no means always, the drying olla is turned so as to present a fresh
section of the side to the sun.

After testing with the hand the newly built part of the olla, to
determine its firmness, the vessel, if sufficiently dried, is taken to
the work-board and the building continued. The pinching of the rim is
done as before, two more rings are added, and their shaping is begun.
The rolls decrease very slowly in diameter. In shaping with the kajepe
only the newly added section of the vessel is treated. At this stage the
work becomes more difficult, for the two rings just added form the lower
part of the neck of the olla, and therefore constrict the mouth of the
partly finished vessel. If the paste is a little too soft, the newly
built section will sag when the shaping is begun. The vessel must then
be set aside at once until it reaches the proper degree of stiffness.
While using the kajepe on the exterior, during this stage of the
construction, the left hand is held inside the vessel not only as a
brace or stop, but also as a support for the incurving side. When the
scraping and smoothing have been finished, and the side has been given
the proper curve, the rim is smoothed a little before the vessel, now in
the fifth stage (pl. 15, e), is again set aside.

Half an hour or so later the building of the olla is completed by the
addition of one more ring. The rolls composing this ring are distinctly
more slender than the first rolls used in the vessel. When this ring has
been applied the rim is cursorily smoothed and the last shaping begun.
The final delicate contour of the vessel depends to a large extent upon
this final shaping near the rim. The kajepe is used with painstaking
care, and the work progresses slowly. A slight outward flare is given to
the lip by careful manipulation of the kajepe on the interior. When this
is completed, the olla has reached the sixth stage (pl. 15, f).

The finishing touches consist largely in going over the rim carefully
and adding pellets of paste when necessary, thus making its curve as
nearly uniform as possible. This process consumes a considerable amount
of time, for the work is done very painstakingly and slowly (pl. 17, a).
The vessel has now attained its final shape (pl. 15, g and h), and for
the last time is set out in the sun to dry.

The time taken to mould an olla is far greater than that necessary for a
bowl. The type of olla shown in the illustrations is about fourteen
inches in diameter at the shoulder. The potter who made these counted on
moulding two such ollas each day. On some days a little time was left in
the afternoon in which to make some smaller vessels, but no olla was
ever begun in the afternoon. Ollas were usually started between ten and
eleven o’clock in the morning and finished between half-past-three and
half-past-four in the afternoon. During the early morning the household
tasks had to be attended to; at noon about an hour was used in preparing
and eating lunch; and at various times during the day the children,
especially the baby, made it necessary for the potter to leave her work.
Table III, columns A and B, gives in detail the various steps in the
construction of two ollas, together with the time each vessel was
actually under the hands of the potter and the length of the intervals
in which the vessel was drying; columns C and D record two other ollas
on which the observations were less complete. As a rule it requires one
and a half

[Illustration: PLATE 16

a

Potter moulding an olla. The first roll at the shoulder has just been
added. The temporary rim has been pinched up with the thumb and
forefinger to provide a firm seat for the succeeding roll.

b

A potter of San Ildefonso. The costume is typical of the Rio Grande
Pueblos. With the exception of the shawl it is entirely of native
manufacture.]

hours’ work to mould an olla. In the case of olla A, the potter was
unfortunate in misjudging the proper consistency of the paste, which
delayed the construction of this vessel an entire half-hour, omitting
the periods of additional drying. The two ollas were begun at eleven
o’clock in the morning; the second of the two was set aside completed at
eight minutes past four in the afternoon.

It is said that it requires one whole day, and sometimes two, to mould a
single very large olla. The process is identical with that just
described. In the case of small ollas (such as those seen in pl. 18, a)
a single period of drying elapses between the construction of the body
and that of the neck. These small ollas can be moulded in a little less
than twice the time taken for a bowl of about the same diameter.

TABLE III

                                     A          B          C          D
                                                 _Min._ _Sec._
First clay picked up                00.00      00.00      00.00      00.00
Pat placed in puki                  04.00      04.00
Second handful of clay picked up    04.30      05.30
First roll added                    05.00      06.00
First ring flattened, second begun  06.45      08.30
Second ring flattened, third begun  09.00      10.00
Third ring flattened, fourth begun  11.30      12.30
Fourth ring flattened, fifth begun  15.00      16.45
Fifth ring flattened (Stage I,
  pl. 15, a), inside scraping begun 18.30      20.00
Exterior scraping begun             21.00      21.30
Rim smoothed and interior
  scraping begun                    23.00      24.00
Rim smoothing begun                 25.00      27.30
Set aside (Stage II, pl. 15, b)     26.00      29.00
        _Time out_                  34.00      24.30
Interior smoothing, then exterior   26.00      29.00
Set aside (Stage III, pl. 15, c)    33.00      32.30
        _Time out_                  53.00      59.00
Pinching of rim begun               33.00      32.30      33.00      33.00
Pinching of rim completed           34.15      33.30
First roll made                     35.00      34.15
First roll pinched on, second begun 35.30      34.30
Second roll pinched on,
  flattening begun                  39.45      36.30
First ring flattened                41.00      37.30      37.00
Second ring flattened, rim
  smoothing begun                   45.00      41.30      41.00
Interior scraping begun             45.30      42.00      42.00
Exterior scraping begun             50.00      45.00      45.00
Rim smoothing begun                 52.00      47.00
Interior smoothing begun            53.30      48.30      47.00
Exterior smoothing begun            55.00      49.30      52.00
Rim smoothing begun                 57.00      50.15
Set aside (Stage IV, pl. 15, d)     58.00      50.45      54.00      55.00
       _Time out_                   27.00      20.45      28.00      68.00
Pinching of rim begun               58.00      50.45      54.00      55.00
Pinching of rim completed           58.45      51.15
First roll completed                59.30      52.00
First ring flattened, second begun  64.00      56.45
Second ring on                      66.15      59.45
Second ring flattened, rim
  smoothing begun                   67.15      60.30      61.00
Exterior scraping begun             68.00      60.45      61.15
Interior scraping begun             70.00     omitted    omitted    omitted
Set aside (clay too soft)           70.30        “          “          “
Rim smoothing begun                 omitted    63.00        “          “
Set aside                           omitted    63.45        “          “
      _Time out_                    13.45      17.00        “          “
Interior scraping begun             70.30      63.45      64.00
Exterior smoothing begun            75.15      69.15
Rim smoothing begun                 77.15      71.45
Set aside (Stage V, pl. 15, e)      79.15      73.30      69.00      67.00
      _Time out_                    18.00      15.15      68.00      42.00
Interior smoothing begun            79.15     omitted    omitted    omitted
Exterior smoothing begun            83.45        “          “          “
Rim smoothing begun                 84.15        “          “          “
Set aside                           84.45        “          “          “
      _Time out_                    33.00        “          “          “
Interior smoothing begun            84.45        “          “          “
Exterior smoothing begun            88.00        “          “          “
Set aside                           89.45        “          “          “
      _Time out_                    21.00        “          “          “
Pinching of rim begun               89.45      73.30      69.00      67.00
First roll put on                   92.45      75.00
Ring flattened, rim smoothed,
  exterior scraping begun           94.45      77.30                 73.00
Interior scraping begun              97.45      79.00      76.00
Exterior smoothing begun            100.15      81.30
Interior smoothing begun
  (Stage VI, pl. 15, f)             101.45      83.00
Exterior smoothing begun            102.45     omitted    omitted    omitted
Rim smoothing begun                 103.30      84.30      84.00      83.00
Set aside (clay in rim
  too soft)                         105.15     omitted    omitted    omitted
      _Time out_                     16.30        “          “          “
Interior and exterior
  smoothing begun                   omitted       “          “        87.00
Rim finishing begun                 105.15      90.30                 91.00
Vessel completed
  (Stage VII, pl. 15, g, h)         119.45      94.30      93.00      98.00

Total elapsed time from beginning: Ollas A and B, 5 hours, 7 minutes, 30
seconds; Ollas C and D, about 5 hours.

COOKING-VESSELS

The clay forming the paste of these pieces is called Apache clay, and is
very different from that employed in making ordinary ware (see p. 22);
it is used without the addition of any tempering material.

Just before moulding is started, the clay is carefully gone over in a
final search for small pebbles. The moulding differs only in detail from
that of vessels made from other kinds of paste. A pat very much thinner
than those described above is made and placed in the puki. The vessel is
built by the addition of rolls which are of smaller diameter than
usual--about three-eighths of an inch. When the body has been built to
the desired height, the scraping and smoothing with the kajepe are
begun. At first the vessel, like the others, is cylindrical; but the
scraping, first on the

[Illustration: PLATE 17

a. Putting the finishing touches on an olla. The potter’s left hand is
supporting the soft neck while she shapes it from the outside with the
kajepe. In front is a pile of base-moulds (pukis) for small bowls; at
the potter’s right is a lard-pail of water and a reserve supply of clay
wrapped in a canvas.

b. Applying a horizontal handle to a small olla; two gourd spoons
(kajepes) are lying on the table.]

interior and then on the exterior, thins the sides and gives it a
spherical shape. After the smoothing the sides are from one-eighth to
three-sixteenths of an inch thick, much thinner than the walls of
vessels made of other kinds of paste. When the body has assumed the
desired shape, additional rolls are added to form the lip, which is
scraped, smoothed, and flared with the kajepe. During the entire period
of moulding small pebbles are constantly being found and removed, for
Apache clay contains a great many more pebbles than the other clays.
After the finishing touches have been completed, the rim is indented,
and a vertical handle is added as described below (see p. 50).

The indenting of the rim is done with the thumb and forefinger of the
right hand. The thumb is placed under the flaring rim, with the nail
vertical; the forefinger rests upon the lip, the nail horizontal. The
fingers are in about the position they would assume were the potter
holding a pencil. A gentle downward pressure of the hand indents the rim
slightly, the nail of the thumb leaving a small mark on the under side
of the lip. This pressure is repeated at intervals of about
three-quarters of an inch until the entire lip has been given an
indented or undulating edge.

The construction described above is that of a small olla about six
inches in diameter. Larger ollas are built in several stages in the same
manner as ollas made of the other forms of paste.[33]

The time consumed in the moulding of cooking vessels was noted in only
one case. Six rolls were used for the body and two for the lip. Before
the kajepe was used for the first time the cylindrical body was five
inches in diameter and four and a half inches high. Table IV gives the
time of construction, divided according to the various steps of the
work.

TABLE IV

_Min._ _Sec._
00.00 -- Kneading of small handful of clay to eliminate pebbles begun
04.00 -- Pat placed in puki, kneading of clay for rolls begun
12.00 -- Making of first roll begun
19.00 -- Six rolls added and flattened, interior scraping begun
20.30 -- Exterior scraping begun, later interior smoothing begun,
         followed shortly by exterior smoothing
26.00 -- Seventh roll added
29.00 -- Eighth roll flattened and interior smoothing begun
29.30 -- Exterior smoothing begun
32.00 -- Rim smoothing begun
38.00 -- Finishing touches begun, followed by indenting rim
46.00 -- Moulding completed, vessel set aside
 9.00 -- _Time out_
46.00 -- Work upon handle begun
49.00 -- Handle finished, vessel completed

PRAYER-MEAL BOWLS

Prayer-meal bowls are of two sorts, bowl-shaped with a terraced
elevation on one side of the rim, and rectangular, or box-like, with a
terraced elevation at either end. In the construction of a rectangular
prayer-meal bowl, no puki is employed. The pat, either circular or
rectangular in shape, is made as usual. It is placed upon a board, care
being taken to press it down hard, and the rectangular shape is
accentuated by the pinching up of the edge. A thin layer of temper may,
or may not, be sprinkled on the board before the pat is placed upon it.
To this pat are added two or three rolls in the manner already
described. When it is desired to turn the vessel, the board upon which
it rests is turned. The board is either held in the lap or rests on the
top of a low stool. In scraping and shaping the vessel one potter began
to use the kajepe on the exterior first, then proceeded to the interior;
another reversed the process. The stroke on the exterior is vertical at
the corners and nearly horizontal on the sides; on the interior it is
nearly horizontal. When the building of the vessel has been completed,
the rim is smoothed, and the corners

[Illustration: FIG. 7. The three stages in making the terraced end of a
prayer-meal bowl: a. End built to full height. b. Notches cut with a
taut string. c. Bits of clay removed from the notches and edges of
terracing smoothed down.]

made straight. The bowl may be pressed lightly between the hands to
improve the symmetry and to make all the corners more nearly right
angles; it is then set aside for a while.

