving several white stones, which seemed to be minerals, he bit
some of them, and found that they had a saltish taste. This induced him
to make some experiments by calcining them, and he at length obtained
alum. He repaired therefore to the Pontiff, and addressing him said,
"I announce to you a victory over the Turk. He draws yearly from the
Christians above three hundred thousand pieces of gold, paid to him
for the alum with which we dye wool different colors, because none
is found here but a little at the island of Hiscla, formerly called
Aenaria, near Puteoli, and in the cave of Vulcan at Lipari, which,
being formerly exhausted by the Romans, is now almost destitute of that
substance. I have, however, found seven hills so abundant in it, that
they would be almost sufficient to supply seven worlds. If you will
send for workmen, and cause furnaces to be constructed, and the stones
to be calcined, you may furnish alum to all Europe; and that gain
which the Turk used to acquire by this article being thrown into your
hands will be to him a double loss. Wood and water are both plenty,
and you have in the neighborhood the port of Civita Vecchia, where
vessels bound to the West may be loaded. You can now make war against
the Turk: this mineral will supply you with the sinews of war, that is
money, and at the same time deprive the Turk of them." These words of
Castro appeared to the Pontiff the ravings of a madman: he considered
them as mere dreams, like the predictions of astrologers; and all
the cardinals were of the same opinion. Castro, however, though his
proposals were often rejected, did not abandon his project, but applied
to his Holiness by various persons, in order that experiments might be
made in his presence on the stones which he had discovered. The Pontiff
employed skilful people, who proved that they really contained alum;
but lest some deception might have been practised, others were sent to
the place where they had been found, who met with abundance of the like
kind. Artists who had been employed in the Turkish mines in Asia were
brought from Genoa; and these, having closely examined the nature of
the place, declared it to be similar to that of the Asiatic mountains
which produce alum; and, shedding tears for joy, they kneeled down
three times, worshipping God, and praising his kindness in conferring
so valuable a gift on our age. The stones were calcined, and produced
alum more beautiful than that of Asia, and superior in quality. Some
of it was sent to Venice and to Florence, and, being tried, was found
to answer beyond expectation. The Genoese first purchased a quantity
of it, to the amount of 20,000 pieces of gold; and Cosmo of Medici for
this article laid out afterwards seventy-five thousand. On account
of this service, Pius thought Castro worthy of the highest honors
and of a statue, which was erected to him in his own country, with
this inscription:--"To John di Castro, the Inventor of Alum;" and he
received besides a certain share of the profit. Immunities and a share
also of the gain were granted to the two brothers, lords of Tolfa, in
whose land the aluminous mineral had been found. This accession of
wealth to the Church of Rome was made, by the divine blessing, under
the Pontificate of Pius II.: and if it escape, as it ought, the hands
of tyrants, and be prudently managed, it may increase and afford no
small assistance to the Roman Pontiffs in supporting the burdens of
the Christian religion--_Pii Secundi Comment . rer . memorab . quæ
temp . suis contigerunt. Francof._ 1614, _fol. p._ 185'

Dr. Georg Voigt, in his 'Enea Silvio de Piccolomini als Papst Pius der
Zweite und sein Zeitalter,' vol. iii. pp. 546-48, says:--

   'Ein Glückszufall brachte dem Papste noch eine ganz
   unerwartete Quelle von Einnahmen. Unter ihm wurden die
   berühmten Alaungruben von Tolfa entdeckt. Der genannte
   Giovanni de Castro, ein Mann der rührigsten Industrie, der
   zu Konstantinopel die Färbung italienischer Zeuge betrieben,
   bei der Eroberung der Stadt jedoch nichts als sein Leben und
   seine technischen Kenntnisse davongetragen, war der Finder.
   Umherschweifend auf dem einsamen culturlosen Waldgebirge,
   das sich unweit Civita-vecchia mit seinen Ausläufern bis
   zum Meer erstreckt, stöbernd unter den Steinen, Erden und
   Pflanzen mit dem eigenthümlichen Antriebe solcher Naturen,
   bemerkte er zunächst ein Kraut, das er auf den alaunhaltigen
   Bergen Asiens gesehen, dann weisse Steine, die der salzige
   Geschmack und gar die Auskochung als Alaun erwies. Freudig
   eilte er zum Papste und verkündete ihm den Sieg über die
   Türken, zunächst den Industriellen, da der Orient durch den
   Alaun jährlich über 300,000 Ducaten von den Christen verdiene.
   Von anderer Seite wird der Astrolog Domenico di Zaccaria
   aus Padua wenigstens als Mitentdecker angegeben.[540] Pius
   indess erwähnt nur de Castro. Er und die Cardinäle hielten
   die Entdeckung anfangs für eine alchymistische Träumerei.
   Doch bestätigten Sachverständige, dass das Gestein wirklich
   Alaun und dass es in jenen Bergen in betriebsfähiger Masse
   vorhanden sei; das reichliche Wasser der Gegend und der
   nahe Seehafen begünstigten den Bau. Es wurden Gewerbsleute
   aus Genua berufen, die einst bei den Türken den asiatischen
   Alaun behandelt; sie weinten vor Freude, als sie das Mineral
   erkannten, nach der Abkochung zeigte sich seine Güte: 80
   Pfund hatten den Werth von 100 Pfund türkischen Alauns.
   Proben wurden nach Venedig und Florenz versandt. Genuesische
   Kaufleute schlossen zuerst einen Ankauf für 20,000 Ducaten
   ab. Dann Cosimo de' Medici einen für 75,000. Der Papst fasste
   den Vorsatz, das Geschenk Gottes auch zur Ehre Gottes, zum
   Türkenkriege zu verwenden; er ermahnte alle Christen, fortan
   nur von ihm, nicht von den Ungläubigen den Alaun einzukaufen,
   zumal da der seinige nach der Erfahrung besser und billiger
   sei.[541] Schon im Jahre 1463 wurde tüchtig in den Gruben von
   Tolfa gearbeitet, 8,000 Menschen waren dabei beschäftigt: der
   Finder wie die Besitzer des vorher unfruchtbaren Districtes
   erhielten eine Quote des Gewinnes, der dem apostolischen
   Schatze jährlich gegen 100,000 Ducaten einbrachte. In der
   Wahlcapitulation von 1464 wurden sämmtliche Einkünfte von
   Alaun für den Türkenkrieg bestimmt.'[542]

From Dr. Voigt's statements that as early as the year 1463, 8,000
men were employed in the alum-works of Tolfa, and that the profit to
the apostolic treasury, after the claims of the discoverer and the
proprietors had been duly recognized, amounted to 100,000 ducats a
year, and from the date of the Pope's Brief quoted above, it would seem
that the discovery could scarcely have been made later than 1462, the
year assigned to it by Niccolo della Tuccia.

The following extract from R. Harrison's translation of A. von
Reumont's 'Lorenzo de' Medici,' carries on somewhat further the
history of this famous mine and of its position in regard to the Papal
Government:--

'The Pope's affection and confidence were shown in various ways. The
Roman depository, i.e., the Receiver's office, was handed over to the
Medici, with the permission to choose as their representative Giovanni
Tornabuoni, director of the Roman bank. New privileges were also
granted to them in connection with their share in the farming of the
alum-works of Tolfa. It was an important concession. In the days of
Pope Pius II., Giovanni di Castro, son of the famous jurisconsult,
Paolo, the principal co-operator in the revision of the Florentine
statutes (finished in 1415), discovered alum-deposits in the rock while
making geological investigations in the hilly country between Civita
Vecchia and the territory of Viterbo, in the vicinity of Tolfa. He
instantly perceived the importance of his discovery, which promised
to free the West, hitherto poor in this mineral, from a tribute to
the distant East, made more inaccessible by the Turkish conquests. In
fact the produce soon amounted to 160,000 gold florins; and it is well
known what sanguine hopes Pius II., whose eyes were directed towards
the East, indulged, that this new source of revenue would aid his
enterprises. Genoese houses had employed themselves with the alum-trade
till the Medici concluded a contract with the Papal exchequer, which
afterwards gave rise to many unpleasant misunderstandings with the
financial department.'--(Vol. I. p. 275).

An account of the alum of Tolfa is also given in vol. v. chap. i., of
the 'Voyages du P. Labat de l'Ordre des FF. Prescheurs, en Espagne
et en Italie;' and in the article 'Alaun,' in the 'Oeconomische
Encyclopädie,' by Dr. J. G. Krünitz, which is in part derived from
Labat's work.

                             GENERAL INDEX

                                  TO

                           VOLUMES I.--VIII.

