quartets taught him the value of the viola, in consequence of which,
independent parts for that instrument as advocated by Scarlatti are
likewise to be found in his orchestral scores.

The value of Gossec's persistent energy in both building up the
standard of already existing orchestral organizations and in
establishing a new one is twofold. For not only was the French
public educated to encourage home talent to seek expression in
independent orchestral language, but also by affording these same
French aspirants frequent opportunity for hearing the masterpieces
of foreign contemporaries was the French style of writing for the
orchestra immensely strengthened and broadened. Considering the close
affinity that bound Gossec's birthplace to France, he may well be
regarded as a representative of the country which he had adopted as
his own. As the founder of the first genuine symphonic orchestra
in France, he himself set the example as a diligent composer of
symphonies and string quartets, although, unfortunately, the former
were at first not favorably received. Nevertheless, his perseverance
eventually won the day, especially after he had been crowned with new
laurels as an operatic composer; and at the time of the Gluck-Piccini
controversy, some of his later symphonies finally obtained for him
that recognition to which he had aspired. Lavoix avers that Gossec
was the first French writer to make use of the clarinet. Again, its
introduction into the Opéra in 1772--just in time to be of service
to Gluck--is apparently authenticated by Francoeur. Since, however,
the clarinet was already embodied in Rameau's scoring, the present
writer desires to call attention to these obvious discrepancies. At
all events, we know that the resources of the clarinet were developed
by both Gossec and Gluck, even though at that time only an incomplete
scale in the keys of C and F could be obtained from the instrument.
Gossec was not conspicuously original either in instrumental form or
in orchestration, even though his Requiem, for example, does contain
instances of interesting scoring. Neither does the fact that his
first symphony preceded Haydn's by five years credit him with being
an epoch-making orchestral composer. For his productions, like those
of Sammartini, are now but of historic interest, whereas Haydn's
still find ready listeners. And so his place in history is distinctly
that of pioneer and promoter of independent orchestral performance,
and with the organization of the "Concerts des Amateurs" his programs
included the works of such foreign composers as the Belgian, van
Malder, the Bohemian, Wanhal, likewise Stamitz, eventually Haydn.
His career is certainly unique, since in view of the fact that he
was born two years after Haydn's birth and died two years after
Beethoven's death, the complete panorama of the classic era was
unfolded before his eyes, and during the course of his ninety-five
years it was his privilege to witness the ascendency in turn of
Gluck, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven together with their co-workers.
During his lifetime, moreover, there sprang into existence also
the Romantic Movement which, emerging out of the later works of
Beethoven, was seized upon and elaborated by Spohr and Weber with
their followers.

A striking illustration of the extent to which at this period
the concert stage was already exerting its power is afforded by
the biography of Grétry, who in spite of his restless dramatic
disposition found time, in the enthusiasm of his productiveness, to
write no less than six symphonies, not to mention a number of minor
works in the form of chamber music--and this in the face of the fact
that he did not know how to write for the orchestra! His saving grace
in this field was his fund of humor, tuneful melody and sound musical
judgment.

Notwithstanding all that has just been said, these signs of activity
in France cannot be compared with contemporary achievements in
Germany, henceforth to be the permanent home and supreme arbiter
of cyclic form and stable instrumentation. And not the least of
the inceptive stimuli leading to the discovery of the proper
constituency of a perfectly balanced orchestra must be accredited to
the Mannheim orchestra, which became celebrated under Stamitz and
Cannabich. At the time of Mozart's birth, that organization embraced
a string band of ten first violins, ten seconds, four violas, four
'cellos and four double-basses. It will be seen at a glance that
excepting a paucity of violas, the value of plentiful strings and
their numerical relation one to the other was keenly appreciated.
The wood-wind was likewise logically represented by two flutes, two
oboes, two bassoons, to which clarinets were added some ten years
later. There were also four horns, twelve trumpets and trombones,
kettle-drums, an organ, and a chorus of twenty-four voices. Why so
many instruments of brass should have been considered necessary is
open to question. Independent parts for not more than two horns and
two trumpets was the rule among the early symphonic writers, and not
one of Haydn's symphonies contains parts for more than two horns,
neither did his simple demands require more than two trumpets. True,
Mozart occasionally called for four horns in his earlier works, but
like Haydn, he used trumpets but sparingly. It is hardly conceivable
that competent conductors of so noble an organization could have
been guilty of such inartistic procedure as to allow the brass,
comparatively unimportant as their functions were at that time, to
be reënforced by reduplication. These supernumerary instruments must
have remained silent at concert performances, being reserved rather
for dramatic representations or sacred renditions for which they
could be of more legitimate service.[10]

[Footnote 10: Another plausible explanation is that the extra
trumpeters and trombonists should be accredited to the "Hof Musik,"
which may have been only an adjunct to the "Hof Kapelle." Their
principal duty may have been to announce the arrival of the Elector
by a fanfare, and to give other signals at the many public functions
of the Court. It has been pointed out to the present writer that this
theory seems confirmed by an illustration in a book covering this
period where is shown a boxful of trumpeters at a Court performance
of opera at Dresden.]

Interesting are the comparisons between the constituency of the
Dresden orchestra in 1732 and that of Mannheim in 1756. It will be
remembered that when referring to Hasse, the Dresden Opera was cited
as harboring twenty-five strings, wood-wind instruments to the number
of twelve, two horns, a number of trumpets and trombones, besides
kettle-drums and two clavichords--in all some fifty instrumental
performers. And, as already enumerated, the orchestra at Mannheim
was comprised of thirty-two strings, six wood and sixteen brass
instruments, as well as kettle-drums and organ, making a total of
about sixty. All in all, the venerable operatic orchestras during
the eighteenth century were the fuller and richer in resources, and
were in possession of a larger numerical disposition of wood and
brass even if inadequately supplied with strings. But the tendency
to correct this deficiency in the constitution of concert orchestras
resulted in the acquirement of greater elasticity and transparency,
which was of all importance for the interpretation of the works
of the great classicists whose servitor the orchestra was soon to
become. And subsequently in writing for specific orchestras for
which a sufficient number of strings had not yet been supplied, it
may be that these masters intuitively presaged that this much needed
metamorphosis of internal organization would gradually take place
as the direct reflex of their own exalted demands for improved
instrumentation and artistic rendition. Fortunately, sentient
appreciation for careful rehearsal leading to a high standard of
rendition had already found a champion in Emanuel Bach, and this
objective was jealously fostered by Gossec, Stamitz and Cannabich,
all of whom devoted themselves assiduously to the obtainment of
purity of tone, equality of dynamic force, precision and coöperation,
elasticity, phraseology, _nuance_. Naturally, the violin, by virtue
of artistic merit and paramount importance, received their most
careful attention, in consequence of which the standard of the
strings as a whole was elevated to that proficiency which made it
possible for the classicists to employ them with such freedom as had
never before been essayed.

The aim of this comparative survey of orchestras and orchestration
as related with the complex phases of musical progression during the
careers of Bach, Händel and Gluck has been to elucidate the artistic
situation as found by the three succeeding masters.

(Summary on page 68.)

CHAPTER VII.

HAYDN, MOZART, AND BEETHOVEN.

I.

It is almost superfluous to say that HAYDN[11] (1732-1809),
the true father of the modern symphony and string quartet, was, after
Monteverde and Scarlatti, the most potent factor in establishing a
perfectly balanced orchestra as a whole. Indeed, one might modify
the eulogy previously bestowed upon Monteverde, and say that whereas
_he_ may be looked upon as the father of modern instrumentation,
_Haydn_ was the father of modern orchestration. Like Monteverde,
he was constantly experimenting, being, moreover, aided by his
exceptionally favorable position at the court of Prince Esterhazy.
To such an extent are his achievements known to all, that it is
permissible to but touch upon the vital landmarks which constitute
the distinguishable features of his quasi-created cyclic forms. This
term is used advisedly, for although he accepted the erudite forms
of his predecessors and contemporaries, and, like them, devolved the
symphony from the earlier _concerto_ for several instruments, he
improved upon these forms to such a degree, that they emerged from
their archaic chrysalis in rejuvenated attire.

[Footnote 11: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 10 to
17.]

Lack of space forbids more than a passing reference to the
coevolution of the string quartet, that momentous vehicle for the
sonata form, whose growth was concurrent with that of the symphony.
But in both these branches of art Haydn left his indelible stamp upon
the creations of Mozart and Beethoven, indeed Mozart, though more
emotional and impressive, did not enlarge upon Haydn's form, and even
Beethoven, the tone-poet, remained to the last true to its substance.
Parenthetically it should be remembered that on the other hand
Haydn's quartets and symphonies were in turn influenced by Mozart,
from whom, moreover, both he and Beethoven acquired a more subtle
insight into the skilful handling of the wood-wind. The symphonies of
Haydn and Beethoven have been felicitously compared by styling those
of the former, comedies, those of the latter, tragedies. Finally, the
extent to which the reputation of Haydn's symphonies travelled is
discovered in the already mentioned performances thereof in Paris (at
the "Concerts des Amateurs," founded by the Belgian Gossec, for which
organization Haydn specifically composed several symphonies), not to
speak of his triumphs in London as well as in the musical centres of
his native land.

These rather extended references to the rise of symphonic music are
surely justifiable in that from it dates the dynasty of monarchical
orchestration.[12]

[Footnote 12: It is not intended to belittle the original and
valuable efforts of the Mannheim composer, Stamitz, and of the
several other representatives of various nations as referred to
on pages 42 and 43, even though preëminence in the development of
orchestration and form is accorded to Haydn and Mozart.]

Haydn's development of his formal architecture can be summed up by
saying that he knit together and enlarged the cycle of complex forms,
extended the separate movements individually, imparted to them order,
clearness, variety, and developed free thematic treatment.

As has just been stated, the orchestra in Haydn's plasmic hands
improved as a unit. He introduced no new instruments excepting later
on the clarinet, indeed, his scores betray on the whole a greater
reticence in the employment of numeric varieties of instruments than
do those of Bach and Händel. Haydn's genius matured slowly; his
earlier scoring does not exhibit any advanced degree of originality,
and not until after Mozart had in turn become the greater did Haydn
stand forth in the true strength of _his_ greatness. The antennae
of that long-lived crustacean, the Neapolitan School, had touched
even Haydn as they had Händel before him, and the influence was
directly beneficial, since it modified the Teutonic tendencies
inoculated by his predilection for the style of Emmanuel Bach, and
fostered a regard for melody. Though he used no new material, Haydn
instituted a freer method of employing each instrument according to
its peculiarities and powers. Despite the fact that he was addicted
to the custom of three-part string writing as established by Cavalli
long before, he developed the art of welding the component parts
firmly together, and thereby secured vitality and elasticity.

The strings were now one complete and compact body.[13] Careful
attention was bestowed both upon the manner of writing for them and
upon a judicious numerical selection of each species to the end that
they might not only balance, but also assist and show off to the best
advantage the characteristic qualities of every part, one against
the other. Only the violoncello was as yet subservient, and the
harpsichord was still retained.

[Footnote 13: Ex. 16, 17.]

In the distribution of the parts for the wood-wind, he at first
imitated Händel's usual methods of merely reënforcing the string
parts in unison. But having benefited by repeated practical
experience, and especially after the appearance of Mozart upon the
arena, Haydn's writing for the wood became freer.[14] The oboe, whose
functions are now largely supplanted by the more feminine and soulful
clarinet, was much used as a solo instrument. And when at last the
great classicists came upon the discovery that by supporting a solo
instrument with held chords in the wind,[15] they could attain a more
pliant mode of expression than had been possible in the earlier
stiff and formal polyphonic style,--from that time on a new and
poetic pathway was opened up, and the modern style of writing for the
wood-wind may be said to have fairly begun.

[Footnote 14: Ex. 11, 14, 15.]

[Footnote 15: Ex. 13.]

In the use of the brass Haydn was conservative. Trombones were absent
from his symphonic scheme, and the province of trumpets, if they
were used at all, was exceedingly primitive, so that only the horns
gained greater freedom of treatment. Thus, for example, the valuable
and eventually common custom of strengthening the bass by sustained
tonic and dominant horn parts was employed by Haydn in his symphony
in D, No. 2 (Breitkopf & Haertel). But more than two real parts for
horns are not to be found in any of his works, and the demand for
four horns in the Hunting Chorus in his "Seasons" will, at a glance,
be recognized as having for its purpose the reduplication of two-part
writing, so as to obtain a clearer melodic delineation. And although
prominence of metallic quality was thus acquired, the rich chord
effect of later times is conspicuous for its absence.

When Haydn wrote his first symphony at the time when Mozart was in
his infancy, he employed, in addition to strings, only two oboes and
two horns. By the end of the eighteenth century, the normal symphonic
orchestra had been increased so as to include strings, two flutes,
two oboes, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets and kettle-drums. To
these were quite occasionally added two clarinets. The rôle of the
trumpets as well as of kettle-drums was to augment the effectiveness
of climaxes, to emphasize rhythm, to add virility, or to suggest
martial portraiture. But the harp shared the fortunes of the
trombones in that it was as yet denied admittance to the symphonic
phalanx.

Of incidental interest is the characteristic deployment of bassoons
in the slow movement of the symphony in D already referred to; and
the introduction into the orchestra of massed short chords struck
simultaneously by all the strings must also be attributed to Haydn.