The next step is the construction of the terraced ends. A single short
roll is attached to the interior of the rim at one end. This roll is
pressed flat, and smoothed with the kajepe, first on the interior and
then on the exterior. The sharp edges are softened, the rim is smoothed,
and the junctions of this new portion with the sides are rounded off.
The result is a flattened semicircular vertical projection at the end
(see fig. 7, a). The other end is then treated in the same manner. The
bowl is now ready to have the terraces put in. There are two methods of
doing this. One potter uses a long string in making the first marks. The
string is stretched taut horizontally, parallel to the length of the
bowl. It is then pressed lightly on both ends at the same time, first on
one side of the centre, then on the other. The distance between the
hands is next shortened, and two notches are cut on either side of the
centre of the end with this string, which is still held horizontally.
Similar notches are cut in the other end. Each end of the bowl is now as
shown in fig. 7, b. Another potter does not make the initial marks in
the two ends simultaneously. Holding the end of the bowl towards her,
she lightly marks the lines to be cut with her fingernail. Then, picking
up the string and following the marks made by her fingernail, the
notches are cut in the way described.

As soon as the notches have been cut, the small triangular pieces of
clay are removed, the edges rounded with the thumb and forefinger of the
right hand, and the corners made into curves. Small pellets of clay may
be added if necessary. After a few finishing touches with the forefinger
the terracing of the ends of the bowl is completed (see fig. 7, c).[34]

The time consumed by the swiftest potter of the village, in moulding an
unusually large prayer-meal bowl, is recorded in Table V. The piece was
seven and a half inches long, four and three-quarters inches wide, and
three and a half inches high. The terraces raised the ends one and
three-quarters inches more.

TABLE V

_Min._ _Sec._

00.00 -- First handful of paste for the bowl picked up

08.00 -- Two rolls put on the pat and flattened, the rim smoothed and
interior scraping begun (exterior scraping done later)

22.00 -- Moulding of the bowl itself completed, after some time spent
in pressing down the pat on the interior of the bowl. Vessel set aside

22.00 -- _Time out_

22.00 -- Interior and exterior smoothing begun

26.00 -- Paste picked up for roll to be placed on one end of bowl

29.45 -- Roll flattened and smoothing of edges begun

30.30 -- Interior scraping begun

31.10 -- Exterior scraping begun

31.45 -- Smoothing of connection with sides begun

32.30 -- Roll placed on other end

33.45 -- Roll flattened and interior scraping begun

34.15 -- Exterior scraping begun

34.45 -- Very small roll placed on first end to improve curve, followed
by a little smoothing with kajepe

35.45 -- Finishing of end begun

37.30 -- Marking of one end with fingernail begun

38.15 -- Notches cut with thread, pieces removed, and finishing of
terrace begun

40.15 -- Marking of other end with fingernail begun

40.35 -- Cutting of notches with thread begun

41.05 -- Pieces removed and finishing of terrace begun

43.15 -- Finishing completed

DOUBLE-MOUTHED VASES

The first step in the construction of this type of vessel is the
moulding of an open-mouthed bowl. Across the mouth of this bowl a clay
bridge is placed. Finishing touches are given at this stage of the work,
just as if the moulding had been entirely completed. The piece is set
aside for a while to stiffen.

Later, additional rolls are added to each half of the mouth of the bowl
by attaching them to the rim proper and also to the bridge. In this way
two necks are gradually built up. At regular intervals the work is set
aside to stiffen in order that it may support the additional weight to
be added. The shape and height of the two necks depend entirely upon the
whim of the potter. The moulding of the upper parts of the two necks is
a delicate process, and requires considerable skill. The roll-marks on
the interior of the neck, if obliterated at all, are destroyed by the
fingers only, since the diameter of the neck is too small to permit the
use of a kajepe. After the moulding has been entirely finished, a handle
connecting the two necks is usually put across the top at right angles
to the bridge which forms the base of the necks. Obviously this handle
has a structural as well as ornamental purpose.[35]

HANDLES

In all cases in which handles are to be applied the vessel is entirely
finished before they are put on. The potters of San Ildefonso make three
types of handles: (1) passing across the top of an open-mouthed bowl,
(2) attached vertically to the side of a vessel, (3) attached
horizontally to the side of a vessel. All three types consist of a short
roll of paste of the proper length, usually somewhat smaller in diameter
than the rolls used in the body of the vessel. This roll is slightly
flattened before it is applied.

The first two types of handles are placed on the vessel in the same
manner. The ends of the flattened roll are pinched still flatter. In the
case of the handle over the top of a bowl, first one end of the roll,
then the other, is attached by pressure to the exterior of the rim. The
vertical handle on the side of a vessel is attached first to the
exterior of the rim, then bent over and attached to the side just above
the shoulder. The left hand is used as a stop on the inside of the
vessel in order that the shape of the side may not be altered by the
pressure exerted in applying the handle. The junction-lines between the
handle and the vessel are then obliterated with the forefinger of the
right hand. Small pellets of paste may be added to the side of the
contacts, especially on the inner side of the handle where it makes an
acute angle with the side of the bowl. In this way the welding is made
solid, and the curves regular. Finally the curve of the handle itself is
made symmetrical. A few finishing touches, such as the obliterating of
fine cracks in the handle and the smoothing of its surface, complete the
process. Such a handle may be constructed in three to five minutes.

Horizontal handles are attached to the sides of vessels in an entirely
different manner, being keyed or riveted in, rather than merely welded
on. Handles of this type are usually put on in pairs. The position of
one handle is chosen and the rim of the finished pot is marked to show
its location; by sighting across the top of the vessel a point exactly
opposite is also marked to give the location of the other. For each
handle two holes, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter and fairly
close together, are cut through the side of the vessel from the exterior
with a small stick. One end of the roll which is to form the handle is
inserted in one of the two holes. Then the other end is similarly
inserted. The left hand holds the first end in place on the interior,
while the other end is being put in (pl. 17, b). Next the junctions
between the ends of the roll and the interior surface of the vessel are
smoothed over and obliterated with the fingers of the right hand. The
handle itself is flattened a little, and small pellets of paste are
added at the junctions between it and the exterior of the vessel. These
are smoothed over with the fingers, so that superficially the handle
looks as if it had been pressed upon the surface in the same manner as a
vertical handle. A smoothing of curves, and touching up of the handles
to make them symmetrical, form the last stage of the construction. It
took one potter just an hour to place a pair of handles of this type on
a globular bowl.[36]

SUN-DRYING

The purpose of sun-drying is to allow the vessels to harden, and to
remove all moisture before the work on them is completed. During
sun-drying, which immediately follows moulding, the ability of the
vessels to withstand some heat is also tested. Pieces made of improperly
mixed clay are eliminated at this stage of the work, because of the
cracks which develop (see under Temper, p. 21). The length of time
allowed for sun-drying depends upon the weather and also upon the place
where the vessels are exposed.

During the dry months of the year, notably in May and June, vessels
placed in the sun will dry completely in less than a day, often in half
a day (pl. 18, a). In the fall it requires an entire day under the same
conditions. When the sky is cloudy or showers threaten, the drying is
done in the house. If time is not pressing, the pots are placed on a
table, or in the corner of the room, and allowed to remain there three
or more days. At the end of that time they are usually sufficiently dry.
Vessels moulded one afternoon and placed on the table for the night are
dry enough the following morning to permit lifting them from the pukis,
which can then be used again. If, during cloudy weather, the potter
desires to dry the vessels quickly, they are placed in the oven of the
small wood-stove with which most San Ildefonso houses are nowadays
equipped. Sometimes a piece of corrugated cardboard from a carton is
placed on the floor of the oven, the door of which is left open to allow
the evaporating moisture to escape. Only a low fire is built in the
stove, for a hot one would cause the vessels to dry too quickly. Under
such treatment a batch of pottery can be dried in two days, more or
less. The length of time depends very largely upon the number of pieces
to be dried, for the potter tries to keep all the vessels at about the
same stage of drying; this of course requires frequent relays in the
oven. The most common, and most natural, method, however, is to place
the vessels in the sun and, when showers threaten, to carry them
hurriedly into the house. In this way pottery is dried in a day or a day
and a half. The loss of moisture in the paste changes its color from a
dark reddish or greyish brown to a light reddish or whitish grey, and in
the early stages the variations in the color of the paste serve as
indications of the dryness of the vessel. Later the color-change is very
difficult to detect. Various parts of the vessel dry at different rates;
the rim always first, then the body, and last the base, both because it
is thicker and because it is usually in the shadow of the vessel itself;
in spite of this the vessels are never inverted while they are drying.

The occurrence of cracks in the paste is the only form of accident which
takes place during drying. There are three sorts of cracks: those in the
bottom of the vessel, which usually pass through or very near the centre
of the base; rim-cracks; and vertical cracks in the body. All are caused
by the contraction of the paste in drying. The part of the vessel which
receives the greatest strain is the base, which,

[Illustration: PLATE 18

a. Vessels on their base-moulds drying in the sun; the pottery is always
thoroughly sun-dried after it is moulded and before it is decorated.

b. Summer house of Antonita Roybal, a woman who specializes in the
manufacture of large red ollas: a row of these may be seen drying before
the house.]

because of the amount of paste in it, has a tendency to contract more
than the bottom of the side. The next greatest strain is at the bottom
of the side, where the paste must adjust itself to the contraction in
the base as well as to that in the body of the vessel. The body and lip
have the least strain, for the contraction may be compensated for by a
slight settling of the paste. It is in the base, therefore, that cracks
usually occur, and then near the centre of it, since that is the point
of greatest strain. The size and quantity of the cracks are an
indication of the amount of temper still needed to make the paste of
just the right consistency. If there are many small cracks, or a single
serious one, the piece may be discarded entirely, to be broken up later,
and re-used in moulding. If a crack is not serious, it is filled as
follows. With a small sliver of wood, or the end of a case-knife, the
paste on the edge of the crack is forced down into it, first on the
interior and then on the exterior; little pellets of paste are then
added and pressed into the crack until it is filled. Final smoothing
with the finger or the kajepe completes the obliteration.

Small vertical cracks near the base of the body probably also indicate
faulty mixture of the paste. The potters, however, say that these fine
cracks are caused by a vessel’s drying too quickly in the sun, and
insist that if it had been allowed to dry slowly in the house, they
would not have appeared. Such cracks are too fine and too numerous to
warrant the careful filling of each one; so accordingly the surface is
merely dampened, some soft paste is added and rubbed in with the fingers
or the kajepe.

Cracks running downward from the rim are exceedingly rare. The women of
San Ildefonso make no attempt to repair them, but occasionally cut down
the vessel to a smaller size. In the single instance noted[37] the crack
was first traced downward from the rim until its end was located upon
the neck, then the upper part of the neck was cut off below the end of
the crack. It was thus possible to use the base of the olla as a large
bowl. A line parallel with the rim was marked about the circumference of
the neck with a lead-pencil. This line was incised with a penknife, and
gone over again in order to deepen it. A second line was incised around
the neck about three-sixteenths of an inch nearer the rim. Then the
paste between these two lines was dug out with great care, forming a
V-shaped groove (pl. 20, a). This groove was cut through about one-half
the thickness of the wall all the way around the neck. Then at one point
the wall was pierced, and, from there around, the groove was deepened by
long and short strokes of a knife pulled toward the body until the wall
had been cut through for about three-fifths of the circumference. The
remainder broke away easily. The raw surface of the new rim was then
softened by the application of water and smoothed with the fingers. The
potter said this was the usual method of treating a rim crack.

SCRAPING

The purpose of this process is twofold, to improve the surface of the
vessel by removing the marks left by the kajepe and the puki, and to
thin the sides, thus reducing the weight of the finished piece. It is
usually begun the day following the completion of the moulding and
sun-drying, unless other duties, such as planting, harvesting, and the
like, force a postponement. Large vessels such as ollas are allowed to
dry nearly forty-eight hours before they are scraped. At San Ildefonso
vessels are made in quantities ranging from a dozen to fifty pieces. The
moulding and drying of the entire group, a process which may extend over
a period of several days, is entirely finished before the scraping is
begun.

There are three steps in the scraping: the wetting, the actual scraping,
and the smoothing of the surface. The implements employed are a wet
cloth and a scraper. The latter is either the top of a baking-powder
can, or a kitchen case-knife. The can-top seems to be the more popular
because it may be used on nearly any type of curve on the vessel. The
informants said that their people formerly used potsherds, stones, or
broken animal-bones as scrapers, in fact anything that had a suitable
edge; the potsherds were sharpened and straightened by rubbing them on
coarse sandstone.