    _Aarau_, meeting of pastors at, to complain of exile of
         Megander, vi. 367;
      deputation sent to Berne, 367

    _Abelard_, ii. 18; iii. 44

    _Ab Hofen_, Thomas, Bernese deputy to Geneva, ii. 311 _sqq._;
      his evangelical work, 312;
      opposition and dejection, 314;
      death, 316

    _Adam_, iii. 301 _sqq._

    _Adrian VI._, Pope, attempts to prevent introduction of
        Luther's works and followers into Spain, viii. 4

    _Adrian_, Dr., umpire at conference of Schässburg, vii. 384

    _Agrippa_, Cornelius, at Strasburg, i. 360;
      his career, 363;
      his book on marriage, 363

    _Alasco_, John, Baron, primate of Poland, vii. 433, 443;
      unfriendly reception of his nephew John, 445;
      his devotion to the papacy, 445;
      examines John, 446;
      his death, 450

    -- Stanislaus, vii. 433;
      at court of Francis I., 442

    -- Yaroslav, vii. 433;
      gets his brother John appointed a bishop, 452;
      interview with John, 458;
      his relations with Zapolya, 458;
      military service and imprisonment, 458;
      his death, 459

    _Alasco_, John, Polish reformer, his birth and early life, vii. 434;
      sets out to visit European courts and universities, 434;
      at Louvain, 434;
      meets Zwinglius at Zurich, 435;
      difficulty of fixing dates of his travels, 436, _note_;
      grateful remembrance of Zwinglius, 436;
      becomes guest of Erasmus, 437;
      influence of Erasmus on him, 438, 439;
      studies at Basel under Pellican, 439;
      friendship with Glareanus, 439;
      enjoined by King Sigismund to leave Basel, 441;
      uncertainty of his next course, 442;
      in Italy, 442;
      again in Poland, 443;
      his struggles, 444;
      worldly associations, 444;
      decline of faith, 445;
      false reports about him, 445;
      examined by the primate, 446;
      renounces doctrines of the Reformation, 447;
      urges Erasmus to write to the king, 448;
      named provost of cathedral church of Gnesne, 448;
      reads and corresponds with Melanchthon, 449;
      leans towards Luther, 449;
      coolness of Erasmus, 450;
      his place among reformers, 451;
      has to give up hope of reforming Poland, 451;
      appointed bishop of Wesprim, 452;
      bishop of Cujavia, 452;
      his difficult position, 452;
      refuses bishopric of Cujavia, 453;
      leaves Poland, 454;
      goes to Mentz and Louvain, 454;
      offers made to him, 455;
      marries, 456;
      his life at Embden, 456, 457;
      declines offer of pastorate there, 458;
      attends death-bed of his brother Yaroslav, 458, 459;
      returns to Friesland, 459;
      writes to Hardenberg, 459;
      accepts direction of churches in Friesland, 462;
      invited to Poland, 462;
      his task in Friesland, 462;
      charges against him, 463;
      opposition of John of Falkenberg, 464;
      writes to Bullinger, 464;
      conflict with the monks, 465;
      his appeal to Countess Anna, 466;
      victory over John of Falkenberg, 467;
      aims at union of Protestant sects, 468;
      has a conference with Menno, 468;
      with David Joris, 470;
      his ministry, 471;
      his church government, 471;
      relations to Erasmus, Zwinglius, and Melanchthon, 472;
      his _Epitome of doctrine_, 472;
      again appeals to Countess Anna, 473;
      resigns office of superintendent, 473;
      resumes it, 474;
      death of his child, 474;
      his country home, 475;
      his first letter to Calvin, 475, _note_;
      at Louvain, 548, 552;
      meetings with Francis de Enzinas, viii. 43, 59

    _Albany, John Stuart_, duke of, i. 414;
      special ambassador of Francis I. to Clement VII., ii. 148;
      his career, 148, 155;
      commands French fleet escorting Catherine de' Medici to Nice, 189;
      escorts Clement VII. to Marseilles, 190;
      regent of Scotland, vi. 15;
      returns to France, 15;
      again in Scotland, defeated by the English, finally quits the
        country, 21

    _Albert_, duke of Prussia, protects the reformed in Poland, vii. 431

    _Albigenses_, the, ii. 102

    _Alcagnices_, Marchioness of, her conversations with Carranza, viii.
        117;
      gets his works copied and translated, 119

    _Alcala de Henares_, viii. 13;
      a theological disputation at, 14

    _Alciati_ of Milan, at Bourges, ii. 23

    _Aleander_, papal nuncio, obtains edict of persecution for the
        Netherlands, vii. 488;
      receives recantation of Spreng, 490

    _Alençon_, Duchess of [_Margaret of Angoulême_]

    _Alençon_, Duke of, i. 346

    _Alesius_, presents Melanchthon's _Common places_ to
        Henry VIII., v. 106;
      account of him, 186;
      present at convocation, 187;
      his speech, 188, 189;
      refused admission, 190;
      his birth and early life, vi. 11;
      publicly refutes Luther's doctrine, 51;
      his interviews with Patrick Hamilton, 52;
      refuses to condemn him, 75;
      preaches before the synod, 76;
      assailed by Prior Hepburn, and imprisoned, 76, 77;
      released by command of the king, 77;
      immediately imprisoned again, 78;
      urged to escape, reluctant to leave Scotland, 80, 81;
      his flight, 81, 82;
      embarks at Dundee, 83;
      his wanderings, 84;
      his letter to James V., 90, 91

    _Alexander VI._, Pope, i. 119, 211;
      his decree on printing, ii. 173

    _Alexander Canus_ (_Dumoulin_), goes to Geneva, iv. 195;
      attempts to arrest him, 198;
      seized and banished, 205;
      leaves Geneva, 206

    _Alexander_, Dr., preaches at Dantzic, vii. 425

    _Alexander_, Peter, chaplain to the Regent of the Netherlands,
        viii. 86;
      holds a disputation with De Soto, 87;
      his flight, trial, and burning in effigy, 87;
      pastor of French church in London, 88

    _Alva_, Duke of, i. 325

    _Amadeus V._ of Savoy, i. 17;
      seizes the château de l'Ile, 17;
      becomes _vidame_, 18;
      bids for popular favor, 18

    _Amadeus VIII._, his attempt on Geneva, i. 19;
      his abdication, 21;
      nominated pope by Council of Basel as Felix V., 21;
      makes himself prince and bishop of Geneva, 21;
      his death, 21

    _Amadeus IX._, i. 22

    _Amman_, Louis, vi. 434

    _Amsterdam_, beginning of the Reformation at, vii. 531 _sqq._;
      arrests of evangelicals by night, their execution, 535;
      Jan van Geelen's attempt to surprise, viii. 348

    _Amyot_, Jacques, iii. 76

    _Anabaptists_, burnt by Henry VIII., v. 63; viii. 160 [_Spirituals_]

    _Ancina_, Messire d', i. 116, 122

    _Anderson_, Lawrence, his birth and early life, vii. 239;
      receives evangelical doctrine, 240;
      administrator of diocese of Strengnaes, 240;
      friendship with Olaf and Lawrence Peterson, 241;
      before Gustavus, 258;
      appointed chancellor of the kingdom, 258;
      his character, 259;
      advises Gustavus, 259;
      translates the New Testament, 269;
      advises the king on church power, 281;
      his speech at Diet of Westeraas, 285 _sqq._;
      deputy with Olaf to the king, 291;
      his speech on return of the king, 293;
      president of synod of Orebro, 299

    _Anderson_, William, a Protestant of Perth, vi. 178;
      seized and condemned to death, 181;
      hung, 181

    _Andronicus_, invited into Switzerland by Farel, iii. 233 _sqq._;
      joins Farel, 235

    _Angelis_, Francis de, viii. 4

    _Angers_, University of, declares for divorce of Henry VIII.,
        iv. 40

    _Angoulême_, city, iii. 5

    _Angus_, Earl of, marries Margaret, regent of Scotland, vi. 15;
      takes the Great Seal, 22;
      defeats Lennox, 24;
      renews proscription of New Testament, 43;
      keeps the king in subjection, 72;
      banished, 74;
      joins English army against the Scots, 138;
      accompanies the liberated nobles to Scotland, 158;
      reinstated, 161;
      imprisoned, liberated, 184

    _Anhalt_, Principality of, the reformation in, viii. 322;
      the princes of, 322;
      Luther's letter to them, 326;
      the reformation established in, 327

    _Anna_, Countess [_Friesland_]