Finally, his "Creation" embodies successful expedients for
descriptive writing. In this masterpiece, the strings, together with
a full complement of wind instruments in pairs, are further augmented
by the usual kettle-drums, a double-bassoon, and three trombones,--an
aggregation which, apart from the manner of using it for the purpose
of tone-painting, is typical of Beethoven's enlarged orchestra as
employed in his crowning graphic movements. However, this demand for
so huge an apparatus as the assistant to Haydn's mightiest choral and
embryo-romantic composition was exceptional, and as the corollary
of his orchestration, when reviewed as a whole, one might say that
he worked with simple means, and although his pages do not present
delicate combinations, he obtained vigorous and fresh results.[16]

[Footnote 16: Ex. 10, 12, 17.]

II.

MOZART[17] (1756-1791), universal conqueror, peerless
melodist, unrivalled purist, contributed equally to the development
of orchestration as to all other branches of musical art. Opera,
symphony, chamber and church music alike blossomed and ripened at
his magic touch; and the tonal tints of his scoring assumed a mellow
guise foreign to the lighter shading of Haydn's orchestration. Mozart
was a cosmopolitan in so far as that he moulded his polyphony, formal
structure and orchestration in accordance with the classicism of
Teutonic lineage, imbibed the limpid suavity of Italian melody, and
adapted the tragic energy and emotional interpretation of the text as
initiated by Gluck in France. This vivid emotionalism is plainly to
be seen in the dramatic scenes of "Idomeneo" and "Don Giovanni." His
perfect command of contrapuntal subtleties, thematic development, and
vocal composition, combined with the most precocious creative genius,
enabled him not only to build upon the heirloom of Bach's church
music and Haydn's symphonies and quartets, but to establish a basis
for subsequent genuinely German opera. For it is beyond question
that specifically the "Zauberflöte" contains the germ of Weber's
romanticism.

[Footnote 17: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 18 to
23.]

For the form of his independent instrumental works, Mozart followed
the precepts of Haydn, but he enlarged them, and imbued their
contents with a certain strategic power for evoking more serious
contemplation and enduring impressiveness. Adherence to tonality, not
only in each individually complete movement, but also in successive
and related complex forms, was one of the fundamental canons of
Mozart's creed. This tonal consistency is to be found even in his
operas, whether employed as the connecting link between the more
gentle sections--suggestive of a delicate string of pearls, or as
a mode of obtaining subtle continuity of thought and action in the
dramatic portions.

In orchestration, Mozart combined the best characteristics of
both Gluck and Haydn, and in his hands it gained counterpoise and
vitality. As a natural outcome, the harpsichord was banished from the
orchestra, but incidentally it should be remembered that by no means
did Mozart undervalue this instrument in its proper sphere, for to
him is due the ascendency of the pianoforte concerto, which he left
as a direct bequest to Beethoven, who not only seized upon it with
avidity, but even caused it to immortalize some of his most sublime
conceptions. Mozart's writing for the orchestra is distinguishable
for amalgamating as well as for contrasting the earlier polyphonic
methods with the monophonic style that was being cultivated by his
contemporaries. The last movement of the "Jupiter" symphony will at
once be recalled as an admirable illustration of advanced orchestral
polyphony.[18] As has just been said, Mozart followed and elaborated
Haydn's symphonic instrumentation, but he added greater freedom
to the strings,[19] more variety and contrast to the wood,[20]
developed the art of combining wind accompaniment and instrumental
solo effects,[21] and in general illustrated the capabilities
and ideal functions of each specific instrument. Furthermore,
constant application to operatic writing stimulated a desire for
varied rhythm, and this attainment is reflected in his symphonic
compositions. Finally, it should be said with emphasis that sensitive
regard for individualistic tonal tints in instrumentation was one
of the most conspicuous attributes of Mozart's genius, and despite
the fact that already the masters of his epoch had had recourse
to the application of variated tone-color, nevertheless Mozart is
universally considered as having been the first to do so in a really
successful manner. By relegating the harpsichord, it became necessary
to write for the strings in such a manner as to insure independent
solidity and coherence. Or, to put it the other way, Mozart's scoring
for the string band made further employment of the harpsichord
superfluous. This he accomplished in the face of frequent three-part
writing. The danger of incurring caesuras in harmonic structure or
lack in volume of sound was obviated by the skilful artifice of
contrapuntal motion which, so to speak, generates warmth of tonal
color--heat and motion being an equivalent one for the other, and, as
Gevaërt suggests, this theorem is applicable to music. But Mozart by
no means neglected four-part writing,[22] and both the violoncello
and the hitherto much neglected viola were advanced to a position
more in keeping with their worth.

[Footnote 18: Ex. 20.]

[Footnote 19: Ex. 19, 20.]

[Footnote 20: Ex. 18, 22, 23.]

[Footnote 21: Ex. 21.]

[Footnote 22: Ex. 19.]

Mozart's employment of the symphonic orchestra was one of
conservatism in regard to compass, as illustrated by the G minor
symphony, from which even trumpets and kettle-drums are debarred.
Peculiar to the scoring of his greatest symphonies is the consistent
use of but one flute, whereas the remaining wind is represented in
pairs. Delicacy was the key-note for the wood-wind. For example, he
delighted in embellishing a melody by the combination of violins
redoubled in the octave by a flute and in the sub-octave by a
bassoon. Another distinguishable trait of his was the substituting
of an oboe for the violins in the above combination. These are
but passing exemplifications of countless dainty conceptions that
the most casual perusal of his pages will divulge; and they offer
an unwearying source of delectation in consequence of their naïve
and guileless character. It is true that for _Tuttis_, Mozart was
satisfied with certain conventional methods, such as an exaggerated
use of wood-wind passages in thirds and sixths. But this practice
was common likewise to Beethoven, and not until after the advent of
the Romanticists did it fall into disuse, indeed, no less a modern
conservative than Brahms was content to adapt classical mannerisms
of this nature. But only subsequent to Mozart's visit to Mannheim
when he was twenty-one years of age, and not until after he had
convinced himself of the indispensability of the clarinet--that
sympathetic medium between high and low wood-wind--was it possible
to give adequate variety of color and effect to this hitherto
rather homogeneous secondary choir. And thus, concurrent with the
emancipation of the wood-wind from many stereotyped formulas, was the
recognition that clarinets began to command in Mozart's orchestral
scheme. And although they were originally included only in the
symphony in E flat,[23] he eventually added them to the one in G
minor; and in the "Zauberflöte" the instrument received effective
and original treatment. Again, although Mozart's sunny nature would
not naturally conceive such morbid and sentimental effects as
elicited by Weber from the lower tones of the clarinet, he at any
rate appreciated a certain value of such tones by employing them
in the course of flowing passages[24] as in the first Finale of
"Don Giovanni." Mention is due, at this juncture, of the prominent
appearance in the "Zauberflöte" of the obsolete basset-horn, since,
as will be recalled, it belongs to the genealogy of clarinets
and is now superseded by its descendant, the bass-clarinet. The
classic literature of chamber music presents no more favorable
examples for profitable study than do Mozart's _divertissements_,
in which various combinations of wind instruments alone are treated
with rare delicacy and effectiveness. Not being subjected, as in
orchestral compositions, to comparison with the greater agility
and more sensitive attributes of the strings, they are enabled to
assert themselves, and to display in full measure their individual
characteristics and expressive powers.

[Footnote 23: Ex. 22, 23.]

[Footnote 24: Ex. 23.]

Mozart's requirements of the brass show but a slight improvement
upon those of Haydn,[25] excepting that his style of writing for it
betrays better judgment. A demand for more than two horns was rare,
and occurs, strange to say, in his earlier works, for some of which
he employed four. Later on he again exceptionally used this number
in "Idomeneo." But of his representative creations, the G minor
symphony is scored for but two horns, the E flat and C for two horns
and two trumpets. Consistent with the usage of his predecessors, it
was only in church music for redoubling the voices and in operatic
works for dramatic effects that Mozart drew upon the trombones, at
first sparingly, eventually, as in the "Zauberflöte," more freely;
and Gluck's precedent of employing them in three-part harmony was
sustained.

[Footnote 25: Ex. 20.]

In so brief an outline, it is not possible to more than indicate
the cardinal points of evolutionary advancement as contributed to
orchestration by Mozart. But one prominent feature of his preëminent
versatility reveals itself in the fact that whereas the long line of
his illustrious predecessors had, with the one exception of Haydn,
developed the art of writing for the orchestra more as a secondary
means to some one particular and all-absorbing primary end, Mozart's
genius devoted itself with impartiality and parallel success just as
much to instrumentation and orchestration as to the formal structures
of his instrumental works or to the contents of his operas and
masses. And the laurels that crown the herculean achievements of his
brief life are symbolic of the æsthetic, the chaste, the ideal.

III.

Three prominent characteristics are associated with the name of
BEETHOVEN[26] (1770-1827), the greatest universal master
in the chronicles of musical history. To him must be attributed the
ideal culmination of classic purity, both as to structural design
and thematic development. Through him, form became subordinated to
human expression. From him the Romantic Movement drew its direct
inspiration. In other words, Beethoven forged the connecting link
between the classicists and the romanticists, between absolute and
programmatic, objective and subjective music, between the primarily
formal and the essentially soulful. In the general principles of
form and technical procedure, Beethoven accepted the precedents
established by his immediate predecessors, and his earlier works
show the influence of both Haydn and Mozart. But the impelling force
of his independent and assertive genius, nurtured by the rugged
characteristics peculiar to the tendencies of his Dutch and German
descent, urged him to further bold and unhesitating innovations
whenever novel effects could thereby be attained.

[Footnote 26: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 24 to
35.]

In connection with distinctively formal treatment, the most prominent
feature of this amplification lies in the development even to
minuteness of inner details, the unification of thematic material,
the increase of proportion, and the acquisition of breadth of style
and nobility of subject-matter.

But of far more momentous purport are the fruits of his spirituality
and profound religiousness. Beethoven was a tone-poet to the core,
and his search for emotional expression caused him to disregard
fixed design whenever it interfered with freedom of thought. Thus
in adapting the cyclic sonata form, he enhanced it by means of
perfected monody based on the higher Folk-song, by means of richer
harmonies, freer modulations, varied rhythm, greater license in
the juxtaposition of tonalities, and elasticity in the application
of traditional forms--Beethoven's quest for beauty of form being,
moreover, only secondary in importance to its own reactionary fitness
for beauty of expression. Thus Beethoven became the master of form
and expression combined, reconciled, unified.

Mozart and Beethoven share the same unique and unparalleled
characteristics in that the genius of both of them was so universal
in nature as to make the question of deciding in what particular
branch of composition they excelled a difficult one. So Beethoven,
greatest of symphonic exponents, enriched the world with string
quartets and chamber music that are perfection exemplified,
produced a mighty series of pianoforte concertos and sonatas that
are unexcelled, and dedicated a host of his loftiest inspirations
to the glorification of the Church. He wrote but one opera--it has
become immortal; but one oratorio--the sincerity and depth of its
pathos awaken sympathetic response at each renewed hearing; but
one violin concerto--it is still the ideal, likewise the despair
of every violin virtuoso. And upon riveting the attention solely
upon the instrumentation of his orchestral pages, one finds that
every bar of the score bears the impress of a master's touch, and of
such a master as the world had never before produced. He discovered
the utmost capabilities of each instrument, introduced innovations
in the method of handling them, both as solo interpreters and in
combination, and illustrated that even without the aid of a so-called
modern orchestra, picture-painting can be attained. That is to say,
impressions of the mind of insufficient distinctness to call forth
verbal utterance, are nevertheless capable of tonal exposition.
Hence arises the expression "musical language," and quite especially
in connection with instrumentation one says that the orchestra
"possesses the faculty of language." The Pastoral Symphony is a
graphic exemplification of this truth.

Beethoven's instrumentation bears the unmistakable impress of his
own personal individuality, and purely sensuous tone-effect is ever
subordinated to the inceptive æsthetic scheme and clearness of
thematic delineation. The employment of specific tonal quality of
the various instruments capable of variated coloring, effectiveness,
and scope, was absolutely faithful to the momentary requirements of
the orchestral situation. And thus, while his predecessors had been
absorbed in the contemplation and exposition of abstract musical
thought, and, on the other hand, the sequent composers of the
nineteenth century laid undue stress upon the portrayal of their
conceptions in gorgeous orchestral raiment, Beethoven's masterpieces
embody the temperate assimilation of fervent feeling, architectural
structure, contrast of the various choirs, and intermixing of
instrumental coloring, simultaneously and harmoniously developed,
without apparent effort, all-satisfying, inseparable.

One feature of Beethoven's greatness is emphasized by the
self-restraint he exercised in usually making demands for but a
modest apparatus as the interpreter of his orchestral conceptions.
Thus, in spite of being tremendously progressive, and betraying at
every step the inclination to enlarge the scope of his creations
in every way, he was content to employ Mozart's scoring for all of
his symphonies excepting the Fifth, Sixth, and Ninth,--that is to
say, strings, the four usual wood-instruments in pairs, two horns,
two trumpets, and kettle-drums, were practically sufficient for his
needs. This numerical distribution of parts differed but slightly
in all but the above three excepted symphonies. Comparing this
aggregation with those in Mozart's three representative symphonies,
we find, as the only difference, that Beethoven's wood-wind includes
two flutes in all but the Fourth Symphony, and that clarinets were
now enrolled as a permanent adjunct to the orchestra. Two horns
sufficed for them all excepting for the Third, "Eroica," where three
are to be found, this being, moreover, the first time that more than
two had been employed in symphonic writing by Beethoven.