When the vessel is brought in from drying, it is easily lifted from the
puki, since the layer of ashes or temper prevents sticking. A small olla
or bowl is held upon the left knee, with the mouth tilted to the left
and away from the body. A bowl is held with the left hand, the fingers
on the interior, the thumb on the exterior of the lip. The exterior
surface of the vessel is then softened by wiping it with a wet rag. This
step is omitted by some potters always, by others only when the vessel
needs a small amount of scraping. The scraping itself is begun while the
surface is still damp. The scraper first touches the vessel near the
shoulder. The work then continues toward the base by means of short,
quick strokes taken toward the body. As the work advances the upper part
of the bowl is turned away from the body, that is, the vessel turns
counterclockwise. When the ridges marking the former position of the
edge of the puki are being destroyed, care is taken to keep the curve of
the side uniform from the base to the shoulder. If the scraping
discloses an impurity, such as a stone fragment in the paste, it is
removed; the resulting irregularity is filled with a pinch of soft
paste, and smoothed over. The strokes of the scraper are usually
approximately parallel to the rim of the vessel. The upper part is
scraped as far as the surface remains convex. In bowls the scraping is
done to the very rim. In both large and small ollas with flaring lip,
the scraping continues only to the base of the flare. The interiors of
vessels, even of wide-mouthed bowls, are never scraped. When a bowl
requires little scraping to make the surface uniform, it may be finished
in from three to five minutes. Those which are too

[Illustration: PLATE 19

a. Scraping an olla after sun-drying; the implement used is an ordinary
kitchen case-knife.

b. Scraping; the dark part of the olla has just been moistened to
soften the clay.]

heavy, and therefore need thinning, take considerably longer. It may
even be necessary to moisten the surface a second time. The potters
judge the proper thickness of the bowls by weighing them in the two
hands with the elbows unsupported.

Large ollas, while being scraped, are held in the lap, with the mouth
inclined to the left and away from the body. The left hand supporting
the olla is placed palm down upon the neck (pl. 19, b). Because of the
extent of surface to be gone over only that part of the olla about to be
scraped is moistened with the cloth. When a case-knife is used instead
of a can-top, it is held either at right angles to the surface worked or
at an angle of about sixty degrees with the surface, the upper edge of
the knife tilted away from the body (pl. 19, a). In all vessels, bowls
as well as ollas, the angle with the horizontal made by the mouth varies
considerably, according to the part of the vessel being scraped. After
the scraping proper is completed, one potter sometimes rubs the surface,
including the rim and lip, with a little steel wool, which noticeably
improves the smoothness. The final step is to go over the entire surface
carefully with the palm of the right hand in search of irregularities or
small uneven spots.

When the scraper is laid aside for the last time, the surface of the
vessel is again softened with a wet cloth. By means of vigorous rubbing
the thin film of moist surface-paste is redistributed over the entire
exterior of the vessel, filling the small scratches made by the scraper,
and softening the edges of the larger ones. If the vessel is a bowl or a
large olla, its position is then changed so that its mouth is tilted to
the right and towards the body, whereupon the interior is treated with a
wet cloth. The finishing touches consist in smoothing, either with a wet
cloth or the ball of the finger, small areas of the surface which are
not quite to the potter’s satisfaction. The use of the wet cloth gives a
uniform smooth texture which is a distinct improvement over the scraped
surface. The paste resumes its dry color in three to five minutes after
the wetting. This process actually amounts to the same thing as putting
a thin slip of paste upon the vessel, but the potters do not think of it
in that light. It is said that some women entirely omit this final
smoothing step. Formerly a wet cloth was not used; the fingers alone, a
piece of sandstone, or a corncob served, according to the informants, to
smooth the surface after scraping. As a matter of fact, however, cloth
was used in old times for smoothing pottery, as clay-smeared rags are
occasionally discovered in the rubbish of ancient cliff houses. Ground
potsherds, on the other hand, were more often used than gourd-rind
kajepes, the latter being very rare even in the dry deposits found in
caves. At Pecos well-worn fragments of the spongy interior parts of
large animal bones have been found which may well have been employed for
smoothing.

The time element in scraping is a variable quantity. Table VI on the
following page is the record of one potter. A, B, and C were large
ollas; D, E, and F were small globular ollas six inches in diameter and
five inches high; G was a shallow, wide-mouthed bowl.

TABLE VI

                             A      B      C      D      E      F      G
                                       _Min._   _Sec._
Wet cloth applied          00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00  00.00
Scraping begun             00.30  01.00  00.30
Wet cloth applied again    02.30  08.30
Wet cloth applied again    04.00  11.00
Steel wool rub begun       05.30  16.30
Scraping done, exterior
    smoothing begun        08.00  18.30  18.00  08.30  03.00  05.00  08.00
Interior smoothing begun   14.30         26.00  11.00  05.30  07.30  11.00
Finishing begun            17.00
Set aside                  17.30  31.30  35.00  13.00  08.30  08.30  15.30

The treatment of the vessels after scraping varies considerably among
different potters. One places the scraped vessels in the sun for a
period of not less than three days in order to test them for cracks;
another begins the next step in the work, that of slipping, almost at
once, sometimes the same day; a third after scraping ollas replaces them
in the sun for a day or so, in order to allow them to “get warm” (that
is, dry thoroughly),[38] before the slipping and polishing are begun.

SLIPPING AND POLISHING

Up to this point all vessels are made in the same general manner. In the
succeeding stages the treatment differs according to the type of
decoration which is eventually to be applied. The making of the vessel
has been completed, and the finishing is now begun. Just as the making
is divided into three general processes--moulding, sun-drying, and
scraping, so the finishing is similarly divided into slipping, painting,
and firing.

Slipping is the application of a very thin layer of clay to the surface
or surfaces of the vessel to produce a smooth texture, uniform in color,
which gives the pottery a pleasing appearance; it also serves as a
background upon which designs may be painted. The slip further acts as a
sizing. San Ildefonso slip is a saturated solution of a colored clay in
water; it is very little thicker than water, and is applied by means of
a small piece of cloth, used in much the same way in which a painter
would handle a brush an inch and a half or two inches wide. It is said
that formerly a small piece of skin was used instead of a cloth mop. The
treatment after application depends upon the slip used; some slips are
merely wiped vigorously with a cloth, others must be polished with
smooth, fine-grained stones.

At San Ildefonso the potters use slips of four different colors--white
(of two varieties), orange-red, red, and dark-red. The red and dark-red
slips and one variety of the white must be polished; the other white and
the orange-red do not need it. The white slips are principally used as
backgrounds in polychrome ware (see pl. 6), the red for undecorated red
ware and polished black ware (see pl. 8), and the dark-red for decorated
red ware (see pl. 7, a, b). The orange-red slip is the only one of the
four which is not used on the body of vessels, it being confined to the
bases of ollas and of some bowls. The white and the orange-red are used
also in the elements of designs.[39]

WHITE SLIP

The native white slip (see p. 23) is applied and polished in the same
manner as the red slip (see p. 23). It has been very largely supplanted
by the Santo Domingo white slip, which does not require polishing.

The Santo Domingo white slip (see p. 23) is a soapy clay which the San
Ildefonso potters obtain from the Indians of Santo Domingo and Cochiti.
It is mixed with water in enamelled pans and basins or in china dishes,
although formerly pottery vessels were used to hold it. Although
undissolved lumps of the clay remain in the bottom of the vessel
containing the solution, the latter is not appreciably thicker than
water. The mop with which it is applied is a folded cloth, about two
inches wide and three, or three and a half, inches long. This is held at
one end, between the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand,
the other end of the cloth acting as a two-inch wide paint-brush, which
is manipulated with an easy, backward-forward stroking motion, parallel
to the rim.[40]

Before the slip is applied, the hand is rubbed over the surface in order
to remove any dust or powder which may remain after the scraping. Some
vessels, while being slipped, are held with the mouth vertical and to
the left, supported by the bent fingers of the left hand against the
interior of the rim. Others are held upright, resting upon the palm of
the left hand (pl. 20, b). In both cases the vessels are revolved
counterclockwise as the slip is applied. In the container the slip is
creamy white, but when first laid on it turns a muddy yellowish-white,
because the clay below darkens as it absorbs the moisture. Within two or
three minutes the under clay dries, and the surface becomes dead white.
Five or six coats are applied, the vessel being allowed to become
completely dry after each one. One potter rubbed the surface vigorously
with a dry cloth after each application and before the slip had
thoroughly dried. Another rubbed the vessel with a cloth only after all
the coats had been put on, but before the last had dried. Usually the
work is done in the sun, at the place where the pieces have been drying,
but occasionally it is carried on in the house, and between coatings the
vessels are placed in an oven heated by a slow fire. The length of time,
five or more minutes, during which the vessel remains in the oven is
determined by testing the warmth of its surface. When the work has been
completed, the very faint marks of the mop are visible.

Pieces of pottery of various shapes are slipped on different surfaces.
Small ollas and constricted-mouthed bowls are coated with white only on
the upper two-thirds or three-quarters of the exterior. No particular
care is taken to keep the lower edge of the slip regular. Of smaller
vessels the entire exterior, including the base, is usually covered.
Open-mouthed bowls are coated with white both in the interior and the
upper part of the exterior. Shallow open-mouthed bowls may be coated
only on the interior. The exterior surfaces not treated with white slip
are later coated with orange-red slip (see below).

The actual length of time that each vessel is in the hands of the potter
while it is being slipped is very short. It requires one-quarter to
one-half a minute to apply a coat of slip to a constricted-mouthed bowl
six to eight inches in diameter. The six coats could be applied in less
than three minutes. Another half minute is needed for the rubbing with
the cloth at the end. Four minutes in all is a generous estimate. A coat
of slip is applied to the entire group of vessels at one time (pl. 20,
b). Less than fifteen minutes are required to give a single coat of slip
to a group of from twenty to thirty pieces. After this step has been
completed, the vessels are placed in the sun for an hour or more before
the painting of the design is begun, the length of time depending upon
attendant circumstances.

[Illustration: PLATE 20

a

Cutting the top from an olla which had cracked slightly at the rim
during the final sun-drying. The raw edge was afterwards worked down to
form a new rim, and the vessel was successfully fired.

b

Applying white slip with a cloth mop. The enamelled pan containing the
prepared slip is on the bench at the potter’s side. A number of vessels
are slipped at one time.]

ORANGE-RED SLIP

This slip is applied only to the bases of vessels (ollas and certain
bowls) and to the interior of the lips of ollas. Before burning it is
mustard-yellow in color, but after firing it becomes orange-red. A cloth
mop is used for application in the same manner as with the white slip;
one coat only is applied to each surface.

As a rule the vessel being slipped is held in the lap, the mouth
vertical and turned to the left (pl. 21, a). The left hand is placed in
the interior to support it and keep it turning counterclockwise, that
is, the upper part is turned away from the body, as the strokes are
taken towards the body. The formation of the junction-line between this
base-slip and the body-slip is very carefully handled. No attention is
paid to the lower edge of the body-slip, except to notice its general
location, for the base-slip covers it and itself produces the edge. This
upper line, made by long, careful, slow, trailing strokes of the mop, is
drawn entirely free-hand, yet the potters succeed surprisingly well in
keeping it always the same distance from the centre of the base. Three
or four strokes are more than sufficient to encircle the vessel (pl. 21,
a). It is often possible in the finished piece to trace the lower edge
of the body-slip, under the orange-red coating. After the junction line
has been drawn, the rest of the base is covered with shorter
forward-backward strokes. The application of the orange-red slip to the
interior of the lips of ollas is done with the same careful, slow
technique used in forming the junction-line near the base of the body;
during the process the vessel is held on the palm of the hand right-side
up. The exterior of shallow bowls which receive no white slip is
completely coated with the orange-red, the bowl being inverted over the
left hand during the application.

The orange-red slip may be put on either before or after the painting of
the design; if before, the painting may be begun at once; if after, the
application may be delayed until within an hour or two of burning. If
the vessels are set aside for a while at this stage, they are covered
with a cloth to keep the dust and flies away. The time element is
practically the same as in the case of the white slip.

RED SLIP

The red slip, as was said above, serves to cover the surfaces of
undecorated red-ware. It is always polished with the rubbing-stone after
application. When given a certain special firing (see p. 74) it turns a
lustrous black and so produces polished black ware (pl. 8, b). This slip
is a saturated solution in water of the red clay just as it was obtained
from the claypits (see p. 24). Although undissolved lumps remain at the
bottom of the solution, the latter is no thicker than water. The
containers are either open-mouthed pottery bowls or china dishes. The
slip is applied as usual with a small folded rag. While it is being put
on, the vessel may be hung from the fingers of the left hand with the
mouth vertical, or held in the usual way upon the palm of the left hand,
its position depending upon whether or not the base is to be slipped.
The surface is covered two or three times with the cloth mop, in a
rather haphazard manner, so that certain portions where the strokes
overlap receive as many as four coats. The potter herself is uncertain
regarding the number of coats the surface has received, as they are
applied one immediately after the other, with no wait between. The
mopping is stopped when the surface seems uniformly covered with just
the right shade--a rather bright red. San Ildefonso potters usually
cover with this slip the entire exterior of small ollas and bowls,
including the base.[41] In some cases shallow open-mouthed bowls are
slipped only on the interior.

Before the slip dries, the rubbing with the polishing-stone is begun.
The stone is held between the thumb and first two fingers of the right
hand. The entire surface is gone over several times with a
backward-forward motion in strokes about three or four inches long.[42]
Each stroke is made with the entire forearm, there being no noticeable
play in either the wrist or the fingers. This is a rather fatiguing and
exacting process, for to obtain the best results all parts of the
surface must receive equal attention: a definite system, however, has
been developed by means of which the entire surface is gone over.