    _Annates_, in England, abolished, iv. 87

    _Anne Boleyn_, meets Henry VIII., ii. 105; iv. 21, 27;
      lodged in palace at Greenwich, 103;
      marriage of, 118, 127;
      included in Clement's excommunication of Henry VIII., 128;
      appears as queen, 131;
      her marriage pronounced lawful, 135;
      presented to the people, 135;
      her coronation, 136;
      unsatisfied, 137;
      her course and fate, 138;
      change in her character, v. 32;
      protects evangelicals, 32;
      orders liberation of Harman, 33;
      her bringing up, 119;
      her good works, 120, 121;
      esteem for Latimer, 121;
      Tyndale's present to, 122;
      character of, 124;
      opposite views of her, 125;
      hostility of Norfolk, 126;
      her difficult position, 127;
      jealousy of Jane Seymour, 128;
      gives birth to a dead son, 129;
      co-operates with Cranmer, 130;
      her choice of bishops, 130, 131;
      forebodings, 132;
      commends her daughter Elizabeth to Parker, 133;
      charges against her, 133, 134 _sqq._;
      ordered to keep her room, 138;
      before the council, 139;
      taken to the Tower, 140;
      her sympathy, 141;
      watched, 145;
      agitation, 146;
      her letter to the king, 150 _sqq._;
      alleged pre-contract of marriage not proved, 153;
      her trial, 155 _sqq._;
      sentenced to death, 157;
      her address to the judges, 158;
      asks pardon of the princess Mary, 162;
      her execution, 165 _sqq._;
      effect of her death in Europe, 170, 171

    _Anne_ of Beauregard, v. 427, 428

    _Anne of Cleves_, proposal for her marriage with Henry VIII.,
        viii. 193;
      her portrait, 193;
      the marriage arranged, 193;
      at Calais, 194;
      a game of cards, 194;
      reaches Canterbury, 195;
      at Rochester, seen by the king, 195;
      received by him, 197;
      enters London, 197;
      married, 198;
      hopes, 198;
      scheme contrived for her divorce, 230 _sqq._;
      consents, 231;
      receives report of judgment of convocation, 232;
      her submission, 233;
      a pension and a palace for her, 234

    _Anne_ of Cyprus, i. 21, 22, 23;
      accused by her son Philip to her husband, 25

    _Annonay_, the 'holy virtues' of, i. 429;
      preaching of Stephen Machopolis at, 430;
      of Rénier, 430;
      of Jonas, 430;
      arrest and imprisonment of many evangelicals, 431

    _Anschar_, apostle of Scandinavia, vii. 120

    _Antwerp_, vii. 481;
      beginning of reformation at, 483 _sqq._;
      persecution, 492;
      the convent of the Augustines destroyed, 499;
      open-air meeting of the reformed, 503;
      murder of Nicholas, 504;
      preaching attended by crowds, 517

    _Aosta_, Lutheranism at, v. 451 _sqq._;
      assembly of estates at, 452;
      resolution against Lutheranism, 453;
      monuments of Calvin's passage through, 454

    _Apologists_, Christian, iii. 10, 182

    _Appeals_ to the pope, abolished in England, iv. 179

    _Aquinas_, Thomas, Calvin's admiration of, i. 387; ii. 167

    _Arcimbold_, sells indulgences in Scandinavia, vii. 127;
      gains over the King of Denmark, 128;
      sends his brother to Gothland, 236

    _Aresen_, Johan, bishop of Holum, vii. 226;
      his quarrel with bishop of Skalholt, 226;
      vanquished in single combat, 226;
      takes up arms against the reformation, 229;
      usurps the see of Skalholt, 229;
      arrested and executed with his sons, 230;
      barbarous revenge of his partisans, 230

    _Arlod_, Jean d', i. 271; iv. 313; v. 352;
      imprisoned at Chillon, 353

    --, Domaine d', iii. 364;
      proscribed by the bishop, 439;
      seized and imprisoned, 441, 457.

    _Arnold_ of Winkelried, i. 194

    _Arran_, Earl of, vi. 152;
      his character, 154;
      proclaimed regent of Scotland, 154;
      his evangelical chaplains, 155;
      favors project of marriage of Mary Queen of Scots with Edward of
        England, 158;
      confirmed in the regency, 161;
      dismisses his chaplains, 168;
      refuses the hostages to Henry VIII., 171;
      assembles an army at Edinburgh, 172;
      his irresolution, 173;
      joins the cardinal at Stirling, 173;
      submits to the pope and is absolved, 174;
      accompanies Beatoun to Perth, sanctions martyrdom of Protestants,
        181;
      and persecution in Forfarshire, 182;
      flies from Edinburgh with Beatoun, 183;
      gives up Wishart to Beatoun, 197;
      writes to the cardinal about him, 197

    _Arras_, martyrs at, i. 349; iii. 142

    _Artois_, preaching of Berquin in, i. 332, 333

    _Aske_, Robert, heads revolt of Catholics in Yorkshire, v. 206;
      the _pilgrimage of grace_, 206;
      at Pomfret Castle, 209;
      confronts the Lancaster herald, 209;
      resolves to march on London, 210

    _Askew_, Anne, account of, viii. 274;
      her marriage and separation, 275;
      imprisoned, her examinations, 276;
      before Bishop Bonner, 277;
      liberated on bail, 277;
      again arrested, examined, 277, 278;
      her firmness, 279;
      condemned to be burnt, 279;
      again examined and tortured by Wriothesley and Rich, 280, 281, and
        _note_;
      her martyrdom, 283 _sqq._

    _Athanasian Creed_, the, vi. 317

    _Audley_, Sir Thomas, Speaker, iv. 9;
      appointed Chancellor, 91;
      one of Fryth's examiners, 151;
      begs for gift of convents, v. 99;
      member of commission of inquiry into conduct of Queen Anne, 136,
        139; viii. 226

    _Augsburg_, Diet of, ii. 216, 255, 415, 421; vii. 170;
      influence of the confession in Hungary, 345

    _Augustines_, at Geneva, i. 44

    _Augustine_, St., iv. 46

    _Austria_, ii. 215, 216;
      delegates at Diet, of Augsburg, 217, 218, 219
      [_Ferdinand_ of Austria, _Philip_ of Hesse]

    _Avalos_, Don Gaspard d', opposes publication of Spanish New
        Testament, viii. 61

    _Avenches_, iii. 212

    _Avignon_, Francis I., holds council at, ii. 214;
      the embroiderer of, iv. 325;
      seized and ill-used, 325;
      reaches Geneva, 326

    _Avila_, John d', his preaching in Andalusia, viii. 4, 5, 6;
      exposes the fraud of Madeline de la Croix, 7;
      defends St. Theresa, 7;
      counsels Sancha de Carile, 8;
      arrested by the Inquisition, and acquitted, 17

    _Babinot_, Albert, iii. 46;
      sent by Calvin to preach, 58;
      at Toulouse, 59, 61

    _Baduel_, Claude, ii. 257;
      seeks introduction to Margaret of Navarre, 258;
      visits her, 259;
      his career, 259;
      envoy from Margaret to Melanchthon, iv. 368

    _Baillot_, Jacques, of Neuchâtel, advocates giving help to
        Geneva, v. 323;
      on the march, 327

    _Bainham_, James, iv. 106;
      arrested and tortured by More, 106;
      before Bishop of London, 107;
      his abjuration and sentence, 107;
      remorse, 108;
      repentance, 108;
      condemned, 109;
      visited by Latimer, 109;
      martyrdom, 110

    _Bakker_, Johan van, with his father denounced as a Lutheran, vii.
        510;
      sent to Louvain, becomes a priest, 511;
      imprisoned, liberated, goes to Wittenberg, 511;
      returns, and is banished, 511;
      wanderings, 511;
      separates from Rome, 512;
      opposes indulgences, 512;
      arrested, 513;
      his trial, 513;
      imprisoned, 514;
      his father, 515;
      his martyrdom, 515, 516

    _Balard_, syndic of Geneva, i. 204;
      elected syndic, 263;
      cited, 292, _note_; iii. 282, 286, 290;
      recommends celebration of the mass, v. 367;
      his views, 411;
      examined before the Council, vi. 502 _sqq._

    _Balkerley_, Martin, imprisoned at Edinburgh for reading the
        Scriptures, vi. 113;
      pays a ransom and is left in prison, a double ransom demanded,
          113;
      liberated, 113

    _Balleyson_, M. de, i. 278, 291, 295, 297

    _Balue_, Master, deputy of the Sorbonne, ii. 287

    _Bandière_, Ami, i. 267, 270, 276, 292;
      leads the search for Pontverre, and is wounded, ii. 379

    _Bandière_, Jean, i. 292

    _Bandini_, Francesco, Archbishop of Siena, receives deputation
        accusing Paleario, iv. 444;
      consents to support the charge, 445

    _Baner_, Eric, in charge of Gustavus Vasa, vii. 245

    _Baptism_, a reformed, at Geneva, iv. 249

    _Barbarossa_, iv. 465

    _Barbier_, instigates plot against reformers at Geneva, v. 244

    _Bar-le Duc_, conference and treaty of, ii. 224 _sqq._, 297

    _Barlow_, Dr., prior of Bisham, his embassy to Scotland, vi.
        100, 101;
      ready to preach, 105