The orchestral canvas of the Fifth, C minor, presents the coöperation
of a piccolo flute, a contra-bassoon, and three trombones; all of
these, however, remain silent until the victorious entrance of the
Finale. To the Sixth--the Pastoral--are added a piccolo flute and
two trombones instead of three, whereas in the Ninth, the usual
symphonic cohort is supplemented by a piccolo, a double-bassoon, four
horns, three trombones, and human voices. It is worthy of note that
this new departure of employing a second couplet of horns in the
symphonic scheme concludes the evolution of the classical orchestra.
For the incorporation into the concert orchestra of the oboe da
caccia, resuscitated in the form of the English horn, of the modern
bass-clarinet, of the opheicleide and the usurper of its functions,
the bass-tuba, was an outgrowth of the Romantic Movement. Likewise
the harp, in spite of its venerable origin and perennial usage, was,
during the eighteenth century, an adjunct to the operatic orchestra
only, for histrionic effects and historic representations.

The scores of no other composer can be more profitably studied than
those of Beethoven, and a high percentage of the examples set forth
in all standard treatises on instrumentation are drawn from his
works. Apart from the fact that his orchestration not only embodied
but improved upon and matured the orthodox style of writing as
bequeathed to him by Haydn and Mozart, his pages abound in daring
innovations, bold and startling; in subtle combinations, delicate and
pathetic; a kaleidoscope of sequent effects now contemplative and
restful, now tender and languishing, impetuous and fiery, at times
even jocose, weird, bizarre. And throughout is manifested the depth
of his nature, the nobility of his purpose.

In writing for the strings, Beethoven attained a degree of excellence
that has never been surpassed. He fulfilled every requirement,
whether of solidity, sonority, flexibility, or delicacy.[27] With
bold and vigorous strokes, he infused warmth and increased vitality
into the inner and lower voices, and the quartet being thereby more
closely knit together, the resultant effect was that of breadth and
power. He was the first to carry the orchestral violins into the
ethereal domain of their highest range in the overture to "Egmont."
Incomparable is the boisterous string passage toward the close of the
"Leonora" Overture, No. 3, as well as the fughetta in the Scherzo
of the Fifth Symphony, where the double-basses are for the first
time allowed unfettered license.[28] Finally, Beethoven elevated the
violoncello once for all to its proper sphere as an emotional and
heroic interpreter, of which the C minor Symphony affords a favorite
example in that the 'cellos, assisted by the violas, usher in the
opening theme of the slow movement.[29] The violas likewise gained in
individuality, and in the last movement of the Ninth Symphony even
divided viola parts are to be found.

[Footnote 27: Ex. 30, 31, 33.]

[Footnote 28: Ex. 27.]

[Footnote 29: Ex. 24.]

Beethoven was especially happy in discovering the ideal
potentialities of the wood-wind, and from him originated the practice
of reuniting the higher species both in contrasting and amalgamating
choirs.[30] No better model for successful flute writing can be cited
than that in the Allegro of the "Leonora" Overture, No. 3; and the
genial attributes of the oboe which, though latent, had never before
been exposed, are fittingly treated in the scherzos of the Pastoral
and Choral symphonies. The clarinet was now a regularly constituted
member of the orchestra, and specimens of characteristic writing for
it are to be found in the slow movements of the symphonies in B flat
and A, and also in the Finale of the "Eroica," where a judicious
introduction of clarinet arpeggios lends warmth and color to the
Melos.

[Footnote 30: Ex. 25, 28, 34.]

Perhaps no other orchestral instrument received more careful
consideration from Beethoven than the bassoon, and his partiality for
it resulted in detaching it from its former subservient position as
bass for the wood and horns, and elevating it to the dignity of an
equal associate to the remaining wood-wind, with especial regard for
the quality of its tenor range.[31] Thus Beethoven evinced a peculiar
predilection for redoubling a melody, assigned either to violins
or to an instrument of wood, with a bassoon in the sub-octave.
Again, he recognized its sustaining powers as independent bass,
provided the balance of the instruments to be sustained were nicely
adjusted. Gevaërt calls attention to just such a combination in
"Egmont," where one bassoon acts as bass to the strings while the
'cellos and double-basses occasionally assist. And, as he further
remarks, the choice was admirable, for no other instrument, as,
for instance, the horn, would have been suitable. Consistent with
his sentient appreciation for the bassoon, Beethoven rescued the
double-bassoon[32] from comparative obscurity, and although he
employed it invariably as a reduplication of the 'cellos and basses,
it was awarded a more conspicuous rôle in "Fidelio" than in the C
minor Symphony.

[Footnote 31: Ex. 26, 31.]

[Footnote 32: Ex. 30.]

Classic conservatism in the use of the brass found no exception
even when consigned to Beethoven's inspired pen other than the
previously mentioned augmentation of horn parts and the more
frequent requisition for trombones. His horn writing[33] followed
that of Mozart, but his style was freer, bolder, and the results
more resonant, especially in such passages as the familiar jubilant
fanfare in the Scherzo of the "Eroica" and again in the Scherzo of
the "Pastoral." On the other hand, the decidedly primitive functions
of the trumpets[34] were in no wise ameliorated, an incident that
is largely to be accounted for by the mechanical limitations of the
instrument which still existed at that day. As for the trombones,
to have drawn upon them merely for increase of volume, would have
been contrary to the ethics of Beethoven's artistic creed. The fact
that they did add sonority was therefore but a subsidiary issue, and
in climaxes such as the Finale of the Fifth Symphony, their mission
was primarily that of lending grandeur and richness to the final
scintillating tableau.[35]

[Footnote 33: Ex. 30, 32, 35.]

[Footnote 34: Ex. 30.]

[Footnote 35: Ex. 30.]

In conclusion, the kettle-drums must receive especial mention.
It will be noticed that as yet but passing reference to them has
been made in these pages, for it was left to Beethoven to discover
their genuinely tragic resources. He not only enlarged the scope
of the instruments by having them tuned to intervals other than
the conventional and stereotyped fourth and fifth, but gave
them expressive powers such as had never been attained before.
Consequently there was added to the orchestra a practically new
member, since he caused the tympani to respond to his dictates, as
it were, with warm and throbbing pulse-beats, at times permeating,
dominating, subduing the entire orchestral color-scheme. Striking
illustrations of this latent power are to be found in the third
movement of the C minor Symphony[36] and the Finale of the Pianoforte
Concerto in E flat; likewise in the Finale of the Eighth and the
Scherzo of the Ninth symphonies, in both of which they are tuned in
octaves; and in the introduction to the second act of "Fidelio,"
where they are tuned to the interval of the diminished fifth. Further
specimens of specifically solo writing will be recalled in the Adagio
of the B flat Symphony, the beginning of the Violin Concerto, and the
introduction to the "Mount of Olives."

[Footnote 36: Ex. 29.]

A discussion of Beethoven's titanic achievements, even if confined to
his orchestral writings, is prone to lead the student into so deep
a maze of absorbing illustrations of his genius, that it becomes
necessary to find an arbitrary stopping place. Therefore this review
may be tersely summed up by saying that the culmination of classic
purity, the subordination to human feeling of purely formal structure
and sensuous tone-effect, and a systematic development of descriptive
music, are the essentials of Beethoven's creations. His orchestration
stands as a model for all time. He is the connecting link between the
classicists and the romanticists. And in a word, the consummation of
his artistic striving was freedom and spirituality.

(Summary on page 68.)

CHAPTER VIII.

THE CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN.

I.

The career of Beethoven, extending well into the nineteenth century,
overlaps the rise and growth of the Romantic Movement,--a movement
that embodied tendencies with which his later works show sympathetic
accord. The authors of this new departure were instigated by poetic
aspirations closely allied to those of Beethoven; and since his
creative horizon was constantly expanding, the idealistic texture
of his productions and theirs was harmoniously interwoven. But
while the scope of German art was being assimilated into channels
of which the objective was natural emotion so expressed as to be
portrayed in tangible form, Rossini's seductive charm had hypnotized
all Europe, with the result that the progress even of Beethoven
was momentarily hampered and his immediate reputation eclipsed.
Therefore before proceeding to a further analysis of orchestration
as advanced by the exponents of the Romantic Movement with which
all prominent German composers after Beethoven are to be more or
less conspicuously identified, a final bird's-eye view of musical
activity in other countries will properly conclude the history of the
so-called classic era. To do this it will be necessary to take up
again the thread of dramatic development which we have already traced
as far as Grétry, in whom the first period of _opéra comique_ may be
said to have culminated. Moreover for the sake of continuity, this
discussion may well include such of the nineteenth century composers
as were not noticeably affected by the magnetism of the romanticists
or of the sequent "New Movement." And the preferential arena for
the reproduction of both French and Italian works was still the
Parisian stage, in which was vested the dangerous power of passing
conclusive judgment upon the offerings of her votaries. Consequently,
the characteristics of such luminaries as were deemed worthy of her
benisons can be briefly summed up without regard to nationality; and
these meteor-like apparitions captivated in turn the entire musical
world, to the neglect of the worthier creations of Gluck and Mozart.

The lyric _genre_ as bequeathed by Grétry was ardently cultivated by
a series of sturdy exponents including his contemporary of evanescent
fame d'Alayrac, followed by Boieldieu, Isouard, a native of Malta,
the long-lived Auber, Hérold, Halévy, Adam. All but the last of
these were born in the last quarter of the eighteenth century,
being, together with the domiciliated Isouard, typical Frenchmen,
devoted to national tradition, style of writing, and methods of
instrumentation. And conspicuously through the collective efforts
of Boieldieu, Auber and Hérold was the standard of _opéra comique_
elevated to high dignity. This exclusive aggrandizement of the
lyric stage by native composers affords a striking contrast to the
history of opera in serious vein. For in reference to the latter, the
attitude of the public was marked by illogical preferentiation, in
consequence of which their vacillating plaudits were bestowed with
but scant discrimination. True, French composers at first tenaciously
held their own, as exemplified by the sterling achievements of
Méhul (1763) and by the fleeting triumphs of his contemporaries,
Lesueur, Berton, Catel. Nor did subsequently the more important
representatives of the lyric style such as Boieldieu, Auber and
Halévy allow undisputed sway to foreign interlopers in the field of
grand opera. And the so-called "historic school" of grand opera,
first introduced by the Italian, Spontini (1774), and eventually
abused by the German, Meyerbeer (1791), was admirably exploited by
Auber's "La Muette di Portici," which was produced the year after
Beethoven's death. This work directly paved the way for "Guillaume
Tell," the crowning achievement of Rossini (1792), as well as for
Meyerbeer's initiatory embodiment of French romanticism, "Robert le
Diable." Sequent to the baneful revival by Rossini of more or less
retrogressional Italian opera appeared the mellifluous fabrications
of Donizetti (1797) and of Bellini (1802), with which undramatic
productions must be classed also the earlier works of Verdi (1813) in
consequence of their voluptuous melodic exuberance.

In Germany, meanwhile, the standard of opera in lighter vein
was upheld by Konradin Kreutzer (1780), the heir of Hiller and
Dittersdorf. In England, the pianist, Field (1782), was initiating a
new style of writing for the pianoforte that was to serve as a model
for Chopin.

II.

It is proper that the compositions of CHERUBINI (1760-1842)
be treated apart from those of his contemporaries, for they are in
many respects distinct by themselves. The fact that he was born in
Italy bears little relation to the style of his productions, for only
in his earlier works are Italian methods particularly noticeable.
The name of Cherubini has become immortal chiefly on account of his
church music, of which he is the first truly great modern master.
Nor must his permanent influence upon the form of French opera
be underestimated, notwithstanding the fact that his own operas
were only moderately successful. For the Gluck-Piccini controversy
impressed him deeply; moreover, Mozart's operas were at that time
already exciting world-wide admiration. As a result of these powerful
influences, Cherubini was led to combine both the German and the
French styles, as exemplified in "Lodoiska"; and henceforth the drama
of France may be said to have acquired permanent and definite form.

The chief characteristics of his church music consist of a fusion of
the elevated style of the sixteenth century, a severe yet masterly
contrapuntal treatment, and withal a remarkable clearness in form
and details. These models of sacred writing which belong, perhaps,
more particularly to the French school, are convincing proof that
so-called antiquated principles can be assimilated into modern
methods. Lavoix calls attention to the criticism that whereas
Cherubini's operas were not sufficiently dramatic, his church music
was too much so. This may be true; but the purity and nobility of
subject-matter, the warmth and breadth in instrumentation, counteract
any possible theatrical tendencies.

