effect an even distribution of the feed from the hopper to the furnace
by causing the hopper to revolve. To this end the latter is provided
with an ingenious mechanism which only comes into operation as the car
descends. After every charge shot into the hopper the latter is revolved
a few degrees, and this has the effect of giving the delivery of the
next load in another direction, so that the charges of the skip are in
turn distributed over the whole area of the surface. This is deemed a
most essential point in furnace-charging, and it is not one of the least
recommendations of this mechanical system of furnace-charging that it
can give an even feed without any hand labour whatever. A double hoist
has been designed which has the advantage that if one elevator breaks
down the work of the furnace is not interrupted. In this system two
furnaces are connected at the top by a gantry or bridge, against which,
between the furnaces, two inclined elevators are set, so that each can
serve either furnace. The skips are on wheels and detachable from the
elevator, and are loaded from the ore pockets at the lower terminal and
drawn up on a cradle; as this reaches the top where the rails on the
gantry correspond with the gauge of the skip or car, the latter is
carried by its own weight down a slight incline to either furnace,
discharging its contents as it passes over the conical mouth. Another
advantage claimed for this system is that the rails of the cradle, when
in its lowest position, correspond with the rails which lie parallel to
the furnaces and run right under the store bins from which the skip is
loaded. The economy to be realized from a furnace hoist will be in
direct proportion to the use made of mechanical means of feed
conveyance. For instance, the store bins in connexion with such
elevators might be economically fed by suitable conveyors, or the
material might be brought in self-unloading hoppered trucks into
conveniently placed bins, ready to be drawn into the skips.

_Ropeways._--A ropeway has been defined as that method of handling
material which consists of drawing buckets on ropes, and by means of
ropes, such buckets being filled with the material to be handled and
being automatically or otherwise discharged. At what period of history
ropeways were first used it is impossible to say, but the fact that
pulley blocks, and even wire ropes, were known to the ancients, renders
a pedigree of 2000 years at least possible. In more modern days, an old
engraving shows a single ropeway in working order in 1644 in the city of
Danzig. This, the work of Adam Wybe, a Dutch engineer, was a single
ropeway in its simplest form, consisting of an endless rope passing over
pulleys suspended on posts; to the rope were attached a number of small
buckets, which evidently carried earth from a hill outside the city to
the rampart inside the moat. The rope was probably of hemp. Modern
ropeways worked with wire ropes date from about 1860, when a ropeway was
erected in the Harz Mountains. Since then several systems have been
evolved, but in the main ropeways may be divided into the single and
double rope class.

The ropeway is essentially an intermittent conveyor, the material being
carried in buckets or skips, and practice has proved it an economical
means of handling heavy material. The prime cost of a ropeway is usually
moderate, though of course it varies with the ground and other local
conditions. Working expenses should be low, because under the
supervision of one competent engineer unskilled labour is quite
sufficient. A ropeway may be carried over ground over which rails could
only be laid at enormous cost. To a certain extent ropeways are
independent of weather conditions, because their working need not be
interrupted even by heavy snowfalls. Their construction is very simple,
and there is little gear to get out of order. Sound workmanship and good
material will ensure a relatively long life. As an instance, a certain
rope in a Spanish ropeway tested new to a breaking strain of 29½ tons
was shown after carrying 160,000 tons (in two years' incessant work)
still to possess a breaking strain of 27½ tons. The power absorbed by a
ropeway is relatively moderate, and under special conditions may be nil.
The only demand it makes on the superficial area of the ground traversed
is the small emplacements of the standards, which in modern ropeways are
few and far between. Wayleaves, or the permission to erect standards and
run the line over private land, may of course mean an item in the
capital outlay. This circumstance may have checked ropeway construction
in Great Britain, but it must also be borne in mind that a large portion
of that country is comparatively level and well provided with railways.
In building a ropeway it is essential to take as straight a line as
possible, because curves generally necessitate angle stations, which
mean extra capital and working cost. On the other hand, ground that
would be difficult for the railway engineer, such as steep hills, deep
valleys and turbulent streams, has no terror for the ropeway erector.
There is a case of a ropeway of a total length of 5400 ft. with a total
difference in altitude of 2000 ft.; it is claimed this ground could not
be covered by a railway with less than 15 m. of line graded at 1 in 40.

  Perhaps the simplest type of a single rope system is an endless
  running rope from which the carriers are suspended, and with which
  they move by frictional contact. Or the carriers may be fixed to this
  rope and move with it. The ropeway itself would consist of an endless
  rope running between two drums, one, known as the driving drum, being
  provided with power receiving and transmitting gear, while the drum at
  the opposite terminal would be fitted with tightening gear. The
  endless rope is carried on suitable pulleys which themselves are
  supported on standards or trestles spaced at intervals varying with
  the nature of the ground. The rope runs at an average speed of 4 m.
  per hour, a speed at which the bucket or skip can automatically unload
  itself. In the double ropeway the carrier runs on a fixed rope, which
  takes the place of the rails of a railway. The carrier is fitted with
  running heads furnished with grooved steel wheels. The load is borne
  by a hanger pivoted from the carrier, and is conveyed along the rail
  rope by an endless hauling rope at an average speed of 4 to 6 m. per
  hour. The hauling is operated by driving gear at one end, and
  controlled by tightening gear at the other end just as in the single
  rope system. Double ropeways have been carried in one section over 18
  to 20 m., and will transport single loads of 6 cwt. to a ton or more.

  Broadly speaking, the single ropeway is not so suitable for heavy
  loads and long distances as the double, but in this connexion the work
  of Ropeways Limited should be noted, which favours a single rope
  system. Their engineer, J. Pearce Roe, introduced multiple sheaves for
  supporting the rope at each standard. Thus the rope may pass over one,
  two or four sheaves, which are provided with balance beams that have
  the advantage of adjusting themselves to the angle caused by the rope
  passing over the sheaves, thus equalizing the pressure over a number
  of sheaves. A ropeway erected on this system in Japan spans 4000 yds.
  of very broken ground; yet only 17 trestles are used, and as each
  support is placed as high as possible, no one is of great height. An
  altitude of 1130 ft. is reached in a distance of 1200 yds. The ropeway
  has a daily carrying capacity of 60 tons in one direction and of 30
  tons in the other. Another installation on this system, which serves
  an iron mine in Spain, spans 6500 yds. of very rough country, so steep
  that in many places the sure-footed mule cannot keep on the track.
  This ropeway can deal with 85 tons per hour. The greatest distance
  covered by this system, on one section, is 7100 yds., or about 4 m.,
  and the carrying capacity is 45 tons per hour.

  The motive power required for a ropeway will vary with the conditions.
  In cases of descending loads the power generated is sometimes so
  considerable as to render it available for driving other machinery, or
  it may have to be absorbed by some special brake device. In a ropeway
  in Japan of 1800 yds., which runs mostly at an incline of 1 in 1½, the
  force generated is absorbed by a hydraulic brake the revolving fan of
  which drives the water against fixed vanes which repel and heat it. In
  this way, 50 h.p. is absorbed and the speed brought under the control
  of a hand brake.

_Aerial Cableways._--The aerial cableway is a development of the
ropeway, and is a conveyor capable of hoisting and dumping at any
desired point. The load is carried along a trackway consisting of a
single span of suspended cable, which covers a comparatively short
distance. The trackway may either run in a more or less horizontal
direction, i.e. the terminals may be on the same level, or it may be
inclined at such an angle that the load will descend by gravity. The
trackway or rail rope rests upon saddles of iron or hard wood on the
tops of terminal supports, usually known as towers. These towers may be
constructed either of wood or iron, and if the exigencies of the work
render it desirable, they may be mounted on trolleys and rails, in which
case the cableway is rendered portable, and can be moved about,
sometimes a great advantage in excavating work. The motive power may be
either steam, gas, or electricity. The motor is situated in what is
termed the head tower, which is sometimes a little higher than the other
or tail tower. Sometimes, but not frequently, the latter is also fitted
with a motor. The span between the two towers sometimes extends to 2000
ft., but this is exceptional. Very heavy loads are dealt with, sometimes
as much as 8 tons in a single load. The load, which may be carried in a
skip or a tray, is borne by an apparatus called the carrier, which is a
modification of a running head, consisting of pulleys and blocks and
running along the main cable or trackway. The carrier is also fitted
with pulleys or guides for the dump line. The carrier is drawn along the
main cable by an endless or hauling rope which passes from the carrier
over the head tower and is wound several times round the drum of the
winding engine to secure frictional hold, then back over the head tower,
to the tail tower, returning to the rear end of the carrier. The
hoisting rope passes from the engine to the fall block for raising the
load. The dump line comes from the other side of the winding engine drum
and passes to a smaller block attached to the rear end of the skip or
tray. The whole weight of the skip is borne by the hoisting rope, while
the dump line comes in slack, but at the same rate of speed. Whenever it
is desired to dump the load, the dump line is shifted to a section of
the drum having a slightly larger diameter, and being thus drawn in at a
higher rate of speed the load is discharged. The engine is then
reversed, and the carriage brought back for the next load.

This is in outline the mode of operating all cableways. This appliance
has rendered great service as a labour saver in navvying, quarrying and
mining work; in placer-mining, for instance, cableways have been found
very useful when fitted with a self-filling drag bucket, which will take
the place of a great number of hands. Cableways can be worked at a great
speed, but a good mean speed would be 500 to 750 ft. for conveying and
200 to 300 ft. for hoisting. A cableway used in excavating work in
Chicago was credited with a capacity of 400 to 600 cub. yds. per day at
a total cost of 2d. per yard, including labour, coal, oil, waste, &c.

_Coaling Ships at Sea._--In the coaling of ships at sea the cableway has
rendered great service. The conditions under which this operation has to
be carried out present many difficulties, especially in rough water. One
of the chief obstacles is the maintenance of the necessary tension on
the cable used in conveying the coal from the collier to the ship. The
first test in coaling ships at sea, made by the British admiralty, took
place in 1890 in the Atlantic at a point 500 m. south of the Azores in
water 2000 fathoms deep. Ten ships of war were coaled, each vessel
taking enough coal to enable it to steam back to Torbay, 1800 m. away.
In this case the collier was lashed alongside the battleship it was
feeding, thick fenders being interposed to prevent damage, but
nevertheless as the colliers got light they pitched considerably, and
one or two sustained dents in their sides. The ships did not roll, being
kept bows-on to the swell, which became heavy before the coaling was
completed. The coal was taken in by derricks at the main deck ports. It
is clear that had the sea been really rough coaling in this fashion
would have been impossible.

The most practicable method of coaling at sea yet devised is the marine
cableway of Spencer Miller, which has been tried with some success in
the American navy. It is intended for use between vessels 350 to 500 ft.
apart. The ship being coaled takes the collier in tow, steaming at the
rate of 4 to 8 knots; it has been found that a speed of five knots in
moderately rough water will keep the cableway taut and maintain a
sufficient distance between the crafts. The collier is fitted with an
engine having double cylinders and double friction drums, which is
placed just abaft the foremast. A steel rope ¾ in. in diameter is led
from one drum over a pulley at the mast head and thence to a pulley at
the head of shear-poles on the vessel being coaled, and brought back to
the other drum. The engine moves in the same direction all the time and
keeps on winding in both the strands of the conveying rope. Should the
two vessels increase the distance between them during the operation of
conveying the coal bags, of which two, weighing 420 lb each, may be
fastened to the carrier, the extra rope called for is obtained by
slipping the upper strand from the drum; this increases the speed of the
upper cable. On the other hand should the distance between the vessels
be reduced, this operation is reversed, the speed of the upper strand
being reduced. To keep the carriage steady on its return empty, a rope,
known as the sea-anchor line, is stretched above the two strands of the
conveyor line, and under a pulley on the carriage. This cable is
attached to the vessel, resting on a saddle on the shear head, whence it
leads through the carriage over pulleys at the head of the foremast and
mainmast of the collier, running on astern several hundred feet into the
sea. A drag or sea-anchor, usually made of canvas and cone-shaped, is
attached to the end of this rope. This anchor is used to support the
empty carriage on its return to the collier. The diameter of the cone's
base is graduated to the speed of the vessels. Thus in a smooth-water
test, with a ship steaming at 6 knots, one 7 ft. in diameter was used,
while the same anchor answered its purpose very well with a ship doing 5
knots in rough water.

The results given by this system of coaling at sea are relatively
satisfactory. Tests made in the United States navy showed that 20 to 25
tons of coal per hour could be delivered by a collier to a war-vessel
during a moderate gale. As the ship was under steam all the time and
consumed 3 to 4 tons of coal per hour, the balance of the coal bunkered
amounted to between 16 and 20 tons per hour, or say 384 tons in 24
hours. It has been suggested that under service conditions the speed of
the towing vessel might be increased to 8 or 10 knots an hour; this
would of course increase the coal consumption unless the collier
proceeded under her own steam. But in such a case the space between the
two crafts might be diminished, which would have the effect of causing
the cable to sag and of stopping the work, since the conveyor cable to
act properly must be kept taut. In Great Britain the Temperley
Transporter Company have taken up this method of coaling at sea, working
in collaboration with Spencer Miller, and have introduced several
improvements in detail. Their system has been tried by the British
admiralty.