    _Barnes_, envoy to reformers at Wittenberg, v. 106;
      sent by the king to invite Melanchthon, 107;
      well received by Elector of Saxony, 107;
      joined by Fox and Hare, 109;
      takes part in negotiating marriage of the king with Anne of Cleves,
          viii. 202;
      appointed to preach at Paul's Cross, superseded by Gardiner, 202;
      preaches, 203;
      reprimanded by the king, 204;
      reads a retractation, and again preaches, 204;
      committed to the Tower, 204;
      with Garret and Jerome and three Papists, burnt at Smithfield,
          227, 228

    _Barton_, Elizabeth [_Maid of Kent_]

    _Basel_, council of, i. 21;
      embassy to Geneva, ii. 390, 392;
      treaty with landgrave of Hesse, 420;
      conferences at, vi. 325; vii. 43, 44

    _Baud_, Claude, syndic of Geneva, attempts to direct Catholic
        rioters, iii. 375;
      plants the city banner, 379;
      refuses to give the signal for attack, 385;
      takes part in consultation for peace, 395; iv. 200;
      searches for Froment, 205

    _Bayfield_, Richard, in prison, iv. 83;
      his martyrdom, 84

    _Beatoun_, David, abbot of Arbroath, negotiates return of his
        uncle, the primate, to St. Andrews, vi. 28;
      one of the judges of Patrick Hamilton, 61;
      accompanies James V. to Paris, 108;
      again in France, made bishop of Mirepoix, 108;
      negotiates marriage of James with Mary of Lorraine, 109;
      his character and aims, 110, 111;
      created cardinal, 111;
      unites with the king against the gospellers and the nobles, 112;
      finds money for the king, 113;
      his arrogance, 113;
      goes to France to seek aid for Scotland, 115;
      persecutes the gospellers, 116 _sqq._;
      demands the burning of Kennedy and Russel, 123;
      succeeds his uncle as primate, 124:
      his persecutions checked by the king, 126;
      holds assembly of prelates and nobles at St. Andrews, 126;
      aims at ruin of Henry VIII., 133;
      prevents interview of James and Henry, 135;
      visits James V. on his death-bed, 149;
      under alleged will of the king claims to be president of the
        council of regency, 153;
      opposes appointment of Arran to the regency, 154;
      appointed chancellor, 155;
      resists scheme for marriage of Mary Queen of Scots with Prince
        Edward of England, 158;
      excluded from the council and imprisoned, 159;
      results of his arrest, 160;
      liberated, 169;
      his intrigues against the regent, 169;
      convokes the clergy, 170;
      induces the regent to refuse the hostages, 171;
      removes the two queens to Stirling, 172;
      receives submission of Arran and absolves him, 174;
      crowns the queen, 175;
      resolves to crush the Reformation, 177;
      goes to Perth, condemns six Protestants to death, 181;
      persecutes them in Forfarshire, 182;
      on appearance of English army at Leith, flies from Edinburgh with
        Arran, 183;
      sets a body of armed men to waylay Wishart, 196;
      imprisons Wishart, 197;
      convokes the bishops, 197;
      arms his men to escort them and Wishart, 198;
      presides at his trial, 198 _sqq._;
      witnesses his martyrdom, 205 _sqq._;
      marries his daughter to David Lindsay, 208;
      quarrels with Norman Lesley, 209;
      a conspiracy formed against him, orders his partisans to meet him
        at Falkland, 209;
      his castle seized by Norman Lesley, 211;
      murdered, 212;
      opinions on the murder, 214

    _Beatoun_, James, primate of Scotland, gathering of the
        Hamiltons in his palace, vi. 16;
      dissensions with the queen-mother and the nobles, 22;
      deprived of the Great Seal by Angus, 23;
      plots with the priests against Angus, 23;
      in concealment in Fifeshire, 24;
      returns to St. Andrews, 28;
      cites Patrick Hamilton before him, 28;
      invites him to a conference, 48;
      cites him on a charge of heresy, 54;
      orders his arrest, 59;
      pronounces sentence on him, 64;
      sanctions imprisonment of Alesius, 78;
      condemns Seaton's doctrines, 88;
      imprisons Thomas Forrest, 92;
      leaves his see to his nephew David, 124

    _Beatrice_ of Portugal, married to duke Charles III., i. 218;
      reception of, at Geneva, 219 _sqq._;
      birth of a son, 234;
      deputation of women to her in behalf of Levrier, 251;
      quits Geneva, 251; ii. 452

    _Beaugency_, ancient custom at, ii. 6

    _Becon_, Thomas, quoted, iv. 162

    _Beda_, syndic of the Sorbonne, advises persecution of
        Lutherans, i. 332, 333;
      reports on Berquin's works, 334;
      principal of Montaigu College, 386;
      attacks Berquin, 403;
      his refutation of Erasmus, 404;
      arrested, 405;
      attacked by Berquin, 406;
      urges persecution of Berquin, 431, 432; ii. 34, 36, 40;
      attacks the professors, 59;
      his charges dismissed by the parliament, 60;
      adopted by the Sorbonne, 60;
      declaims against reformers, 90;
      urges arrest of preachers, 119;
      general in the war against Lutherans, 121;
      sets mendicant friars to work, 121, 122;
      confined to his house by the king's order, 124;
      breaks loose, 125;
      appears before the parliament, 129;
      banished, 130;
      his departure, 133;
      censor of books, 167;
      detects heresy in Margaret's _Mirror_, 167;
      returns to Paris, 230;
      attacks professors of University of Paris, 230;
      demands burning of Roussel and others, 231;
      his debate with Roussel in the prison, 233;
      his _Remonstrance_ read by the king, 233;
      imprisoned, 233;
      accuses the king, iii. 115;
      charged with treason, his imprisonment and death, 116; iv. 40

    _Bell_, Dr., joint commissioner to Oxford University, iv. 33

    _Bellantes_, Antonio, his friendship with Paleario, iv. 439;
      his mother, 440;
        her property stolen by the monks, 440

    _Bellantes_, Faustus, warns Paleario, iv. 441;
      at his trial, 441, 451

    --, Evander, at trial of Paleario, iv. 451

    _Bellegarde_, Sieur de, prepares ambuscade for Levrier, i. 246;
      seizes and takes him to castle of Bonne, 247;
      tortures him, 251;
      treachery to Bonivard, ii. 406;
      envoy to the emperor, iii. 282;
      bribes the grand equerry, 262;
      has audience of Charles V., 263;
      interview with Granvella, 265;
      his letter to the duke, 266;
      his plans against Geneva, 267;
      projects a fortress, 273

    _Bellessert_, Captain, commands one of the bands against
        Lutherans, iii. 378;
      strikes down Philippe, and is wounded by him, 387

    _Bembo_, Pietro, Cardinal, iv. 432, 465, 482

    _Benoit_, Andrew, goes to Geneva, vi. 299
      [_Spirituals_]

    _Berger_, Nicholas, assassinated by Pennet, iv. 233

    _Bergeron_, G., syndic of Geneva, i. 308

    _Bernard_, Carmelite, martyrdom of, vii. 516

    _Bernard_ of Lublin, vii. 422

    _Bernard_, Claude, iii. 277, 296, 314;
      his daughter, 325, 327, 328;
      rescues Froment, 347;
      aids in rescue of Olivétan, 363;
      leads Huguenots in the fight in the Molard, 416;
      receives evangelists into his house, v. 245, 247, 250;
      proposes suppression of the mass, &c., 275

    _Bernard_, Jacques, superior of Franciscans, converted by
        Farel's preaching, iv. 254; v. 251;
      preaches in convent church, 251;
      undertakes a public disputation, 253;
      ten theses, 254, 255, 263;
      at the debate, 265 _sqq._;
      appointed pastor at Geneva, vi. 414

    _Bernard_, John, i. 57, 134, 256; ii. 333

    _Bernard_, Louis, throws off his priestly robes, iv. 283;
      marries, 305;
      writes to Calvin, vii. 14