The orchestra is much used in Cherubini's sacred works. The
orchestration is flexible and vivid; each instrument is treated
judiciously, and the tonal color is ever sonorous and varied. Prout
refers to the Requiem in C minor as being a splendid piece of sombre
tone-painting, and masterful in its appropriateness. The opening
chorus is remarkable for its pathos, being scored for divided
violas and 'cellos, double-basses, two bassoons, two horns and
muffled kettle-drums. In the introduction to the "Chant sur la Mort
de Joseph Haydn," an extended passage for four violoncellos _con
sordini_ proves that Rossini was not the first to discover the value
of their independent employment. In the same work, one of Wagner's
procedures in the use of the bass-tuba is anticipated in that the
opheicleide is detached from its usual alliance to the trombones, and
is employed alone as a reduplication of the double-basses. Cherubini
was conservative in the use of the brass, although in isolated cases,
where special effects were needed, larger choirs of loud-voiced
instruments are, of course, to be found. As an example, the mass in
A calls for four horns, three trombones, and an opheicleide. On the
other hand, the instrumentation of Cherubini's operas shows greater
reserve, and in one or two cases, entire acts are effectively scored
without once drawing upon either trumpets or kettle-drums. It might
be added that an interesting example for English horn is to be found
in "Anacréon"; that the instrument was as yet but rarely heard in
France is demonstrated by the fact that Cherubini felt it necessary
to write "clarinet _ad libitum_" under the English horn part.

III.

MÉHUL (1763-1817) ranks among the greatest evolutionists of
French instrumentation. His talents developed at an early age; his
career was one of steady progress, and culminated in "Joseph," one of
the loftiest dramatic works France possesses. Following in Gluck's
footsteps, he emphasized the value of declamation and made much use
of melodrama. The operatic overtures also were carefully developed.
Although his orchestration was somewhat heavy, and embodied the
frequent repetition of certain stereotyped formulas, he proved
himself a worthy successor to Gluck in the successful portrayal of
dramatic personages by means of instrumental expression. Much of
his music is decidedly picturesque even though his instrumentation
is lacking in daintiness. The distinctive features of Méhul's
orchestration are sonority, novel combinations, and at times a
certain melancholy coloring. The earliest use of low string effects
is attributed to him, and especial prominence was given to the viola.
As is well known, his opera "Uthal" is unique in that violins are
absent throughout the entire work. The harp is an important factor in
both "Uthal" and "Joseph." Méhul showed considerable partiality for
the brass, and more than once, four horn parts are to be found in his
scores.

LESUEUR (1763) has been called the predecessor of Berlioz
as an exponent of "program" music. He was fond of grand and majestic
combinations, but was artistically more successful in writing for
the church than for the drama. He was fortunate in having under his
control a large orchestra at the Notre Dame, and his contributions
to French instrumentation in detail are important. He frequently
multiplied the violin parts into four, and even divided the violas.
Again, the violins were at times omitted, although he did not go to
the extent of leaving them out through an entire work as Méhul did in
his opera "Uthal." Lesueur may have indirectly influenced Wagner's
scoring of the tetralogy in that twelve harps, divided into two
sections, are required for a faithful rendition of "Les Bardes," and
in a footnote he specifically exacts a predominance of harp quality
of tone. Like many of his subsequent compatriots, he frequently made
requisition for curious instruments of percussion.

IV.

In turning to the works of BOIELDIEU (1775-1834), we find
therein a refreshing example of naïveté, spontaneous originality,
and flowing melody. Italian tendencies are noticeable, but the style
remains pure and distinctly French. Though "La Dame Blanche" does
not contain the attributes of profound scholarship, it satisfies in
full the requirements of refined and poetic French comedy. Schumann
regarded some of Boieldieu's creations as the representative comic
operas of the world. His orchestra is not large and it is rarely used
in its entire strength. The key-note is dainty scoring; the singing
can always be distinctly heard, and although few novel effects of
instrumentation are to be noted, variety and contrast of tone are
constantly to be met with. The accompaniment is ever appropriate,
and especially the clarinet and horns receive characteristic
treatment. Moderation in the use of the brass was carried to such an
extent that trombones are frequently omitted altogether, and even
in "La Dame Blanche" only one was employed. In one opera not even
trumpets and kettle-drums are to be found.

The founder of the lyric drama in the modern sense was AUBER
(1782-1871). The pillars of modern lyric drama are genuine dramatic
expression, varied resources, and extensive proportions. Add to these
charming melody, sparkling instrumentation and piquant coloring, and
we have the sum total of Auber's creations. He was, perhaps, the most
typically French composer that ever lived, and yet his orchestration
is not that of an innovator. He accepted the already existing French
and Italian characteristics of instrumentation, but adapted them to
the needs of his poetic instincts. The functions of his orchestra
are essentially those of accompaniment, and the dramatic situations
are lightly sketched rather than elaborately portrayed. And this
lightness of touch, together with grace and elegance, is already to
be found in "La Muette de Portici," as well as in the more popular
"Fra Diavolo."

In spite of the fact that Auber's orchestra presents nothing actually
new, the charm of his instrumentation has exerted great influence
upon that art in France. When the full orchestra is employed, the
effect is sonorous without being noisy, ever clear yet scintillating.
For more subdued effects, Auber was especially happy in the choice
of mixed tonal tints, such as the reduplication, by a piccolo flute
in the octave, of a melody given to one of the wood-instruments.
Moreover, he was the first to employ the piccolo in piano passages.
And whether reference be made to his use of soft chords for the
trombones, or to his dainty triangle effects,--these are but a
suggestion of the many characteristic insignia that distinguished his
sterling achievements.

The operas of HÉROLD (1791) contain strong expressive
and dramatic attributes. His form and instrumentation show German
rather than Italian influence, modified withal by unquestionable
French coloring. The impress of "Don Juan" and of "Freischütz" is
especially noticeable in the overture to "Zampa," his representative
work; three principal themes from the opera itself are more or less
scientifically developed, and the manner of writing for certain wind
instruments like the clarinet in some ways resembles that of Weber.
Although Hérold's orchestration does not embody that transparency
and that grace which characterize the scores of Auber, it is more
compact, and his accompaniments conform to the demands of the
dramatic situation. He occupied himself also with chamber music and
concert overtures, which are superior in form to many similar efforts
of prominent contemporary French writers, even though they are
insignificant in comparison with German models.

The works of HALÉVY (1799) present a perplexing composite of
genuine art and sensational trivialities. Frequently carried away
by desire for pomp and effervescent personal glory, he nevertheless
gave the art of dramatic scoring a powerful impetus toward modern
methods. His instrumentation is often like Meyerbeer's, and Rossinian
tendencies are apparent as well. Nevertheless, his pages are imbued
with his own individuality. Each instrument received characteristic
treatment when not used in massed harmonic combinations. The strings
were employed with much skill and variety, as exemplified, for
instance, by phrases for violins alone in four parts, or for solo
'cellos in five parts. The former idea bears the germ of Wagner's
subsequent ethereal string passages, whereas the latter corresponds
to Rossini's familiar 'cello scoring in "Guillaume Tell." The
wood-wind played an important part as dramatic interpreter, with
especial attention to the expressive characteristics of the English
horn and the clarinet. Above all, Halévy was an untiring advocate in
behalf of improving and supplementing both the variety and functions
of the brass, and was strongly in support of the newly invented
instruments of Sax. As components of the orchestra proper, they were
not used aggressively, although, of course, when they appeared as
an independent cohort upon the stage itself, their united efforts
inclined toward the bombastic. Halévy was among the first to employ
a second couplet of valve horns in addition to the customary natural
horns, and the manner of writing for them displays a marked departure
from previous usage. Besides absorbing into the orchestra proper
different varieties of sax-horns and especially the sax-tuba, he
employed at times as many as eight trumpets. A part for a soprano
trombone is likewise to be found in one of his scores. "La Juive"
is the embodiment of Halévy's higher ideals and novel orchestral
combinations, and among other interesting details of instrumentation,
the employment of two English horns, the trombone solo in the fourth
act, and the semi-military band on the stage will readily be recalled.

V.

Brief mention is due to the "historic school" which found its first
exponent in SPONTINI (1774-1851). The tenets of this school
were in sympathetic accord with the general desire for pomp attendant
upon the ascendency of Napoleonic imperialism. And Spontini's
masterpiece "La Vestale" entirely satisfied these demands. For in
spite of many glaring defects, it is a worthy example of superb
dramatic power. In this work, a new style of orchestration was
inaugurated, one that has been more or less imitated by all French
writers since his time. Spontini transplanted into serious opera a
principle with which already Piccini and Paesiello had experimented
in their lighter operas, in that, for the description of certain
picturesque episodes, the orchestra appears as chief exponent, the
voice as secondary.

Entirely new was the amalgamation of the whole orchestra into one
mighty organism by means of doubling and redoubling each part,
similar to the practice of adding the four- and two-foot stops in
organ playing. Each of the three choirs is harmonically complete by
itself; being absorbed into the general Melos, it is, of course,
impossible for the ear to analyze the combined tone-color. Such
massive tonal edifices are the embodiment of unity and sonority, but
there is danger of monotony, and, as Gevaërt remarks, this method of
orchestration was subsequently abused by Rossini. Spontini's style
embodies much that is German, and his mastery of brilliant effects is
unrivalled. And although he frequently lowered the standard of his
works by a craving for ostentation, the details are carefully worked
out and the orchestration is rich and manly.

With the advent of ROSSINI (1792-1868), the triumph of
Italian _aria_ was resumed. His operas are the embodiment of Italian
emotionalism. But although much of his music must be condemned as
entirely irrelevant to the demands of the dramatic situation or of
the sentiment to be expressed, his orchestration was certainly an
advance upon antecedent Italian methods. On the other hand, there
are but few new features in his instrumentation; this consisted of
certain restricted and oft-repeated formulas, of which, however,
Rossini had perfect command. His crowning achievement was, of course,
"Guillaume Tell." Here the orchestration plainly betrays a happy
fusion of Italian and French styles. The string writing is full of
life; due regard is shown to the wind instruments, and effective
solos are assigned more particularly to the English horn and the
French horns. The improvements that Rossini made in horn writing
were probably due to the fact that his father was a horn player.
Parenthetically, the same statement might be made in reference to
Richard Strauss. It is also interesting to note in passing that
Rossini used two batons in conducting,--a short one for _arias_ and a
long one for _ensemble_.

VI.

At this point it is fitting that we examine the dazzling
orchestration of MEYERBEER (1791-1861), for his career is,
of course, inseparably allied with the evolution of French opera. As
the most famous representative of French romantic and historic grand
opera, Meyerbeer would appear, at first sight, to have embraced in
his operas every conceivable meretricious device for the sensational
and the spectacular. He was above all an eclectic, modelling his
works largely after those of Spontini, being likewise strongly
influenced by Weber, combining German harmony, Italian melody,
and French rhythm. His was a marked departure from the school of
Gluck--so much so, that he has been accused of "playing with dynamic
effects" and writing "hollow" music that cannot withstand æsthetic
analysis. In a large measure such censure is merited, but it is
manifestly an error in judgment to declare as one writer does that
his productions are comprised of but "dazzling effects, glaring
contrasts, and clever instrumental devices." True, the contents of
his operas are certainly an alternating mixture of the grandiose
and the paltry, but as for orchestration, none have surpassed him
in judicious distribution of sonorous masses, in forceful dramatic
effects, richness of details, and successful application of the
individual characteristics of each instrument. Again, the consistent
recurrence of a specific tone-color as the annotator to a dramatic
personage contains the germ of the _Leit-motiv_. And for ever varying
resource of instrumentation few can excel him! And no composer before
him was his peer as a dramatic painter.

Meyerbeer of course relied primarily upon the strings as the basis
of his orchestra, but they are frequently replaced by independent
combinations of wind instruments. In this connection, it is worthy
of especial note that complete groups of kindred instruments are
employed alone, and almost invariably in complete four part harmony.
Meyerbeer's scoring for full orchestra was practically identical
with Spontini's; each group is again complete in four part harmony,
doubled and redoubled in the octave. Though his accompaniments are
heavy, it will be found that the voice is usually supported by a solo
instrument. He developed great variety in string writing. The violins
and violoncellos are frequently subdivided into numerous parts. The
characteristics of high violins and again of low double-basses _soli_
are brought into prominence. Passages are to be found in which parts
of the strings are muted while the remainder are simultaneously
employed without mutes. The viola d'amore is carefully treated, as,
for instance, in Raoul's Romance in the first act of "Les Huguenots."
The harp is used extensively, both in arpeggios and in broad chords.
The English horn and bass-clarinet are constantly used as regular
constituents of the secondary group, and the latent dramatic powers
of the clarinet are intensified; again, every one is familiar with
the earliest of bass-clarinet solos in "Les Huguenots." Apart from
more common methods of employing the wood-wind group by itself,
Meyerbeer was fond of peculiar combinations such as piccolo flute
and English horn, or bass-clarinet and trumpet an octave apart.
Further entirely novel combinations are the assignment of a melody
to the English horn and bass-clarinet in unison, or the redoubling
of the violoncellos by a flute two octaves above. Great variety
in mixed tints is to be found. The most common is the combination
in solo passages of violoncello and bassoon; more complex is the
union of violins, _tremolo_, together with three flutes, all in the
high range, while an English horn or a bass-clarinet produces the
melody below. Or two clarinets and two bass-clarinets are united
to violoncellos in three-part writing. One of Meyerbeer's chief
contributions to instrumentation lay in his methods of scoring for
the brass. In "Les Huguenots" a veritable military band is introduced
upon the stage; the band includes both reeds and brass--likewise
piccolo flutes. And the newly invented sax-horns were drawn into
requisition for "Le Prophète." The kettle-drums acquired greater
freedom than even Beethoven had allowed them, and "Robert le Diable"
contains actual solos for the instruments. In different works, as
many as three and four kettle-drums were employed. In conclusion, it
is not necessary to dwell upon the realistic impression provoked by
the sounding of a gong in connection with the Resurrection of the
Nuns in "Robert le Diable"; nor need the reader be reminded of the
deep-toned bell used for the Massacre of St. Bartholomew in "Les
Huguenots." All in all, though Meyerbeer's scoring is frequently
brutal, it is intensely dramatic and original.