In polishing the exterior of a small olla or of a bowl, the vessel is
first placed upon the lap in an inverted position, tilted slightly to
the right. It is held at the rim by the left hand, which rests upon the
left thigh. The polishing is begun on the right-hand side of the base
near the body, and proceeds diagonally across the base to the far
left-hand side. The vessel is then tipped up with the mouth to the left
and the rim nearly vertical. The polishing is begun at the shoulder and
continued down to within a very short distance of the centre of the base
(pl. 21, b). At this stage some potters polish from the base to the
shoulder. As the work continues, the upper part of the bowl is turned
counterclockwise away from the body. Usually the stroke is parallel to
the rim, but occasionally a diagonal motion develops. The strokes across
the bottom are then made at right angles to the previous series. A
constricted-mouthed bowl is then turned so that the mouth, still
vertical, is to the right, and the section from the lip to the shoulder
is polished; the bowl is now turned clockwise, that is, the top still
turns away from the body. Small ollas may be held either in this
position or with the mouth tilted at an angle of about forty-five
degrees to the left and away from the body, in which case the polishing
is done from the shoulder to the lip (see pl. 30, b, which shows a Zuñi
potter using the polishing stone).

After the surface has been completely covered in this manner once, and
none too carefully, the rim is coated with the slip, applied by the
forefinger of the right hand, and gone over with the stone. The vessel
is then wiped with a cloth upon

[Illustration: PLATE 21

a. Applying orange-red slip with a cloth mop; the beginning of the
stroke may be seen just above the lap of the potter. b. Polishing a bowl
with a small stone after red slip has been applied. The marks of the
stone are visible at first, but quickly disappear as the slip dries. c.
Women working with the polishing stone. Note the light line about the
shoulder of the large olla, where a space is always temporarily left
unpolished.]

which a little lard has been rubbed. The lard may be kept near the
potter in any convenient receptacle, like a sauce-dish or the bowl of a
spoon. A clean cloth is then immediately used to distribute the lard
evenly upon the surface, and to remove any surplus. Some potters do not
use this second cloth at all; others apply the lard to the vessels with
their fingers, wiping it immediately afterwards with a cloth. In some
cases, the application of the lard is withheld until the polishing is
entirely completed.

The polishing is then continued in exactly the manner just described.
The surface is covered more carefully and more slowly, the areas worked
upon often overlapping considerably. A cloth, sometimes a part of the
potter’s apron, is now between the left hand and the vessel in order to
protect the smooth surface. A considerable pressure is exerted. Some
women use a short, very quick stroke; others a somewhat longer, slower
stroke, hence taking more time for the work. In this way the surface is
covered several times. Finally the routine treatment is dropped, and
finishing touches are given by polishing small areas here and there
which do not show the required amount of lustre. The strokes used at the
end are usually slightly longer than the previous ones. Finally, after
the stone has been laid aside, the surface is wiped once with a clean
cloth before the vessel is set aside; it is usually placed upon a mat or
cloth in order that the base may not be scratched by contact with the
earthen floor. When the polishing of several vessels has been completed,
they are gathered in a corner of a room on a mat or rug, and covered
with a cloth to keep the flies and dust away, for it is said that
fly-specks leave a black mark upon the burned vessel.

In the case of large ollas one half of the vessel is doubtless coated
with slip and polished before the other half is slipped. This is the
process employed in polishing large ollas slipped with dark-red (see p.
63). No opportunity presented itself to see a large polished olla being
made.

In polishing the interior of a shallow bowl, the vessel is held in its
normal position, tilted slightly to the right, and resting upon the
right knee and the palm of the left hand, which in turn, rests upon the
left knee. The polishing is done from the lip to the centre of the
vessel. As the work advances, the bowl is turned counterclockwise.

The degree of polish obtained by different potters varies considerably,
and yet in even the very finest examples of polishing the marks left by
the stone may be faintly seen in certain lights in the form of
exceedingly low ridges, generally running roughly parallel to the rim
and too low to be felt with the fingers. The surface has a lustre almost
equal to that of burnished metal. In pieces which are not as well
polished, the ridges are higher and may be felt with the fingers; indeed
they are often prominent enough to make the lustre uneven. Maria
Martinez, who does the best polishing, is also the swiftest worker in
the village. From the moment the vessel is picked up to apply the slip
until the completion of the polishing, it is not laid down for an
instant. Her strokes are quicker than those of the other potters; she
covers the surface in much less time and therefore polishes a given area
more often before the slip dries. Continued polishing tires the wrist
and hand very quickly and is apt to produce cramps. Other potters are
inclined to rest for a few minutes from time to time, especially after
the application of the slip and again after the lard has been put on.
One woman complained of the humid weather, because it did not allow the
slip to dry quickly enough. The potters themselves say that streaky
polish is due to lack of persistence on the part of the polisher. Maria
attributes her success to the fact that she uses a faster stroke and
puts on a little more lard than the others. Large vessels usually have a
poorer polish than small ones. The secret of good polishing seems to lie
in the ability of the potter to go over her work as many times as
possible after the slip has been applied and before it becomes too dry.

The time during which the vessel being polished is actually in the hands
of the potter is given in Table VII. The first column (A) represents a
constricted-mouthed bowl, about eight inches in diameter at the shoulder
and four inches high, which was polished by Maria. In one hour and
fifteen minutes elapsed time three such bowls were done, an average of
twenty-five minutes for each. The second column (B) represents the
polishing by another potter of the interior of a shallow wide-mouthed
bowl. The actual time from the moment the bowl was picked up for the
application of the slip until the polishing was done was forty-one
minutes. A rest of one minute was taken after the slip had been applied,
another of thirteen minutes after the application of the lard, in order
to let the bowl “dry”, and a third of one minute when the final
polishing was about half done. The interior of this bowl was a very fine
example of polishing.

TABLE VII

                                   _Min._  _Sec._     _Min._  _Sec._
First application of the slip         00.00         00.00
First polishing begun                 02.50         03.00
Slipping of rim begun                 04.45
Polishing of rim begun                05.30
Application of lard begun             06.05         10.00
Wiping with dry cloth begun           06.40
Final polishing begun                 07.05         11.00
Polishing finished                    24.05         26.00

DARK-RED SLIP

The dark-red slip is a mixture of red slip, native white slip, and
tempering material. It is applied to vessels which are later to receive
a black design (see pl. 7, a, b). It is mopped on with a cloth in
exactly the same manner as the red, and is also polished with a stone
but never acquires as high a lustre as does the red. There seems to be a
tendency for the first coat of this slip to dry more readily than the
first coat of the red slip.

While applying the slip to small ollas about six inches in diameter, the
vessel is held by the rim with the left hand. Either the entire exterior
may be slipped, or the base may remain uncoated, to be covered later
with the orange-red slip. The slip is first applied to the rim, the
forefinger being used instead of a mop. During this process the vessel
is right-side up either in the lap or on the floor. The body is then
slipped with the cloth mop, and the polishing done in two parts, with
the shoulder as the dividing line. In polishing the lower part the
strokes begin at the base, or at the lower edge of the slip in case the
base has not been coated, and proceed upward to the shoulder. The
direction of the strokes is practically parallel to the rim. The upper
part is polished from the shoulder to the lip. On the base, if it has
been slipped, the strokes are first made in one direction, then at right
angles to that direction. From time to time, as the polishing proceeds,
the vessels are set aside in order to allow the slip to dry somewhat.
They may even be placed in the sun or near a fire on the hearth. The
potters explain that if the work is completed while the slipped surface
is very damp, the resulting polish will not be as high as when the slip
is just drying. Apparently, the work done just before the surface
becomes dry plays an important part in securing a high lustre. One of
the potters working on this ware applied a little lard to the surface
after the polishing had been completed. Another potter used no lard
whatever for this class of ware.[43] When the polishing has been
completed the vessel is placed in the sun or near a fire to dry
thoroughly before it is put away to await decoration. While the olla is
drying it is covered with a cloth to protect it from flies.

In polishing larger ollas one half of the vessel is coated with the
dark-red slip and polished before the other half is slipped. Either the
half above the shoulder or the half below the shoulder may be polished
first. Rather quick strokes, three or four inches long, are made with
the stone. Sufficient pressure is exerted to cause motion in the entire
body of the worker. The strokes, as before, are usually parallel to the
rim. Because of the larger surface to be covered in these vessels, the
position of the olla on the lap of the potter is changed frequently. It
is supported with the left hand, which is placed palm down upon the
exterior surface. While the lip is being polished, the mouth is turned
toward the body and to the right, making an angle of about sixty degrees
from the horizontal. In polishing the upper part of the shoulder the
potter turns the mouth to the left and away from the body (pl. 21, c).
Usually the mouth is more nearly horizontal in this position than in the
former.

Before applying the slip to the lower half of the olla, a faint line is
drawn with the polishing-stone around the lower part of the body to
define the lower edge of the body-slip. During the slipping and
polishing of this portion of the surface, the olla is held with the
mouth nearly vertical and to the left, directed away from the body. When
the polishing proper is completed, the finishing touches are given to
the entire exterior by rubbing small areas here and there which do not
entirely satisfy the potter.

As in the case of the red slip, the polishing must be completed before
the slip becomes too dry. When there is a large surface to be polished,
as in the case of these ollas, it is of course necessary that the work
upon any given section of the surface be completed as quickly as
possible. Therefore when two potters are working together, the swifter
of the two does the polishing on the larger vessel, regardless of which
of the two applies the slip. After the polishing proper has been
completed, the olla may be turned over to the slower worker for the
finishing touches. This necessity for speed in polishing is probably the
reason for slipping only a part of the surface at one time.

Now and then, as the polishing proceeds, the potter changes stones. An
important factor in this change is the desire to rest the fingers
through the slight alteration in grip afforded by the different shapes
of the stones. Occasionally the change is due to a wish to obtain a
stone with just the proper shaped surface for the section of the olla
being worked upon. There is also a tendency to use a larger, rougher
stone at the beginning of the work, for which is substituted later for
the final finish a smaller, finer-grained, and therefore smoother,
stone.

Because of the practice of slipping and polishing only half the surface
at a time, there develops around the shoulder a narrow line of dried
slip, which is naturally lighter in color than the worked areas. (This
line may be seen encircling the olla in pl. 21, c). After the polishing
of the upper and lower areas has been completed, the potter’s attention
turns to this line, and since dry slip cannot be polished, the rubbing
stone is either wet with the tongue or dipped into the liquid in the
slip-container before being used on the line. The latter method appears
to give the best results, but in either case, the moistening of the
stone is done very frequently, and the process of eliminating the
lighter line is a painfully slow one. Even when the best results have
been obtained, the line is not entirely obliterated. Occasionally the
stone is moistened with the tongue while giving final touches to other
parts of the surface.

When the polishing with the stone has been entirely completed, a little
lard is rubbed on the surface either with the forefinger or with a
greasy cloth; the surface is then vigorously rubbed with a chamois.[44]
This distributes the lard evenly and very noticeably improves the
lustre. Then the vessel, after being covered with a cloth, is put in the
sun to dry thoroughly.

The great difference in the time required for polishing large and small
ollas requires two tables to present the details. Table VIII gives the
time during which a large olla, about fourteen inches in diameter at the
shoulder, was under the hands of the potters. The time devoted to
obliterating the light junction-line, about fifteen to twenty minutes,
was considerably longer than usual. Table IX gives the time required for
three small globular ollas, about six inches in diameter at the
shoulder. The surface of each of these was approximately the same as
that of the polished black constricted-mouthed bowl recorded in Table
VII.

TABLE VIII

_Hrs._ _Min._ _Sec._
  00.00 -- Drawing of line about lower part of body begun
  01.00 -- Slipping of lower half of olla begun
  08.30 -- Slipping finished, polishing begun
  23.30 -- Vessel transferred to a slower worker
  40.00 -- Set aside
  04.45 -- _Time out_
  40.00 -- Polishing by slower worker continued
  47.45 -- First application of lard begun
  48.45 -- Polishing with chamois begun
  50.45 -- Lower part finished
    ?   -- _Time out_
  50.45 -- Slipping of upper half begun
  55.15 -- Slipping of body done, slipping of rim begun
  56.45 -- Polishing begun
1.00.45 -- Vessel transferred to the swifter worker
1.20.45 -- Vessel transferred to the slower worker,
           obliteration of junction-line
1.53.45 -- First application of lard begun
1.55.45 -- Polishing with chamois begun
1.59.45 -- Polishing of vessel completed

TABLE IX

                                                _Min._ _Sec._
Slipping begun                            00.00       00.00       00.00
Slipping completed                        03.00
_Time out_                                01.00            omitted
Polishing begun                           03.00       04.00       04.00
Set aside (second one beside fire)        27.30       31.30
_Time out_                                03.00       34.30      omitted
Polishing continued                       27.30      omitted
Lard first applied, chamois used later    30.30       31.30       32.00
Work on vessel completed                  31.45       33.00       36.00

PAINTING

Three varieties of paint are employed in making the designs--the black,
or guaco, which is used on red and polychrome wares, the orange-red
(also used as a slip), which serves as a paint in filling certain spaces
in the designs upon polychrome ware, and the black ware paint which
produces the designs upon polished black ware.[45]

The consistency of the guaco, when dissolved in water and ready for use,
varies from that of water to that of thick cream. The solution is sticky
and has a characteristic odor. A thin solution when applied to the
surface of a vessel is yellowish-green, and has much the same appearance
as a fresh coat of the orange-red paint. After drying the two are easily
distinguishable. A thick solution of guaco is dark brownish-green when
applied to the vessel, and on drying has a noticeable “body”, so that
the lines appear slightly raised and glossy. It is not possible to draw
as fine a line with the thick solution as with the thin one.