The coaling of a large vessel by this appliance has the advantage of
economizing hand labour. One man is required to work the hoist on the
collier, while 20 men will be in the hold filling the bags and
delivering them to the deck, where 15 or so will transfer the bags to
the lift. One or two men suffice for the overhead work; their station is
in the trestle trees. On board the receiving ship a few men will be
stationed at the shear head to empty the bags into a canvas shoot, and
then return them, while there will be the usual force of bunker
trimmers. A ton of coal per minute has been transferred from the collier
to the vessel, but for this capacity the ships must not be too far
apart, else the rope would not remain taut under such loads. During the
Russo-Japanese War, many of the Russian battleships were coaled by means
of aerial cableways. The coaling of vessels in this manner seems a
success, but it would be desirable to increase the carrying capacity of
the cableway or to duplicate the installations.

_Telpherage._--A telpher ropeway or cableway may be defined as a ropeway
or cableway worked and controlled electrically, only a rail rope being
required besides the live rail or wire from which the electric current
is taken. Telpherage was devised by Professor Fleeming Jenkin in 1881,
and developed by him in conjunction with Professors W. E. Ayrton and J.
Perry. The telpher itself consists of a light two-wheeled truck,
carrying the driving motors, which, to avoid gearing or other
complicated mechanism, are usually coupled directly to the axles of the
telpher. Thus the telpher is a self-propelled electric carrier running
on a mono-rail, which, according to the conditions, may be a steel rail
or a steel cable. From the telpher are suspended carriers which can be
adapted to any kind of material. In many cases the whole load may be
suspended from the telpher, or the load, especially if of some length,
may be supported at one end by a telpher, and at the other end by what
is known as a trailer, or again, two telphers may be installed, one at
each end of the load. The telpher carries a small trolley sheave or bow
which serves to collect the current from a trolley wire stretched a
little above the rail. Frequently the telpher is accompanied by an
attendant who manipulates it, but by dividing the trolley wire into
sections any system of telpherage may be constructed to work
automatically, and by switching off the current from the section in
which the telpher is required to stop it can be brought to a standstill
at any required point. The speed of the telpher may be readily regulated
by the introduction of a resistance between any section of the line and
the supply of electricity. The speed may be high, as much as 1500 ft.
per minute over the straight portions of the line, but slackened at
curves and loading stations, or when approaching a terminus. The
required power may be obtained from the mains of an ordinary electric
supply with either direct or alternating current, but the former is
preferable. The mean expenditure of power in a working day is said to
average (including electrical hoisting) 1 H.P. per ton of average load.

The uses of telpherage are many and various. In factories and
warehouses, where the buildings are scattered, it has been installed
with excellent results. Being essentially an overhead system, there is a
saving of floor space, the ground not being obstructed by trucks or
trolleys. The same reasons which render ropeways an economical means of
handling such material as coal, ore, stone, slate, &c., between the mine
or quarry and the rail or barge, may be adduced in favour of telpherage.
For the unloading of railway trucks in a crowded goods-yard it is
undoubtedly applicable. Any kind of tipping or hoisting operations can
be automatically effected by its aid, and any sort of grab may be used
in dealing with such materials as sand, clay or gravel. Telpherage is
clearly a labour-saving method of handling materials, but of course the
exact conditions under which any system is to be used need careful
study, while the economy to be effected by the installation of a telpher
line must to a great extent depend upon the available supply of
electrical energy.     (G. F. Z.)

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The illustrations in this article are taken, by kind permission,
    from the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers_.

CONVOCATION (Lat. _convocatio_, a calling together), an assembly of
persons met together in answer to a summons. The term is more usually
applied in a restricted sense to assemblies of the clergy or of the
graduates of certain universities.

In the American Protestant Episcopal Church a convocation is a voluntary
deliberative conference of the clergy; it has no legislative function,
and like the convocation of a university, assembles primarily to discuss
matters of common interest.

In England the name "convocation" is specifically given to an assembly
of the spirituality of the realm of England, which is summoned by the
metropolitan archbishops of Canterbury and of York respectively, within
their ecclesiastical provinces, pursuant to a royal writ, whenever the
parliament of the realm is summoned, and which is also continued or
discharged, as the case may be, whenever the parliament is prorogued or
dissolved. These assemblies consist of two Houses, an upper and lower.
In the upper house sit the archbishops and bishops, and in the lower the
deans and archdeacons of every cathedral, the provost of Eton College,
with one proctor elected by each cathedral chapter and two by the
beneficed clergy in each diocese in the province of Canterbury (in the
province of York two proctors are elected by each archdeacon), with a
prolocutor at their head. When and how this convocation originated is
not historically clear. This much is known from authentic records, that
the present constitution of the convocation of the prelates and clergy
of the province of Canterbury was recognized as early as in the eleventh
year of the reign of Edward I. (1283) as its normal constitution; and
that in extorting that recognition from the crown, which the clergy
accomplished by refusing to attend unless summoned in lawful manner
(_debito modo_) through their metropolitan, the clergy of the province
of Canterbury taught the laity the possibility of maintaining the
freedom of the nation against the encroachments of the royal power. It
had been a provision of the Anglo-Saxon period, the origin of which is
generally referred to the council of Clovesho (747), that the
possessions of the church should be exempt from taxation by the secular
power, and that it should be left to the benevolence of the clergy to
grant such subsidies to the crown from the endowments of their churches
as they should agree to in their own assemblies. It may be inferred,
however, from the language of the various writs issued by the crown for
the collection of the "aids" voted by the _Commune Concilium_ of the
realm in the reign of Henry III., that the clergy were unable to
maintain the exemption of church property from being taxed to those
"aids" during that king's reign; and it was not until some years had
elapsed of the reign of Edward I. that the spirituality succeeded in
vindicating their constitutional privilege of voting in their own
assemblies their free gifts or "benevolences," and in insisting on the
crown observing the lawful form of convoking those assemblies through
the metropolitan of each province.

The form of the royal writ, which it is customary to issue in the
present day to the metropolitan of each province, is identical in its
purport with the writ issued by the crown in 1283 to the metropolitan of
the province of Canterbury, after the clergy of that province had
refused to meet at Northampton in the previous year, because they had
not been summoned in lawful manner; whilst the mandates issued by the
metropolitans in pursuance of the royal writs, and the citations issued
by the bishops in pursuance of the mandates of their respective
metropolitans, are identical in their purport and form with those used
in summoning the convocation of 1283, which met at the New Temple in the
city of London, and voted a "benevolence" to the crown, as having been
convoked in lawful manner. The existing constitution of the convocation
of the province of Canterbury--and the same observation will apply to
that of the province of York--in respect of its comprising
representatives of the chapters and of the beneficed clergy, in addition
to the bishops and other dignitaries of the church, would thus appear to
be of even more ancient date than the existing constitution of the
parliament of the realm.

  Contest between spirituality and crown.

From this period down to the eleventh year of the reign of Edward III.
there were continual contests between the spirituality of the realm and
the crown,--the spirituality contending for their constitutional right
to vote their subsidies in their provincial convocations; the crown, on
the other hand, insisting on the immediate attendance of the clergy in
parliament. The resistance of the clergy to the innovation of the
"praemunientes" clause had so far prevailed in the reign of Edward II.
that the crown consented to summon the clergy to parliament through
their metropolitans, and a special form of provincial writ was for that
purpose framed; but the clergy protested against this writ, and the
struggle was maintained between the spirituality and the crown until
1337 (11 Edward III.), when the crown reverted to the ancient practice
of commanding the metropolitans to call together their clergy in their
provincial assemblies, where their subsidies were voted in the manner as
accustomed before the "praemunientes" clause was introduced. The
"praemunientes" clause, however, was continued in the parliamentary
writs issued to the several bishops of both provinces, whilst the
bishops were permitted to neglect at their pleasure the execution of the
writs.

  Five characteristic periods.

The history of the convocation of the province of Canterbury, as at
present constituted, is full of stirring incidents, and it resolves
itself readily into five periods. The first period, by which is meant
the first period which dates from an epoch of authentic history, is the
period of its greatest freedom, but not of its greatest activity. It
extends from the reign of Edward I. (1283) to that of Henry VIII. The
second period is the period of its greatest activity and of its greatest
usefulness, and it extends from the twenty-fifth year of the reign of
Henry VIII. to the reign of Charles II. The third period extends from
the fifteenth year of the reign of Charles II. (1664) to the reign of
George I. This was a period of turbulent activity and little usefulness,
and the anarchy of the lower house of convocation during this period
created a strong prejudice against the revival of convocation in the
mind of the laity. The fourth period extends from the third year of the
reign of George I. (1716) to the fifteenth year of the reign of Queen
Victoria. This was a period of torpid inactivity, during which it was
customary for convocation to be summoned and to meet _pro forma_, and to
be continued and prorogued indefinitely. The fifth period may be
considered to have commenced in the fifteenth year of the reign of Queen
Victoria (1852).

  First period.

During the first of the five periods above mentioned, it would appear
from the records preserved at Lambeth and at York that the metropolitans
frequently convened congregations (so called) of their clergy without
the authority of a royal writ, which were constituted precisely as the
convocations were constituted, when the metropolitans were commanded to
call their clergy together pursuant to a writ from the crown. As soon,
however, as King Henry VIII. had obtained from the clergy their
acknowledgment of the supremacy of the crown in all ecclesiastical
causes, he constrained the spirituality to declare, by what has been
termed the Act of Submission on behalf of the clergy, that the
convocation "is, always has been, and ought to be summoned by authority
of a royal writ"; and this declaration was embodied in a statute of the
realm (25 Henry VIII. c. 19), which further enacted that the convocation
"should thenceforth make no provincial canons, constitutions or
ordinances without the royal assent and licence." The spirituality was
thus more closely incorporated than heretofore in the body politic of
the realm, seeing that no deliberations on its part can take place
unless the crown has previously granted its licence for such
deliberations. It had been already provided during this period by 8
Henry VI. c. 1, that the prelates and other clergy, with their servants
and attendants, when called to the convocation pursuant to the king's
writ, should enjoy the same liberty and defence in coming, tarrying and
returning as the magnates and the commons of the realm enjoy when
summoned to the king's parliament.

  Second period.

  Sheldonian compact.

The second period, which dates from 1533 to 1664, has been distinguished
by four important assemblies of the spirituality of the realm in
pursuance of a royal writ--the two first of which occurred in the reign
of Edward VI., the third in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and the fourth
in the reign of Charles II. The two earliest of these convocations were
summoned to complete the work of the reformation of the Church of
England, which had been begun by Henry VIII.; the third was called
together to reconstruct that work, which had been marred on the
accession of Mary (the consort of Philip II. of Spain), whilst the
fourth was summoned to re-establish the Church of England, the framework
of which had been demolished during the great rebellion. On all of these
occasions the convocations worked hand in hand with the parliament of
the realm under a licence and with the assent of the crown. Meanwhile
the convocation of 1603 had framed a body of canons for the governance
of the clergy. Another convocation requires a passing notice, in which
certain canons were drawn up in 1640, but by reason of an irregularity
in the proceedings of this convocation (chiefly, on the ground that its
sessions were continued for some time after the parliament of the realm
had been dissolved), its canons are not held to have any binding
obligation on the clergy. The convocations had up to this time
maintained their liberty of voting the subsidies of the clergy in the
form of "benevolences" separate and apart from the "aids" granted by the
laity in parliament, and one of the objections taken to the proceedings
of the convocation of 1640 was that it had continued to sit and to vote
its subsidies to the crown after the parliament itself had been
dissolved. It is not, therefore, surprising on the restoration of the
monarchy in 1661 that the spirituality was not anxious to retain the
liberty of taxing itself apart from the laity, seeing that its ancient
liberty was likely to prove of questionable advantage to it. It voted,
however, a benevolence to the crown on the occasion of its first
assembling in 1661 after the restoration of King Charles II., and it
continued so to do until 1664, when an arrangement was made between
Archbishop Sheldon and Lord Chancellor Hyde, under which the
spirituality silently waived its long-asserted right of voting its own
subsidies to the crown, and submitted itself thenceforth to be assessed
to the "aids" directly granted to the crown by parliament. An act was
accordingly passed by the parliament in the following year 1665,
entitled An act to grant a Royal Aid unto the King's Majesty, to which
aid the clergy were assessed by the commissioners named in the statute
without any objection being raised on their part or behalf,[1] there
being a proviso that in so contributing the clergy should be relieved of
the liability to pay two subsidies out of four, which had been voted by
them in the convocation of a previous year. In consequence of this
practical renunciation of their separate _status_, as regards their
liability to taxation, the clergy have assumed and enjoyed in common
with the laity the right of voting at the election of members of the
House of Commons, in virtue of their ecclesiastical freeholds.

The most important and the last work of the convocation during this
second period of its activity was the revision of the Book of Common
Prayer which was completed in the latter part of 1661.

  Third period.

  Claim of Lower House to sit independently.

  Bangorian controversy.

  Fourth period.

  Fifth period.