VII.

We have now traced the wonderful growth of orchestration through
the entire eighteenth century and well into the nineteenth. And the
contributions thereto by the great Italian and French masters are
by no means to be underestimated even though the German classicists
tower above them. A final summing up of their general methods of
instrumentation will properly conclude this chapter.

The classic symphony realizes its principal effects from the dialogue
of instruments rather than from their collective forces. The primary
object was clearness of polyphonic design, and since clearness of
detail does not admit of great force, the first and second orchestral
groups were rarely united other than in _forte_ passages.

When examining the scores of the classics, it is important to keep
in mind that in their day the numerical distribution of the string
band was limited. Therefore force and volume of tone could only be
obtained by keeping the intermediate and lower parts constantly in
motion. Particularly the violas were inadequately represented, and it
will be found that any important viola melody was almost invariably
doubled by some other instrument.

The classic use of the flute for _tuttis_ was generally like that of
a four-foot organ stop. Many of the earlier functions of the oboe
gradually passed to the more responsive clarinet. But the frequent
employment of divided violas as auxiliary to the wind was due to the
former absence of adequate contralto wind instruments.

The larger symphonic orchestra of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven added
two trumpets to the third group, acquiring thereby a feminine
metallic diapason capable of masculine energy. In the exposition of
their symphonies, the classicists usually gave the first theme to the
strings, the second to the wood. The brass was reserved for climaxes,
and the trumpets entered last. But the limitation of the "natural"
trumpet was detrimental for employing it with invariable symmetry in
the recurrence of thematic design. In employing the full orchestra,
held chords were assigned to the second group as a support to the
strings, whereas the third group added short rhythmic chords.

Operatic effects are obtained by contrast of collective forces rather
than by detail of polyphony. The earlier Italian composers made
frequent use of loud-voiced instruments. Their successors, however,
learned to rely more and more upon the strings, so that not until the
advent of Spontini and Rossini were the proper functions of the brass
or even of the wood again sufficiently recognized in Italy.

From Philidor to Boieldieu, French orchestration was still somewhat
heavy, though of dramatic effectiveness. The scoring of Méhul and
Lesueur was powerful and dignified, that of Boieldieu, Berton,
Grétry, supple and dramatic. Finally, in the first part of the
nineteenth century French orchestration became still more varied and
rich.

It is now time to turn our attention to the rise of the Romantic
Movement, and with this subject the next chapter properly begins.

(Summary on page 69.)

SUMMARY OF PART II.

CHAPTER V.

BACH'S orchestration was essentially polyphonic. He
contrasted his differentiated groups of instruments _en masse_, and
laid the foundation for effective orchestral solo writing.

HÄNDEL represents solidity and sonority, and obtained the
best results when employing the orchestra for massed effects in
conjunction with the chorus.

Bach's contemporaries in Italy were engaged in composing church music
and in writing operas that should satisfy the existing demands for
vocal virtuosity. With few exceptions, they did little to advance the
standard of instrumentation, although Pergolesi's writing for string
orchestra was progressive.

In Germany, regard for Italian opera was fostered by establishing a
permanent home for it at Hamburg; but the evolution of orchestration
was but little benefited thereby. Em. Bach did good service for the
cause of independent instrumental music. Credit is due to Hasse for
his efforts in behalf of the Dresden orchestra, and Graun added his
mite to the development of symphonic form.

After Lulli, and before the advent of Gluck, Rameau stands as the
exponent of French opera, from which French orchestration was then
inseparable. Rameau's reputation rests upon his harmonic innovations,
the enhanced effectiveness of his chorus, and his improved
orchestration. Impelled by the enthusiasm of the philosopher,
Rousseau, a number of composers paved the way for Grétry by departing
from tradition and inaugurating a lighter style, since known as the
_opéra comique_.

CHAPTER VI.

GLUCK, engrossed in resuscitating and furthering the
principles promulgated by Peri and Lulli, used the orchestra
primarily as a dramatic interpreter, and his scoring is conspicuous
for the use of suitable instrumentation, and for the portrayal of
genuine pathos.

At about the time that Gluck captured the Parisian stage, native
French music received a powerful impulse from Grétry, who established
_opéra comique_ upon a permanent basis. In spite of this achievement,
his contributions to orchestration are not important. Meanwhile,
Italy remained true to her traditions, both as to form and contents
of opera, as well as instrumentation. An exception is to be found in
the scores of Jomelli. An adaptation of the _opéra comique_ in the
garb of the Singspiel soon sprang up in Germany.

The growth of independent orchestral music was aided by such
composers and directors as Sammartini, Gossec, Grétry, Stamitz, and
Cannabich, being, moreover, fostered by such organizations as the
"Concerts des Amateurs," the "Concerts spirituels," the Electoral
band at Mannheim, the Leipzig Gewandhaus, and the Dresden orchestra.

CHAPTER VII.

HAYDN was the third great orchestral innovator in historic
evolution, and from him date the beginnings of modern orchestration,
just as Bach represents organ and Protestant Church music, Händel the
oratorio, and Gluck the drama. Monteverde established the precedent
of a nucleus of strings, Scarlatti adjusted their tonal balance, but
Haydn readjusted the equilibrium of the suppletory segments of the
orchestra as a concrete entity. His symphonies were the outcome of
the earlier _concerto grosso_, and thus, having remained true to the
traditions of his great predecessors, he became in turn the pioneer
for Mozart and Beethoven. In his scoring, the wood-wind acquired
freedom and individuality as solo instruments, and, together with
the brass, were led also to sustain and knit together the harmonic
progressions, rather than merely to support the resonance of the
strings. He emphasized the consistent use of wind instruments in
pairs. Again, by exploring further their caloric capabilities, he
discovered effective means for descriptive music, and his oratorios
bear the seed of programmatic writing.

MOZART explored the resources of the orchestra as opened
up by Gluck and Haydn. He combined and interchanged polyphonic and
monophonic style of writing to a most felicitous degree. He wrote
for the strings in such a manner as to insure absolute independence
and stability. The wood-wind gained in freedom of solo expression,
and acquired that individuality of treatment which was its own by
right. Especially the clarinet owes its absorption into the orchestra
to Mozart, and from him dates the genuine origin of varied and
contrasted tone-coloring.

The universal genius of BEETHOVEN, prompted by the depth of
his nature and the nobility of his purpose, led him to combine the
legacy of his predecessors with a more sensitive regard for inner
details, thematic unity, emotional expression, and greater freedom
and subordination of form, leading to expansion and programmatic
music. Greatest of classic orchestral masters, he brought the
symphonic orchestra to its highest development, discovered the utmost
capabilities of each and every instrument, increased the efficiency
of both strings and wood-wind, and incidentally discerned the genuine
worth of the violoncellos, bassoons, and kettle-drums. The functions
of the horns likewise acquired wider significance, and the trombones
were reserved for the portrayal of noble dignity and ornamentation.

CHAPTER VIII.

During the development of Beethoven's mighty conquests, Paris
continued to attract aspirants to fame in operatic lines, whereas
modern church music found a worthy representative in Cherubini; his
orchestration is sonorous, flexible, varied and vivid. Two native
composers of opera in serious vein, Méhul and Lesueur, contributed
essentially to the development of French instrumentation. That
of Méhul was still somewhat heavy, but embodied sonority, novel
combinations, and at times a certain melancholy coloring. Lesueur was
one of the pioneers in the use of grand and majestic combinations.
The most prominent followers of Grétry in the lyric _genre_ were
Boieldieu, whose instrumentation is conspicuous for its daintiness,
variety and contrast; Auber, master of clear yet effervescent
scoring; Hérold, whose orchestra is compact and well balanced;
finally, Halévy, an exponent of both varied and massed effects.
Italian instrumentation was advanced especially by Spontini and to
a certain extent by Rossini; the former inaugurated the practice of
doubling and redoubling the harmonies in massed combination. French
opera was also greatly influenced by Meyerbeer, who imparted to the
orchestra massed effects, novel and rich detail, characteristic
individuality.

Credit for the development and perfection of symphonic form and
orchestration is due to the great German classicists alone; but the
evolution of the genuinely dramatic resources of the orchestra rests
largely in the hands of the French composers preceding the ascendency
of the Romantic Movement.

PART III.--ROMANTICISM.

CHAPTER IX.

THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.

A convenient classification of the great German composers of the
nineteenth century is to be found in "Famous Composers and their
Works," a classification which will be followed in these chapters.
It consists of three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The
Classical Romanticists," and "The New Movement." As has been already
stated, the basis of the Romantic School was simply a further
development of Beethoven's descriptive writing, which created a
powerful impression upon the so-called founders of the school, Spohr
and Weber; they in turn were followed by Schubert, Mendelssohn,
Schumann, and their disciples. The Classical Romanticists accepted
the substance of romanticism in music, but remained more or less true
to classical form. Raff stands at the head of this classification,
Brahms as its chief exponent. The New Movement dates from the
tumultuous upheavals in the musical world caused by the innovations
of Berlioz in France, Liszt and Wagner in Germany. The evolution of
these three movements will now be reviewed in logical sequence; but
it should be borne in mind that this evolution had already begun
during the later development of French and Italian opera as discussed
in the previous chapter.

I.

SPOHR (1784-1859). The fruits of Spohr's activity as a
composer present a rather peculiar mixture of progressive zeal and
conventional mannerism. He was not alive to the true greatness
of Beethoven's genius, neither can he be compared with Weber as
a dramatic writer. On the other hand, Spohr was instrumental in
awakening a keener interest for the supernatural, and he aimed to
illustrate certain definite ideas by means of musical expression.
This trait is especially conspicuous in his symphonies; and these
entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders of programmatic
orchestral music. Again, Spohr was one of the greatest violinists
of his day, and as the natural result, his writing for strings was
highly effective. Consequently his double string quartets, his
octets, nonets, etc., are especially valued in musical literature.
Spohr contributed to the evolution of orchestration proper but
little that was actually new. But here again the development of
violin technique stimulated at least a freer and more elaborate
manner of employing the strings. Prout suggests that his
orchestration resembles to some extent that of Mendelssohn, in that
the equilibrium is admirably adjusted; and the general color-scheme
is further enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass.
In minor details of instrumentation, Spohr made some interesting
experiments similar to those of Berlioz, such as the introduction of
a number of kettle-drums into the orchestra. Prout also refers to
the earthquake chorus in "Calvary" where six drums are played upon
by two performers, and rolls in seconds, thirds, and fifths for two
drums together are to be found. But as a whole, his reputation is due
chiefly to his great achievements as a violinist and to the incentive
he gave to romanticism in music.

II.

WEBER[37] (1786-1826). Spohr's efforts in behalf of
programmatic music are by no means to be undervalued; at the same
time it must be borne in mind that even his finest works are eclipsed
by those of Weber by virtue of the latter's marvellous imagination,
unerring judgment in the choice of appropriate means of expression,
and huge technique in orchestration. Weber began his career during
what might be called the transition period in modern art. It would be
here out of place to enlarge upon the general conditions attendant
upon the awakening of the so-called "storm and stress" agitation in
Germany. Weber's artistic development was, however, so inseparably
allied with this movement that at least a brief review thereof would
appear indispensable before proceeding to an examination of his
orchestral works.

[Footnote 37: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 36 to
47.]

Langhans sums up the mental and emotional conditions of this
transition period by saying that "in place of the general
subject-matter with which the lyric poetry of the preceding century
had been satisfied, the subjective feelings of the poet now came to
the front, and the essential nature of lyric poetry, a boundless
submersion into the innermost life of the soul, could under these
circumstances attain full prominence." Germany was at this time
greatly interested in the writings of Byron and of Jean Paul Richter.
Romantic poetry in turn began to influence both dramatic and lyric
music. Indications of departure from the elevated and reflective
style of the great classical composers were apparent. Time-honored
rules and traditions began to be neglected. Individualism asserted
itself. The general tendency of the epoch embodied a certain mystical
element--a return to the chivalrous atmosphere of mediæval romance.
And this tendency was in harmony with the very nature of Weber's
imaginative trend. In turn, this unfettered realm of imagination,
peopled with sylphs, nymphs, fairies, contained latent and most
propitious possibilities for progressive orchestration. Weber's
instrumentation was founded upon that of Beethoven, but it was none
the less distinctive and original. It was above all dramatic. His
true greatness lay in the power of orchestral portrayal in the more
vivid scenes of his operas, and in his operatic overtures. His two
symphonies are comparatively weak. Though deficient in artistic
education, Weber's romantic disposition and rare appreciation for
instrumental effects enabled him to become one of the greatest
modern orchestral writers, and his scoring is a model for all later
composers. He stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with
him a new period began. Moreover, he was the creator of modern German
romantic opera. As Kapellmeister at Dresden he was instrumental in
counteracting the influence of Italian music which was still in vogue
at the Court, and he helped to mould the tastes of the public in
favor of native dramatic and orchestral music. "Der Freischütz" is
the representative of ideal national opera. Here the orchestration is
admirably adapted to depict and intensify the scenes and situations.
It abounds in striking contrasts that are ever consistent with the
demands of what has been called the "local" coloring. Episodes
requiring sombre and mysterious tonal tints are again offset by
the purest of lyrics and by powerful dramatic climaxes. "Oberon,"
on the other hand, abounds in more peaceful melodic and harmonic
fancies, poetic revery, and dainty scoring. Though the effectiveness
of "Euryanthe" is marred by reason of its insipid libretto, it is
nevertheless the most important of Weber's operas, considered from
a musical standpoint. Its continuous music and the interweaving
of recitative and melody directly point the way to Wagner. Weber
displayed superb power in the development of his overtures. In the
second volume of his "Music and Musicians," Wagner declared that
Weber might be said to have originated a novel form of overture or
"dramatic fantasy," of which Wagner considered the "Oberon" overture
to be the best example.