The orange-red is never used in painting lines, but only for filling
areas, and is therefore always applied with a medium or heavy brush.

In preparing the black ware paint, a slight amount of guaco is added as
an adhesive, and the solution is often stirred with the fingers in order
to insure complete dissolving of the coloring matter. When first applied
to the vessel, this paint is almost transparent; as it dries it becomes
yellowish.

The principal precaution taken when painting is begun is to guard
against flies. They eat the moist guaco, causing blank spaces in the
lines, and also make fly-specks on the slip which turn black in the
firing. The room is therefore cleared of flies as far as possible, and
great care then exercised to keep the door shut. The painter watches the
pot constantly, and often interrupts her work in order to brush a fly
from the design. If it is necessary to do the painting out of doors, the
services of an assistant are required to wave a cloth back and forth
across the top of the vessel to keep the flies away.[46] When the work
has been completed the vessels are immediately covered with a cloth.

The receptacle for paint may be either a small open-mouthed pottery bowl
or a china sauce-dish. During the painting it is on the right side of
the potter within easy reach, either on the floor or on a low stool. In
it is always a stirring-stick.

[Illustration: PLATE 22

Painting designs on small vessels. The decorator’s right hand does not
come in contact with the pot, and the tip of the brush is trailed rather
than stroked across the surface. a. Maria Martinez. b. Maximiliana
Martinez.]

The brushes are usually kept in the paint, or occasionally beside it,
and sometimes a pencil is also near at hand (pl. 23, a).

In decorating the exterior of a constricted-mouthed bowl, the vessel is
held upright and inclined very slightly towards the body; it rests on
the left knee and is steadied by the pressure of the left hand against
the interior of the rim (pl. 22, a). The potter sits in a position which
allows the light to come over her right shoulder directly upon the
section of the bowl being painted. As the work proceeds the vessel is
turned counterclockwise. When the design extends slightly below the
shoulder, the bowl is inclined to the left and away from the body. If a
considerable portion of the design is below the shoulder, the vessel is
inverted and is supported by the fingers of the left hand against the
interior base of the bowl.

If the interior of an open-mouthed bowl is being painted, the enclosing
lines near the rim are made first. During this process the bowl is held
with the mouth vertical and to the right, while the lines are drawn on
the lower part of the interior rim. The vessel moves counterclockwise.
The bottom of the interior is painted with the bowl standing in its
normal position on the left knee, the mouth inclined to the right and
toward the body.

When a large vessel, such as an olla, is to be painted, it is placed
upon a box or table of the proper height, which has previously been
covered with a rug or mat to protect the base (pl. 23). The painter
chooses her position so that the light will fall over her shoulder upon
the vessel. During the painting of the upper part of the vessel it is
touched with the left hand only when it needs to be turned. In working
below the shoulder the vessel is tilted slightly to the left, and away
from the painter.

The paint-brushes are made of slivers of yucca (fig. 5). They may be
roughly grouped into three weights--fine, medium, and heavy.[47] The
fine ones are used in making outlines on the smaller vessels; the medium
ones either for line work or for the filling of small areas; and the
heavy ones for filling only. During the painting there are from three to
six brushes in the paint vessel. These brushes are of such durability
that the potters have no definite idea of the length of their
usefulness. Since the fibres are brittle when dry, brushes are
occasionally broken by accident; to prevent such breakage they are
soaked in water for a few minutes to soften them before they are used.

The brush is held in the right hand, with the fingers in the position
used in holding a pencil or pen. The ends of the fingers are two or
three inches from the tip of the brush (pl. 22, a, b.; pl. 23, a). The
fingers of the right hand do not rest upon the surface of the vessel and
the entire right arm is unsupported (pl. 23), although at times the
elbow may be unconsciously steadied against the body. The straightness
and evenness of the lines drawn under these conditions are remarkable.

There is a slight personal variation in the method of contact of the
brush with the vessel. One potter uses only the tip of the brush;
another first places the tip upon the surface, and then makes the line
with the body of the brush; a third places the body of the brush upon
the vessel at the first contact. In making a line a trailing stroke is
invariably used; its direction is usually toward the body, but
occasionally away from it. The brush is always moved slowly, and the
angle at which it is held varies according to the part of the surface
over which the line is being drawn, and upon the part of the stroke
which is being made. At the beginning of a stroke the angle is an acute
one, varying from forty-five to seventy degrees (fig. 8, a); about the
middle it approximates ninety degrees (fig. 8, b); while at the end it
is often an obtuse angle of as much as one hundred and twenty degrees
(fig. 8, c). On small vessels the strokes seldom exceed four inches in
length; on larger pots they are sometimes as much as six inches long.
After each stroke the brush is dipped into the paint vessel; it is then
always drawn across the stirring stick, which is kept

[Illustration: FIG. 8. Angles at which paint-brush is held during a long
stroke; a. Beginning. b. Middle of stroke. c. End.]

there, in order to remove excess paint before being applied again to the
surface. Even after this precaution more paint occasionally remains on
the brush than is needed; in such a case the excess is removed by
touching with the tip of the brush various larger areas which will later
be covered with paint.

The width of the lines drawn is largely dependent upon personal
variation, although the type of design also governs their width to some
extent. Exceedingly fine lines, for example, would obviously look out of
proportion in a bold design upon a large olla. The lines vary in width
from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch; the great majority are
between one-fifteenth and one-twentieth. Lines one-eighth or one-quarter
of an inch wide are in reality double, that is, they actually consist of
two lines painted so close together that they touch along their entire
length. Still wider lines are made by two parallel lines, with the space
between filled up. Some potters simply make the line once, retouching it
only in small sections which most plainly require such treatment. Others
go over each line at least twice in order to insure a constant width.

[Illustration: PLATE 23

Decorating large ollas. Note the unsupported arm of the painter and the
length of the brush. On the bench in front is the paint-cup with
stirring-stick and extra brushes (Antonita Roybal).]

From the point of view of technique, the lines upon the exteriors of
small vessels, such as constricted-mouthed bowls, may be divided into
two groups--the long enclosing lines and those within panels. In forming
the enclosing lines, especially the long horizontal ones, the vessel is
turned while the brush remains almost stationary. There are two methods
of forming such long horizontal lines, which of necessity are made of a
series of relatively short strokes. In one case the growth of the line
is in the same direction as the strokes, that is, each stroke begins at
the point at which the previous stroke ended. In this method the vessel
is turned counterclockwise. In the other case the growth of the line is
opposite to the direction of the stroke, that is, each stroke is begun a
short distance beyond the end of the line and is drawn to meet the
beginning of the previous stroke, the vessel being turned clockwise. In
either case the fingers of the left hand, which hold the pot by the
interior of the lip, are spread far apart in order to insure the
constant and regular motion of the vessel. When the lines within a panel
are being drawn, the procedure is just the reverse. The bowl remains
stationary while the brush is drawn across it. Occasionally lines which
are nearly horizontal are drawn first in one direction, then in the
other. In some cases, when long diagonal or curved lines are being made,
the vessel is turned very slightly counterclockwise.

Large vessels, such as ollas, remain stationary while the brush is being
drawn across the surface, and are turned only when a new area is to be
worked upon. Lines within panels are usually made with a single stroke
of the brush, for it is seldom that a diagonal or curved line within a
panel is more than four or five inches long. In large open designs the
long lines, both straight and curved, are often drawn in two parts.
Crosshatching is made by two sets of parallel lines crossing each other.
Dotting is done with the tip of the brush touched lightly to the
surface. Spaces are filled with a heavier brush by means of many short
strokes. As a rule the strokes begin at the upper right hand corner of
the area and proceed downward. In filling spaces, as in drawing lines,
some women go over their work only once, others apply two or three coats
in order to insure even distribution of the paint.

Some potters exhibit much sureness of touch and confidence in their own
ability; their designs are executed without hesitation, but at the same
time slowly. Others make hard work of the painting, seem uncertain, and
occasionally stop to rest and inspect the symmetry of the pattern.

There are two general points in the painting of vessels which should be
emphasized. The first is the remarkable steadiness of the painter’s
hand. It seems almost incredible that such straight, unwaving, even
lines can be drawn by a hand which is supported only by a completely
free arm, and guided merely by the end of the brush. The second is the
fact that the men often assist in the painting of designs. They may
either execute a complete design upon a vessel, or relieve the painter
from time to time during the construction of large patterns. This is the
only phase of the actual manufacture of pottery in which the men of the
village take part.[48]

FIRING

The firing of the vessels is not only the last major step in the making
of pottery, but it is also the most critical one. The supreme test of
the potter’s work is to subject it to the fire, for many forms of
accident occur during the process, some of them due to careless handling
of the vessels or of the firing materials, others to defective
workmanship or to hidden flaws in the paste. It is only natural that the
potters should exhibit considerable excitement and nervousness during
the firing. Some women proceed calmly and methodically, and take
occasional accidents as part of the day’s work; others are exceedingly
nervous, and show exasperation when things go wrong. The latter, as a
rule, have more accidents than the former. One potter, in six burnings,
lost two large ollas through breakage, and had innumerable smoke-clouds,
several of them rather severe ones.

The firing falls naturally into four distinct phases: the preparation,
the building of the oven, the burning, and the treatment after burning.
Each of these phases will be considered separately.

PREPARATION

The oven is usually situated behind the potter’s house. All that is
required is a level space free from vegetation; no attention is paid, as
a rule, to the position of the sun or to the direction of the prevailing
wind, and the same spot is used time after time. If on the evening
before the firing there are any signs of rain, or if a heavy dew is
expected, the area on which the oven is to be built in the morning is
covered with a thick layer of dead ashes to protect it from moisture. It
would be a fatal mistake to make the oven on ground which would give off
steam during the burning.

About six o’clock the next morning a fire is started on the area over
which the oven is to be built. While this preliminary fire is thoroughly
drying the ground, the accessories are collected (pl. 24, a). Slabs of
dung are brought out from the storage places; some of them are placed
against the house wall to dry in the sun, others remain in the washtubs
in which they have been carried. The material for the grate, and other
iron bars, are placed nearby. Pokers of wood and iron, shovels, and
sometimes pitchforks, which are to be used later in handling the burning
fuel and hot vessels, are placed within reach. When a collection of
small tin cans, pail-tops, and small stones saved for this purpose has
been added, the workers are ready to begin the burning. Usually a supply
of cedar kindling has been split, but sometimes this is done as the wood
is needed.

BUILDING THE OVEN

When the preliminary fire has died down to a mass of coals, these are
levelled to form an area of hot ashes about three feet in diameter. On
this the oven is built. The surface upon which the vessels are placed
must be raised a few inches

[Illustration: PLATE 24

a. Drying the oven site with a preliminary fire before burning the
pottery. At the lower right-hand corner are an old iron grate which will
later support the vessels, two iron rods to hold up the roof of the
oven, and a wooden poker. Cakes of dung for the oven walls are drying in
the sun against the house.

b. The vessels on the grate, and the oven wall of dung cakes begun.
Small tin cans support the cakes and keep them from touching the
vessels. The grate rests on stones, and split cedar kindling is placed
below it on the embers of the preliminary fire.]

above the ground to permit the introduction of fuel below the pottery.
Such a surface is usually formed of iron rods of one kind or another.
One potter built up a grate of a varied assortment of iron junk
supported on tin cans and odd-shaped iron fragments. Another potter used
a worn-out stove-grate supported on four half-bricks.

The vessels are then placed upon the grate in an inverted position. No
attempt is made to keep them from touching one another. In fact, they
are crowded together in order that the greatest possible number may be
burned at once (pl. 24, b). In firing red ware and polychrome ware only
one layer of vessels is placed upon the grate. When polished black ware
is to be burned, two layers may be made. The vessels in the second layer
are always placed carefully between those of the bottom layer, in order
that there may be free circulation of air on both the interior and
exterior of all the vessels (pl. 25, a). As a rule the larger bowls are
placed in the lower layer.

The number of polychrome vessels burned at one time varies from
half-a-dozen to twenty, according to the area of the grate and the size
of the vessels. At one burning there were eleven pieces, eight
medium-sized and three small; in another there were twenty, eight of
which were medium-sized, and the other twelve very small. It is possible
to burn as many as thirty-five polished black bowls at once. Some
potters burn both polychrome and red pottery in the same oven; others
insist that this should not be done, because red ware requires far less
time and heat than does polychrome.