    _Berne_, i. 154, 155, 182;
      friendly to Geneva, 276, 277;
      embassy to Geneva, 280;
      exiles at, 283;
      receives news of Huguenot triumph at Geneva, 302;
      alliance with Friburg and Geneva, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 310,
        376;
      Genevese and Savoyard deputations to, ii. 307;
      admonishes duke of Savoy, 338;
      warns Geneva, 338;
      triumph of the Scriptures at, 346;
      Bernese Lutherans at Geneva, 385, 390, 392, 400, 420;
      prepares to succour Geneva, 424, 432;
      asks help of Geneva, 442;
      refuses help to Geneva, 445;
      deputies propose renunciation of alliance, 446;
      demands it again, 449;
      Genevese embassy to, 450;
      alliance maintained, 450;
      joint-suzerain of Orbe, iii. 205;
      orders that all fathers of families should attend Farel's
        preaching, 217;
      opens churches at Granson to reformers, 238, 239;
      with Friburg publishes first act of religious liberty in
        Switzerland, 244;
      intervenes in favor of religious liberty at Geneva, 365;
      counter embassies to, from Geneva, 402, 403, 404;
      embassy to Geneva, 428;
      the deputies counsel yielding to the bishop, 453;
      sends Farel to Geneva, iv. 207;
      embassy to Geneva, 215;
      protects the reformers, 216;
        compels opening of a church to them, 219;
      insists upon trial of Furbity, 220;
      deputies assist at his examination, 243 _sqq._, 255;
      farewell of the embassy, 256;
      intervention on behalf of Maisonneuve, 273;
      Genevese embassy to, 309;
      exhorts Savoy and Burgundy to cease hostilities against Geneva,
        317, 318;
      intervenes for Maisonneuve and Janin, 322;
      supports duke of Savoy, 340;
      refuses aid to Geneva, v. 316;
      negotiates with duke of Savoy on its behalf, 360;
      helps Geneva, 372;
      declares war against duke of Savoy, 373;
      march of the army under Nägueli, 374;
      demands sovereignty of Geneva, 397;
      reduction and annexation of Vaud, 398;
      the envoys at Aosta, 450, 451;
      the Bernese take Yverdun, and abolish Romish worship, vi. 229;
      edict issued for disputation at Lausanne, 234;
      ordinances for the Pays de Vaud, 263;
      treaty with Lausanne, 265;
      issues edict of reformation for the Pays de Vaud, 272;
      synod of, 320;
      another synod convoked, 327;
      a patched-up peace, 327;
      another synod, 327 _sqq._;
      deputies of, at Geneva, support the malcontent Huguenots, 340;
      letter to the Reformers, 348;
      an embassy to Geneva promised, 348;
      and not sent, 349;
      sanctions the Genevese confession, 350;
      dismissal of Megander, 367;
      deputation of country pastors to Berne, 367, 368;
      views of Bernese on church and state, 371;
      on worship, 372;
      convoke a synod at Lausanne, 373;
      letters to Calvin and the Council of Geneva, 376;
      letter of the council to the Genevese on behalf of Calvin and
        Farel, 418;
      delegates sent with them to Geneva, 431;
      received by the council, 433;
      dispute about treaty with Geneva, 512;
      a new treaty, 513;
        quarrel about it, 514;
      summons the Genevese to a trial at Lausanne, 516;
      sentence against Geneva, 516;
      proposes fresh discussion, 517

    _Berquin_, Louis, arrested and liberated, i. 332;
      his character, 332;
      preaching in Artois, 332;
      assailed by priests and nobles, 333;
      his books examined by the Sorbonne, 334;
      imprisoned, 335;
      interrogated, 343;
      threatened with the stake, 343;
      proceedings stopped by Francis I., 344;
      partial liberation, 358;
      set free, 377;
      his task, 378;
      resolves to attack the papal power, 403;
      letter to Erasmus, 404;
      rejects advice of Erasmus, 405;
      attacks Beda and the Sorbonne, 406;
      censured by Erasmus, 407;
      abuse of, 431; ii. 30;
      judges appointed to try him, 33;
      Margaret's intercession, 34;
      arrested, 35;
      his letter discovered, 35;
      sentence pronounced, 36;
      appeals, 37;
      efforts of Budaeus, 38;
      a fall and a recovery, 39;
      sentenced to be burnt, 40;
      execution hurried on, 41;
      martyrdom, 43 _sqq._;
      effect on spectators, 44, 55

    _Berthaud_, appointed to preach in Paris, ii. 117;
      his end, 119;
      confined by the king's orders, 125;
      forbidden to preach, 228;
      burning of, demanded by Beda, 231;
      set free, 234;
      arrested, iii. 113;
      before the king, 117;
      sent to a convent, 125

    _Berthelier_, Philibert, Genevese patriot, i. 2;
      his character and aim, 30, 36, 39;
      accepts from the Bastard the government of Peney, 40;
      friendship with Bonivard, 47, 50;
      tears up his commission, 56;
      his school of liberty, 59, 64;
      frustrates attempt of the duke to seize Levrier, 64;
      his intercourse with Bonivard, 66, 67, 68;
      calls a meeting of patriots, 69 _sqq._;
      his exhortation to unity, 70;
      watched by agents of the bishop, 71;
      practical joke about Claude Gros' mule, 73;
      threatened with a fine by the vidame, 74;
      scheme to get rid of him, 76, 80;
      demanded by the bishop, 83;
      warned, 83;
      escapes with the Friburgers, 84;
      the search for him, 84;
      at Friburg, 84;
      his speech to the guilds, 86;
      offered a pardon by the duke, 92;
      alleged to be a 'charmer' 97;
      his return to Geneva, 110;
      promotes the Swiss alliance, 110;
      obstacle to destruction of liberty, 112;
      his trial, 112;
      his energy and devotion, 130, 131;
      his proposition for consultation of patriots, 134;
      his friendship with Marty, of Friburg, 136;
      rouses the Genevese to action, 143;
      tried by the syndics and acquitted by the council, 144;
      rejects bribe offered by the duke, 153, 160, 161, 173, 178, 185;
      the bishop 'watches for' him, 188;
      his serenity, 188;
      his retreat, 188;
      arrested, 189;
      in prison, 190;
      his religious faith, 191;
      refuses to be tried by Desbois, 192;
      proposal to rescue him, 193;
      sentence of death, 195;
      execution, 196;
      procession through Geneva, 196;
      impression produced by his death, 197;
      _sanguis semen_, 198, 213, 282;
      his memory honored, 314; iv. 210

    '_Bésolles war_,' the, i. 181, 207

    _Beyaerts_, Jan, vii. 550, 551;
      removes pictures from the churches, 552;
      arrested, 554, 555

    _Beza_, Theodore, i. 386, 396, 398; ii. 8, 19, 21, 22;
      birth and early life of, first meets Calvin, 23

    _Bible, the_, in French, prohibited in France, i. 342;
      difficulty of obtaining at Paris, ii. 87;
      Latin, of Stephens, 87;
      first French published, v. 272;
      act passed by Scottish parliament for freedom to read, vi. 163
      [_Tyndale_, _Cromwell_, _Cranmer_, and names of various versions]

    _Biderman_, John [_Blanchet_]

    _Billik_, Carmelite, papal delegate at _Ratisbon_, viii. 102

    _Bilney_, Thomas, character and opinions of, iv. 77;
      his preaching, 78;
      friendship with Latimer, 78;
      arrested, 79;
      attempts of monks to convert him, 79;
      his trial, 80;
      condemned, 80;
      his last evening, 81;
      martyrdom, 82, 83, 93

    _Bishopers and Commoners_, at Geneva, ii. 329, 350

    _Bishops_, of England, their reply to petition of the Commons,
        iv. 13, 14;
      the reply criticised, 15;
      resist attack on their privileges, 17;
      their subterfuge, 18;
      alliance with the king against reformers, 72;
      attempt to impose on lower clergy the payment promised to the
        king, 73 _sqq._;
      begin persecution of Lutherans, 77;
      submit to the king, 89;
      their oath at consecration, 89;
      renounce orders of the pope prejudicial to the king, 90;
      election of, regulated, 180;
      declare the papacy a human invention, 181;
      suspension of their jurisdiction, v. 83;
      decline to answer German envoys, viii. 156;
      find a compromise impossible, 180, 181;
      protest against referring the translation of the Bible to the
        universities, 257

    _Bishops_, government by, i. 284, 285;
      arguments for temporal power, iii. 452

    _Bishops_ in Denmark, excluded from the Diet, vii. 220

    '_Bishop's Book_,' the, viii. 261

    _Blancherose_, physician, takes part in disputation at
        Lausanne, vi. 242, 245, 250, 253, 254

    _Blanchet_, i. 69;
      his adventures, 109;
      imprisoned at Turin, 114;
      his examination, 115;
      tortured, 116, 121;
      sentenced to death, 122;
      beheaded, 123;
      treatment of his remains, 123, 124;
      agitation in Geneva, 124, 127, 182

    _Blois_, Roussel and Lefèvre at, i. 363;
      a 'placard' on the king's door, iii. 106

    _Bockhold_ [_John of Leyden_]

    _Bocking_, Friar, instigates imposture of Maid of Kent, v. 8, 9;
      before Star Chamber, 15

    _Bocquet_, Christopher, preaches at Geneva, iii. 329;
        again, 336, 353;
      ordered to leave Geneva, 354

    _Boehmer_, Edward, his researches on the brothers Valder, iv.
        457 _note_, 467 _note_

    _Bohemia_, the Reformation in, vii. 417;
      the Calixtines, 417;
      the Taborites, 417