In turning to the details of Weber's instrumentation it is found that
no new instruments were introduced. Beauty and novelty were attained
rather by inherent regard for suitable application of tonal color and
by the discovery of new combinations. Although Weber, like Spohr, did
not venerate Beethoven as he should have done, it was not possible
for him to improve upon the great master's string writing. Of course
certain novel effects are to be found, such as the subdivision of
the violins _soli_ into numerous parts, the viola accompaniment to
Annette's ballad,[38] and the use of the same instrument as bass to
"Leise, leise"[39] in "Der Freischütz."

[Footnote 38: Ex. 47.]

[Footnote 39: Ex. 43.]

But perhaps no other composer contributed more to the independence of
the wood-wind.[40] Weber was exceedingly modern in the use of small
combinations. In order to obtain a rare and fairy-like effect in
"Oberon," the first flute and first clarinet give out the melody; the
second flute plays arpeggios as does likewise the second clarinet,
though in contrary motion; a solo horn is employed as bass. The
opening bars of Annette's song in "Der Freischütz" may be cited as
containing a good example for the oboe as does also the accompaniment
to Kilian's song for the bassoon. But it was quite particularly the
clarinet for which Weber showed especial predilection. Beautiful
phrases for the clarinet are to be found in the Allegro of the
overture to "Der Freischütz"[41] as well as in the overture to
"Oberon"; and the characteristics of the instrument in its entire
range are effectively displayed in the introduction to Adolar's
aria in the second act of "Euryanthe." Moreover, he was the first
to discover the tragic possibilities of the chalumeau range,[42] as
exemplified by the held notes in the lowest part of the instrument
accompanying the entries of Zamiel in "Der Freischütz."

[Footnote 40: Ex. 39, 41.]

[Footnote 41: Ex. 37.]

[Footnote 42: Ex. 40, 44, 46.]

Next to the clarinet, the horns[43] received especial consideration
from Weber, and acquired greater freedom and individuality, being
brought into requisition not alone for mellow _cantilene_ and
sustained harmonies, but also as the exponents of jubilant outbursts
or of gloomy whisperings. Many admirable illustrations will
readily be recalled, such as the passages for horns _soli_ in the
introduction of the "Freischütz" overture,[44] the trio for horns
in the Romance in "Preciosa," and the horn accompaniment to the
Mermaid's Song in "Oberon." With Weber, the use of four horns and
three trombones became the rule, whereas with Beethoven it had been
the exception.

[Footnote 43: Ex. 42, 45.]

[Footnote 44: Ex. 36.]

All things considered, it is evident that modern opera and modern
orchestration are immensely indebted to Weber, and his influence has
made itself more or less felt upon the writings of all subsequent
dramatic and orchestral composers.

III.

Two contemporaries of Weber who followed in his footsteps as
composers of romantic opera were Konradin Kreutzer (1780) and
Marschner (1795). Kreutzer's "Nachtlager von Granada" has become
widely known, but of the two men, Marschner is by far the more
important. He is popularly known as the heir of Weber, and has
been called the connecting link between Weber and Wagner. Himself
stimulated and influenced by his friend, Weber, he in turn helped to
mould the earlier works of Wagner. His masterpiece, "Hans Heiling,"
abounds in natural melodic expression, truthful interpretation and
dramatic energy. Neither Kreutzer nor Marschner can be cited as
having contributed anything substantially new to instrumentation,
but they at least helped to strengthen the foundations of modern
orchestration as initiated by Weber.

IV.

The two greatest representatives of the early Romantic School were
Weber and SCHUBERT (1797-1828), indeed, the latter is to
be regarded as the ideal exponent of the romantic poets. He was the
first to raise the Lied from comparative obscurity to such prominence
as to bring the lyric element on a par with that of the dramatic and
epic. His nature was contemplative rather than dramatic. Nevertheless
some of his greatest masterpieces, such as the "Erlkönig," embody not
only dramatic but epic characterization as well. He was above all the
master of exquisite melody, and both his songs and his instrumental
works are further conspicuous for their daring harmonies, animated
and varied rhythm. He opened up a new pathway in the field of
accompaniment which acquired not only greater importance in
intensifying emotional expression, but came also to be the faithful
ally of the vocal part as interpreter of the poem. The use of little
motives in the accompaniment to his songs might be looked upon as an
anticipation in the miniature of Wagner's thematic treatment of his
"Leit-motiven."

Schubert's mode of life was in some respects similar to that of
Beethoven in that he lived apart from the public. Spurred on by
the example of Beethoven, he added to his series of youthful
symphonies two masterpieces which are next in importance to those
of his illustrious model. Both the C major and the unfinished B
minor symphonies display rare skill in the handling of orchestral
instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. An intimate
acquaintance with their respective characteristics was afforded him
during his early training, and every bar reveals the hand of a master
who without hesitation knew what effects he desired and how to obtain
them. Although his orchestral works lack that depth of conception
that only Beethoven possessed, Schubert nevertheless supplied the
deficiency by means of beautiful melody, tender expression, forceful
harmonic progressions, and, as just intimated, a perfect command
of orchestral resources. Schubert enlarged the scope of practical
instrumentation by discovering two exceedingly valuable and effective
modes of expression that were entirely new so far as manner of
treatment is concerned. No composer before him had elicited from the
trombones such impressive utterance as is to be found, for instance,
in the first movement of the symphony in C where the trombones
_pianissimo_ intone the melody. The first innovation consisted,
therefore, of employing the trombones freely as solo instruments, or
again as independent factors in three-part harmony, _pianissimo_, or
in unison, _forte_. The second innovation was the felicitous manner
in which he contrasted solo instruments of the wood-wind group, or
what Prout calls "a kind of dialogue between them." As an admirable
illustration well-known to all, he calls attention to the charming
dialogue between the flute, oboe, and clarinet in the two Ballet airs
and in the Entr'-act in B flat of the music to "Rosamunde." Many
other interesting details of instrumentation could be cited such as
the effective use of the trumpet in the slow movement of the symphony
in G; his chamber music, also, furnishes admirable examples of string
writing. Among the most prominent are the trio in E flat, the quartet
in D minor, and the quintet in C.

Only in recent years has the influence of Schubert's orchestral
works made itself prominently felt, for until the middle of the
last century most of them had remained in manuscript. Moreover as
recently as fifty odd years ago one of his symphonies was considered
excessively difficult by the principal orchestra of Vienna. Grove
says that "though the whole work was announced, such had been the
difficulties at rehearsal that only the first two movements were
given, and they were carried off by an interpolation of an air from
'Lucia' between them."

V.

MENDELSSOHN[45] (1809-1847). Concurrent with the advent of
Mendelssohn and Schumann, the fascination that Rossini had exercised
in Germany lost its hold, and the public learned to appreciate
more and more the sterling qualities of its own native music. But
not only did the efforts of the German composers of the nineteenth
century begin to win due recognition, but also there was rekindled a
veneration for the creations of the great classicists. This was in
a large manner due to Mendelssohn's untiring efforts. Possessed of
broad culture, wealth, and attractive personality, he combined the
spirit of romanticism with the structural forms of classicism; this
conservatism helped to balance the restless tendencies that were at
that time dominating music and poetry. His compositions are imbued
with beauty and sweetness of melody, with varied harmonies, buoyant
orchestration; his choral writing is the most fluent since Bach's
and surpasses in this respect that of Händel. Melody is emphasized;
tragic depth is lacking. He excelled as a writer of "representative"
music, but even here his refined sense for euphony never deserted
him. He was successful in all forms excepting opera. "St. Paul" and
"Elijah" are the most important oratorios since those of Haydn;
his violin concerto comes next to Beethoven's as a favorite; his
symphonies are characteristic, romantic, and abound in "local"
coloring. His style may be divided into two distinct classes: the
lyric, as typified in the "Songs without Words," and the fantastic
and imaginative as exposed in the Scherzo of the "Midsummer Night's
Dream."

[Footnote 45: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 58 to
66.]

Mendelssohn's contributions to the details of instrumentation were
both original and varied. Already in "Midsummer Night's Dream," of
which the Overture was written when he was but seventeen years old,
are to be found marvellous effects that are indeed fairy-like in
their daintiness.[46] In fact it might be justly claimed that this
is Mendelssohn's best orchestral work, taking into consideration its
polished form, transparent and perfectly balanced instrumentation.
Noteworthy for their novelty are the rapid staccato passages for
the wood-wind in the Scherzo.[47] In none other of his works has
the flute been treated in a more charming manner.[48] Familiar to
all is the romantic and extended employment of the horns in the
Notturno,[49] as well as the ludicrous utterances of the opheicleide
in the Overture.

[Footnote 46: Ex. 58, 62.]

[Footnote 47: Ex. 59.]

[Footnote 48: Ex. 60, 66.]

[Footnote 49: Ex. 65.]

As a composer of oratorio, Mendelssohn's choruses, recitatives and
German chorale melodies plainly show the influence of Bach's "Passion
Music." This is particularly noticeable in "St. Paul." Mendelssohn's
mightiest creation is undoubtedly "Elijah." It satisfies every demand
by reason of its expressive recitative, its dramatic and descriptive
choruses, its beauty of lyric episodes and the appropriateness of
its structural form. The orchestral score of "Elijah" is one of
Mendelssohn's best. Among minor details, the violas are brought
into prominence as in the accompaniment to "Lord God of Abraham"
where they are given the highest part. A well-known phrase is the
'cello accompaniment in thirds to the baritone solo. The brass is
again reënforced by an opheicleide. The opening of the chorus, "O
be gracious, ye immortals," in "St. Paul" is accompanied by divided
violas and 'cellos, and parts for the serpent are to be found in the
same work.

Both the subject-matter and the orchestration of Mendelssohn's
symphonies show exceptional originality, and the "Scotch," No. 2
in A minor, as well as the "Italian," No. 3 in A major, are worthy
companions to the "Midsummer Night's Dream." His symphonies are full
of freshness and vigor. Though classic purity of form is strictly
adhered to, Beethoven's polyphony and Weber's picturesque portrayal
are skilfully combined. Like Beethoven, he embodied in his symphonies
certain dramatic characteristics. Rapid passages for the wood-wind,
similar to those in the "Midsummer Night's Dream," are again to be
met with in the Scherzo of the "Scotch" symphony. Mendelssohn was
conservative in employing the brass; of all the early romanticists
he remained the most faithful to traditional usage of the third
group, although trombones were now incorporated as habitual members
thereof. Among other novel combinations, divided violas, reënforced
by clarinets, intone the second subject in the first movement of
the "Lobgesang" symphony. In connection with Mendelssohn it is
interesting to recall the fact that as late as 1829 the pianoforte
was still sometimes employed as a means for conducting, since in
that year he directed his C minor symphony in that way in London.

Mendelssohn's overtures are more pronounced in their modern romantic
tendencies than his symphonies. They are distinctly programmatic,
even though in structure they are moulded on classic forms. From
them dates the development of the modern romantic concert overture.
Mendelssohn's merits and defects have led to much violent discussion,
but the suavity of his melody, the purity of his form and the
delicacy of his orchestration have been excelled by none.

VI.

The most prominent associates and disciples of Mendelssohn were F.
Hiller, Rietz, the Englishman, Bennett, and the Dane, Gade.

Ferdinand Hiller (1811) was a celebrated and prolific composer,
being in his day considered the most notable musician in West
Germany. It was his rare privilege to be personally acquainted with
no less than seven of the greatest composers the world has ever
produced--Cherubini, Beethoven, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin
and Liszt. He was, moreover, a fine pianist and conductor, and was
particularly happy as an interpreter of Beethoven. His compositions
are pleasing and well-rounded in form; but they were modelled
after those of Mendelssohn and are now comparatively forgotten in
consequence of their lack of individuality.

Julius Rietz (1812) was closely associated with Mendelssohn whom he
eventually succeeded as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts. He is
primarily to be remembered for having edited Beethoven's symphonies
as well as the entire works of Mendelssohn.