After the pots have been placed on the grate, pieces of split cedar six
to fifteen inches long are inserted underneath it. Piñon is never used,
but the potters could not explain this, saying they had never tried it.
A wall-like ring of dung-cakes, placed on edge but not set as snugly
together as they might be, is then built around the grate (pl. 25, b).
Small tin cans, held in place by the weight of the dung, are used to
prevent the cakes from touching the vessels (pi. 24, b, shows one of
these cans very clearly). Sometimes small stones and broken bricks are
used in place of cans. While the ring is being completed more kindling
may be added. The Zuñi oven differs from that of San Ildefonso in being
built of smaller pieces of manure which are laid up horizontally instead
of on edge (see pl. 31, b, c).

The fire may now be lighted before the oven is finished, but sometimes
the potters wait until the roof is nearly complete. Cedar-bark shreds
are generally used to start the fire. The lighting is done through the
spaces between the dung-cakes, usually at more than one place, sometimes
in as many as five. No attention is paid to the wind in this process. If
the fire does not start quickly enough, cloths are used to fan the
flames.

The roof or vault of the oven is then built. Some potters place iron
bars across the top of the dung-ring, keeping them from touching the
vessels by inserting tin cans and stones. On these bars flat cakes of
dung are laid, and the larger holes are covered with smaller pieces of
dung. Other potters dispense with the bars and rest a large circular
cake of dung upon cans and stones set in the centre of the pile of
pottery. The space between this central cake and the top of the
dung-ring is bridged by other cakes which rest on the dung alone. In
this manner a low vault of dung-slabs is formed, roughly square in
shape, two and a half to three feet on a side, and about a foot and a
half high (pl. 25, c). There are still left numerous spaces, both large
and small, between the cakes. These are covered with smaller pieces of
dung, and with old tin tops of lard-pails or discarded tin plates (pl.
26, a). Even after this, however, there remain enough small spaces to
allow free circulation of air, and to prevent the smothering and
consequent smoking of the vessels. Through these smaller spaces the
flames and pots may be seen. The building of the oven is now complete;
by this time the fire has usually been started, and the flames are well
under way.

As a rule more than one burning is undertaken during a morning. The
building of the oven for the second burning differs slightly in its
preliminary stages from that described above. After the previous oven
has been destroyed, the ashes are smoothed out, and the grate set
straight and carefully dusted so that no ashes remain (pl. 26, b). The
bowls are than placed on it as before. Partly burned cakes of dung,
which remain from the first burning, are re-used. If, in placing them on
the oven, ashes drop on the vessels, care is taken to blow them off.

Some potters stand the vessels which are to be burned on the warm cakes
of dung for a few minutes before placing them on the grate (pl. 26, b),
a process which is supposed to heat them slightly and thus prevent
breakage during firing. Other potters would not think of doing this, for
vessels treated in this manner always have discolored bases, where the
warm dung has touched them.

Ollas twelve to fourteen inches in diameter are burned in pairs, with a
few smaller pieces beside them. The oven is built in the same manner as
before. Very large ollas are usually fired one at a time; the oven,
except for its greater size, is said to be of the usual type.

BURNING

As was said above, the firing of the pottery is done in the morning. The
Indians say that they wish to get it over with “before the sun grows
hot”. Their own personal comfort probably plays a more important part in
this than does the effect of the sun upon the pottery. As a rule the
firing is withheld until a sufficient number of finished vessels have
accumulated to permit three or four burnings in one morning. The entire
forenoon is spent at this work, and sometimes it drags over until early
afternoon. The actual burning of the vessels occupies a period of about
half-an-hour for each oven; it is said that the length of time has not
been appreciably shortened in the past forty or fifty years. The black
ware is always saved for the last oven, since the process employed
completely precludes the possibility of rebuilding the oven at once.

At the beginning of the burning white smoke is apt to be given off, but
too much smoke is regarded as a bad sign, since it signifies that the
dung cakes are not sufficiently dried. After fifteen minutes or so, that
is when the process is about half finished, the amount of smoke has
greatly diminished (pl. 26, a). About this time more kindling is added
through openings made by temporarily removing a piece of tin, and new
cakes of dung are added where necessary, usually on the top of the oven.

The Indians say that they judge of the condition of the pottery in the
oven by its color; the paste and slip must be of just the proper shade
before the vessels are

[Illustration: PLATE 25

The building of an oven. a. A double layer of bowls is on the grate; the
woman is placing a can between a dung-slab and a bowl. b. The wall of
dung-cakes completed. c. The oven finished, but the chinks not yet
filled.]

[Illustration: PLATE 26

a. The oven fired. The chinks between the dung-slabs have been partly
closed by smaller pieces of dung. b. A firing completed and a grate
prepared for a second firing. Two vessels to be burned are warming on
hot dung-slabs; the pots that have just been taken from the fire are
cooling in the shadow of the house.]

thoroughly burned; if they are too dark the burning must continue.[49]
Some potters seem to pay little or no attention to the color of the
vessels in the oven.

When the potter considers that the burning has been completed, the cakes
of dung on the top of the oven are lifted off with a pair of pokers, and
those in the ring around the grate are tipped outward. Thus the vessels
on the grate are exposed, and their removal is begun at once. Some are
tipped on shovels or hay forks; pokers are inserted under and into
others. They are then deposited upon tins which have been placed on the
ground within six or eight feet of the oven, and are left there from ten
to twenty minutes to cool. The women often complain about the heat from
the oven during the removal of the vessels. As soon as the grate has
been cleared, preparations are begun for the next burning (pl. 26, b).

In one instance a potter decided that a certain vessel which had been
removed from the grate was not sufficiently burned. Another fire was
already in progress, but when the third was built the vessel was
replaced on the grate and burned again. When it came out, however, one
side was badly overfired.

The time occupied by various burnings is given in the following table.
The first four columns represent burnings by Maria Martinez; the last
three by Antonita Roybal. The seventh column records the oven in which
the partly fired piece was reburned, and in which a cooking vessel was
also placed.

TABLE X

                                            (1)  (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6)  (7)
                                                        _Minutes_
Preparation and building of oven begun       00   00   00   00   00   00   00
Fire started                                 25   15   06   12   15   15   09
More kindling and dung added                 45   25   25        57
Oven broken up                               52   37   36   41   72   40   27
Last bowl removed from grate                 58   41   42   47   77   45   30

The time required for burning the different wares varies only slightly.
Some potters say that red ware takes less fuel, less heat, and less time
than polychrome ware; others place both wares in the same oven. The
difference in the time required for these two wares is probably no
greater than the chance variations in the length of burning as given in
Table X. Cooking vessels need to be fired only from one-half to
two-thirds as long as the two wares just mentioned (cf. Table X, column
7). The polished black ware will be considered later.

The changes in color before and after firing, and when hot and cool, are
very noticeable in some pigments and slips. The orange-red paint is
yellow before firing, firing turns it orange-red, almost the color of
burnt sienna; cooling produces no noticeable change in this shade.
Burning has only a fugitive effect on the red and dark-red slips. While
still hot, upon removal from the oven, these are both a dark chocolate
shade. As the vessels cool the different reds gradually reappear, until
when cold they are the same color as before firing. In some cases, these
pigments seem to be just a shade darker after firing than before. The
two kinds of white slip are a dead white when applied; after firing they
take on a slight pinkish-brown tinge, more cream than white. Cooling
produces no further change.

The most interesting change caused by firing is in the black vegetable
pigment (guaco). It has already been pointed out (p. 66), that when this
paint is laid on thickly, the line made is a little raised and glossy,
like a glaze. This “body” to the paint is probably formed by vegetable
matter in suspension in the solution. When the vessels with such
decorations are removed from the oven after burning, these lines are
seen to be white or grey. The material which formed the body of the
pigment has been reduced to white ash, which adheres to the surface, but
can be rubbed off with the finger or a cloth, while the black color
itself has been burned into the clay. Where a thin layer of the pigment
was applied, the line, after burning, is light grey, because the black
under the thin coat of ash shows through. In those vessels on which a
thick solution of pigment was used, the decorations are dead white, and
the surface of the ash is often crackled. The thickness of this ash
seems to have some effect upon the manner in which the black pigment is
burned into the clay, for in decorations covered with a thick layer of
ash, the black is of an irregular color with streaks of grey in it. When
the thin pigment is used, the resulting black on the finished vessel is
of a uniform shade. The glossiness and raised character of the pigment
is of course completely destroyed during burning. Guaco lines do not
change in shade while the vessel is cooling.

The color of the paste is little affected by burning. In both the red
and the white clays, the change is simply one of tone, that is, the clay
is lighter after burning than before. The cooking-vessel clay before
burning is greyish yellow, but after it has been removed from the oven
it is a rich orange-yellow. These cooking vessels eventually become
blackened by use over an open fire.

Vessels destined to be polished black ware are treated in quite a
different manner during the firing stage, for they are to be subjected
to a smothered fire, which will result in the deposition of carbon, thus
turning them from red to black. The oven is built in the same way, but
greater care is taken to fill gaps, so that more of the heat may be
retained. Enough spaces remain, however, to permit free circulation of
air. More kindling is used, for a hotter fire is necessary. When the
fire has reached the stage at which other wares are removed, it is
smothered with new, pulverized, loose manure. Just before the smothering
the vessels have the dark chocolate color typical of the red wares while
hot. The potter always attempts to smother the entire oven at once by
dumping upon it a whole washtubful of fine loose manure. If there is a
wind, flames are apt to break out in one or two places. They are,
however, hurriedly extinguished. When the loose manure is added, the
arch of the oven is, of course, broken, and both cakes and loose manure
come in contact with the vessels. For this reason the potter does not
exercise particular care in building the oven to keep the cakes from
touching the vessels, as they are to be entirely black in the end and a
little premature smoking does no harm. After the manure has been added,
the mound is continually prodded with a poker to redistribute the loose
manure and make certain that all the pieces are equally covered. An
extra supply of loose manure is at hand, and this is added in large and
small quantities from time to time, as occasion demands. Two washtubsful
are generally used, sometimes three. The mound of manure gives off a
dense white smoke after the smothering has begun (pl. 27, a). Great care
is taken to prevent flames from appearing, since these would remove the
carbon from the vessel.

[Illustration: PLATE 27

a. A fire smothered with loose manure to produce polished black ware. b.
Wiping vessels that have become cool enough to handle. One woman wipes
off the ashes with a dry rag, then passes them to her companion, who
goes over them with a slightly greasy cloth.]

Ten or fifteen minutes after the smothering the first piece is dug out
of the mound with the poker. It is placed a foot or two from the oven
and hastily wiped with a dry cloth to remove all manure. The surface of
the vessel is a beautiful shiny black color, which does not change at
all on cooling. If black ware paint (see p. 24) has been used, it
changes from the greenish-yellow color that it had before burning to a
dead matte black which contrasts very effectively with the polished
surface of the vessel (see pl. 8, a). At first the vessels come from the
smoking mound slowly, and all holes left in the pile by the removal of
vessels are carefully filled again, but later they are taken out as
quickly as possible, and toward the end no attempt is made to keep the
pieces still in the pile thoroughly covered. If, when a vessel is
removed, its condition does not quite suit the potter, it is replaced in
the smoking manure and completely covered.

Certain polished black vessels are further manipulated in such a way as
to produce an irregular red blotch upon them.[50] Specimens destined to
receive this red blotch, which is usually placed near the rim, are
reburied in the hot manure lying round the edge of the pile with that
portion which is to have the blotch left uncovered. Against this exposed
portion is placed a smoking fragment of a dung-slab. The action of the
heat and air results in the removal of the carbon from the surface, so
that that part of the vessel which is not covered with manure and ashes
regains its former color, the red of the pigment. Since the pot is
pushed about a good deal during this process, the line between the red
and the black surface is not always very definite, which improves the
appearance. The Indians themselves cannot tell beforehand just what
shape the blotch is going to take, and must therefore watch the vessel
continually. Sometimes burning shreds of cedar bark are placed against
the exposed surface to hasten the process, but actual flames are not
necessary in order to obtain the desired result. If the red blotch is
too large, part of it is simply recovered with hot manure-ashes, and a
few minutes later will again become jet black. So far as looks are
concerned the success or failure of this red blotch upon black ware
depends largely upon the artistic sense of the potter making it. In one
group of thirty-three polished black vessels fired together, sixteen
were given a red blotch; eight or ten of these were excellent pieces.

The time consumed in burning polished black ware is shown in Table XI.
It should be noted that before the loose manure was added, the vessels
were subjected to the fire about the same length of time as those of
other wares.

TABLE XI

                                         _Minutes_
Preparation and building of oven begun   00     00
Fire started                             16     18
More fuel added                          41     39
Oven smothered with loose manure         46     45
First bowl removed                       59     59
Last bowl removed                        74     99

ACCIDENTS

The accidents which may occur in firing are of two general
classes--those which result from faulty treatment during the
construction of the vessel itself and those which are due to careless
manipulation in burning. The latter are the more frequent.