The Revolution in 1688 is the most important epoch in the third period
of the history of the synodical proceedings of the spirituality, when
the convocation of Canterbury, having met in 1689 in pursuance of a
royal writ, obtained a licence under the great seal, to prepare certain
alterations in the liturgy and in the canons, and to deliberate on the
reformation of the ecclesiastical courts. A feeling, however, of panic
seems to have come over the Lower House, which took up a position of
violent antagonism to the Upper House. This circumstance led to the
prorogation of the convocation and to its subsequent discharge without
any practical fruit resulting from the king's licence. Ten years elapsed
during which the convocation was prorogued from time to time without any
meeting of its members for business being allowed. The next convocation
which was permitted to meet for business, in 1700, was marked by great
turbulence and insubordination on the part of the members of the Lower
House, who refused to recognize the authority of the archbishop to
prorogue their sessions. This controversy was kept up until the
discharge of the convocation took place concurrently with the
dissolution of the parliament in the autumn of that year. The
proceedings of the Lower House in this convocation were disfigured by
excesses which were clearly violations of the constitutional order of
the convocation. The Lower House refused to take notice of the
archbishop's schedule of prorogation, and adjourned itself by its own
authority, and upon the demise of the crown it disputed the fact of its
sessions having expired, and as parliament was to continue for a short
time, prayed that its sessions might be continued as a part of the
parliament under the "praemunientes" clause. The next convocation was
summoned in the first year of Queen Anne, when the Lower House, under
the leadership of Dean Aldrich, its prolocutor, challenged the right of
the archbishop to prorogue it, and presented a petition to the queen,
praying her majesty to call the question into her own presence. The
question was thereupon examined by the queen's council, when the right
of the president to prorogue both houses of convocation by a schedule of
prorogation was held to be proved, and further, that it could not be
altered except by an act of parliament. During the remaining years of
the reign of Queen Anne the two Houses of convocation were engaged
either in internecine strife, or in censuring sermons or books, as
teaching latitudinarian or heretical doctrines; and, when it had been
assembled concurrently with parliament on the accession of King George
I., a great breach was before long created between the two houses by the
Bangorian controversy. Dr Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, having preached a
sermon before the king, in the Royal Chapel at St James's Palace in
1717, against the principles and practice of the nonjurors, which had
been printed by the king's command, the Lower House, which was offended
by the sermon and had also been offended by a treatise on the same
subject published by Dr Hoadly in the previous year, lost no time in
representing the sermon to the Upper House, and in calling for its
condemnation. A controversy thereupon arose between the two houses which
was kept up with untiring energy by the Lower House, until the
convocation was prorogued in 1717 in pursuance of a royal writ; from
which time until 1861 no licence from the crown was granted to
convocation to proceed to business. During this period, which may be
regarded as the fourth distinguishing period in the history of the
convocations of the Church of England, it was usual for a few members of
the convocation to meet when first summoned with every new parliament,
in pursuance of the royal writ, for the Lower House to elect a
prolocutor, and for both houses to vote an address to the crown, after
which the convocation was prorogued from time to time, pursuant to royal
writs, and ultimately discharged when the parliament was dissolved.
There were, however, several occasions between 1717 and 1741 when the
convocation of the province of Canterbury transacted certain matters, by
way of consultation, which did not require any licence from the crown,
and there was a short period in its session of 1741 when there was a
probability of its being allowed to resume its deliberative functions,
as the Lower House had consented to obey the president's schedule of
prorogation; but the Lower House having declined to receive a
communication from the Upper House, the convocation was forthwith
prorogued, from which time until the middle of the 19th century the
convocation was not permitted by the crown to enjoy any opportunity even
for consultation. The spirituality at last aroused itself from its long
repose in 1852, and on this occasion the Upper House took the lead. The
active spirit of the movement was Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford,
but the master mind was Henry Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter. On the
convocation assembling several petitions were presented to both houses,
praying them to take steps to procure from the crown the necessary
licence for their meeting for the despatch of business, and an address
to the Upper House was brought up from the Lower House, calling the
attention of the Upper House to the reasonableness of the prayer of the
various petitions. After some discussion the Upper House, influenced
mainly by the argument of Henry, bishop of Exeter, consented to receive
the address of the Lower House, and the convocation was thereupon
prorogued, shortly after which it was discharged concurrently with the
dissolution of parliament. On the assembling of the next convocation of
the province of Canterbury, no royal writ of exoneration having been
sent by the crown to the metropolitan, the sessions of the convocation
were continued for several days; and from this time forth convocation
may be considered to have resumed its action as a consultative body,
whilst it has also been permitted on more than one occasion to exercise
its functions as a deliberative body. In 1865, under licence from the
crown, the Convocations of Canterbury and York framed new canons in
place of the 36th, 37th, 38th and 40th canons of 1603, and amended the
62nd and 102nd canons in 1888. In 1872 convocation was empowered by
letters of business from the crown to frame resolutions on the subject
of public worship, which resolutions were afterwards incorporated in the
Act of Uniformity Amendment Act 1872.

As a deliberative body, convocation has done much useful work, but it
suffers considerably from its unrepresentative nature. The non-beneficed
clergy still remain without the franchise, but the establishment of
Houses of Laymen (see LAYMEN, HOUSES OF) for both provinces has, to a
certain extent, secured the co-operation of the lay element. Several
attempts have been made to promote legislation to enable the
convocations to reform their constitutions and to enable them to unite
for special purposes; in 1905 a bill was introduced into the House of
Lords. It did not, however, get beyond a first reading. In 1896 a
departure was made in holding joint sessions of both convocations, in
conjunction with the two Houses of Laymen, for consultative purposes.
This body is now termed the Representative Church Council, and it
adopted a Constitution in November 1905. All formal business is
transacted in the separate convocations. It is usual for convocation to
meet three times a year.

  The order of convening the convocation of the province of Canterbury
  is as follows. A writ issues from the crown, addressed to the
  metropolitan archbishop of Canterbury, commanding him "by reason of
  certain difficult and urgent affairs concerning us, the security and
  defence of our Church of England, and the peace and tranquillity,
  public good and defence of our kingdom, and our subjects of the same,
  to call together with all convenient speed, and in lawful manner, the
  several bishops of the province of Canterbury, and deans of the
  cathedral churches, and also the archdeacons, chapters and colleges,
  and the whole clergy of every diocese of the said province, to appear
  before the said metropolitan in the cathedral church of St Paul,
  London, on a certain day, or elsewhere, as shall seem most expedient,
  to treat of, agree to and conclude upon the premises and other things,
  which to them shall then at the same place be more clearly explained
  on our behalf." In case the metropolitical see of Canterbury should be
  vacant, the writ of the crown is addressed to the dean and chapter of
  the metropolitical church of Canterbury in similar terms, as being the
  guardians of the spiritualities of the see during a vacancy. Thereupon
  the metropolitan, or, as the case may be, the dean and chapter of the
  metropolitical church, issue a mandate to the bishop of London, as
  dean of the province, and if the bishopric of London should be vacant,
  then to the bishop of Winchester as subdean, which embodies the royal
  writ, and directs the bishop to cause all the bishops of the province
  to be cited, and through them the deans of the cathedral and
  collegiate churches, and the archdeacons and other dignitaries of
  churches, and each chapter by one, and the clergy of each diocese by
  two sufficient proctors, to appear before the metropolitan or his
  commissary, or, as the case may be, before the dean and chapter of the
  metropolitical church or their commissary, in the chapter-house of the
  cathedral church of St Paul, London, if that place be named in the
  mandate, or elsewhere, with continuation and prorogation of days next
  following, if that should be necessary, to treat upon arduous and
  weighty affairs, which shall concern the state and welfare, public
  good and defence of this kingdom and the subjects thereof, to be then
  and there seriously laid before them, and to give their good counsel
  and assistance on the said affairs, and to consent to such things as
  shall happen to be wholesomely ordered and appointed by their common
  advisement, for the honour of God and the good of the church.

  The provincial dean, or the subdean, as the case may be, thereupon
  issues a citation to the several bishops of the province, which
  embodies the mandate of the metropolitan or of the dean and chapter of
  the metropolitical church, as the case may be, and admonishes them to
  appear, and to cite and admonish their clergy, as specified in the
  metropolitical mandate, to appear at the time and place mentioned in
  the mandate. The bishops thereupon either summon directly the clergy
  of their respective dioceses to appear before them or their
  commissaries to elect two proctors, or they send a citation to their
  archdeacons, according to the custom of the diocese, directing them to
  summon the clergy of their respective archdeaconries to elect a
  proctor. The practice of each diocese in this matter is the law of the
  convocation, and the practice varies indefinitely as regards the
  election of proctors to represent the beneficed clergy. As regards the
  deans, the bishops send special writs to them to appear in person, and
  to cause their chapters to appear severally by one proctor. Writs also
  go to every archdeacon, and on the day named in the royal writ, which
  is always the day next following that named in the writ to summon the
  parliament, the convocation assembles in the place named in the
  archbishop's mandate. Thereupon, after the Litany has been sung or
  said, and a Latin sermon preached by a preacher appointed by the
  metropolitan, the clergy are praeconized or summoned by name to appear
  before the metropolitan or his commissary; after which the clergy of
  the Lower House are directed to withdraw and elect a prolocutor to be
  presented to the metropolitan for his approbation. The convocation
  thus constituted resolves itself at its next meeting into two houses,
  and it is in a fit state to proceed to business.

  The constitution of the convocation of the province of York differs
  slightly from that of the convocation of the province of Canterbury,
  as each archdeaconry is represented by two proctors, precisely as in
  parliament formerly under the Praemunientes clause.

  There are some anomalies in the diocesan returns of the two
  convocations, but in all such matters the _consuetudo_ of the diocese
  is the governing rule.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Wilkins, _Concilia Magnae Britannia et Hiberniae_ (4
  vols. folio, 1737); Gibson, _Codex Juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani_ (2
  vols. folio, 1713); Johnson, _A Collection of all the Ecclesiastical
  Laws, Canons and Constitutions of the English Church_ (2 vols. 8vo,
  1720); Gibson, _Synodus Anglicana_ (8vo, 1702, re-edited by Dr Edward
  Cardwell, 8vo, 1854); Shower, _A Letter to a Convocation Man
  concerning the Rights, Powers and Privileges of that Body_ (4to,
  1697); Wake, _The Authority of Christian Princes over their
  Ecclesiastical Synods asserted, occasioned by a late Pamphlet
  intituled A Letter_ _to a Convocation Man_ (8vo, 1697); Atterbury,
  _The Rights, Powers and Privileges of an English Convocation stated
  and vindicated in answer to a late book of Dr Wake's_ (8vo, 1700);
  Burnet, _Reflections on a Book intituled The Rights, Powers and
  Privileges of an English Convocation stated and vindicated_ (4to,
  1700); Kennet, _Ecclesiastical Synods and Parliamentary Convocations
  of the Church of England historically stated and justly vindicated
  from the Misrepresentation of Mr Atterbury_ (8vo, 1701); Atterbury,
  _The Power of the Lower House of Convocation to adjourn itself_ (4to,
  1701); Gibson, _The Right of the Archbishop to continue or prorogue
  the whole Convocation_ (4to, 1701); Kennet, _The Case of the
  Praemunientes_ (4to, 1701); Hooper, _The Narrative of the Lower House
  vindicated from the Exceptions of a Letter, intituled The Right of the
  Archbishop to continue or prorogue the Convocation_ (4to, 1702);
  Atterbury, _The Case of the Schedule stated_ (4to, 1702); Gibson, _The
  Schedule Reviewed, or the Right of the Archbishop to continue or
  prorogue the whole Convocation, cleared from the Exception of a late
  Vindication of the Narrative of the Lower House, and of a Book
  intituled The Case of the Schedule stated_ (4to, 1702); Hody, _A
  History of the English Councils and Convocation, and of the Clergy's
  sitting in Parliament_ (8vo, 1702); Wake, _The State of the Church and
  Clergy of England in their Councils, Synods, Convocations,
  Conventions, and other Public Assemblies, occasioned by a book
  intituled The Rights, Powers and Privileges of an English Convocation_
  (fol., 1703); Burnet, _History of His Own Time_ (2 vols, folio, 1734),
  re-edited by Dr Martin J. Routh (6 vols. 8vo, 1833); Hallam,
  _Constitutional History of England_ (3 vols. 8vo, 1832); Cardwell,
  _Documentary Annals of the Reformed Church of England_ (2 vols.,
  1839); Cardwell, _A History of Conferences and other Proceedings
  connected with the revision of the Common Prayer_ (8vo, 1841);
  Cardwell, _Synodalia, a Collection of Articles of Religion, Canon and
  Proceedings of Convocation in the Province of Canterbury_ (2 vols.
  8vo, 1842); Lathbury, _A History of the Convocation of the Church of
  England_ (2nd ed., 8vo, 1853); Trevor, _The Convocation of the two
  Provinces_ (8vo, 1852); Pearce, _The Law relating to Convocations of
  the Clergy_ (8vo, 1848); _Synodalia_, a Journal of Convocation,
  commenced in 1852 (8vo); _The Chronicle of Convocation_, being a
  record of the proceedings of the Convocation of Canterbury, commenced
  in 1863 (8vo).     (T. T.; T. A. I.)

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] It had always been the practice, when the clergy voted their
    subsidies in their convocation, for parliament to authorize the
    collection of each subsidy by the same commissioners who collected
    the parliamentary aid.