    _Boiling to death_, penalty for poisoning, iv. 68

    _Bois-le-Duc_, martyrs at, vii. 537

    _Boisseau de la Borderie_, Jean, iii. 46

    _Bologna_, Conference of, ii. 142 _sqq._;
      another congress, iv. 22;
      meeting of Clement VII. and Charles V., 126;
      beginning of reformation at, 451;
      address of evangelicals to John of Planitz, 452

    _Bologna_, University of, appealed to by Henry VIII. on his
        divorce, iv. 40;
      the judgment, 41

    _Boniface VIII._, Pope, ii. 461

    _Boniface_, Cardinal bishop of Ivrea, arrests Curione and his
        friends, iv. 416

    _Bonivard_, Francis, his arrival at Geneva, i. 46;
      birth and education, 46;
      friendship with Berthelier, 47, 50, 57;
      rejects proposal made to him to seize Levrier, 63, 64;
      warns him, 64;
      his character, 67;
      fascinates Berthelier, 67;
      their intercourse and aims, 67, 68;
      his difference with the bishop, 72, 76, 80, 83, 96;
      attempts to save Pécolat, 98;
      resolves to 'bell the cat,' 100;
      gets inhibition of the metropolitan served on the bishop, 100;
      his advice to Pécolat's friends, 103, 104;
      goes to Rome, 117;
      what he saw there, 118;
      fails in his suit for bishopric, 120;
      warned of danger at Turin, 121;
      his flight, 121;
      discouraged, 131, 134, 143, 151, 153;
      his speech in chapter, 157;
      his protest, 159;
      pacifies the people threatening the canons, 160, 161, 168, 169;
      escapes from Geneva, 173, 175;
      betrayed, 185;
      compelled to resign his priory, 186;
      imprisoned by the duke, 186, 191, 199;
      set at liberty, 211, 245, 255, 264;
      his estimate of La Baume, 265;
      restored to his priory, 314;
      advocates expulsion of the prince-bishop, ii. 329, 334, 336;
      detested by papal party, 348;
      threatened with expulsion from his priory, 348;
      his estimate of excommunication, 349;
      reflections on state of Geneva, 352, 353;
      his reply to proposal of Huguenots, 354;
      his fief at Cartigny, 358;
      maintains reciprocity of rights between prince and subject, 358;
      obtains support of the council to his claim, 359;
      takes possession of Cartigny, 360;
      loses it, 360;
      his expedition to recover it, 360;
      his grass mown by Pontverre, 371;
      among the Lutherans, 385;
      his raids to recover his rents, 401;
      fires at the papal proctor, 401;
      illness of his mother, 402;
      obtains safe-conduct to visit her, 403;
      at Seyssel, 403;
      slandered at Geneva, 403;
      perplexity, 404;
      safe-conduct extended, 405;
      proposes to give up his priory, 405;
      at Moudon, 406;
      journey to Lausanne, 406;
      kidnapped, 407;
      imprisoned at Chillon, 408;
      treatment, 408;
      liberation of, demanded and refused, 432;
      incidents of his confinement, v. 399;
      orders given for his death, 400;
      liberated, 401;
      made free of city of Geneva, marries, 416;
      a prediction fulfilled, 417, 418

    _Bonivard_, Jean Aimé, prior of St. Victor, i. 46;
      orders his culverins to be cast into church bells, 47;
      his death, 47

    _Bonner_, Edmund, envoy to Marseilles, iv. 168;
      forces his way into the pope's palace, 169;
      presents the king's appeal to a council, 170;
      threatened by the pope, 173;
      ambassador in France, viii. 177;
      conveys to Cromwell the Bibles printed at Paris, 177;
      appointed bishop of London, 202;
      declares against Cromwell, 211;
      his activity, 237;
      assails Grafton, 238;
      persecutes citizens of London, 238 _sqq._;
      admonitions to his diocese, 257

    _Borthwick_, Sir John, cited before Cardinal Beatoun, escapes
        to England, vi. 127;
      his property confiscated and his effigy burnt, 128;
      withdraws from the court, 168

    _Bothniensis_, Nicolaus, president of assembly at Upsala, vii. 340

    _Bothwell_, Earl of, opens negotiations on the part of Scottish
        nobility with Northumberland, vi. 85;
      withdraws from the court, 168;
      sides with Beatoun, 169;
      prohibits preaching of Wishart in Haddingtonshire, 194;
      arrests him, 196;
      gives him up to the regent, 197

    _Boulet_, Bernard, treasurer of Geneva, i. 257;
      assaulted by Richardet, 258;
      his friends turn it to account, 259;
      reports it to ducal council, 259;
      appears at a general council, 260;
      condemned, 285

    _Bourbon_, Constable of, i. 325, 337

    _Bourges_, University of, ii. 23;
      centre of reformed doctrine, 24, 29;
      declares for divorce of Henry VIII., iv. 40

    _Bouteville_, Prior of, iii. 14, 17

    _Boxley_, fraud of monks at, v. 89

    _Brandenburg_, George, margrave of, vii. 392

    _Brask_, bishop of Linkoping, resolves to suppress the Lutheran
        heresy, vii. 242, 243;
      entreats the pope that Olaf may be sentenced to death, 244, 257;
      his violence, 262;
      remonstrates with Magnus, 263;
      demands trial of the reformers, 263;
      circulates books against them, 264;
      his services to Sweden, 268;
      letters to Gustavus, 268;
      excommunicates Olaf, 268;
      stirs up the people against him, 269;
      censures the primate, 276;
      attends diet of Westeraas, 282;
      at secret meeting of the bishops, instigates opposition to
        reforms, 283;
      gains Thure Joensson, 284;
      his speech at the diet, 287;
      deprived of his castle, 294, 295;
      leaves Sweden, 295;
      his death, 295

    _Brereton_, William, arrested, v. 136;
      examined, 148;
      beheaded, 159

    _Briconnet_, bishop of Meaux, i. 355, 366, 428; ii. 57; iii. 76

    _Brion_, Denis, burnt, iv. 364

    _Brothers_, enmities of, viii. 99;
      love of, 119, 120

    _Brouwart_, Jean de, i. 349

    _Brown_, George, made archbishop of Dublin, v. 131

    _Bruccioli_, translates New Testament into Italian, iv. 410

    _Bruly_, Pierre, preaches at Ghent, vii. 546;
      removes to Strasburg, 547

    _Brunswick_, beginning of reformation at, viii. 319;
      evangelical preaching decreed, 319;
      organization by Pomeranus, 320

    _Brussels_, the reformation at, vii. 565;
      persecution, 568 _sqq._

    _Bucer_, reformer, his qualifications as peacemaker, ii. 02;
      his confidence in Margaret, 63;
      letter to Luther, 63, 88, 89, 183;
      interview with William Du Bellay, 245;
      mission of Chelius to, 263;
      his proposals examined before Francis I., 264 _sqq._; iii. 67;
      his opinion of Servetus, 86, 150, 152, 153, 154;
      with Calvin visits Erasmus, 156;
      condemns divorce of Henry VIII., iv. 42, 349, 352, 353;
      prepares to go to France, 361;
      his works read in Italy, 408;
      joint envoy to Henry VIII., v. 118;
      proposes a conference with Calvin, vi. 275;
      advocates union of Lutherans and Zwinglians, 324;
      defended by Myconius and Grynæus at Basel, 325;
      gets another synod held at Berne, 327;
      with Capito goes to Berne, 327;
      his views, 328;
      agrees to Calvin's view of the sacrament, 329;
      revises Megander's catechism, 366;
      attends synod of Zürich, 422;
      invites Calvin to Strasburg, 445;
      acquaintance with Juan Diaz, viii. 101;
      delegate to conference of Ratisbon, 102;
      writes to Cranmer, 147, 187

    _Buchanan_, George, sent to Paris, vi. 16;
      his epitaph on Madeleine of Valois, 108;
      account of him, 118;
      imprisoned, 119;
      escapes to France, 119

    _Buckmaster_, Dr., vice-chancellor of Cambridge University,
        iv. 29, 30, 31, 37;
      presents the sentence on the divorce to the king, 37;
      conference with the king, 38

    _Budaeus_, William, ii. 9;
      one of the judges on trial of Berquin, 36;
      tries to save him, 38 _sqq._, 40, 50, 65, 140;
      present at torture of De la Croix, 242; iv. 393

    _Budé_, Matthew, goes with Juan Diaz to Geneva, viii. 101

    _Bugenhagen_ [_Pomeranus_]

    _Bullinger_, iv. 353; vi. 323; vii. 23; viii. 144, 145;
      dedicates works to Henry VIII., 146, 147

    _Bulls, papal_, proclamation of Henry VIII. against, iv. 44

    _Burgos_, viii. 38, 41

    _Burgundians_, at Geneva, i. 9;
      compilation of code, i. 9;
      first and second kingdoms of the, 9

    _Burgundy_, Marshal of, takes part with Savoy in advance on
        Geneva, iv. 310, 315