A vessel may crack or flake badly in the oven; often the entire base
breaks off. The fault in this case lies in the original moulding,
because small stone fragments or air-bubbles were allowed to remain
embedded in the paste. Since the rate of expansion under heat varies for
different substances, a great strain develops about such stones or
air-bubbles during firing, and the natural result is cracking or flaking
of the clay. In some larger vessels the slip flakes away around the
shoulder, where the two areas of the surface met when the polishing was
done (see p. 64). In the potter’s opinion these flakes, which are
exceedingly small, are probably caused by minute air-bubbles that had
lodged under the slip while the line about the shoulder was being
polished. A third type of accident is merely a blemish; it is due to
flies settling on a vessel before burning; the resulting fly-specks are
burned into the clay, and the surface of the pot is sprinkled with dots
quite as black as guaco decorations.

The most common form of blemish caused by careless manipulation during
firing is the “smoke-cloud” or “fire-cloud”, a circular blackened area,
the darkest part of which is at the centre. There is no question but
that this is caused by contact between the vessel and a dung-cake, and
the result is probably due to moisture in the dung which brings about a
deposit of carbon on the surface. If, during the burning, a cake of dung
falls, it will probably come in contact with the surface of some bowl.
If it is removed at once there is little danger of a smoke-cloud, and
the potter, when she notices such an accident, immediately tries to
secure the fallen cake with two pokers. With much skill she carefully
extricates it from within the oven without disturbing the other cakes
about the place from which it fell. Fire-clouds may be produced upon the
bases of vessels by setting them on hot cakes of dung before firing; or
upon damp, or relatively damp, ground immediately after firing.
Excessive dampness, such as steam from wet ground under the oven, may in
addition to discoloration, produce warping of the vessels. Another sort
of blemish is occasionally caused by rust from a tin can resting upon a
vessel during firing; such a spot is usually reddish brown in color, and
covers a very small area.

If light areas appear on polished black ware, it is safe to assume that
they were brought about by lack of proper ventilation within the oven
during the preliminary burning, such as would occur if two vessels were
so close together as to prohibit the free passage of air. If white slip
is touched just before burning, the oil from the fingers is apt to be
fired in, thus ruining the uniform appearance of the surface by the
potter’s indelible fingerprint. To avoid such an accident, polychrome
vessels are usually handled only by the interior of the rim on the day
they are burned.

Underfiring and overfiring, with consequent damage to the ware, are
usually due to gross carelessness on the part of the potter in the
irregular placing of kindling. The wind also has something to do with
it. If there is a stiff breeze blowing, the probabilities are that the
windward surfaces of vessels within the oven will be underfired, while
those in the lee of the vessels will be overfired.

[Illustration: PLATE 28

_Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._

ZUÑI. PREPARING CLAY

a. Pulverizing dry ingredients on flat stone slab with a _mano_ or hand
stone.

b. Wetting, mixing, and kneading clay; water-container in foreground;
prepared clay in bowl.]

[Illustration: PLATE 29

_Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._

ZUÑI. MOULDING

a. Lower part of vessel completed; potter forming roll of clay with
which to continue building.

b. Applying roll of clay; left hand guides roll; right hand welds it to
side of vessel.]

[Illustration: PLATE 30

_Courtesy Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._

ZUÑI. SURFACING

a. Going over outside of vessel with moulding tool to smooth out
irregularities.

b. Vessel has been removed from base-mould and covered with white slip
from bowl in foreground. Potter now polishing slip with rubbing
stone.]

[Illustration: PLATE 31

ZUÑI. PAINTING AND FIRING

a. Applying design with yucca-leaf brush. Black pigment in shallow stone
mortar, red in small white bowl. b. Building oven of dung cakes--note
kindling at feet of figure at right. c. Oven domed over and set afire.

(Photographs from American Museum of Natural History).]

In underfired vessels the color of the pigments is not true, being
usually midway between the unfired color and the fired color; as a rule
the paste is also dark and friable. Overfiring is more easily detected
than underfiring. A slight overfiring may be first noticed in the black
guaco paint, which has a tendency to become bluish and light if burned
too much. Other bad results follow in quick succession as overfiring is
increased: at an early stage the white slip becomes smoky; in severe
overfiring it may turn black, as in a smoke-cloud; the paint of the
designs is apt to flake off; and finally, in a bad case, the guaco will
turn nearly white.

TREATMENT AFTER BURNING

Polished black vessels, when removed from the fire, are set directly
upon the ground within a foot or two of the oven. They are at once wiped
hastily with a dry cloth to prevent any fragments of the new manure from
sticking to the surface. When the vessels are sufficiently cooled they
are again wiped with a clean dry cloth and taken into the house for
storage. Occasionally the first wiping, while the bowl is still hot, is
omitted.

When pieces of polychrome ware or red ware are removed from the oven
they are placed on the ground some six or eight feet from the fire,
resting on tins in order to prevent possible discoloration from contact
with the damp soil, as well as to prevent dust and dirt from sticking to
their bases. The vessels are piled on these tins in any manner, often
three or four on top of one another. When the pottery first comes from
the fire, it is still much too hot to touch, and radiates heat
copiously. Ten or fifteen minutes later, when the vessels are cool
enough to handle, they are removed from the tins and collected at some
convenient place to await wiping.

First the pieces are gone over with a clean dry cloth to take off the
guaco ashes and any dust that may remain from the oven (pl. 27, b). Each
vessel is then wiped with a slightly greasy cloth, which gives a faint
sheen to the surface and removes the blue tinge which is apt to be found
in the black guaco-covered areas. Some potters have substituted a
chamois skin for this second cloth. It took the two women shown in pl.
27, b, just fifteen minutes to wipe with the two kinds of cloths the
twenty-two vessels figured. When the wiping is done, the pottery is
carried to the house and stored in one of the rooms. The pieces are
placed on the floor, usually with a carpet or rug under them, and
covered with a sheet to keep off dust and flies.

The time occupied in each of the individual stages of pottery making has
been considered, but the total time, from the beginning of the moulding
until the finished vessels are placed in the store room under a sheet,
is far in excess of the mere sum of the separate hours and minutes used
in each process. Household duties and other tasks are constantly
interfering with the work. About nine o’clock on a certain morning one
potter began moulding the first of a group of perhaps forty pieces. The
scraping was commenced on the morning of the third day, and the
polishing on the fourth morning. Nothing was done on the fifth day, but
early on the sixth the painting began. A fiesta interrupted the work for
two more days, and the burning was done on the morning of the tenth day,
although it could have taken place on the seventh. Another potter
finished burning several large ollas at noon on the ninth day.

PAINTING OF DESIGNS

By means of the decorations on the vessels the potter expresses her
personality. The type of design used by any one potter is very constant,
and is distinctly individual. It is a comparatively easy matter, by an
inspection of the design alone, to distinguish the vessels made by one
potter from those of another.

The designs are planned in several different ways. Maria Martinez sits
with the bowl in her hands for a few minutes doing nothing; apparently
she is working out in her mind the combination of elements which she
will use. Designs so conceived are generally simple. Maximiliana
Martinez begins painting almost at once. While she is working ideas
occur to her and are incorporated. Occasionally, after the painting has
been completed and the vessel set aside, she will pick it up again to
add some detail. This method of working is apt to cause somewhat
involved figures. Antonita Roybal, in choosing her designs, refers to
drawings of her own, or to photographs which have come into her hands,
of old San Ildefonso vessels. This potter uses a pencil to outline very
sketchily the design upon the vessel, as an aid in obtaining the proper
symmetry. The figures obtained in this manner are usually very
elaborate.[51]

The first lines drawn in a design are almost without exception the
enclosing lines under the rim. These are followed by the enclosing lines
near the shoulder (in the case of an olla), or near the bottom of the
interior (in the case of a bowl). When the design consists of panels,
the vertical division-lines are then added. If there are to be four
panels, one division-line is drawn, and then the one on the opposite
side of the bowl, dividing the surface into halves. Each of these halves
is then bisected. The next step is to double all the vertical
division-lines. Occasionally each quadrant is judged by the eye only,
and the division lines are drawn in sequence about the vessel. When
there are to be either more or less than four panels, they are outlined
one after the other. No measuring instrument of any kind is used.

After the skeleton of the design has been completed, the outlines of the
figure within each panel are drawn. All the lines are first placed in
one panel, then the second panel is finished, and so on, until all have
been filled with the outlines. All the areas on the vessel that are to
be colored black are then filled, followed by the areas which are to be
red. The strokes taken in outlining are not always made in the same
order in the various panels. Such variation is entirely natural and
should be expected in work done without the use of a visible pattern.

When a design is attached to the lower enclosing line of a panel, it
usually consists of a repetition of some small figure of one or two
elements. The position of such added figures has absolutely no relation
in the mind of the potter to the panel-design.

When a design consists of a repetition of figures not enclosed within
panels, the painter always refers, before adding another figure, to the
amount of the surface as yet unfilled. The correctness of the painter’s
judgment is therefore easily determined by the proportions of the last
figure in the design as compared with the remaining figures. As a rule,
with the product of the present-day potters of San Ildefonso, it is
exceedingly difficult to determine in a finished vessel, which of the
figures was the last one drawn.

In designs which consist of a single figure, or of two or more figures,
with several complex elements, the development of the design upon the
vessel is necessarily at variance with that described above. As a
general rule, each element is completed, including the filling of areas,
before the next element is outlined. Similarly, each figure is finished
before the next is begun.

In considering generally the ornamentation of San Ildefonso vessels, a
distinct group-similarity can be observed. The polychrome vessels are
painted in black and orange-red upon a white base. The red-ware vessels
are decorated only in black. The designs usually consist of several
almost identical figures, each composed of a small number of rather
simple elements, in which curved lines are common. And yet, in spite of
this almost indefinable similarity among the vessels, the differences
between the designs made by different potters of the village are
clear-cut and distinct.

Maria Martinez specializes in constricted-mouthed and similarly shaped
bowls of polychrome ware. Her lines are relatively narrow, and the black
of the design is very uniform in color. She uses panelled designs almost
exclusively. The elements within the panels are simple, and few in
number. Her work is easily recognized because of its simplicity and
pleasing composition (see pl. 6). Maximiliana Martinez generally
confines herself to red ware in the form of small ollas and small bowls
with a slightly constricted lip. Her lines are somewhat wider and more
uneven than those of Maria, and the black is of varying shades. As a
result of her custom of developing the design as the work progresses,
the figures are rather complex and intricate, or, as the Indians
themselves say, “mixed up”. The outstanding characteristic of her work
is the use of one or more elements entirely detached from the figure
proper. Antonita Roybal devotes most of her time to making large ollas
of red ware. Her lines are relatively broad, often indeed of double
width. Her blacks are also uneven. The designs upon her vessels are
usually composed of two or four very large, complex figures, in which
spiral curves are conspicuous. Dotting, crosshatching, and filling of
many small areas characterize her work. The products of a man painter,
Julian Martinez, are easily recognized by the abundant use of very
narrow lines. The figures, which are usually composed of many intricate
elements, impress one with the amount of detailed and careful work
lavished upon them. Julian has obviously been strongly influenced by the
technique of modern Hopi potters, such as the famous Nampeo, whose work
he of course often sees in the curio-stores and in the State Museum at
Santa Fe.

In the following pages typical designs of Maria, Maximiliana, and
Antonita are discussed in detail, with the aid of figures upon which the
direction and order of the strokes have been indicated. These drawings
are given in order to amplify and clarify the general statements made
above.

DRAWING NO. 1 (fig. 9); original by Maria Martinez. This design was on a
constricted-mouthed polychrome bowl, and consisted of four identical
panels, each four and one-half inches long by two and one-half inches
wide. The work was divided into four distinct sections, or stages, each
of which was completed in all four panels, one after the other, before
the next stage was begun.

_First stage_ (fig. 9, a); construction of the framing lines. Lines 1-4
are drawn completely around the bowl; then lines 5-8. The corresponding
two pairs of lines are then drawn upon the other half of the bowl, thus
dividing the space into four sections.

_Second stage_ (fig. 9, b); placing of the outlines within each panel.
The first three lines drawn (9-11) divide the panel into three
triangles. Then the details are

[Illustration: FIG. 9. The growth of a polychrome design as painted by
Maria Martinez (the shading indicates red).]

outlined in each triangle in turn. When the outlining of one panel has
been completed, each of the other panels is treated in turn in the same
manner. The work of Maria is noteworthy in that the order and direction
of the lines and the filling of spaces is hardly ever changed from one
panel to the next.

_Third stage_ (fig. 9, c); filling certain areas with solid black paint.
The largest area (I) is always filled first. No order is followed in
filling areas II, III, and IV, and in making the dot (V). In one panel,
IV is filled before II, in another V precedes the other three. After
this the dots (VI) are placed below line 21. In the different panels the
number of these dots varies from six to eight. The last area filled in
this stage is the triangle VII. When the first panel has been completed
the other three are treated in like manner before the fourth stage is
begun.