CONVOLVULACEAE, a botanical natural order belonging to the series
Tubiflorae of the sympetalous group of Dicotyledons. It contains about
40 genera with more than 1000 species, and is found in all parts of the
world except the coldest, but is especially well developed in tropical
Asia and tropical America. The most characteristic members of the order
are twining plants with generally smooth heart-shaped leaves and large
showy white or purple flowers, as, for instance, the greater bindweed of
English hedges, _Calystegia sepium_, and many species of the genus
_Ipomaea_, the largest of the order, including the "convolvulus major"
of gardens, and morning glory. The creeping or trailing type is a common
one, as in the English bindweed (_Convolvulus arvensis_), which has also
a tendency to climb, and _Calystegia Soldanella_, the sea-bindweed, the
long creeping stem of which forms a sand-binder on English seashores; a
widespread and efficient tropical sand-binder is _Ipomaea Pes-Caprae_.
One of the commonest tropical weeds, _Evolvulus alsinoides_, has
slender, long-trailing stems with small leaves and flowers. In hot dry
districts such as Arabia and north-east tropical Africa, genera have
been developed with a low, much-branched, dense, shrubby habit, with
small hairy leaves and very small flowers. An exceptional type in the
order is represented by _Humbertia_, a native of Madagascar, which forms
a large tree. The dodder (q.v.) is a genus (_Cuscuta_) of leafless
parasites with slender thread-like twining stems. The flowers stand
singly in the leaf-axils or form few or many flowered cymose
inflorescences; the flowers are sometimes crowded into small heads. The
bracts are usually scale-like, but sometimes foliaceous, as for instance
in _Calystegia_, where they are large and envelop the calyx.

The parts of the flower are in fives in calyx, corolla and stamens,
followed by two carpels which unite to form a superior ovary. The
sepals, which are generally free, show much variation in size, shape and
covering, and afford valuable characters for the distinction of genera
or sub-genera. The corolla is generally funnel-shaped, more rarely
bell-shaped or tubular; the outer face is often marked out in
longitudinal areas, five well-defined areas tapering from base to apex,
and marked with longitudinal striae corresponding to the middle of the
petals, and alternating with five non-striated weaker triangular areas;
in the bud the latter are folded inwards, the stronger areas being
exposed and showing a twist to the right. The slender filaments of the
stamens vary widely, often in the same flower; the anthers are linear
to ovate in shape, attached at the back to the filament, and open
lengthwise. Some importance attaches to the form of the pollen grains;
the two principal forms are ellipsoidal with longitudinal bands forming
the _Convolvulus_-type, and a spherical form with a spiny surface known
as the _Ipomaea_-type. The ovary is generally two-chambered, with two
inverted ovules standing side by side at the inner angle of each
chamber. The style is simple or branched, and the stigma is linear,
capitate or globose in form; these variations afford means for
distinguishing the different genera. The fruit is usually a capsule
opening by valves; the seeds, where four are developed, are each shaped
like the quadrant of a sphere; the seed-coat is smooth, or sometimes
warty or hairy; the embryo is large with generally broad, folded,
notched or bilobed cotyledons surrounded by a horny endosperm. _Cuscuta_
has a thread-like, spirally twisted embryo with no trace of cotyledons.

[Illustration: _Convolvulus sepium_, slightly reduced.

  1. Flower cut vertically.
  2. Fruit, slightly reduced.
  3. Seed cut lengthwise showing embryo.
  4. Embryo taken out of seed.
  5. Horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.]

The large showy flowers are visited by insects for the honey which is
secreted by a ring-like disk below the ovary; large-flowered species of
_Ipomaea_ with narrow tubes are adapted for the visits of honey-seeking
birds.

The largest genus, _Ipomaea_, has about 400 species distributed
throughout the warmer parts of the earth. _Convolvulus_ has about 150 to
200 species, mainly in temperate climates; the genus is principally
developed in the Mediterranean area and western Asia. _Cuscuta_ contains
nearly 100 species in the warmer and temperate regions; two are native
in Britain.

The tubers of _Ipomaea Batatas_ are rich in starch and sugar, and, as
the "sweet potato," form one of the most widely distributed foods in the
warmer parts of the earth. Several members of the order are used
medicinally for the strong purging properties of the milky juice (latex)
which they contain; scammony is the dried latex from the underground
stem of _Convolvulus Scammonia_, a native of the Levant, while jalap is
the product of the tubercles of _Exogonium Purga_, a native of Mexico.
Species of _Ipomaea_ (morning glory), _Convolvulus_ and _Calystegia_ are
cultivated as ornamental plants. _Convolvulus arvensis_ (bindweed) is a
pest in fields and gardens on account of its wide-spreading underground
stem, and many of the dodders (_Cuscuta_) cause damage to crops.

CONVOY (through the Fr. from late Lat. _conviare_, to go along with,
from Lat. _cum_, with, and _via_, way; "convey" has the same ultimate
origin [see CONVEYANCE], neither word being connected, as has sometimes
been supposed, with Lat. _convehere_, to carry together), a verb and
noun now almost exclusively used in military and naval parlance. As a
verb it signifies in the first instance to accompany or to escort; and
in the 17th century we even hear of cavalry "convoying" infantry, but
its meaning was soon complicated by the growing use of the word "convey"
in the sense of "to carry," and as the usual task of an escort was that
of accompanying and protecting vehicles containing supplies, the noun
"convoy" (Fr. _convoi_) was introduced and has thenceforward in land
warfare meant a train of vehicles containing stores for the use of
troops and its guard or escort. Sometimes even the word is found in the
meaning of the train of vehicles without implying that there is an
escort, so far has the original meaning become obscured; but the idea of
military protection is always present, whether this protection is given
by a separate escort or provided by the weapons of the drivers
themselves.

In naval warfare the term is used to describe a method adopted for
defending merchant ships against capture. It was usually applied to the
vessels to be protected--as for example "the Baltic convoy," or "Captain
Montray's convoy." Until the 17th century the English term was "to waft"
and the warship employed to guard the traders on their way was called "a
wafter." The practice of sailing in convoy for mutual protection was
common in the middle ages, when all ships were more or less armed and
the war vessel was not entirely differentiated from the trader. Thus the
ships of the great German confederation of cities known as the Hanseatic
League were required to sail in convoy. So were the six trading
squadrons which sailed yearly from Venice. The masters of all the
vessels were required to obey the authority of an officer who had the
general command. In the 16th century the Spanish trade with America was
compelled by law to sail in convoys (_flotas_), in order to avoid the
danger of capture by pirates to which single ships were exposed. In the
17th and 18th centuries the use of convoy was universal. Dutch, French
or British ships were collected at a rendezvous, and were accompanied by
warships till they reached the point at which they were compelled to
separate in order to go to their various destinations. The main danger
was near the enemy's ports. An example of the way the duty was
discharged may be found in the Newfoundland convoy. They sailed from
England under the direction of a naval officer and the protection of his
ships, commonly a forty- or fifty-gun ship with a smaller vessel in
attendance. The convoy sailed to the banks of Newfoundland. When they
had filled up with stock fish, they were escorted across the Atlantic by
the same officer. He accompanied those of them bound to the
Mediterranean to the port of Leghorn, and, when they had unloaded and
reloaded, saw them home. All cases were not so simple. The ships engaged
in the East and West India trade, for instance, sailed together. In the
Channel they were protected by the main strength of the fleet. When
beyond the Scilly Islands they were left to the care of a smaller force,
and continued together till in the neighbourhood of Madeira, when they
separated. Convoys were subject to attack in two forms, by strong
squadrons which overpowered the guard, and by privateers, corsairs and
isolated cruisers. This latter peril was much increased in the case of
British commerce by the reluctance of the merchant captains to obey the
naval officers. They were very much inclined to separate from the convoy
as they approached their destination in the hope of forestalling rivals.
As a natural consequence they were frequently captured by hostile
privateers. French naval officers had authority and large powers of
punishment over merchant skippers. The British naval officers had not.
In 1803-34, on the renewal of the war with France, the British
government saw the necessity for regulating convoy more strictly than
had hitherto been the case. It therefore passed "an act for the better
protection of the trade of the United Kingdom during the present
hostilities with France." By this act (the 43rd Geo. III. Cap. 57) all
vessels not exempted by special licence were required to sail in convoy
and to conform to strict regulations, under penalties of £1000 (or, when
the goods included government stores, of £1500) and the loss of all
claim to insurance in case of capture.     (D. H.)

The object of convoying is to attach an official public character to the
convoyed ships, i.e. a sort of assimilation of them to the escorting
ship or ships of war. Thus European states and jurists hold that the
declaration of the commander of the convoy, that there is no contraband
of war on board the convoyed ships, pledges the national good faith, and
must be assumed to be correct in the same way as it is assumed that the
convoy itself is carrying no contraband of war. Great Britain has never
taken this view. Down to 1907 she had maintained that it is materially
impossible for any neutral state to exercise the necessary supervision
to secure absolute accuracy of the ship's papers. Number 29, however, of
the instructions given by the government to the British
plenipotentiaries at the Hague Conference of 1907 stated that "H.M.
government would ... be glad to see the right of search limited in every
practicable way, e.g. by the adoption of a system of consular
certificates declaring the absence of contraband from the cargo...." As
the greater includes the smaller, we may assume that, if a consular
certificate might suffice to exempt from the exercise of search, the
state guarantee of a convoy would certainly suffice. The London
Convention on the Laws and Customs of Naval War has laid down the rules
as to convoys in the following terms:

  Neutral vessels under national convoy are exempt from search. The
  commander of a convoy gives, in writing, at the request of the
  commander of a belligerent warship, all information as to the
  character of the vessels and their cargoes, which could be obtained by
  search.--Art. 61.

  If the commander of the belligerent warship has reason to suspect that
  the confidence of the commander of the convoy has been abused, he
  communicates his suspicions to him. In such a case it is for the
  commander of the convoy alone to investigate the matter. He must
  record the result of such investigation in a report, of which a copy
  is handed to the officer of the warship. If, in the opinion of the
  commander of the convoy, the facts shown in the report justify the
  capture of one or more vessels, the protection of the convoy must be
  withdrawn from such vessels.--Art. 62.     (T. BA.)

CONVULSIONS, the pathological condition of body associated with
abnormal, violent and spasmodic contractions and relaxations of the
muscles, taking the form of a fit. Convulsions may be a symptom
resulting from various diseases, but the term is commonly restricted to
the infantile variety, occurring in association with teething, or other
causes which upset the child's nervous system. The treatment (plunging
into a hot bath, or administration of chloroform) must be prompt, as
convulsions are responsible for a large part of infant mortality.

The name "Convulsionaries" (Fr. _Convulsionnaires_) was given to certain
Jansenist fanatics in France in the 18th century, owing to the
convulsions, regarded by them as proofs of divine inspiration, which
were the result of their religious ecstasies (see JANSENISM). The term
"Convulsionists" is sometimes applied to them, as also, more loosely, to
other religious enthusiasts who exhibit the same symptoms.

CONWAY, HENRY SEYMOUR (1721-1795), English field marshal and statesman,
was the second son of Francis Seymour, of Ragley, Warwickshire, who took
the name of Conway on succeeding to the estates of the earl of Conway in
1699 and was created Baron Conway in 1703 (see SEYMOUR or ST MAUR).
Henry Seymour Conway's elder brother, Francis, 2nd Baron Conway, was
created marquess of Hertford in 1793; his mother was a sister of Sir
Robert Walpole's wife, and he was therefore first cousin to Horace
Walpole, with whom he was on terms of intimate friendship throughout his
life. Having entered the army at an early age, Conway was elected to the
Irish parliament in 1741 as member for Antrim, which he continued to
represent for twenty years; in the same year he became a member of the
English House of Commons, sitting for Higham Ferrers in
Northamptonshire, and he remained in parliament, representing
successively a number of different constituencies, almost without
interruption for more than forty years. Meantime he saw much service in
the army abroad, where he served with conspicuous bravery and not
without distinction. In 1745 he became aide-de-camp to the duke of
Cumberland in Germany, and was present at Fontenoy; in the following
year he had command of a regiment at Culloden. In 1755 he went to
Ireland as secretary to the lord-lieutenant, a position which he held
for one year only; and on his return to England he received a court
appointment, having already been promoted major-general. In 1757 he was
associated with Sir John Mordaunt in command of an abortive expedition
against Rochfort, the complete failure of which brought Conway into
discredit and involved him in a pamphlet controversy. In 1759 he became
lieutenant-general, and served under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in
the campaigns of 1761-1763. Returning to England he took part in the
debates in parliament on the Wilkes case, in which he opposed the views
of the court, speaking strongly against the legality of general
warrants. His conduct in this matter highly incensed the king, who
insisted on Conway being deprived of his military command as well as of
his appointment in the royal household. His dismissal along with other
officers was the occasion of another paper controversy in which Conway
was defended by Horace Walpole, and gave rise to much constitutional
dispute as to the right of the king to remove military officers for
their conduct in parliament--a right that was tacitly abandoned by the
Crown when the Rockingham ministry of 1765 reinstated the officers who
had been removed.

In this ministry Conway took office as secretary of state, with the
leadership of the House of Commons. In the dispute with the American
colonies his sympathies were with the latter, and in 1766 he carried the
repeal of the Stamp Act. When in July of that year Rockingham gave place
to Chatham, Conway retained his office; and when Chatham became
incapacitated by illness he tamely acquiesced in Townshend's reversal of
the American policy which he himself had so actively furthered in the
previous administration. In January 1768, offended by the growing
influence of the Bedford faction which joined the government, Conway
resigned the seals of office, though he was persuaded by the king to
remain a member of the cabinet and "Minister of the House of Commons."
When, however, Lord North became premier in 1770, Conway resigned from
the cabinet and was appointed to the command of the royal regiment of
horse guards; and in 1772 he became governor of Jersey, the island being
twice invaded by the French during his tenure of command. In 1780 and
1781 he took an active part in opposition to Lord North's American
policy, and it was largely as the result of his motion on the 22nd of
February in the latter year, demanding the cessation of the war against
the colonies, when the ministerial majority was reduced to one, that
Lord North resigned office. In the Rockingham government that followed
General Conway became commander-in-chief with a seat in the cabinet; and
he retained office under Shelburne when Rockingham died a few months
later. On Pitt's elevation to the premiership, Conway supported Fox in
opposition; but after the dissolution of parliament in 1784 he retired
from political life. He was made field marshal in 1793, and died at
Henley-on-Thames on the 9th of July 1795. Conway married in 1747
Caroline, daughter of General Campbell (afterwards duke of Argyll), and
widow of the earl of Aylesbury. He had one daughter, Anne, who married
John Darner, son of Lord Milton, and who inherited a life interest in
Strawberry Hill under the will of Horace Walpole.