    _Burrey_, Denis, governor to Erick, son of Gustavus Vasa, vii. 325,
        326;
      goes in search of Erick and is slain by his order, 329

    _Bursinel_, meeting of knights at, Order of the Spoon instituted,
        ii. 355

    _Butler_, John, writes to Bullinger, viii. 198
      [_Students, English_]

    _Cadan_, peace of, ii. 255; iv. 373

    _Cadena_, Louis of, opposes scholasticism, viii. 16;
      his exile, 17

    _Cajetan_, Cardinal, sent into Hungary, vii. 351

    _Calcagnini_, Celio, iv. 427

    _Calixtines_, the, in Bohemia, vii. 417;
      correspond with Luther, 418, 421;
      the majority adopt his views, 421

    _Calmar_, blockaded by the Danes, vii. 246

    _Calmar_, Union of, vii. 121;
      violated by Sweden, 128;
      dissolved, 257

    _Calvi_, bookseller of Pavia, circulates the works of the reformers,
        iv. 407, 408

    _Calvin_, i. 2, 4;
      distinction between his reformation and that of Luther, 4;
      his influence on politics, 4;
      his disciples in foreign countries, 5;
      founder of American republic, 5;
      the charge of despotism against him, 5;
      his plea for Servetus, 6;
      his work, 68, 317;
      his great idea, 319;
      the complete reformer, 321;
      his origin, 322;
      compared with Margaret of Angoulême, 323 _sqq._;
      enters college of La Marche, 381;
      influence of Mathurin Cordier on him, 382, 383;
      removes to Montaigu College, 384;
      a Spanish professor, 385;
      classical studies, 385;
      his moral and devout character, 386;
      a strict Romanist, 386;
      a hard student, 386;
      has a benefice, visits Noyon, 387;
      first breath of the new Gospel, 387;
      friendship with Olivétan, 388;
      chronology of his student life obscure, 388;
      intercourse with Olivétan, 389;
      resists Olivétan's innovations in religion, 389;
      secret struggles, 390;
      alarm of his teachers, 390;
      confession to the priest, 391;
      distress of mind, 391;
      conversion, 394;
      reverence for church authority, 396;
      investigates claims of the pope of Rome, 397;
      longing for unity with truth, 398;
      results of his conversion, 398;
      its date, 399;
      shyness and reserve, 400;
      his father's grief and plan, 400, 401;
      consents to study law, 401, 404

    --, goes to Orleans, ii. 1;
      enters household of Duchemin, 2;
      falls under influence of L'Etoile, 3, 4, 5;
      proctor of the Picard nation, 6;
      demands the _maille de Florence_ at Beaugency, 6;
      a close student, 7;
      visits house of F. Daniel, 8;
      acquaintance with Wolmar begins, 9;
      studies Greek, 10;
      his fellowship with Wolmar, 11;
      inward struggles, 11;
      accused of schism, 12;
      sympathy with the Psalmist, 12;
      phases of his conversion, 14;
      renunciation of the world, 15;
      his motto, 16;
      his great qualities recognized, 16;
      study of the Bible and of the law, 17;
      sought as a teacher, 17;
      teaches in families, 18;
      called to Noyon, 20;
      his father's illness, 20 _sqq._;
      his first extant letter, 21;
      first meeting with Beza, 22;
      goes to Bourges, 23;
      reads works of Luther and Melanchthon, 24;
      Wolmar's appeal to him, 25;
      hesitation, 25;
      preaches, 27;
      intrigues of priest, 28;
      again called to Noyon, his father's death, 29, 47, 48;
      curé of Pont l'Evêque, 49;
      preaches, 49;
      goes to Paris, 50, 51;
      his visitors, 51 _sqq._;
      visit to a nunnery, 52;
      social habits, 54;
      renounces the law, 54;
      speaks at secret meetings, 55;
      his extensive correspondence, 56;
      returns to Paris, 58;
      observant of the Sorbonne, 60;
      works in obscurity, 61;
      his activity, 87;
      rejects Daniel's proposal of office in Roman church, 84;
      his commentary on Seneca, 85;
      publishes it, 86;
      form of his name, 86;
      makes his book known, 87;
      a search for Bibles, 87;
      interview with a young 'Frondeur,' 89;
      writes to Bucer, 89;
      intercourse with La Forge, 90;
      with Tillet, 91;
      abstinence, 92;
      first intercourse with Margaret of Navarre, 93;
      declines to enter her service, 93;
      quoted, 123;
      preaches at Paris, 138, 176, 178, 183, 184;
      his labors at Paris, 198;
      writes address for Cop to deliver, 199;
      the address, 199;
      his idea of a universal church, 202;
      in favor with Margaret, 205;
      interview with her, 205;
      his arrest ordered by the parliament, 209;
      escapes, 210;
      recognized on his way, 211;
      in concealment, 212, 262;
      his narrative of conversion of the provostess of Orléans,
        272 _sqq._

    --, flight, iii. 4;
      received by Du Tillet, 6;
      his _Doxopolis_, 8;
      his studies, 9;
      sketches his _Christian Institutes_, 10;
      combats materialism, 12;
      love of nature, 13;
      teaches Greek, 14;
      visits prior of Bouteville, 15;
      conferences, 16;
      sermons, 18;
      preaches in Latin, 18;
      visits Roussel, 22;
      visits Lefèvre, 23;
      goes to Poitiers, 44;
      attends disputations at the university, 45;
      his friends, 47;
      his teaching, 47;
      visits the lieutenant-general, 48;
      in the garden, 48;
      his grotto, 51;
      view of the mass, 52, 53;
      sends evangelists into France, 58;
      care for the young, 60;
      leaves Poitiers, 64;
      renunciation of Roman orders, 64, 65;
      goes to Paris, 66;
      saddened, 77;
      first contact with the Spirituals, 78;
      attacks them, 81, 82;
      encounters Servetus, 86;
      agrees to conference with him, 87;
      Servetus absents himself, 87;
      first theological work, _Psychopannychia_, 88;
      his bitterness, 89;
      leaves Paris, 91;
      reaches Strasburg, 91;
      comments on procession of relics, 127 _sqq._;
      his mission, 149;
      received by Zell, 150;
      friendships, 153;
      his estimate of Strasburg reformers, 153;
      meets Erasmus at Friburg, 156;
      goes to Basel, 157;
      received by Catherine Klein, 157;
      silent growth, 159;
      friendships, 160;
      his book on _Immortality_ criticised, 161;
      translation of New Testament, 162;
      hears of persecution at Paris, 163;
      his plea for compassion, 163;
      effect of the martyrdoms on him, 169;
      resolves to publish his _Institutes_, 170;
      goes to the fountain head, 171;
      account of the _Institutes_, 172, 180;
      letter to the king, 182;
      publication of the _Institutes_, 191;
      starts for Italy, 192;
      his object, 193;
      agreement of Luther and Calvin, 368;
      in preparation for Geneva, 458

    --, his influence in England, iv. 2;
      condemns divorce of Henry VIII., 42;
      his place in the Reformation, 208;
      protests against union with popery, 353;
      writes to Francis I., 383;
      welcomes Caraccioli at Geneva, 464;
      expected at Ferrara, 489

    --, expected at Ferrara, v. 421;
      arrives at Ferrara, 421;
      his interviews with the duchess, 422, 423;
      preaches, 426;
      his portrait painted by Titian, 431;
      intercourse with Master François, 431 _sqq._;
      his letter to Duchemin, 436, 437;
      writes to Roussel, 439 _sqq._;
      his influence in Italy, 441;
      arrested by the Inquisition, 444;
      rescued, 445;
      his wanderings, 446;
      reaches Aosta, 447, 451;
      'Calvin's farm,' 452, 453;
      monuments of his flight, 454;
      returns to France, 455;
      at Noyon, 455;
      arrives at Geneva, 456;
      meeting with Farel, 458;
      consents to stay at Geneva, 462;
      visits Basel, 463;
      his vocation as reformer, 464;
      his concession to the state, 465;
      his place in history, 466 _sqq._;
      mention of him in a council minute, 469