_Fourth stage_ (fig. 9, d); filling of areas with red paint (shown in
the reproduction by shading). In some panels area VIII precedes area IX,
in others the reverse is the

[Illustration: PLATE 32

Design by Maria Martinez]

case. With the completion of this fourth stage in all the panels, the
painting of this comparatively simple design is finished. The time
consumed was twenty-five minutes.

DRAWING NO. 2 (pl. 32); original by Maria Martinez. This design may be
placed upon either a constricted-mouthed bowl or an olla-bowl. It is
made up of five identical panels. During the painting the bowl is turned
counterclockwise. There are eleven distinct stages.

_First stage_ (pl. 32, a); the enclosing lines of the panels are
produced. Each panel is four inches long and one and a half inches wide.
The horizontal lines (1-4) are drawn completely around the bowl before
the dividing lines (5-8) are drawn.

_Second stage_ (pl. 32, b); lines 9 and 10 are drawn, dividing each of
the five panels into a semicircle and two triangles.

_Third stage_ (pl. 32, c); the plumes are outlined in each of the panels
by means of lines 11 to 20.

_Fourth stage_ (pl. 32, d); the two triangles (areas I and II) are
filled with black pigment. Sometimes area I is filled first, sometimes
area II.

_Fifth stage_ (pl. 32, e); when the triangles in all five panels have
been filled, the dots are placed in two of the five plumes in each panel
(areas III and IV). These dots are sometimes six in number, sometimes
seven. They are painted from the base of the plume upwards.

_Sixth stage_ (pl. 32, b); areas V to VII are filled with red pigment,
thus completing the panel-design.

_Seventh stage_ (pl. 32, g); now that the design in the panel has been
finished, the second half of the figure, that below the bottom enclosing
line, is begun. A series of small semicircles (lines numbered 21) are
appended to the lowest enclosing line. The position of the semicircles
bears no relation whatever to the series of panels. Three and a half to
four semicircles fall below each panel or a total of from seventeen to
twenty in the entire extent of the design as it encircles the vessel.

_Eighth stage_ (pl. 32. g); by means of lines 22 and 23, a triangle is
outlined below each of the semicircles.

_Ninth stage_ (pl. 32, h); a very small semicircle (24) is drawn just
below the point of each triangle.

_Tenth stage_ (pl. 32, h); another similar semicircle (line 25) is drawn
just below line 24.

_Eleventh stage_ (pl. 32, i); the triangles (areas numbered VIII) are
filled with black pigment.

Although this figure is based upon the panel-design, it differs from
pure panel-decoration in the use of a series of simple figures appended
to the bottom enclosing-line of the panel. The time required to paint
this design was thirty-five minutes.

DRAWING NO. 3 (pl. 33); original by Maria Martinez. This design is of an
entirely different type, in that there is no use of a panel. It was
placed upon a constricted-mouthed bowl.

_First stage_ (pl. 33, a); the enclosing lines (1, 2) are drawn around
the rim of the vessel. These are immediately followed by the three lines
(3 to 5) which form the outlines of the five spirals composing the
design. The proportions of the figures were determined by constantly
watching the position of the first spiral as the bowl was turned
counterclockwise.

_Second stage_ (pl. 33, b); the outlines of the details (lines 6 to 17)
are drawn on each spiral in turn.

_Third stage_ (pl. 33, c); the outlining is completed by adding to each
spiral a horizontal triangle at the base of the curve. It is interesting
to note that line 18, the first of the group 18 to 21, was the first one
drawn, although it was entirely detached at that time from the main
figure.

_Fourth stage_ (pl. 33, d); the filling of areas is begun by painting
the four small triangles on the upward curve of the spiral (areas I to
IV). The order in which they are filled is apt to vary with the
different spirals.

_Fifth stage_ (pl. 33, e); the large triangle at the base of the spiral
(area V) is filled with black pigment.

_Sixth stage_ (pl. 33, f); the triangle at the bottom (area VI) is
filled in each unit.

_Seventh stage_ (pl. 33, g); this consists in placing a series of dots
along the median line of the leaf-shaped area in the base of the spiral.
In the various spirals these dots vary in number from eight to ten.

_Eighth stage_ (pl. 33, h); the design is completed by filling the red
areas (VIII and IX). In the first spiral so treated, area VIII was
filled first, but in all the others area IX preceded area VIII.

The base of each spiral is four and one-half inches long. The width of
the design is three inches.

DRAWING NO. 4 (pl. 34); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This rosette
was placed in the interior bottom of a small constricted-mouthed bowl of
red ware. A cloud-design which was painted on the rim of the same bowl
is described and illustrated in fig. 6.

_First stage_ (pl. 34, a); the outlines of one set of four leaves are
drawn (lines 1-8).

_Second stage_ (pl. 34, b); the areas within these enclosing lines are
hatched (areas I-IV). These four areas are filled in clockwise rotation.

_Third stage_ (pl. 34, c); the same areas (numbered V-VIII) are
crosshatched, starting at the tip of each area and working towards the
centre.

_Fourth stage_ (pl. 34, d); four more leaves are drawn between the four
already made. After lines 9 and 10 are drawn, the area between them is
filled with black pigment, leaving an oblique white bar, before lines 11
and 12 are placed upon the vessel. Each of the four leaves is entirely
completed before the next is begun.

_Fifth stage_ (pl. 34, e); this consists in the placing of four lines
(17-20) at the end of each of the four longer leaves. These four groups
of lines are drawn upon the design in clockwise rotation.

_Sixth stage_ (pl. 34, f); at this point Maximiliana glanced at the
drawing which the writer was making in his notes. By accident the ends
of the shorter leaves had there been made more pointed than the actual
painting. When she saw this, she pointed the tips of these leaves with
black to make them correspond in shape to the writer’s drawing.

[Illustration: PLATE 33

Design by Maria Martinez]

[Illustration: PLATE 34

Design by Maximiliana Martinez]

This is an excellent example of the type of work done by a painter who
develops her pattern while drawing it. The contrast between this and the
simple strength of the first three designs (fig. 9 and pls. 32, 33)
should be noticed.

DRAWING NO. 5 (fig. 10); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This is a
border decoration that was applied to the edge of the
constricted-mouthed bowl on which was produced Drawing No. 4.

_First stage_ (fig. 10, a); this is the drawing of the two enclosing
lines (1 and 2) about the lip of the bowl. These are followed at once by
3 to 5, which outline three small semicircles. Eight of these triple
semicircles complete the circumference of the bowl.

_Second stage_ (fig. 10, b); the three semicircles are filled with dots
of pigment, two in each of the upper ones, three in the lower.

_Third stage_ (fig. 10, c); the three small lines are added to the
lowest of the three semicircles.

The painting of the rosette (pl. 34) and the eight sets of semicircles
took just sixteen minutes.

DRAWING NO. 6 (pl. 35); original by Antonita Roybal. This elaborate
decoration was placed upon a large red ware olla. Antonita, it may be
noted, specializes

[Illustration: FIG. 10. Raincloud design by Maximiliana Martinez]

in vessels of this sort, and her designs, while not slavishly repeated,
all have a strong family resemblance, due to her bold use of scrolls and
step-figures. The small upper drawing illustrates the method by which
the design under consideration is applied to the vessel. In the larger
one it is projected flat; the centre circle represents the mouth of the
olla. The time taken for painting the various parts of the pattern is
incorporated in the description; the total time at the end of each stage
being given immediately thereafter.

_Framework lines._ The heavy double-width line forming the middle of the
central square is drawn first. Then two narrower lines are drawn, one
inside and one outside, thus completing the square (sixteen minutes;
00:00-16:00).

The two lines encircling the mouth of the olla are next produced (four
minutes; 16:00-20:00).

_Neck-design within the square._ Each of the four corners of the square
is ornamented with a small scroll-ended element. Each element is first
outlined and then filled with black before the next is begun (twelve and
one-half minutes; 20:30-32:00).

Small irregularly placed spots are then dotted into the remaining
surface within the square (six minutes; 33:00-39:00).

_The medallions._ Appended to each of the four corners of the original
square is a flower-like medallion. The drawing of each is done as
follows. The outer line is first traced, then the inner one. Next the
inner part is filled with black, except for a narrow band across the
middle. To the exterior ring are added the outlines of the nine
radiating elements. As a last step these are filled with black. The olla
is then turned counterclockwise and the next medallion is begun.

Each medallion is completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1,
ten minutes (39:00-49:00); No. 2, eight minutes (49:00-57:00); No. 3,
seven and one-half minutes (57:00-64:30); No. 4, six and one-half
minutes (64:30-71:00).

_The side patterns._ Each of the four sides of the square bears a design
composed of two scrolls with a double stepped element and two long
appendages between them. Each design is completed before the next is
begun. The drawing proceeds as follows:

1. The outlining of the scrolls and the drawing of the crossbar between
them.

2. The outlining of the central stepped figures.

3. The filling of the stepped figures with black.

4. The outlining of the two long appendages between the scrolls.

5. The filling of the appendages with black, leaving two narrow
crossbars in the ground color.

6. The addition of the two small appendages between the stepped figures.

7. The outlining of a central streak ending in a small circle in each of
the scrolls.

8. The filling of the scrolls with black, leaving the central streak and
small circle in the ground color.

As in the case of the medallions, each one of the side patterns is
completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1, twenty-six
minutes (71:00-97:00); No. 2, twenty-two and a half minutes
(97:00-119:30); No. 3, twenty-one and a half minutes (119:30-141:00);
No. 4, fourteen and a half minutes (141:00-155:30). The entire time
required for painting the design was thus two hours, thirty-five
minutes, and thirty seconds.

[Illustration: PLATE 35

Black design on red jar by Antonita Roybal (the small drawing above
shows how this design is applied to the olla).]

SYMBOLISM[52]

Symbolism of one kind or another, plays a very important part in the
existence of the Pueblo Indian. It is generally agreed that even the
minor acts of everyday life have a certain religious symbolic meaning.
For example, the gourd spoons, or kajepes, used in moulding pottery,
must apparently be consecrated before they may be used. Similarly, a new
technique in pottery making must pass through a period of consecration
before it becomes completely established. On the other hand, white men
often overemphasize the importance of symbolism in studying any
civilization whose customs and philosophy differ radically from their
own.

In the light of what is known of the mental attitude of the Pueblo
Indian, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the designs on their
pottery have some symbolical meaning. Whether this symbolism is in any
sense religious, or is merely the symbolism of conventionalization of
design, is an open question.[53] It is probable that vessels made before
the time when pottery became to some extent an article of commerce
between the Indian and the tourist, bore designs of symbolical meaning.
It may be that the vessels made today for their own use also have such
meanings, but there is every reason to believe that much of the ware now
turned out by the San Ildefonso potters for sale to tourists bears
designs of no special meaning.

It is true that through bitter experience, the Indians have learned to
guard carefully their religious and secular philosophy, and it would
require many years of study, living with them, to gain an intimate
knowledge of their beliefs. If, however, there are definite meanings
associated with the designs upon commercial pottery, the inhabitants of
San Ildefonso have become past masters of the art of concealment.

An attempt to obtain some idea of the general reason why vessels are
decorated and of what was taking place in the mind of the painter while
at work, proved wholly fruitless. Inquiries as to the meaning of whole
designs, figures, and elements met with three kinds of response. One
family, who have enjoyed considerable contact with investigators of
Indian customs, were ready and eager with explanations of the meanings
of various elements. They could not, however, explain the meaning of the
entire design upon any vessel. Other potters met the inquiry with a
frank statement of ignorance, such as “I don’t know”, or “Ask the men,
the women don’t know”. A third group exhibited great uncertainty. These
people would usually translate the questions into Tewa for the benefit
of the rest of the Indians present. Then, after much laughter and
discussion, the potter would sometimes offer a meaning, at other times
say nothing. One old man explained with great gusto that the design
which he had just finished upon a small globular olla represented four
small clouds sailing across the sky, one behind the other, from west to
east. His manner was very similar to that which one of us might adopt in
telling an improbable yarn to a particularly guileless listener.

Some potters gave meanings for whole figures. Another potter, however,
composed her figures as the work advanced, evidently with no clear idea,
when she began it, of the ultimate form of the figures and therefore
probably with no idea in regard to their meaning. It has been suggested
that minor variation in similar figures on the same vessel have some
meaning. The more probable explanation would seem to be that these
variations are due to the lack of a visible pattern. At one time a
potter was distinctly annoyed because she noticed, after completing a
figure, that she had filled the wrong part of a small detail.

It is equally fallacious to lay too great importance upon alternating
figures in a panel design. For example, one potter in filling the areas
in a four-panel decoration filled the same areas in the first and third
panels, and different areas in the second. When she began to fill the
areas of the fourth panel in the same way as the first and third, her