Music as a Human Need

                A PLEA FOR FREE NATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN
                                MUSIC.

                                  BY

               Alma Webster Powell, A.M., Mus.B., LL.B.

          Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
                For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
                                in the
                     Faculty of Political Science
                         Columbia University.

                               NEW YORK
                                 1914

           This work is gratefully dedicated to my husband,
                         Mr. A. Judson Powell

                Copyright, 1914, by Alma Webster Powell

                           TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                                    PAGE

  Preface                                                           5-17

  PART I.--THE THESIS.

  CHAPTER I.

  Music as a Human Need                                               19

  CHAPTER II.

  Music and Motion                                                    31

  CHAPTER III.

  Group and Individual Reaction to Music                              41

  CHAPTER IV.

  Toneurology: A New Branch of Study                                  56

  PART II.--THE INTER-REACTIONS OF MUSIC AND NATIONAL LIFE.

  CHAPTER V.

  Italy (1800-1913)                                                   61

  CHAPTER VI.

  England (1800-1913)                                                 68

  CHAPTER VII.

  Germany (1800-1913)                                                 71

  CHAPTER VIII.

  France (1800-1913)                                                  81

  CHAPTER IX.

  United States (1800-1913)                                           91

  APPENDICES.

  Appendix A.--Questionnaire                                          97

  Appendix B.--Sources of Statistical Material                        99

  Appendix C.--Tabulation of Foreign State Subventions               101

  Appendix D.--Notes on the Tabulation of Foreign State
  Subventions                                                        103

  Appendix E.--Communications                                        112

  Appendix F.--Bibliography                                          138

  Vita                                                               143

  Index                                                              144

                                PREFACE

It will be observed that in the following pages political and economic
events are presented in their aspect of emotion-producing forces in
social pressure, with but scant attention to their other values. An
artificially selective process must also be acknowledged in that, of
those events only such as seem to have produced a direct emotional
reaction upon a people have been considered. Those long continued
economic movements which produced no sudden changes have not been
taken into account, because what may be termed their disturbing
effects were too gradual to allow of their being included among
specific emotion-making forces[1]; slow changes are not sensed by whole
peoples. Uneducated masses, especially, do not become conscious of
progressive movements until their effects are so apparent as to require
consideration by reason of aroused emotional reaction. The history of
a slow transition, therefore, may be for the scientific purposes of
this investigation unimportant as compared with the somewhat dislocated
perturbance, which resulted at the moment when the events under
consideration were happening, and calling forth a reaction definitely
emotional. Moreover, at such a precise moment, the events may have
been raised to social consciousness, not as they appear to us in the
clear afterlight of scientific attitude and historical accuracy, but as
popular concepts of the moment, having power to arouse intense national
emotional reaction; similar recent popular waves of feeling, due not
to facts as they are, but to popular conceptions of such facts, will
readily occur to each reader.

With this warning that not the dignity of history, but the intensity
of public emotionalism is within the purview and area of our
investigation, we may proceed to a statement of the method and of the
general thesis.

The method to be pursued, is to examine contemporaneous and concurrent
public events and emotion products, as expressed in Music.

The results indicated may be given a preliminary statement as follows:

 1. Agitation is a cause of pulse disturbance.

 2. Sufficient agitation produces fatal disturbance of bodily rhythm.

 3. All strong emotions are disturbers of rhythmic motion throughout
 the body.

 4. Rhythmic motion, too often disturbed, leads to abnormal mental and
 physical conditions.

 5. Civilization constantly “disturbs” the bodily rhythm.

 6. The political and industrial troubles of a nation are signs of
 national “disturbance” of rhythm.

 7. Music, closely expressing the emotional life of each period, is
 the unconscious application of a remedy to a human need of rhythmic
 stimulus.

These points are part of the general thesis, which may be stated in the
following terms: MUSIC IS A HUMAN NEED, INCREASING AND DECREASING WITH
SOCIAL PRESSURE.

The tendency of a group in each stage of human development, is to
produce Music fitting the character of the social disturbances of
its time, and communities which most fully meet this need of rhythm
by national culture of Music, tend to preserve for longer periods,
the serenity of the public mind. Thus it will be seen that national
control and support of Music may be assumed to be a national duty. This
control and support will aid in the preservation of a healthy state of
the public mind. Such a condition will make more effective all other
efforts for the abolition of discontent, disease, vice and criminality.