Conway was personally one of the most popular men of his day. He was
handsome, conciliatory and agreeable, and a man of refined taste and
untarnished honour. As a soldier he was a dashing officer, but a poor
general. He was weak, vacillating and ineffective as a politician,
lacking in judgment and decision, and without any great parliamentary
talent. In his later years he dabbled in literature and the drama, and
interested himself in arboriculture in his retirement at
Henley-on-Thames.

  See Horace Walpole, _Letters_, edited by P. Cunningham (9 vols.,
  London, 1857), many of the letters being addressed to Conway; _Memoirs
  of the Last Ten years of the Reign of George II._ (2 vols., London,
  1822); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by Sir D. le
  Marchant (4 vols., London, 1845); _Journal of the Reign of George
  III._, 1771-1783 (2 vols., London, 1859). See also the duke of
  Buckingham and Chandos, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George
  III._ (4 vols., London, 1853). Much information about Conway will also
  be found in the biographies of his leading contemporaries, Rockingham,
  Shelburne, Chatham, Pitt and Fox.     (R. J. M.)

CONWAY, HUGH, the nom-de-plume of FREDERICK JOHN FARGUS (1847-1885),
English novelist, who was born at Bristol on the 26th of December 1847,
the son of an auctioneer. He was intended for his father's business, but
at the age of thirteen joined the training-ship "Conway" in the Mersey.
In deference to his father's wishes, however, he gave up the idea of
becoming a sailor, and returned to Bristol, where he was articled to a
firm of accountants till on his father's death in 1868 he took over the
family business. While a clerk he had written the words for various
songs, adopting the nom-de-plume Hugh Conway in memory of his days on
the training-ship. Mr Arrowsmith, the Bristol printer and publisher,
took an interest in his work, and Fargus's first short story appeared in
_Arrowsmith's Miscellany_. In 1883 Fargus published through Arrowsmith
his first long story, _Called Back_, of which over 350,000 copies were
sold within four years. A dramatic version of this book was produced in
London in 1884, and in this year Fargus published another story, _Dark
Days_. Ordered to the Riviera for his health, he caught typhoid fever,
and died at Monte Carlo on the 15th of May 1885. Several other books
from his pen appeared posthumously, notably _A Family Affair_.

CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832-1907), American clergyman and author, was
born of an old Virginia family in Stafford county, Virginia, on the 17th
of March 1832. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1849, studied law
for a year, and then became a Methodist minister in his native state. In
1852, owing largely to the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson, his
religious and political views underwent a radical change, and he entered
the Harvard Divinity School, where he graduated in 1854. Here he fell
under the influence of "transcendentalism," and became an outspoken
abolitionist. On his return to Virginia this fact and his rumoured
connexion with the attempt to rescue the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns,
in Boston aroused the bitter hostility of his old neighbours and
friends, and in consequence he left the state. In 1854-1856 he was
pastor of a Unitarian church at Washington, D.C., but his anti-slavery
views brought about his dismissal. From 1856 to 1861 he was a Unitarian
minister in Cincinnati, Ohio, where, also, he edited a short-lived
liberal periodical called _The Dial_. Subsequently he was an editor of
the _Commonwealth_ in Boston, Mass., and wrote _The Rejected Stone_
(1861) and _The Golden Hour_ (1862), both powerful pleas for
emancipation. In 1862-1863, during the Civil War, he lectured in England
in behalf of the North. From 1863 to 1884 he was the minister of the
South Place chapel, Finsbury, London; and during this time wrote
frequently for the London press. In 1884 he returned to the United
States to devote himself to literary work. In addition to those above
mentioned, his publications include _Tracts for To-day_ (1858), _The
Natural History of the Devil_ (1859), _Testimonies Concerning Slavery_
(1864), _The Earthward Pilgrimage_ (1870), _Republican Superstitions_
(1872), _Idols and Ideals_ (1871), _Demonology and Devil Lore_ (2 vols.,
1878), _A Necklace of Stories_ (1879), _Thomas Carlyle_ (1881), _The
Wandering Jew_ (1881), _Emerson at Home and Abroad_ (1882), _Pine and
Palm_ (2 vols., 1887), _Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph_ (1888), _The
Life of Thomas Paine_ with an unpublished sketch of Paine by William
Cobbett (2 vols., 1892), _Solomon and Solomonic Literature_ (1899), his
_Autobiography_ (2 vols., 1900), and _My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of
the East_ (1906). Conway died on the 15th of November 1907.

CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856-   ), English art critic and mountaineer,
son of the Rev. William Conway, afterwards canon of Westminster, was
born at Rochester, and was educated at Repton and at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He became interested in early printing and engraving, and in
1880 made a tour of the principal libraries of Europe in pursuit of his
studies, the result appearing in 1884 as a _History of the Woodcutters
of the Netherlands in the Fifteenth Century_. His later works on art
included _Early Flemish Artists_ (1887); _The Literary Remains of
Albrecht Dürer_ (1889); _The Dawn of Art in the Ancient World_ (1891),
dealing with Chaldaean, Assyrian and Egyptian art; _Early Tuscan
Artists_ (1902). From 1884 to 1887 he was professor of art at University
College, Liverpool; and in 1901-1904 he was Slade professor of the fine
arts at Cambridge. He was knighted in 1895. Sir Martin Conway early
became a member of the Alpine Club, of which he was president from 1902
to 1904. In 1892 he beat the climbing record by ascending to a height of
23,000 ft. in the Himalayas in the course of an exploring and
mountaineering expedition undertaken under the auspices of the Royal
Society, the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association. In
1896-1897 he explored the interior of Spitsbergen, and in the next year
he explored and surveyed the Bolivian Andes, climbing Sorata (21,500
ft.) and Illimani (21,200 ft.). He also ascended Aconcagua (23,080 ft.)
and explored Tierra del Fuego. At the Paris exhibition of 1900 he
received the gold medal for mountain surveys, and the founder's medal of
the Royal Geographical Society in 1905. His expeditions are described in
his _Climbing and Exploration in the Kara-Koram Himalayas_ (1894), _The
Alps from End to End_ (1895), _The First Crossing of Spitsbergen_
(1897), _The Bolivian Andes_ (1901), &c.; _No Man's Land, a History of
Spitsbergen from ... 1596 ..._ was published in 1906.

CONWAY (_Conwy_, or _Aberconwy_), a municipal borough in the Arfon
parliamentary division of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 14 m. by the London
& North-Western railway from Bangor, and 225 m. N.W. from London. Pop.
(1901) 4681. The town is enclosed by a high wall, roughly triangular,
about 1 m. round, with twenty-one dilapidated round towers, pierced by
three principal gateways with two strong towers. The castle in the
south-east angle, built in 1284 by Edward I., was inhabited, in 1389, by
Richard II., who here agreed to abdicate. Held for Charles I. by
Archbishop Williams, it was taken by General Mytton in 1646. Dismantled
by the new proprietor, Earl Conway, it remains a ruin. It is oblong,
with eight massive towers, and has, within, a hall 130 ft. in length,
known as Llewelyn's. The parliamentary borough of Conway, returning,
with five other towns, one member, extends over to the right bank of the
stream Conwy (Conway). In 1885 the mayor of Conway was made a constable.
Llandudno with Great and Little Orme's Heads are at some 4 m. distance.
Two bridges, a tubular for the railway (40 ft. shorter than that of the
Menai) and a suspension, designed by Stephenson (1846-1848) and Telford
(1822-1826) respectively, cross the stream. St Mary's church is Gothic;
the Elizabethan Plâs Mawr is the _locale_ of the Royal Cambrian Academy
of Art. There are still some fragments of the 1185 Cistercian Abbey.
There are golf links here and at Llandudno. The Conwy stream, on which a
steamboat runs from Deganwy (2 m. below Conway town) to Trefriw,
opposite Llanrwst, in summer, has some coasting trade in sulphur and
slates. It is about 30 m. long, its valley (a haunt of artists)
containing the towns last mentioned and Bettws y coed. Its pearls are
mentioned in Drayton's _Polyolbion_ and Spenser's _Faerie Queene_. Pearl
fisheries existed at Conway for many centuries, dating back to the Roman
occupation. Tacitus, _Agricola_, 12, says of Britain "gignit et Oceanus
margarita, sed subfusca ac liventia," as are those found to-day.
Diganhwy (Dyganwy, Deganwy) is mentioned in the _Mabinogion_ (_Geraint
and Enid_), if the reading is sound; it is certainly mentioned in the
_Annales Cambriae_ (years 812-822) and in the _Black Book of
Caerfyrddin_ (Carmarthen), xxiii. 1. Caer-hyn, 4½ m. from Conway, is on
the highroad from London to Holyhead, and is the _Conovium_ of the
Romans. The site of the camp can still be traced, consisting of a
square, strengthened by four parallel walls, extending to a distance
from the main work. The camp is on a height, with the Conwy in front and
a wood on each flank. At the foot of the hill, near the stream, was a
Roman bath, with walls, pavement and pillars. Camden's _Britannia_
mentions tiles, with marks of the 10th or Antoninus's legion, as being
found here, perhaps mistakenly. _Gleini nadroedd_ (possibly amulets) and
_vitrum_ have been found here. In Bwlch y ddwy faen ("two rock ravine"),
on the way to Aber, are the remains of a Roman road and antiquities.

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL (1787-1857), dean of Llandaff, one of the most
distinguished of English geologists, who was born in London on the 7th
of June 1787, was a grandson of John Conybeare, bishop of Bristol
(1692-1755), a notable preacher and divine, and son of Dr William
Conybeare, rector of Bishopsgate. Educated first at Westminster school,
he went in 1805 to Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1808 he took his
degree of B.A., with a first in classics and second in mathematics, and
proceeded to M.A. three years later. Having entered holy orders he
became in 1814 curate of Wardington, near Banbury, and he accepted also
a lectureship at Brislington near Bristol. During this period he was one
of the founders of the Bristol Philosophical Institution (1822). He was
rector of Sully in Glamorganshire from 1823 to 1836, and vicar of
Axminster from 1836 to 1844. He was appointed Bampton lecturer in 1839,
and was instituted to the deanery of Llandaff in 1845. Attracted to the
study of geology by the lectures of Dr John Kidd (q.v.) he pursued the
subject with ardour. As soon as he had left college he made extended
journeys in Britain and on the continent, and he became one of the early
members of the Geological Society. Both Buckland and Sedgwick
acknowledged their indebtedness to him for instruction received when
they first began to devote attention to geology. To the _Transactions of
the Geological Society_ as well as to the _Annals of Philosophy_ and
_Philosophical Magazine_ he contributed many geological memoirs. In 1821
he distinguished himself by the description of a skeleton of the
_Plesiosaurus_, discovered by Mary Anning, and his account has been
confirmed in all main points by subsequent researches. Among his most
important memoirs is that on the south-western coal district of England,
written in conjunction with Dr Buckland, and published in 1824. He wrote
also on the valley of the Thames, on Elie de Beaumont's theory of
mountain-chains, and on the great landslip which occurred near Lyme
Regis in 1839 when he was vicar of Axminster. His principal work,
however, is the _Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales_ (1822),
being a second edition of the small work issued by William Phillips
(q.v.) and written in co-operation with that author. The original
contributions of Conybeare formed the principal portion of this edition,
of which only Part I., dealing with the Carboniferous and newer strata,
was published. It affords evidence throughout of the extensive and
accurate knowledge possessed by Conybeare; and it exercised a marked
influence on the progress of geology in this country. He was a fellow of
the Royal Society and a corresponding member of the Institute of France.
In 1844 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of
London. The loss of his eldest son, W. J. Conybeare, preyed on his mind
and hastened his end. He died at Itchenstoke, near Portsmouth, a few
months after his son, on the 12th of August 1857. (Obituary in _Gent.
Mag._ Sept. 1857, p. 335.)

His elder brother JOHN JOSIAS CONYBEARE (1779-1824), also educated at
Christ Church, Oxford, and an accomplished scholar, became vicar of
Batheaston, and was professor of Anglo-Saxon and afterwards of poetry at
Oxford. He likewise was an ardent student of geology and communicated
several important papers to the _Annals of Philosophy_ and the
_Transactions of the Geological Society_ of London. (Obituary in _Ann.
Phil._ vol. viii., Sept. 1824, p. 162.)

CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN (1815-1857), English divine, son of Dean W. D.
Conybeare, was born on the 1st of August 1815, and was educated at
Westminster and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow in 1837. From 1842 to 1848 he was principal of the Liverpool
Collegiate Institution, which he left for the vicarage of Axminster. He
published _Essays, Ecclesiastical and Social_, in 1856, and a novel,
_Perversion, or the Causes and Consequences of Infidelity_, but is best
known as the joint author (with J. S. Howson) of _The Life and Epistles
of St Paul_ (1851). He died at Weybridge in 1857.