Sterndale Bennett (1816) was one of England's greatest composers,
the most gifted, in fact, after Purcell. He was a friend both of
Mendelssohn and of Schumann, and their enthusiasm encouraged and
stimulated him to further develop his own talents. Although the
influence more particularly of Mendelssohn is plainly to be found
in his works, he retained his individuality and displayed numerous
traits that are undeniably original. His most important works are
an oratorio "The Woman of Samaria"; a cantata "The May Queen"; a
symphony in G minor; four overtures, and four pianoforte concertos.
He has been called the founder of a new "English School."

Since the substance of Gade's music is nominally Scandinavian in
character, it will again be referred to later on in connection with
the Northern countries.

VII.

SCHUMANN (1810-1856). In spite of the depth of thought and
feeling, the brilliancy of ideas, and the programmatic tendencies
that signalize Schumann's monumental productions, he unfortunately
holds the unique position of being one of the few great masters who
did not excel in orchestration. Nevertheless, such is the importance
of his orchestral works that they have won for themselves an exalted
and permanent place in musical literature. Schumann's relation to
the Romantic Movement may be tersely stated as in one of Dickinson's
condensed reviews: "The romantic ideal attains self-consciousness in
Schumann. Weber and Schubert never called themselves romanticists
and were not wholly aware of the tendencies of their work. Schumann,
a critical thinker and self-analyst, not only moulded and colored
his music in accord with certain definite poetic conceptions imbibed
from the romantic writers, but also became the literary champion of
romanticism in music, and aimed directly at fixed radical principles
in the critical and creative thought of his time. He, therefore, not
only marks the beginning of a new era in musical art, but is also
the type of the modern liberally cultured and reflective musician."
With Schumann, the subject-matter and treatment of design are of all
importance. His compositions contain the quintessence of the poetic
and romantic. Every little melody is a miniature poem in tones,
tinged by a certain melancholy and even gloomy coloring. He was, like
Mendelssohn, an ardent disciple of Bach, but his harmonies are freer
and bolder than Mendelssohn's, and his pianoforte compositions show
the influence more especially of Chopin. The chief characteristics
of these works are _cantabile_ expression, intricacy, and the
predominance of harmony and rhythm over melody. A multitude of ideas
are frequently crowded into the space of a few bars. As a song writer
Schumann rivalled and perhaps even excelled Schubert. The songs of
these two peers, together with those of Franz (1815), represent
the highest ideal of the German Lied, for the exquisite taste and
sentiment of Franz appeal strongly to the cultivated musician.
Although Schubert's influence upon Schumann's songs is plainly to
be seen, Schumann enhanced the functions of the accompaniment and
frequently assigned but a secondary rôle to the vocal part. Novelty
of form and style characterize his works for soli, chorus and
orchestra; portions of "Scenes from Faust," "Paradise and the Peri,"
"Manfred," represent his highest attainment and contain also some
effective scoring. The instrumentation of his chamber music betrays
more regard for sonority than for classic counterpoint. Of surpassing
beauty are the quartets in A and in A minor, and the greatest of all,
the quintet in E flat.

Schumann's four symphonies rank next in importance to those of
Beethoven and Schubert, and in depth of sentiment and emotional
power he proved himself a worthy successor to Beethoven. His
symphonies are stamped with distinctive individuality, traditional
form being subjected to certain modifications that were in keeping
with the progressive tendencies of his nature. Thus the D minor
symphony is intended to be played entire without a pause, and
subject-matter from one movement reasserts itself in another. It
would be a waste of time to analyze Schumann's instrumentation
too closely. He followed but could not equal that of Mendelssohn.
Artistic feeling for orchestral effects and occasional good scoring
are to be found, but much of the latter is thick and heavy. He was
apt to follow Rossini's more or less trivial methods of employing
the third enlarged orchestral group. Even Schubert was not entirely
exempt from this mannerism. Such incongruities as the employment of
a bassoon as a bass to trombones could also be cited. Of material
advantage, however, was his introduction into German orchestras of
valve-horns and valve-trumpets. But in a word, it is the substantial
worth of the music itself, not the instrumentation, that has made
Schumann's orchestral works immortal.

VIII.

Among the prominent associates and disciples of Schumann should be
mentioned Volkmann, Reinecke, Bargiel, and Jensen.

The compositions of Volkmann (1815) show affinity to Schumann's.
His pianoforte works bear fanciful titles, and his symphonies and
quartets are massive and musicianly. But like most satellites, he
was not possessed of sufficient spontaneity to acquire wide-spread
or enduring recognition. The compositions of Carl Reinecke (1824),
who held the honorable position of director of the Gewandhaus
Concerts from 1860 until 1895, show the influence more especially
of Schumann, although that of Mendelssohn as well as of Wagner and
Brahms is also apparent. He owes his reputation as a composer largely
to his smaller works, in which the tastes of a refined pianist are
much in evidence. Few could be compared with him as an interpreter
of Mozart, and his activity not alone as a composer of merit but
also as a prominent pianist and distinguished conductor has won him
universal fame. Bargiel (1828) was one of the foremost disciples of
Schumann whose principles he zealously disseminated, both in his
capacity as a fine teacher and as composer. His symphonies, chamber
music and quite especially his psalms for chorus and orchestra show
considerable originality and fine musicianship. Likewise Jensen
(1837) took Schumann unreservedly as his model in spite of being in
sympathetic accord with Gade. His songs and pianoforte pieces in the
lyric _genre_ are imbued with true feeling and rare sensuous charm.

IX.

In a general sense, all modern composers belong to the Romantic
School, but for the sake of consistency in this general
classification, Lachner, Jadassohn and Moszkowski should be mentioned
as direct followers of both Mendelssohn and Schumann.

Franz Lachner (1803) was prominently connected with the musical
life of Munich prior to the rise of Wagner worship in 1865. In
spite of his untiring activity as a conductor, he was one of the
most prolific and at the same time most popular composers of South
Germany. His style betrays the mind of a learned man. The harmonies
are modern, but his works are none the less imbued with a certain
tinge of classicism. Lachner wrote several operas and oratorios,
eight symphonies, and much chamber and church music; but of greatest
importance are the suites for grand orchestra of which he wrote
eight. They are magnificent specimens of contrapuntal knowledge. Some
condemn his writings as being "Kapellmeistermusik" and as containing
nothing truly original or great. Riemann's views are radically
different:--"Lachner is at his best in his orchestral suites, which,
as a kind of modern continuation of Bach-Händel orchestral movements,
occupy a distinctive place in musical literature. Sovereign command
of contrapuntal devices combined with nobility of invention will
secure for them in the future greater appreciation than is accorded
them at the present day."

Jadassohn (1831) holds an important position in the history of
instrumentation, not so much, perhaps, as a result of his own
composition as for the excellence of his teaching and of his
theoretical works, which include the valuable "Lehrbuch der
Instrumentation." A prominent feature of many of his works is the
facility with which canonic writing is applied. Among the best-known
and most popular of his orchestral compositions is the Serenade, opus
35.

Moszkowski (1854) is one of the younger composers whose writings are
imbued with the spirit of Mendelssohn and Schumann rather than with
the local coloring of Poland as might have been expected since his
father was a native of that country. The most popular of his works
are the "Spanische Tänze" for pianoforte, whereas the most important
in orchestral form is the symphonic poem "Jeanne d'Arc." The style is
dignified and musicianly, but lacks the true greatness of originality.

The list of faithful adherents to the pure romanticism of the early
school is herewith properly concluded. Only an imaginary line,
however, separates Spohr and Weber from Raff and Brahms; so the
following chapter is nothing more than a continuation of the present
discussion.

(Summary on page 175.)

CHAPTER X.

THE CLASSICAL ROMANTICISTS.

The representatives of classical romanticism are Raff, Rubinstein,
Goldmark, Brahms, Bruch, Rheinberger. The influence that Raff and
Brahms had upon orchestration requires especial consideration.
Rubinstein will be referred to again in connection with Russian
composers. And a brief analysis will be sufficient to discover the
respective characteristics that distinguish Goldmark's highly colored
orchestration, that of Bruch in accompaniment to noble choral works,
and Rheinberger's conservative yet finished instrumentation for
sacred composition.

I.

RAFF (1822-1882). To begin with Raff, it is by no means easy
to determine the precise value of his compositions. Masterpieces
must be arraigned side by side with works of decided inferiority. He
adapted Beethoven's calorific polyphony together with the charmingly
picturesque style of Weber, but did not approach his eminent
contemporary, Brahms, either in depth of thought or in originality
of ideas. He was, however, superior to Brahms as an orchestral
colorist. Encouraged by the sympathy and practical help of such men
as Mendelssohn, Liszt, von Bülow, he became in his younger days a
sturdy advocate of the modern German tendencies, and even wrote a
pamphlet entitled "Die Wagnerfrage"; but in spite of his affiliation
with the Weimar coterie, Raff eventually developed into a composer
more especially of chamber music and symphonies. "Im Walde" and
"Lenore" are the best known of the orchestral works,--indeed, the
first named is without doubt his most important production. Raff
was essentially a romanticist; what is more, he went so far as to
write descriptive program music. Nevertheless, his style bears but
little relation to that of Wagner or Liszt; it displays, in fact, a
decided reserve in that he employed traditional forms and Beethoven's
symphonic orchestra. Notwithstanding Raff's descriptive faculties,
his works betray unquestionable lyric tendencies. Occasional approach
to the _salon_ style is also in evidence, nor do the larger works
reveal that breadth of style and invariable loftiness of purpose that
signalize those of Beethoven and Brahms. He possessed great facility,
but this very attribute endangered the quality of his conceptions
and was conducive to carelessness and loss of fine feeling.

Striking insignia of absolutely original scoring are not conspicuous,
although the entire character of the orchestration gives evidence
of fertile imagination and sound judgment. Some of Wagner's full
and rich effects found their way also into Raff's symphonic pages.
The latter was particularly happy in the use of horns, wrote almost
exclusively for valve-horns and valve-trumpets, and established a
precedent by selecting those in F for regular practice.

In view of the fact that Raff's style is a compound of classicism
and romanticism, together with yet more advanced tendencies so far
as the "program" element is concerned, his title as pioneer of the
classical-romanticists has been applied with good judgment. The
succeeding luminaries of this school revealed similar tendencies.
Rubinstein, Goldmark and Bruch are all to a more or less degree
exponents of the programmatic idea. Even so conservative a composer
as Rheinberger, whom some are tempted to call even a reactionist,
was at times subjugated by its fascination. This is borne out by
his "Wallenstein" symphony. Brahms stands forth in his solitary
grandeur as the one exception to the rule. Towering above his fellow
classical-romanticists, he attained the exaltation of his fame by a
path they could not tread. It is to him that we now must turn.

II.

BRAHMS (1833-1897). In the April number, 1895, of the
magazine entitled "Music" are to be found the following remarkable
assertions in an otherwise admirable article by Mr. W.S.B.
Matthews:--"Händel is antiquated; Bach still lives, but we can enjoy
his works only as exceptions to our current diet; Haydn symphonies
sound like string quartets played a trifle large and seasoned with
a few notes of trumpets and wood-wind. Mozart in feminine phrase is
'too sweet for any use,' and Mendelssohn has departed to the place
where good boys go. We have left to us the over-worked immortal nine
of Beethoven (now rather shrunk to five) and two of Schubert; we
tolerate Schumann for the sake of his ideas. We hear Tschaikowsky
because he is a master in his way. But the greatest of tone-poets now
living, and the greatest since Beethoven, appears to be Brahms."

These broad assertions may be looked upon as revealing in all good
faith the convictions of the author himself; again, Mr. Matthews may
have aimed to be facetious; or else these assertions were intended
merely to expose the tenets of the ultra-enthusiasts for one of the
latest phases of art. It would appear to the present writer that,
irrespective of motives, _such_ comparisons are entirely superfluous.
Brahms occupies an isolated and lofty pinnacle by himself. Calm and
self-contained in the midst of the restless and feverish impetuosity
that characterizes the "Sturm und Drang" period, he preferred the
seclusion and intellectuality of a reflective student's life, and
moulded his creations in accordance therewith. The only comparison
that would appear at all relevant is the unshaken faith in an ideal
that he shared with Wagner. Beyond this their views diverged when it
came to the question of what this ideal should be or how it should
be attained. Brahms was a strenuous opponent of the "New German
School." The intellectual and tragic aspect of modern absolute music
was _his_ ideal. The leading theme was the germ for synthetical
treatment. Orchestral coloring or dramatic effect was of secondary
consideration. Brahms accepted as his model Bach's austerely
noble methods and strict logical process of thematic development,
whereas the exterior forms of Beethoven and Schumann were virtually
sufficient for his needs. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that
his conservative formal structure was but a slavish imitation of
theirs. Many of his works, such as the Rhapsodies and Klavierstücke,
are certainly not in strict sonata form, nor are they lacking in
distinctive individuality. Brahms is the ideal exponent of purity,
strength, profundity, nobility, greatness of expression and novelty
of treatment. His aims differed from those of the earlier classicists
in that his subject-matter embodies beauty of thought rather than
external beauty in music. The prevalence in many of his works of a
certain heaviness of spirit and the reflex even of asceticism have
been pointed out by more than one of his biographers.