National culture and support of Music are effective means of exercising
social control, because of the calming influence of Music upon
disturbed thought. Such an influence is a most necessary one at the
present stage of mental agitation. Established within disturbed zones,
national institutions for free musical instruction would place a check
upon strained intellectualism, with its brood of idea-monstrosities,
since Music would cause a relaxation of mental concentration. It is a
matter of experience, that relaxation of tension generally accompanies
the yielding of the excited mind to musical rhythm.

Furthermore, there are other and not inconsiderable arguments for
the national support of Music. On account of the great expense of a
musical education, much promising American talent is now deprived
of cultivation. To all persons evidencing marked musical ability,
and showing themselves worthy of aid, this rich country should give
national support.

American national instruction in Music is also a duty to American
industry because such instruction would open the employment field in
Music to American wage earners. Some idea of the amount of private
business along this line may be gained from the following:

                         MUSIC IN THE WEST.[2]

 If music seems a needless luxury to some, what will they think of
 the cold economic fact of Chicago spending $30,000,000 in one year
 for musical instruments of all kinds, sheet music, music-books,
 musical supplies, and music lessons? This figure is “based on reliable
 information,” says Mr. D. A. Clippinger, in _The Musician_ (Boston),
 and he intimates that this yearly expenditure of one Western city
 is only typical of what the great expanse of our country beyond the
 Appalachians is doing. It will be observed that this sum does not
 include what is spent to hear music, but to gain instruction in it.

At present America is obliged to depend both for her best Music and
musical instruction largely upon foreign talent. With national support
of her own talent, this deplorable condition would soon cease. This
would also free Americans from absolute dependence upon private
institutions.

Music has also become an important industry, employing a vast number
of agents. It is high time that this employment were placed within
reach of American labor. Such an end can be attained only by furnishing
adequate training for this skilled work. At present foreigners are the
agents for the satisfaction of this need for rhythm in orchestras,
bands, hotels, restaurants, church choirs, studios, clubs, steamships,
operas and at social functions. An important wage earning occupation is
thus out of reach of our own talent.

It may be argued that considerable expense is already incurred by
municipalities and states, for training in musical appreciation in the
form of concerts, public school instruction, park bands, etc. These
expenses are admittedly very large and yet what is their productive
value along the line of musical instruction? What is the real value,
for instance, of the many thousands of dollars annually expended upon
public Music in a city like New York? The educated listener finds the
programs faulty, falling far short of a true expression of a composer’s
idea, while to the uneducated hearer, it is principally a diversion
of his attention, without teaching him anything. The establishment of
musical departments in colleges will never be able to meet this crying
need. The majority of the institutions which depend even in part upon
tuition-fees received from their pupils, reach the least needy of our
people, and sometimes the least talented. Where the industrial shoe
pinches the hardest, there is where the national social or political
danger lies, and there is where the need is greatest. Where the social
pressure is most felt, there is formed a mine of musical diamonds.
Neither the city nor the state can so control musical development, as
to produce a national type in musical composition. Music is a universal
need, passionately craved by the nation’s children. Hence our federal
government should attend to this demand, which is becoming more and
more insistent every day, indicative of a national want. We venture the
not idle prophecy, that the whole American nation would cheerfully
bear a tax, for so good a work as the establishment of national free
schools of Music all over our land. That European countries have
recognized this need is shown by the statistics which will be found
below.[3] These statistics were very difficult to procure, and are
rather surprising in content.

A copy of the questionnaire sent out will be found in Appendix A.
The nations from whom we expected the least expenditure for musical
culture, were found to be the most lavish. The United States stands
apart from the world’s array of musical patrons. The recent interest in
Indian and Negro Music may, however, prove an entering wedge to a wider
cultivation of our national musical resources. Our State universities
and our public schools are institutions of which the nation is justly
proud. Why not open your arms a little wider, generous America, and
take into your embrace your own fair musical child, now so weak and
puny, but full of promise for the future? The hope of the writer is,
that this cry will be heard by the nation’s head.