COODE, SIR JOHN (1816-1892), English engineer, was born at Bodmin,
Cornwall, on the 11th of November 1816, the son of a solicitor. After
considerable experience as an engineer in the west of England he came to
London, and from 1844-1847 had a consulting practice in Westminster. In
the latter year he was appointed resident engineer in charge of the
extensive national harbour works at Portland then in progress. In 1856
he was appointed engineer-in-chief of this undertaking, and this post he
retained till the completion of the works in 1872. His services at
Portland were rewarded with a knighthood. He was now recognized as the
leading authority on harbour construction, and his advice was sought by
many of the colonial governments, especially by those of South Africa
and Australia, and by the Indian government. After the Portland harbour
his best-known work is the harbour of Colombo, Ceylon. He was made a
K.C.M.G. in 1886. From 1884 till his death he was a member of the Suez
Canal Commission, and from 1889-1891 president of the Institution of
Civil Engineers. He died at Brighton on the 2nd of March 1892.

COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853-   ), American scholar, was born on the
6th of March 1853 in Montville, Morris county, New Jersey. He graduated
at Rutgers College in 1872, and also studied at Göttingen and Leipzig
(1877-1878), and, after spending the years 1879-1881 as associate in
English at Johns Hopkins University, in London, and under Sievers at
Jena, he became in 1882 professor of English in the University of
California, and in 1889 professor of English language and literature in
Yale University. He re-organized the teaching of English in the state of
California, and edited many texts for reading in secondary schools; but
he is best known for his work in Old English and in poetics. He
translated, edited, and revised Sievers' _Old English Grammar_ (1885),
edited _Judith_ (1888), _The Christ of Cynewulf_ (1900), _Asser's Life
of King Alfred_ (1905), and _The Dream of the Rood_ (1905), and prepared
_A First Book in Old English Grammar_ (1894). He also edited, with
annotations, _Sidney's Defense of Poesie_ (1890); _Shelley's Defense of
Poetry_ (1891); _Newman's Poetry_ (1891); _Addison's Criticisms on
Paradise Lost_ (1892); _The Art of Poetry_ (1892), being the essays of
Horace, Vida and Boileau; and _Leigh Hunt's What is Poetry_ (1893); and
published _Higher Study of English_ (1906).

COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829-1883), English dramatic critic and author, was
born in London on the 30th of January 1829, the son of a solicitor. He
was educated at King's College school, London, and, after four years in
his father's office, obtained a situation in the London office of a
railway company, at first utilizing only his spare time in literary
work, but eventually devoting himself entirely to literature. He was
dramatic critic of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ from 1867 to 1875, and of the
_World_ from 1875 till his death. He also wrote freely on art topics,
and was the author of several novels. He died in London on the 11th of
September 1883.

COOK, ELIZA (1818-1889), English author, was born on the 24th of
December 1818, in Southwark, being the daughter of a local tradesman.
She was self-taught, and began when a girl to write poetry for the
_Weekly Dispatch_ and _New Monthly_. In 1838 she published _Melaia and
other Poems_, and from 1849 to 1854 conducted a paper for family reading
called _Eliza Cook's Journal_. She also published _Jottings from my
Journal_ (1860), and _New Echoes_ (1864); and in 1863 she was given a
civil list pension of £100 a year. As the author of a single poem, "The
Old Armchair," Eliza Cook's name was for a generation after 1838 a
household word both in England and in America, her kindly domestic
sentiment making her a great favourite with the working-class and
middle-class public. She died at Wimbledon on the 23rd of September
1889.

COOK, JAMES (1728-1779), English naval captain and explorer, was born on
the 28th of October 1728, at Marton village, Cleveland, Yorkshire, where
his father was first an agricultural labourer and then a farm bailiff.
At twelve years of age he was apprenticed to a haberdasher at Staithes,
near Whitby, and afterwards to Messrs Walker, shipowners, of Whitby,
whom he served for years in the Norway, Baltic and Newcastle trades.

In 1755, having risen to be a mate, Cook joined the royal navy, and
after four years' service was, on the recommendation of Sir Hugh
Palliser, his commander, appointed master successively of the sloop
"Grampus," of the "Garland" and of the "Solebay," in the last of which
he served in the St Lawrence. He was employed also in sounding and
surveying the river, and he published a chart of the channel from Quebec
to the sea. In 1762 he was present at the recapture of Newfoundland, and
was employed in surveying portions of this coast (especially Placentia
Harbour); in 1763, on Palliser becoming governor of Newfoundland, Cook
was appointed "marine surveyor of the coast of Newfoundland and
Labrador"; this office he held till 1767; and the volumes of sailing
directions he now brought out (1766-1768) showed remarkable abilities.
At the same time he began to make his reputation as a mathematician and
astronomer by his observation of the solar eclipse of the 5th of August
1766, at one of the Burgeo Islands, near Cape Ray, and by his account of
the same in the _Philosophical Transactions_ (vol. lvii. pp. 215-216).

In 1768 Cook was appointed to conduct an expedition, suggested by the
revival of geographical interest now noticeable, and resolved on by the
English admiralty at the instance of the Royal Society, for observing
the impending transit of Venus, and prosecuting geographical researches
in the South Pacific Ocean. For these purposes he received a commission
as lieutenant (May 25th), and set sail in the "Endeavour," of 370 tons,
accompanied by several men of science, including Sir Joseph Banks
(August 25th). On the 13th of April 1769, he reached Tahiti, where he
observed the transit on the 3rd of June. From Tahiti he sailed in quest
of the great continent then supposed to exist in the South Pacific,
explored the Society Islands, and thence struck to New Zealand, whose
coasts he circumnavigated and examined with great care for six months,
charting them for the first time with fair accuracy, and especially
observing the channel ("Cook Strait") which divided the North and South
Islands. His attempts to penetrate to the interior, however, were
thwarted by native hostility. From New Zealand he proceeded to "New
Holland" or Australia, and surveyed with the same minuteness and
accuracy the whole east coast. New South Wales he named after a supposed
resemblance to Glamorganshire; Botany Bay, sighted on the 28th of April
1770, was so called by the naturalists of the expedition. On account of
the hostility of the natives his discoveries here also were confined to
the coast, of which he took possession for Great Britain. From Australia
Cook sailed to Batavia, satisfying himself upon the way that (as Torres
had first shown in 1607) New Guinea was in no way an outlying part of
the greater land mass to the south.

Arriving in England, by way of the Cape of Good Hope, on the 12th of
June, Cook was made a commander, and soon after was appointed to command
another expedition for examining and determining once for all the
question of the supposed great southern continent. With the "Resolution"
of 462 tons, the "Adventure" (Captain Furneaux) of 330 tons, and 193
men, he sailed from Plymouth on the 13th of July 1772; he touched at the
Cape of Good Hope, and striking thence south-east (November 22nd) passed
the Antarctic Circle (January 16th, 1773), repassed the same, and made
his way to New Zealand (March 26th) without discovering land. From New
Zealand he resumed his "search for a continent," working up and down
across the South Pacific, and penetrating to 67° 31' and again to 71°
10' S., with imminent risk of destruction from floating ice, but with
the satisfaction of disproving the possibility of the disputed continent
in the seas south-eastward of New Zealand. He then made for Easter
Island, whose exact position he determined, for the first time, with
accuracy; noticing and describing the gigantic statues which Roggewein,
the first discoverer of the island, had made known. In the same manner
he accomplished a better determination and examination of the Marquesas,
as well as of the Tonga or Friendly Islands, than had yet been made; and
after a stay at Tahiti to rest and refit, crossed the central Pacific to
the "New Hebrides," as he renamed Quiros's "Southern Land of the Holy
Spirit" (a name preserved in the modern island of _Espiritu Santo_),
called by Bougainville the "Great Cyclades" (_Grandes Cyclades_), whose
position, extent, divisions and character were now verified as never
before. Next followed the wholly new discoveries of New Caledonia,
Norfolk Island, and the Isle of Pines. Another visit to New Zealand, and
yet another examination of the far southern Pacific, which was crossed
from west to east through the whole of its extent, from south Australia
to Tierra del Fuego, were now undertaken by Cook before he finally
closed his work in refutation of the Antarctic continent, as previously
understood, on this side of the world. The voyage closed with a rapid
survey of the "Land of Fire," the rounding of Cape Horn, the rediscovery
of the island now named Southern Georgia, the discovery of Sandwich
Land, the crossing of the South Atlantic (here also exploding the great
_Terra Australis_ delusion), and visits to the Cape of Good Hope, St
Helena, Ascension, Fernando Noronha and the Azores. The voyage
(reckoning only from the Cape of Good Hope and back to the same) had
covered considerably more than 20,000 leagues, nearly three times the
equatorial circumference of the earth; it left the main outlines of the
southern portions of the globe substantially as they are known to-day;
and it showed a possibility of keeping a number of men for years at sea
without a heavy toll of lives. Cook only lost one man out of 118 in more
than 1000 days; he had conquered scurvy.

The discoverer reached Plymouth on the 25th of July 1775, and his
achievements were promptly, if meanly, rewarded. He was immediately
raised to the rank of post-captain, appointed a captain in Greenwich
hospital, and soon afterwards unanimously elected a member of the Royal
Society, from which he received the Copley gold medal for the best
experimental paper which had appeared during the year.

Cook's third and last voyage was primarily to settle the question of the
north-west passage, practically abandoned since before the middle of the
17th century, but now taken up again, as a matter of scientific
interest, by the British government. The explorer, who had volunteered
for this service, was instructed to sail first into the Pacific through
the chain of the newly discovered islands which he had recently visited,
and on reaching New Albion to proceed northward as far as latitude 65°
and endeavour to find a passage to the Atlantic. Several ships were at
the same time fitted out to attempt a passage on the other side from the
Atlantic to the Pacific. Sailing from the Nore on the 25th of June 1776
(Plymouth, July 12), with the "Resolution" and "Discovery," and touching
at the Cape of Good Hope, which he left on the 30th of November, Cook
next made Tasmania and thence passed on to New Zealand and the Tonga and
Society Islands, discovering on his way several of the larger members of
the Hervey or Cook Archipelago, especially Mangaia and Aitutaki (March
30th-April 4th, 1777); some smaller isles of this group he had already
sighted on his second voyage, September 23rd, 1773. From Tahiti, as he
moved north towards the main object of his expedition, he made a far
more important discovery, or rather rediscovery, that of the Hawaiian or
Sandwich Islands, the greatest and most remarkable of the Polynesian
archipelagos (early February 1778). These had perhaps first been seen by
the Spanish navigator Gaetano in 1555; but their existence had been kept
a close secret by Spain at the time, and had long been forgotten.
Striking the west American coast in 44° 55' N. on the 7th of March
following, he made an almost continuous survey of the same up to Bering
Straits and beyond, as far as 70° 41', where he found the passage barred
by a wall, or rather continent, of ice, rising 12 ft. above water, and
stretching as far as the eye could reach. The farthest point visible on
the American shore (in the extreme north-west of Alaska) he called Icy
Cape. On his way towards Bering Straits he discovered and named King
George's ("Nootka") and Prince William's Sound, as well as Cape Prince
of Wales, the westernmost extremity of North America, never yet seen by
English navigators, but well known to Russian explorers, who probably
first sighted it in 1648; he also penetrated into the bay afterwards
known as Cook's Inlet or River, which at first seemed to promise a
passage to the Arctic Seas, to the south-east of the Alaska peninsula.
Cook next visited the Asiatic shores of Bering Straits (the extreme
north-east of Siberia); returning to America, he explored Norton Sound,
north of the Yukon; touched at (Aleutian) Unalaska, where he met with
some Russian-American settlers; and thence made his way back to the
Hawaiian group, which he had christened after his friend and patron Lord
Sandwich, then head of the British admiralty (January 17th, 1779). Here
he visited Maui and Hawaii itself, whose size and importance he now
first realized, and in one of whose bays (Kealakekua) he met his death
early in the morning of the 14th of February 1779. During the night of
the 13th, one of the "Discovery's" boats was stolen by the natives; and
Cook, in order to recover it, made trial of his favourite expedient of
seizing the king's person until reparation should be made. Having landed
on the following day with some marines, a scuffle ensued which compelled
the party to retreat to their boats. Cook was the last to retire; and as
he was nearing the shore he received a blow from behind which felled him
to the ground. He rose immediately, and vigorously resisted the crowds
that pressed upon him, but was soon overpowered.

Had Cook returned from his third voyage, there is ground for believing
King George would have made him a baronet. Distinguished honours were
paid to his memory, both at home and by foreign courts, and a pension
was settled upon his widow. But in his life a very inadequate share of
official reward was dealt out to the man who not only may be placed
first among British maritime discoverers, but also gave his country her
title, and so her colonies, in Australasia. As a commander, an observer
and a practical physician, his merits were equally great. Reference has
been made to his survey work and to his victory over scurvy; it must not
be forgotten that along with a commanding personal presence, and with
sagacity, decision and perseverance quite extraordinary, went other
qualities not less useful to his work. He won the affection of those who
served under him by sympathy, kindness and unselfish care of others as
noteworthy as his gifts of intellect.

  See the _Account of a Voyage round the World in 1769-1771, by Lieut.
  James Cook_, in vols. ii. and iii. of Hawkesworth's Voyages (1773);
  the _Voyage towards the South Pole and round the World ... in ...
  1772-1775, written by James Cook_ ... (1777); a _Voyage to the Pacific
  Ocean ... in 1776-1780_, vols. i. and ii. written by Cook (1784); also
  the _Narrative of the Voyages round the World performed by Captain
  James Cook_, by A. Kippis, D.D., F.R.S. (1788), long the standard life
  of the navigator, but now superseded by Arthur Kitson's _Captain James
  Cook, the Circumnavigator_ (1907).     (C. R. B.)

COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892), English travelling agent, was born at
Melbourne in Derbyshire on the 22nd of November 1808. Beginning work at
the age of ten, he was successively a gardener's help and a wood-turner
at Melbourne, and a printer at Loughborough. At the age of twenty he
became a Bible-reader and village missionary for the county of Rutland;
but in 1832, on his marriage, combined his wood-turning business with
that occupation. In 1836 he became a total abstainer, and subsequently
became actively associated with the temperance movement, and printed at
his own expense various publications in its interest, notably the
_Children's Temperance Magazine_ (1840), the first of its kind to appear
in England. In June 1841 a large meeting was to be held at Loughborough
in connexion with this movement, and Cook was struck with the idea of
getting the Midland Counties Railway Company to run a special train from
Leicester to the meeting. The company consented, and on the 5th of July
there were carried 570 passengers from Leicester to Loughborough and
back at a shilling a head. This is believed to be the first
publicly-advertised excursion train ever run in England--private
"specials," reserved for members of institutes and similar bodies, were
already in use. The event caused great excitement, and Cook received so
many applications to organize similar parties that he henceforward
deserted wood-turning, while continuing his printing and publishing. The
summers of the next three years were occupied with excursions like the
first; but in 1845 Cook advertised a pleasure-trip on a more extensive
scale, from Leicester to Liverpool and back, with opportunities for
visiting the Isle of Man, Dublin and Welsh coast. A _Handbook of the
Trip to Liverpool_ was supplied for the use of travellers. In the
previous year Cook had entered into a permanent arrangement with the
Midland Railway Company to place trains at his disposal, for which he
should provide the passengers. A trip to Scotland followed, and the
excursionists were received in Glasgow with music and salute of guns.

The next great impetus to popular travel was given by the Great
Exhibition of 1851, which Cook helped 165,000 visitors to attend. On the
occasion of the Paris exhibition of 1855 there was a Cook's excursion
from Leicester to Calais and back for £1:10s. The following year saw the
first grand circular tour in Europe. This part of Cook's activity
largely increased after 1863, when the Scottish railway managers broke
off their engagements with him, and left him free for more distant
enterprise. Switzerland was opened up in 1863, and Italy in 1864. Up to
this time "Cook's tourists" had been personally conducted, but now he
began to be an agent for the sale of English and foreign tickets, the
holders of which travelled independently. Switzerland was the first
foreign country accessible under these conditions, and in 1865 nearly
the whole of Europe was included in the scheme. Its extension to the
United States followed in 1866. For the benefit of visitors to the Paris
exhibition, Cook made a fresh departure and leased a hotel there. In the
same year began his system of "hotel-coupons," providing accommodation
at a fixed charge. The year 1869 was marked by an extension of Cook's
tours to Palestine, followed by further developments of travel in the
East, his son, John Mason Cook, (1834-1899), being appointed in 1870
agent of the khedivial government for passenger traffic on the Nile. The
Franco-German War of 1870-1871 was expected to damage the tourist
system, but, as a matter of fact, encouraged it, through the demand for
combination, international tickets enabling travellers to reach the
south of Europe without crossing the belligerent countries. At the
termination of the war a party of American freemasons visited Paris
under J. M. Cook's guidance, and became the precursors of the present
vast American tourist traffic. At the beginning of 1872 J. M. Cook
entered into formal partnership with his father, and the firm first took
the name of Thomas Cook & Son. In 1882, on the outbreak of Arabi Pasha's
rebellion, Thomas Cook & Son were commissioned to convey Sir Garnet
Wolseley and his suite to Egypt, and to transport the wounded and sick
up the Nile by water, for which they received the thanks of the war
office. The firm was again employed in 1884 to convey General Gordon to
the Sudan, and the whole of the men (18,000) and stores necessary for
the expedition afterwards sent to relieve him. In 1889 Thomas Cook & Son
acquired the exclusive right of carrying the mails, specie, soldiers and
officials of the Egyptian government along the Nile. In 1891 the firm
celebrated its jubilee, and on the 19th of July of the following year
Thomas Cook died. He had been afflicted with blindness in his declining
years. His son, J. M. Cook, died in 1899, leaving three sons, all
actively engaged in the business.

COOK or HERVEY ISLANDS, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, lying
mainly between 155° and 160° E., and about 20° S.; a dependency of the
British colony of New Zealand. It comprises nine partly volcanic, partly
coralline, islands, the more important of which are Rarotonga, hilly,
fertile and well watered, with several cones 300 to 400 ft. high, above
which towers the majestic Rarotonga volcano (2920 ft.), the culminating
point of the archipelago; Mangaia (Mangia); Aitutaki, with luxuriant
cocoa-nut palm groves; Atui (Vatui); Mitiero; Mauki; Fenuaiti; and the
two Hervey Islets, which give an alternative name to the group. The
total land area is 111 sq. m. Owing to its healthy, equable climate, the
archipelago is well suited for European settlement; but the dangerous
fringing coral reefs render it difficult of access, and it suffers also
from the absence of good harbours. The natives, who are of Polynesian
stock and speech, have legends of their emigration from Samoa. They say
their ancestors found black people on the islands, and the strongly
Melanesian type which is found, especially on Mangaia, supports the
statement. The Cook Islanders were formerly man-hunters and cannibals,
but they now are nearly all Protestants, wear European dress and live in
stone houses. The total population is about 6200. Since 1890 the islands
have enjoyed a general legislature and an executive council of which the
_Arikis_ ("kings" and "queens") are members. But all enactments are
subject to the approval of the British resident at Rarotonga, and a
British protectorate, proclaimed in 1888, was followed by the annexation
of the whole archipelago by the governor of New Zealand, by proclamation
of June 10th, 1901. The archipelago was discovered by Captain Cook in
1777, and in 1823 became the scene of the remarkable missionary labours
of John Williams, of the London Missionary Society. The chief products
of the group are cocoanuts, fruits, coffee and copra. Lime-juice and
hats are made.

COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK (1756-1811), English actor, was born in London,
and made his first appearance on the stage in Brentford at the age of
twenty as Dumont in _Jane Shore_. His first London appearance was at the
Haymarket in 1778, but it was not until 1794 in Dublin, as Othello, that
he attained high rank in his profession. In 1801 he appeared in London
as Richard III., Iago, Shylock and Sir Giles Overreach, and became the
rival of Kemble, with whom, however, and with Mrs Siddons, he acted from
1803. His intemperate habits unfortunately grew more and more notorious,
and on at least one occasion the curtain had to be rung down owing to
the audience hissing his drunken condition. He visited the United States
in 1810, and died in New York on the 26th of September 1811. A monument
to his memory was erected in St Paul's churchyard there by Edmund Kean.

COOKE, JAY (1821-1905), American financier, was born at Sandusky, Ohio,
on the 10th of August 1821, the son of Eleutheros Cooke (1787-1864), a
pioneer Ohio lawyer, and Whig member of Congress from that state in
1831-1833. Being destined for a commercial career, Jay Cooke received a
preliminary training in a trading house in St Louis, and in the booking
office of a transportation company in Philadelphia, and at the age of
eighteen entered the Philadelphia house of E.W. Clark & Company, one of
the largest private banking firms in the country. He showed such
aptitude for business that three years later he was admitted to
membership in the firm, and before he was thirty he was also a partner
in the New York and St Louis branches of the Clarks. In 1858 he retired
from the firm, and for the next three years he devoted himself to
reorganizing some of the abandoned Pennsylvania railways and canals and
placing them again in operation. On the 1st of January 1861 he opened in
Philadelphia the private banking house of Jay Cooke & Company, and soon
achieved signal success in floating at par a war loan of $3,000,000 for
the state of Pennsylvania, whose credit had become notoriously bad. In
the early months of the Civil War Cooke co-operated with the secretary
of the treasury, Salmon P. Chase, in securing loans from the leading
bankers in the Northern cities, and his own firm was so successful in
distributing treasury notes that Chase engaged him as special agent for
the sale of the $500,000,000 of so-called "five-twenty" bonds authorized
by the act of the 25th of February 1862. To dispose of these bonds the
treasury department had already tried every regular means at its command
and had failed. Cooke secured the influence of the American press,
appointed 2500 sub-agents, and before the machinery he set in motion
could be stopped he had sold $11,000,000 more of bonds than had been
authorized, an excess which Congress immediately sanctioned. At the same
time he used all his influence in favour of the establishment of
national banks, and organized a national bank at Washington and another
at Philadelphia almost as soon as such institutions were authorized by
Congress. In the early months of 1865, when the needs of the government
were pressing, and the sale of the new "seven-thirty" notes by the
national banks had been very disappointing, Cooke's services were again
secured. He sent agents into the remotest villages and hamlets, and even
into the isolated mining camps of the West, and caused the rural
newspapers to praise the loan. As a result, between February and July
1865 he had disposed of three series of the notes, reaching a total of
$830,000,000. Through these efforts the Union soldiers were well
supplied and well paid while dealing the final blows of the war; and,
later, with money in their pockets, they were disbanded without
difficulty.

After the war Cooke became interested in the development of the
North-west, and in 1870 his firm undertook to finance the construction
of the Northern Pacific railway. In advancing the money for the work,
the firm over-estimated the possibilities of its capital, and at the
approach of the financial crisis of 1873 it was forced to suspend. By
1880 Cooke had discharged all his obligations, and through an
investment in a silver mine in Utah had again become wealthy. He died at
Ogontz, Pennsylvania, on the 18th of February 1905. Cooke was noted for
his piety, and gave regularly a tenth of his income for religious and
charitable purposes. His handsome estate at Ogontz, which he had been
compelled to give up during his bankruptcy, he later repurchased and
converted into a school for girls.

  See E. P. Oberholtzer, _Jay Cooke, Financier of the Civil War_
  (Philadelphia, 1907).

COOKE, ROSE TERRY (1827-1892), American writer, _née_ Terry, was born at
West Hartford, Connecticut, on the 17th of February 1827. She published
in 1860 a volume of _Poems_, but after her marriage in 1873 to Rollin H.
Cooke she was best known for her fresh and humorous stories, though in
1888 she published more verse in her _Complete Poems_. The chief volumes
of fiction dealing mainly with New England country life, produced by
Rose Terry Cooke, were _Happy Dodd_ (1878), _Somebody's Neighbors_
(1881), _Root-bound_ (1885), _The Sphinx's Children_ (1886), _Steadfast_
(1889) and _Huckleberries_ (1891). She died at Pittsfield,
Massachusetts, on the 18th of July 1892.

COOKERY (Lat. _coquus_, a cook), the art of preparing and dressing food
of all sorts for human consumption, of converting the raw materials, by
the application of heat or otherwise, into a digestible and pleasing
condition, and generally ministering to the satisfaction of the appetite
and the delight of the palate. We may take it that some form of cookery
has existed from the earliest times, and its progress has been from the
simple to the elaborate, dominated partly by the foods accessible to
man, partly by the stage of civilization he has attained, and partly by
the appliances at his command for the purpose either of treating the
food, or of consuming it when served.

The developed art of cookery is necessarily a late addition--if it may
be considered to be included at all--to the list of "fine arts."
Originally it is a purely industrial and useful art. Man, says a French
writer, was born a roaster, and "_pour être cuisinier, il a besoin de le
devenir._" The ancients were great eaters, but strangers to the subtler
refinements of the palate. The gods were supposed to love the smell of
fried meat, while their nectar and ambrosia represented an ideal, which,
though preserved as a phrase, would hardly satisfy a modern epicure. The
ancients were poorly provided with pots and pans, except of a simple
order, or with the appurtenances of a kitchen, and they were sadly to
seek in the requisites of a modern table. So long as men ate with their
hands no dainty confection was suitable; the viands were set forth in a
straightforward style fit for their requirements. "Plain cooking,"
which, after all, can never become obsolete, was the only sort.
Oddities, no doubt, were the luxuries; and we can see to-day in the
ethnological accounts of contemporary savages and backward
civilizations, a fair representation of the cookeries of the ancients.
The luxuries of the Chinese are, in their way, a survival of long ages
of a cookery which to western civilization is grotesque. Even if it is
an historic impertinence, it is impossible for the countries of western
civilization to regard the fine flower of their own evolution as other
than the highest pitch of progress. _Autres temps, autres moeurs._ To
the Chinaman French cooking may possibly be as grotesque as to an
Englishman the Chinaman's hundred-year-old buried egg, black and
tasteless. The history of comparative cookery is bound up with the
physical possibilities of each country and its products; and if we
attempt to mark out stages in the evolution of cookery as a fine art, it
is necessarily as understood by the so-called civilized peoples of the
West in their culmination at the present day.