It is not surprising to find that in the terms in which Rheinberger
once expressed himself to the present writer, the background
of Brahms' orchestral canvas is of a grayish hue. Nor can his
scoring be cited as a model for felicitous instrumentation or
glowing orchestral colors. In listening to his symphonies, one is
occasionally disturbed by a certain heaviness or what can be better
expressed as "muddiness." This defect is primarily due to the low
distribution of parts for violas as well as for basses. Vagueness of
detail in melodic delineation of inner voices is the more conspicuous
since Brahms attached great importance to the functions of the
viola, in addition to which he frequently divided them. Certain
conventionalities in writing for the wood-wind are also apparent.
Passages in thirds and sixths are analogous to those in Beethoven's
earlier works; other passages recall certain ones of Schubert. But we
can verily afford to overlook such minor details. Let us rather turn
to a consideration of those essentials of Brahms' symphonic and other
orchestral writings that have caused him to be justly regarded as the
worthy apostle of Beethoven and direct successor to Schumann.

The most striking feature of his symphonies is their colossal
structure. They are evolved without apparent effort. There is no
retrogression, no episodic mediocrity. Brahms had no theories to
promulgate, no gorgeous tableaux to portray. Nevertheless, his
orchestration, though conservative, bears the impress of distinctive
individuality, is replete with variety and characteristic tone-color,
and abounds in peculiar and interesting combinations. A few examples,
drawn from four distinctive types of composition, will be sufficient
to illustrate the fertility of his imagination. Prout calls special
attention in one of his articles on the orchestra to the second
Serenade in A, the Symphony in D, and the "Deutsches Requiem."
We will add to these the "Variations on a theme by Haydn." The
Serenade, opus 16, is one of the earlier works. It is scored for
the usual wood-wind in pairs, besides horns and strings, but there
are no violins throughout the entire piece. It presents a phase
of instrumentation foreign to the usually heavy style of Brahms,
and abounds in variated shades of coloring. The symphony embodies
the highest attainment of orchestral development and "solid"
instrumentation. The nine variations suggest novel aspects in the
field of independent orchestral music. But on the whole, perhaps the
finest orchestral effects are to be found in the "Deutsches Requiem,"
and it is possible that some of the tonal tints employed therein were
suggested by Cherubini's Requiem in C minor. The reader may recall
the citation on page 60 of Cherubini's choice of instruments for the
purpose of accompanying the opening chorus. There the required sombre
tone-color is obtained by employing divided violas and violoncellos
with double-basses, bassoons, horns, and muffled kettle-drums. The
solemn and appropriate color that pervades the opening chorus of
the German Requiem--"Blessed are they that mourn"--is due to the
expressive powers of the string band without violins. The violas and
violoncellos are again divided, and the general subdued effect is
further enhanced by means of sustained notes for the horns. It is not
intended to convey the idea that these two requiems could in any way
be suggestive one of the other beyond a certain similarity of tonal
color in the opening choruses of both. In all other respects they are
radically different. The treatment of musical subject-matter proper
as well as the exposition of sacred words show diametrically opposed
points of view. The funeral march which ushers in the following
chorus "For all flesh is as grass" affords another proof of Brahms'
versatility when searching for further religious effects that shall
nevertheless embody sufficient contrast so as to avoid monotony
in two consecutive movements. The violins and violas are not only
divided into six parts, but are muted as well. The string parts are
redoubled by the wood-wind, while the kettle-drums lend distinctive
character to the passage by means of a prominent though subdued
rhythmic figure.

The question may well be asked why Brahms should not be regarded
as the seventh of the great classicists rather than as a
classical-romanticist. The answer is not hard to find. His treatment
of form and instrumentation is distinctly classic. His method of
harmonization contains modern characteristics. The complex rhythms
that are conspicuous in many of his earlier works together with their
rather obtrusive syncopations and cross accents are suggestive of
Schumann; but whereas Schumann adhered to some marked rhythm that
was consistently carried out in order to acquire variety and to
knit together the organic structure as a whole, Brahms gradually
branched out into broader fields, so that eventually the relegation
of rhythm to a comparatively subordinate relationship to the general
architectural scheme reverts once more to Beethoven's methods of
procedure. Thus Brahms displayed a progressive spirit when employing
doctrines of the classic school, which was tempered withal by extreme
caution in the acceptance of modern tendencies. The amalgamation is
felicitous to a high degree, and has had a most salutary effect upon
the ever increasing inclination of the ultra-modern school to enslave
music in the throes of what has been called "a thrice-intensified
_Weltschmerz_." Even as Wagner stands supreme as the representative
dramatic and orchestral writer of the nineteenth century, so Brahms
may be regarded as a peer without rival in the art of thematic
development, as the noblest exponent since Beethoven of large
proportions and great breadth, and as the most prominent symphonic
writer since Schumann, whose superior he was in the technics of
orchestration.

III.

The fact that GOLDMARK (1830) was born in Hungary does not
entitle him to recognition as a composer of decisively indigenous
characteristics,--indeed, the scenes of three of his most important
works are all laid in the Far East. Neither can it be said that
his strength lies in spontaneity of musical thought or freedom of
thematic treatment. He owes his reputation primarily to his gifts
as an orchestral writer. Like Berlioz, he lacks the geniality of
musical inspiration, but atones for this by vivid orchestral color
and mastery of material effects. The fortunes of divers Oriental
queens have evidently aroused Goldmark's most lively sympathy! But
this peculiar circumstance is felicitous to a high degree, for what
a wealth of glowing color surrounds his dramatization of the queen
of Sheba, how picturesque is the presentation of the Amazon queen in
the overture "Penthesilea," what power of imagination is revealed in
the unfolding of Kalidasa's poetic love story! Goldmark could have
found no finer opportunity for rare contrasts and telling effects
than in this portrayal of Dushyanta, the Rajah--chivalrous, though
unfaithful, of ['S]akuntalá--tender and guileless, yet queenly.
Goldmark succeeded admirably, and this world-renowned overture is, by
virtue of its orchestration, a faithful interpretation of Dushyanta's
wooing, the secret marriage, his forgetfulness of ['S]akuntalá
and her womanly fortitude during the years of unrecognition, her
solicitous watchfulness over the welfare of Sarva-Damana, their
child, and the final touching reunion and retribution. Although "Die
Königin von Saba" has won wide-spread popularity, Goldmark is, on
the whole, at his best in purely instrumental forms. The opening up
of his career is largely due to "['S]akuntalá" and to a Scherzo for
orchestra, opus 19, both of which precede the above-named opera.
His pleasing symphony "Die ländliche Hochzeit" may not embody the
warmth and passion that characterize the Oriental subjects, but
it is orchestrated with rare skill, contains some daring harmonic
progressions, and reveals sentient appreciation for rich and
glowing colors. But this symphony and that in E flat again prove
that Goldmark holds the attention of his audience not so much by
originality of themes and elaborate development as by the sterling
qualities of his instrumentation.

IV.

Antithetical to Goldmark's dependency upon the orchestra for effect
is the euphonious choral style of BRUCH (1838). Here are
to be found naturalness of invention, graceful and flowing melody,
simplicity, and above all beauty of harmonic structure. Bruch
exhibits extraordinary power in handling large vocal forces, and
displays, moreover, marked predilection for Greek and Scandinavian
subjects. The cantatas "Odysseus" and "Arminius," for soli, mixed
chorus and orchestra, are counted among his most important works and
embody the most favorable phase of his orchestration. "Salamis,"
a cantata for male chorus, is an inspiring song of victory, and
"Frithjof," likewise written for men's voices, is an intensely
dramatic exposition of six scenes chosen from the Frithjof Saga of
Tegner. Best known is perhaps the "Lied von der Glocke," whereas the
grave and earnest accents of the Hebraic "Kol Nidrei," together with
the tragic intensity and passionate nature of the violin concerto
in G minor, opus 26, show what Bruch could do when employing the
orchestra to throw a solo instrument into relief. His independent
orchestral works are not sufficiently spontaneous, whereas his
accompaniments embody perfect taste, genuine expression and an
abundance of energetic force. The very nature of his themes is such
as to require either vocal forces or a solo stringed instrument to
present them in the most favorable light. Bruch possesses supreme
mastery of modern orchestral resources, but is at his best in the art
of accompaniment.

V.

No composer has ever taken his art more to heart than
RHEINBERGER (1839). Composition was for him a serious,
even sacred avocation. It was not to be approached in a spirit of
levity, nor could it assume for him so humble a mission as merely
to amuse and entertain. This loftiness of purpose is visible even
in his rather infrequent efforts in lighter vein. Although he was,
to a degree, unconsciously swept along on the irresistible tidal
wave of the epoch, nevertheless his conceptions found utterance in
a but mild form of romanticism, and his works are seasoned with a
certain spice of classic severity. It may be fearlessly asserted
that Rheinberger is the greatest of all composers for the organ
after Bach and Mendelssohn. His organ works are rich in color and
of masterful effect. They combine free harmonic treatment, freely
developed counterpoint and freedom of form. These attributes are
particularly noticeable in the first organ concerto. His genius
further reveals itself in the religious fervor that pervades his
mighty series of sacred works. These two forms of composition--organ
and church music, together with part-songs of rare beauty, are the
most notable accomplishments of this versatile master. On the other
hand, neither his operas nor his orchestral works can be regarded in
the light of important contributions to musical literature. Strange,
therefore, that Rheinberger should have first won general recognition
through his "Symphonische Tongemälde Wallenstein." What is more, this
is the work for which its author was led to essay the programmatic
style of writing. Had he continued to develop his talents along
similar lines, the world might have been impoverished to the extent
of divers organ and sacred works, but Rheinberger himself must
have risen to far greater eminence. It is to be admitted that his
subsequent Florentine symphony, as also the oratorio "Christoforus"
and the opera "Thürmers Töchterlein," are none of them equal to the
Wallenstein symphony, but according to Rheinberger's own confession
he became disheartened by neglect at the time when Wagner stormed the
portals of the Munich Opera House. Thenceforth he turned for relief
to other fields of composition and became, as he grew older, more and
more conservative--one is almost obliged to say bigoted.

The instrumentation of his purely orchestral works is pointedly
restricted to Beethovian procedure and reverts even to that of Mozart
in the use of trumpets and kettle-drums. Its general effect is one of
great refinement; it is marvellously smooth and perfectly rounded in
every detail; but the essential elements of individuality and novelty
do not enter into the orchestral scheme to any appreciable extent.

Rheinberger's last years were saddened by family affliction and
embittered by physical suffering. He displayed an heroic fortitude,
but his assumed cheerfulness concealed the loneliness, the sadness,
the melancholy even to morbidness that were constantly preying upon
his soul. His life became more and more that of a recluse and an
ascetic. Meanwhile his compositions continued even to the end to
reflect unswerving faith, serenity, loyalty of heart and nobility
of mind. The greater his honor for thus excluding the "ego" from
his final offerings to the world! A certain melancholy coloring
does assert itself in his unfinished mass in A minor, but unaffected
simplicity and touching pathos were wonderfully appropriate for what
proved to be his "Schwanengesang."[50]

[Footnote 50: The present writer has developed and edited this mass
as a posthumous work, opus 147, in the hope of presenting it in a
form suitable for performance.]

It is now time to leave the peaceful haven of the
classical-romanticists, and embark upon the restless seas of advanced
thought as set forth in the next chapter.

(Summary on page 175.)

CHAPTER XI.

THE NEW MOVEMENT.

Three countries, France, Hungary and Germany, share the honors in
having brought forth three of the greatest orchestral composers,
Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, who together founded the so-called "New
Movement."

I.

BERLIOZ[51] (1803-1869). The contributions of Berlioz
to the development of "program" music and to modern science of
orchestration loom up in gigantic proportions. He was practically
the first representative of the New Movement, but contrary to the
natural course of evolution, he was not only its founder but at once
its most radical exponent as well. Liszt in his younger days heard
some of Berlioz's compositions in Paris, and it was thus that the new
seed was transplanted into Germany where it was cultivated in concert
music by Liszt himself, who thereby in turn influenced Wagner's music
dramas. The difference in objective between the principles laid down
by Schumann and Berlioz was that the former aimed to portray a single
independent thought or image, whereas Berlioz's music was connected
with a series of events or ideas. His objective was to make the music
symbolic of images and conceptions that should be capable of being
expressed in words, and his pseudo-symphonies were accompanied by an
elaborate word exposition as a running commentary on the music. As
the result of his activity, the dawn of a new era in concert music
appeared in France. As the chief representative of her romantic
musical art, he combined dramatic and symphonic effects. As an opera
composer he was not successful, but he seized upon the orchestral
experiments of the contemporary operatic composers, and endeavored to
express theatrical ideas by means of the orchestra alone. Henceforth
the power of description was to be entrusted to music itself and not
to the accessories of the stage.

[Footnote 51: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 48 to
57.]

Berlioz represents the ultra-realistic school of instrumental
music. His works are the reflection of his own temperament and
individuality. His somewhat eccentric genius displayed itself
in grandiose, weird and picturesque effects, in exaggeration,
morbidness, vivid portrayal, and in extravagant orchestral demands.
The primary object was tone-color in its own right, an object that
was foreign to the more æsthetic ideals of the classicists. He was
the most daring orchestral writer that has ever lived, but his
originality was confined to the scoring rather than to the musical
substance of his works. When transcribed for pianoforte they lose
their fascination. He was a veritable poet in sound, and he sought in
every possible way to intensify characteristic expression.

To enlarge upon the details of Berlioz's instrumentation would be