With such national support in view, we have gathered our statistics.
City ventures are not considered; park bands, military bands,[4] new
buildings for national musical academies, in short, all outlays for
Music not tending to contribute directly toward the musical education
of the people under consideration, are omitted. Thus the large
contributions of cities for public entertainments are left out of our
calculation entirely. The United States has not fallen into line with
European countries in national culture of Music, but probably this is
simply because the attention of our nation has not hitherto been called
to Music as a health measure. Too much ink has flowed in describing
Music as a diversion, as an amusement, as an ideal, as a superfluous
luxury, whereas no greater physical and mental need exists, than the
unconscious physical need of rhythm, the conscious physical need of
Music.

The world, it is true, may not at once accept the theory of “rhythm”
herein set forth. An investigation of it, however, would bring about
some new and interesting discoveries, in regard to unsuspected effects
of Music upon the nervous system. In any case, Music is a wonder worker
which should now occupy the attention of sociologists, psychologists,
and physicians.

Music has been generally regarded as the language of the emotions, but
it has never been determined why these emotions, having art, poetry,
the dance, and many other means of partial expression, so insistently
require sound for complete self-realization. The beat of the pulse
and the measure in Music are similar rhythmic expressions, but the
close relation of one to the other has heretofore been ignored. Yet
groups have a pulse; history has a pulse; the phenomena of the physical
universe have a pulse; all life manifestations are demonstrations of
pulse action.

What becomes of the countless millions of musical sound vibrations sent
into space by the orchestral performances in a great city? Are they all
impotent, reaching only to the auditory organs, and dying there? Or
do they actually enter the human system and set to their own perfect
rhythm, all of the discordant motions therein encountered? Do they not
“act as stimuli on the sensitive psychoplasm and effect changes in its
molecular composition?”[5]

All rhythm, however divided, is perfect motion. Rhythm, acting upon
a disturbed motion, tends to impose its own motion upon the discord,
if stronger than the disturbance encountered. This theory not only
imputes a higher mission to Music than has heretofore been realized,
but also accounts for phenomena of organized sound vibrations, and for
the craving of all human life for Music. This passionate desire for
Music is an established fact, and it remains but to show the need of
this inspiring sound stimulus, in order to place Music in the list of
recognized national necessities.

The willing response of Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England,
Equador, France, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Russia, Saxony,
Sweden and the United States to the author’s request for musical
statistics merits special mention. Prussia alone of the nations applied
to for statistics appeared either unwilling, or unable to furnish the
same regarding her national support of Music. The author shared the
general opinion that Prussia led the world in this field. But although
requested through proper official channels, from several influential
quarters, no response was obtained. A cable from the United States
Consul in Berlin says that the musical “statistics are unavailable.”
The letter from the Minister of Saxony may give some insight into the
real condition of German musical support, and as such it is added in
Appendix E.[6]

The Appeal in this work is for a system of public musical instruction
upon the principles governing our public school management. This would
be a step in advance of the systems of governmental support of musical
institutions, as represented in the statistics included in this work,
which systems generally place a small charge upon those pupils who are
able to pay. All of these institutions admit to full privileges free
of any charge, the exceptionally talented among the poor. The object
of each such institution as we advocate, should be the support, by
the government, of native musical talent, without regard to profit or
loss in the management. Music is one of those sciences which do not
attract the untalented to their study, and, this being the case, little
loss of instruction is involved. The proper study of Music includes so
many of the regular public school studies, and so much of the elements
of higher education, as Psychology, Biology, Sociology, Physics,
Economics, Social Legislation, History, Languages, Literature, Physical
Training, Self-Control, to say nothing of the mathematical studies
included in such branches as orchestration, harmony, counterpoint,
etc., that a model musical college would furnish an education and
culture, far more beneficial to individuals and the group, than is
offered by some of the present systems of education. The immediate
cost would be immense, but the author is convinced that this outlay
would bring quick returns, in decreasing costs for the protection of
the native individual, from many of the effects of nerve derangement
in children and in adults, in lessening discontent, riots, antagonism
between labor and capital, and many manifestations of partial insanity.
In short, such a system is a prime factor in social control, to the
lack of which may be ascribed in some measure the present peril to
civilization.