    --, his arrival at Geneva, vi. 221;
      refuses any official charge, 222;
      reader in holy Scripture, 222;
      character of his teaching, 223;
      his view of church discipline, 225;
      retained by advice of the council, 228;
      goes with Farel to Lausanne, 228, 236;
      his speeches at the disputation, 247, 255;
      begins to take part in church government, 273;
      his work compared with Luther's and Zwingli's, 275;
      elected pastor at Geneva, 276;
      biographies of him, 276 _note_;
      prepares a catechism, 280, 281;
      and a confession of faith, 282;
      his memoir on order in the church, 285 _sqq._;
      requires that all should profess the reformed faith, 292;
      encounters the Spirituals, 299 _sqq._;
      intervenes between Viret and Caroli at Lausanne, 300, 307;
      accused of Arianism by Caroli, 308;
      his reply, 309;
      avoids use of the term 'Trinity,' 310;
      writes to Megander, 312;
      goes to Berne, urges assembly of a synod, 312;
      at synod of Lausanne, 313;
      unmasks Caroli, 315;
      his confession on the Trinity, 315;
      his views of the early creeds, 317;
      confronts Caroli at synod of Berne, 320;
      his speech at another synod, lays the storm between Zwinglians
        and Lutherans, 331, 332;
      gains support of the civil power in church affairs, 333;
      pleads for the hospitals and the schools, 334;
      proposes compulsory swearing to the confession of faith, 337;
      at the council, 347;
      goes to Berne, vindicates himself and the reformers, 348;
      applies to the council for their support, 350;
      proposes to the council to exclude the disturbers from the Lord's
        Supper, 352;
      difference with Du Tillet, 356;
      blames the proceedings of the government and is warned to let it
        alone, 364;
      writes to Bucer, 370;
      excluded by Berne from colloquies of the Vaudois, 372;
      sent with Farel and Jean Philippe to synod of Lausanne, 373;
      has conference with Bernese delegates, 375;
      before the council, 377, 378;
      protests against imprisonment of Courault, 383;
      refuses to accept order for adoption of Bernese usages, and is
        forbidden to preach, 386;
      his perplexity, 389, 390;
      with Farel declines to administer the supper, 392;
      his embarrassment, 392, 393;
      preaches, 398, 399;
      a disturbance in the church, 401;
      banished, 403;
      is refused a hearing by the council, 405;
      sentence of the general council, 406;
      his reflections, 408;
      leaves Geneva, 409;
      goes to Berne, 416;
      with Farel complains to the council, 416, 417;
      at synod of Zürich, 421 _sqq._;
      his demands, 422;
      returns to Berne, 426;
      interview with Kunz, 427;
      before the senate, 429;
      reconducted to Geneva by Bernese, 431;
      banished by vote of general council, 439;
      at Berne, 441;
      at Basel, 442;
      at Strasburg, 445;
      returns to Basel, 446;
      settles at Strasburg, 447;
      his letter to the Genevese, 453;
      his position at Strasburg, 456, 457, 458;
      pastor and teacher, 459, 460;
      his view of the Lord's Supper, 461;
      his poverty, 462;
      at Frankfort, 473;
      meets Melanchthon, 474 _sqq._;
      replies to Sadoleto, 487 _sqq._;
      intercourse with Caroli, 498;
      refuses to return to Geneva, 504;
      household troubles, 504;
      marriage projects, 505, 506;
      Idelette de Bure, 508;
      married, 509;
      difference between wives of Luther and Calvin, 510;
      attends assembly at Hagenau, 511;
      fruits of exile, 526

    --, his recall desired, vii. 3;
      letter to his friends, 3, 4, 5;
      his perplexity, 6, 9, 10;
      deputy to conference at Worms, 7;
      receives letter of recall, 8;
      his reply to Geneva, 10, 11;
      meets Melanchthon and Cruciger at Worms, 15;
      friendship with Melanchthon, 15 _sqq._;
      his Song of Victory, 19;
      deputy to diet of Ratisbon, 21;
      letter to Bernard, 21;
      loses his friend Feray, 23;
      his estimate of Contarini, 25;
      his part at Ratisbon, 26;
      his reply to manifesto of the papacy, 27-36;
      resists concessions made by the Protestants, 37;
      writes against reference to a council, 38;
      his moderation, 39;
      complains of the princes, 40;
      leaves Ratisbon, 41;
      at Strasburg, 42;
      edict of expulsion revoked, 43;
      writes to Farel, 47;
      leaves Strasburg, 48;
      visits Farel at Neuchâtel, 49;
      returns to Geneva, 51;
      his house there, 52, 53;
      benefit of his Strasburg life, 53;
      before the council, 54, 55;
      colleagues appointed to draw up with him articles of a
        constitution of a church, 55, 56;
      his project of the ordinances, 60;
      his desire for frequent communion, 74;
      limits of his responsibility for ecclesiastical ordinances, 80, 81;
      his active duties, 82;
      his preaching, 82;
      his method, 83;
      his sermon to young men, 86;
      on fitful devotion, 87;
      on self-love, 88;
      on grace unbounded, 90;
      on predestination, 92;
      his impartiality, 103;
      efforts for peace, 104;
      gentleness and strength, 105;
      loses his friend Porral, 110;
      illness of his wife, 110;
      reconciles Pierre Tissot and his mother, 112, 113;
      his place in the Reformation, 115 _sqq._;
      his doctrines moderate, 117;
      compared with Zwinglius, 117;
      his desire for union, 118

    --, correspondence with Enzinas, viii. 98;
      visited by English students, 144;
      his view of the _Six Articles_, 189

    _Cambray_, treaty of, ii. 61

    _Cambray_, bishop of, his cruelties, iii. 437

    _Cambridge_, University of, appealed to by Henry VIII. on his
        divorce, iv. 30;
      meeting of the doctors, &c., 30;
      a committee appointed, 31;
      sentence, 32;
      disowns primacy of the pope, v. 20

    _Camillo_, Giulio, invited to Paris by Francis I., iii. 74

    _Campbell_, Alexander, prior of the Dominicans, his interviews
        with Patrick Hamilton, vi. 52;
      reports them to Beatoun, 53;
      accuses him on his trial, 62;
      insults him at the stake, 67;
      dies mad, 68

    _Campbell_, John, of Cessnock, protects Lollards, vi. 6;
      denounced by monks, 7;
      acquitted by James IV., 8

    _Campeggio_, papal legate, ii. 144;
      deprived of See of Salisbury, iv. 180;
      at diet of Nürnberg, 410, 411;
      reclaims see of Salisbury, v. 173

    _Canaye_, Jacques, iii. 75

    _Canirmius_, Frederick, vii. 500

    _Canons_, i. 157;
      conspiracy of, at Geneva, 311;
      imprisoned, ii. 326;
      liberated, 331;
      quit Geneva, 332

    _Canterbury_, visitation of, v. 85, 86;
      state of the monasteries, 86, 87

    _Capito_, i. 361, 380; ii. 246; iii. 150, 153, 154, 244;
      writes to Calvin, vi. 275;
      at synod of Berne, 329;
      agrees to Calvin's view of the sacrament, 332;
      attends synod of Zürich, 421;
      approves the course taken by Farel and Calvin, 424, 425;
      his distress, 464;
      dedicates a book to Henry VIII., viii. 147

    _Cappel_, battle of, ii. 256, 442;
      announced at Geneva, 444; iii. 166

    _Caraccioli_, Galeazzo, iv. 464;
      friendship with Caserta, 464;
      converted, goes to Geneva, 464;
      made cardinal, v. 64

    _Caraffa_, Giovanni Pietro, Cardinal, iv. 476, 479, 482;
      made cardinal, 487; viii. 149

    _Cardinals_, college of, refuses consent to papal gift of
        Geneva to Savoy, i. 52;
      hats asked for by Charles V., Francis I., and Henry VIII., ii. 162

    _Carlstadt_, invited by Christian II., goes to Denmark, vii. 133;
      offends by his violent speech and is dismissed, 135, 136

    _Carmentrant_, a creature of the Bastard of Savoy, i. 71, 72, 112

    _Carne_, Sir E., envoy with Revett to the pope, v. 3, 4;
      interview with Du Bellay at Bologna, 4;
      too late, 5

    _Carnesecchi_, Pietro, among friends of Valdez, iv. 473;
      character and career of, 473;
      his power under Clement VII., 474;
      goes to Naples, has interview with Charles V., 473;
      religious decision, 476, 477, 479, 480

    _Caroli_, Peter, escapes to Switzerland, iii. 123;
      accounts of, v. 259;
      Farel's interview with him, 261;
      offers himself as umpire at a disputation, 262;
      takes part in disputation, 266 _sqq._;
      at disputation of Lausanne, vi. 243 _sqq._;
      made first pastor of Lausanne by the Bernese, 265;
      his career and character, 303, 304;
      between Rome and the Gospel, 304;
      quarrels with Viret, 305;
      condemned to made a retractation, 307;
      but is spared, 307;
      his ambition, 307;
      accuses Calvin and others of Arianism, 308;
      retracts the charge, 311;
      unmasked and condemned at synod of Lausanne, 314, 318;
      appeals to Berne, 318;
      agitation caused by the debates, 319, 320;
      at synod of Berne, exposed by Farel, 321, 322;
      deprived of his functions and banished, 322;
      his flight, 322;
      turns to the reformers, vi. 498;
      at Strasburg, 498;
      goes to Metz, 499;
      his death, 499

    _Carranza_, Bartholomeus, birth and early life of, viii. 112, 113;