It is obvious that opportunity has dominated its history, for the art of
cookery is to some extent the product of an increased refinement of
taste, consequent on culture and increase of wealth. To this extent it
is a decadent art, ministering to the luxury of man, and to his
progressive inclination to be pampered and have his appetite tickled. It
is thus only remotely connected with the mere necessities of nutrition
(q.v.), or the science of dietetics (q.v.). Mere hunger, though the best
sauce, will not produce cookery, which is the art of sauces. For
centuries its elaboration consisted mainly of a progressive variety of
foods, the richest and rarest being sought out; and their nature
depended on what was most difficult to obtain. The Greeks learnt by
contact with Asia to increase the sumptuous character of their banquets,
but we know little enough of their ideas of gastronomy. Athens was the
centre of luxury. According to our chief authority Athenaeus,
Archestratus of Gela, the friend of the son of Pericles, the guide of
Epicurus, and author of the _Heduphagetica_, was a great traveller, and
took pains to get information as to how the delicacies of the table were
prepared in different parts. His lost work was versified by Ennius.
Other connoisseurs seem to have been Numenius of Heraclea, Hegemon of
Thasos, Philogenes of Leucas, Simonaclides of Chios, and Tyndarides of
Sicyon. The Romans, emerging from their pristine simplicity, borrowed
from the Greeks their achievements in gastronomic pleasure. We read of
this or that Roman gourmet, such as Lucullus, his extravagances and his
luxury. The name of the connoisseur Apicius, after whom a work of the
time of Heliogabalus is called, comes down to us in association with a
manual of cookery. And from Macrobius and Petronius we can gather very
interesting glimpses of the Roman idea of a menu. In the later empire,
tradition still centred round the Roman cookery favoured by the
geographical position of Italy; while the customs and natural products
of the remoter parts of Europe gradually begin to assert themselves as
the middle ages progress.

It is, however, not till the Renaissance, and then too with Italy as the
starting-point, that the history of modern cookery really begins.
Meanwhile cookery may be studied rather in the architecture of kitchens,
and the development of their appurtenances and personnel, than in any
increase in the subtleties of the art; the ideal was inevitably gross;
the end was feeding--inextricably associated in all ages with cooking,
but as distinct from its _fine fleur_ as gluttony from gastronomy.

Montaigne's references to the revival of cookery in France by Catherine
de' Medici indicate that the new attention paid to the art was really
novel. She brought Italian cooks to Paris and introduced there a
cultured simplicity which was unknown in France before. It is to the
Italians apparently that later developments are originally due. It is
clearly established, for instance (says Abraham Hayward in his _Art of
Dining_), that the Italians introduced ices into France. Fricandeaus
were invented by the _chef_ of Leo X. And Coryate in his _Crudities_,
writing in the time of James I., says that he was called "furcifer"
(evidently in contemptuous jest) by his friends, from his using those
"Italian neatnesses called forks." The use of the fork and spoon marked
an epoch in the progress of dining, and consequently of cookery.

Under Louis XIV. further advances were made. His _maître d'hôtel_,
Béchamel, is famous for his sauce; and Vatel, the great Condé's cook,
was a celebrated artist, of whose suicide in despair at the tardy
arrival of the fish which he had ordered, Madame de Sévigné relates a
moving story. The prince de Soubise, immortalized by his onion sauce,
also had a famous chef.

In England the names of certain cookery-books may be noted, such as Sir
J. Elliott's (1539), Abraham Veale's (1575), and the _Widdowe's
Treasure_ (1625). The _Accomplisht Cook_, by Robert May, appeared in
1665, and from its preface we learn that the author (who speaks
disparagingly of French cookery, but more gratefully of Italian and
Spanish) was the son of a cook, and had studied abroad and under his
father (c. 1610) at Lady Dormer's, and he speaks of that time as "the
days wherein were produced the triumphs and trophies of cookery." From
his description they consisted of most fantastic and elaborately built
up dishes, intended to amuse and startle, no less than to satisfy the
appetite and palate.

Louis XV. was a great gourmet; and his reign saw many developments in
the culinary art. The mayonnaise (originally _mahonnaise_) is ascribed
to the duc de Richelieu. Such dishes as "_potage à la Xavier_,"
"_cailles à la Mirepoix_," "_chartreuses à la Mauconseil_," "_poulets à
la Villeroy_," "_potage à la Condé_," "_gigot à la Mailly_," owe their
titles to celebrities of the day, and the Pompadour gave her name to
various others. The Jesuits Brunoy and Bougeant, who wrote a preface to
a contemporary treatise on cookery (1739), described the modern art as
"more simple, more appropriate, and more cunning, than that of old
days," giving the ingredients the same union as painters give to
colours, and harmonizing all the tastes. The very phrase "_cordon bleu_"
(strictly applied only to a woman cook) arose from an enthusiastic
recognition of female merit by the king himself. Madame du Barry, piqued
at his opinion that only a man could cook to perfection, had a dinner
prepared for him by a _cuisinière_ with such success that the delighted
monarch demanded that the artist should be named, in order that so
precious a _cuisinier_ might be engaged for the royal household.
"_Allons donc, la France!_" retorted the ex-grisette, "have I caught you
at last? It is no _cuisinier_ at all, but a _cuisinière_, and I demand a
recompense for her worthy both of her and of your majesty. Your royal
bounty has made my negro, Zamore, governor of Luciennes, and I cannot
accept less than a _cordon bleu_" (the Royal Order of the _Saint
Esprit_) "for my _cuisinière_."

The French Revolution was temporarily a blow to Parisian cookery, as to
everything else of the _ancien régime_. "Not a single turbot in the
market," was the lament of Grimod de la Reynière, the great gourmet, and
author of the _Manuel des amphitryons_ (1808). But while it fell heavily
on the class of noble amphitryons it had one remarkable effect on the
art which was epoch-making. It is from that time that we notice the rise
of the Parisian restaurants. To 1770 is ascribed the first of these, the
_Champ d'oiseau_ in the rue des Poulies. In 1789 there were a hundred.
In 1804 (when the _Almanach des gourmands_, the first sustained effort
at investing gastronomy with the dignity of an art, was started) there
were between 500 and 600. And in 1814, to such an extent had the
restaurants attracted the culinary talent of Paris, that the allied
monarchs, on arriving there, had to contract with the two brothers Véry
for the supply of their table. Among the great gastronomic names of
Napoleon's day was that of his chancellor Cambacérès, of whose dinners
many stories are told. Robert (the eponym of the _sauce Robert_),
Rechaud and Mérillion were at this period esteemed the Raphael,
Michelangelo and Rubens of cookery; while A. Beauvilliers (author of
_Art des cuisines_) and Carême (author of the _Maître d'hôtel français_,
and chef at different times to the Tsar Alexander I., Talleyrand, George
IV. and Baron Rothschild) were no less celebrated.[1] Perhaps the
greatest name of all in the history of the literature of cookery is that
of Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826), the French judge and author of
the _Physiologie du goût_ (1825), the classic of gastronomy.

In England Louis Eustache Ude, Charles Elmé Francatelli, and Alexis
Soyer carried on the tradition, all being not only cooks but authors of
treatises on the art. The _Original_ (1835) of Thomas Walker, the
Lambeth police magistrate, is another work which has inspired later
pens. Like the _Physiologie du goût_, it is no mere cookery-book, but a
compound of observation and philosophy. Among simple hand-books, Mrs
Glasse's, Dr Kitchener's and Mrs Rundell's were standard English works
in the 18th and early 19th centuries; and in France the _Cuisinière de
la campagne_ (1818) went through edition after edition. An interesting
old English work is Dr Pegge's _Forme of Cury_ (1780), which includes
some historical reflections on the subject. "We have some good families
in England," he says, "of the name of Cook or Coke.... Depend upon it,
they all originally sprang from real professional cooks, and they need
not be ashamed of their extraction any more than Porters, Butlers, &c."
He points out that cooks in early days were of some importance; William
the Conqueror bestowed land on his _coquorum praepositus_ and _coquus
regius_; and Domesday Book records the bestowal of a manor on Robert
Argyllon, by the service of a dish called "de la Groute" on the king's
coronation day.

At the present time, whatever the local varieties of cooking, and the
difference of national custom, French cooking is admittedly the ideal of
the culinary art, directly we leave the plain roast and boiled. And the
spread of cosmopolitan hotels and restaurants over England, America and
the European continent, has largely accustomed the whole civilized world
to the Parisian type. The improvements in the appliances and
appurtenances of the kitchen have made the whole world kin in the arts
of dining, but the French chef remains the typical master of his craft.
Schools of cookery have been added to the educational machine. The
literature of the subject has passed beyond enumeration.

It is unnecessary here to pursue so vast a practical subject into
detail; but the following notes on broiling, roasting, baking, boiling,
stewing and frying may be useful.

  _Broiling._--The earliest method of cooking was probably burying seeds
  and flesh in hot ashes, a kind of broiling on all the surfaces at the
  same time, which when properly done is the most delicate kind of
  cooking. Broiling is now done over a clear fire extending at least 2
  in. beyond the edges of the gridiron, which should slightly incline
  towards the cook. It is usual to rub the bars with a piece of suet for
  meat, and chalk for fish, to prevent the thing broiled from being
  marked with the bars of the gridiron. In this kind of cookery the
  object is to coagulate as quickly as possible all the albumen on the
  surface, and seal up the pores of the meat so as to keep in all the
  juices and flavour. It is, therefore, necessary thoroughly to warm the
  gridiron before putting on the meat, or the heat of the fire is
  conducted away while the juices and flavour of the meat run into the
  fire. Broiling is a simple kind of cookery, and one well suited to
  invalids and persons of delicate appetites. There is no other way in
  which small quantities of meat can be so well and so quickly cooked.
  Broiling cannot be well done in front of an open fire, because one
  side of the meat is exposed to a current of cold air. A pair of tongs
  should be used instead of a fork for turning all broiled meat and
  fish.

  _Roasting._--Two conditions are necessary for good roasting--a clear
  bright fire and frequent basting. Next to boiling or stewing it is the
  most economical method of cooking. The meat at first should be placed
  close to a brisk fire for five minutes to coagulate the albumen. It
  should then be drawn back a short distance and roasted slowly. If a
  meat screen be used, it should be placed before the fire to be
  moderately heated before the meat is put to roast. The centre of
  gravity of the fire should be a little above the centre of gravity of
  the joint. No kitchen can be complete without an open range, for it is
  almost impossible to have a properly roasted joint in closed
  kitcheners. The heat radiated from a good open fire quickly coagulates
  the albumen on the surface, and thus to a large extent prevents that
  which is fluid in the interior from solidifying. The connective tissue
  which unites the fibres is gradually converted into gelatin, and
  rendered easily soluble. The fibrin and albumen appear to undergo a
  higher oxidation and are more readily dissolved. The fat cells are
  gradually broken, and the liquid fat unites to a small extent with the
  chloride of sodium and the tribasic phosphate of sodium contained in
  the serum of the blood. It is easily seen that roasting by coagulating
  the external albumen keeps together the most valuable parts of the
  meat, till they have gradually and slowly undergone the desired
  change. This surface coagulation is not sufficient to prevent the free
  access of the oxygen of the surrounding air. The empyreumatic oils
  generated on the surface are neither wholesome nor agreeable, and
  these are perhaps better removed by roasting than any other method
  except broiling. The chief object is to retain as much as possible all
  the sapid juicy properties of the meat, so that at the first cut the
  gravy flows out of a rich reddish colour, and this can only be
  accomplished by a quick coagulation of the surface albumen. The time
  for roasting varies slightly with the kind of meat and the size of the
  joint. As a rule beef and mutton require a quarter of an hour to the
  pound; veal and pork about 17 minutes to the pound. To tell whether
  the joint is done, press the fleshy part with a spoon; if the meat
  yield easily it is done.

  _Baking_ meat is in many respects objectionable, and should never be
  done if any other method is available. The gradual disuse of open
  grates for roasting has led to a practice of first baking and then
  browning before the fire. This method completely reverses the true
  order of cooking by beginning with the lowest temperature and
  finishing with the highest. Baked meat has never the delicate flavour
  of roast meat, nor is it so digestible. The vapours given off by the
  charring of the surface cannot freely escape, and the meat is cooked
  in an atmosphere charged with empyreumatic oil. A brick or earthenware
  oven is preferable to iron, because the porous nature of the bricks
  absorbs a good deal of the vapour. When potatoes are baked with meat,
  they should always be first parboiled, because they take a longer time
  to bake, and the moisture rising from the potatoes retards the process
  of baking, and makes the meat sodden. A baked meat pie, though not
  always very digestible, is far less objectionable than plain baked
  meat. In the case of a meat pie the surfaces of the meat are protected
  by a bad conductor of heat from that charring of the surface which
  generates empyreumatic vapours, and the fat and gravy, gradually
  rising in temperature, assist the cooking, and such cooking more
  nearly resembles stewing than baking. The process may go on for a long
  time after the removal of the meat from the oven, if surrounded with
  flannel, or some bad conductor of heat. The Cornish pasty is the best
  example of this kind of cooking. Meat, fish, game, parboiled
  vegetables, apples or anything that fancy suggests, are surrounded
  with a thick flour and water crust and slowly baked. When removed from
  the oven, and packed in layers of flannel, the pasty will keep hot for
  hours. When baked dishes contain eggs, it should be remembered that
  the albumen becomes harder and more insoluble, according to the time
  occupied in cooking. About the same time is required for baking as
  roasting.

  _Boiling_ is one of the easiest methods of cooking, but a successful
  result depends on a number of conditions which, though they appear
  trifling, are nevertheless necessary. The fire must be watched so as
  properly to regulate the heat. The saucepan should be scrupulously
  clean and have a closely-fitting lid, and be large enough to hold
  sufficient water to well cover and surround the meat, and all scum
  should be removed as it comes to the surface; the addition of small
  quantities of cold water will assist the rising of the scum. For all
  cooking purposes clean rain water is to be preferred. Among cooks a
  great difference of opinion exists as to whether meat should be put
  into cold water and gradually brought to the boiling point, or should
  be put into boiling water. This, like many other unsettled questions
  in cookery, is best decided by careful scientific experiment and