We take this opportunity to express our indebtedness for the statistics
furnished in each case to the following gentlemen, who, either in
their official or in a private capacity, replied to the questionnaire
submitted, and whose co-operation has been invaluable in our attempt
to present the most recent conditions of State-aided Music abroad:
Wilhelm Bopp, Director of the Imperial and Royal Academy of Music
and Fine Arts, Vienna, Austria; M. Steiner, Minister of the Interior
for Religion and Schools, Bavaria; M. Phillis, Minister of Arts and
Sciences, Belgium; J. Clan, Danish Consul-General in New York, and
Cornelius Rübner, head of the Music Department of Columbia University;
Olmedo Alfaro, son of the President of Equador, and the Directors of
the Conservatory of Quito, Equador; A. W. Twenlyman, of the English
Education Board, London, England; I. Philipp of the Paris Conservatory;
Th. Heemskerk, Minister of the Interior, Holland; Luigi Credaro,
Minister of Public Instruction, Rome, Italy; Ole Olesen, Military
Inspector of Music, Norway; Wm. Thackara, American Consul-General,
Berlin, Germany; Alexandre Lyssakovsky, First Secretary of the Russian
Embassy, Washington, D. C.; (Graf) Vitzhum von Eckstaedt, Minister of
the Interior, Saxony; Bror Beckman, of the Royal Conservatory of Music,
Stockholm, Sweden; L. A. Kalbach, Chief Clerk of the United States
Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.; Mr. Wm. H. Taft, ex-President
of the United States; Naray-Szabo, Secretary of State, Hungary, and Dr.
Paul Majewsky, Chief of the Fine Art Section of the Royal Hungarian
Ministry of Public Worship and Education, Budapest.

Gratitude is due also for the inspiration found in the courses
of studies pursued under the direction of the following Columbia
professors: Dr. F. H. Giddings in Sociology, Dr. Henry Seager in
Economics, Dr. S. McC. Lindsay in Social Legislation, Dr. E. R. A.
Seligman in Economics, Dr. J. B. Clark, Dr. A. A. Tenney in Sociology,
Dr. R. E. Chaddock in Statistics, Dr. C. Ruebner in Music, and Dr.
V. G. Simkhovitch in Economics. Not one of these courses has proved
superfluous in the present dissertation, and we are proud indeed that
Music, so long considered as a luxury, can show the relations to the
interests which they represent. Especially great is our obligation to
Professors Giddings, Seager, Chaddock, Lindsay and Ruebner.

Our sincere thanks are due, in the gathering of these statistics to
Commendatore Eugenio di Pirani, President of the American Philharmonic
Academy.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Long labor movements which are conceded to be slow emotion-making
forces are not included.

[2] The _Literary Digest_, January 10, 1914.

[3] Appendix E.

[4] Reference is to hired bands, not made up of musicians trained for
the purpose by the Federal Government. Such training, as in England,
constitutes an important form of vocational training.

[5] Riddle of the Universe, by Ernst Haekel, p. 110.

[6] The highly prized originals of the foreign ministerial letters are
preserved and in the writer’s possession.

                                PART I.

                              THE THESIS.

                              CHAPTER I.

                        MUSIC AS A HUMAN NEED.

Our thesis contemplates a new phase in psychological and sociological
study, one wherein we must endeavor to estimate the part played in
mental and environmental development, by vibration as the acting force.

In whatever direction we turn, Music is met with in one form or
another. The undoubted fact that Music is not confined to the human
species, but is a part of bird and other animal life, is strongly
indicative that there is something more in Music, than its apparent
pleasurable quality, and that beneath its array of superficial forms,
there must lie some great fundamental necessity for its existence and
functioning. Upon it may depend the preservation of the life of certain
complex living organisms.

Darwin’s theory as expressed in “The Descent of Man”[7] seems to us
not to touch the real source of the phenomenon, and in Spencer’s
“Illustrations of Universal Progress,” the latter’s theory of the
Origin and Function of Music[8] seems to us to omit the greatest
factor in Music. Spencer’s idea is that all Music is an idealization
of the natural language of passion, but the nature of passion does
not in reality lend itself to Music, because passion’s spontaneity of
action forever forbids the exercise of that control which is needed
in the performance of Music. Wallaschek, in “Primitive Music,”[9]
claims that Music is the result of the original rhythmical impulse
in man. This last mentioned theory approaches more nearly the theory
advanced by us in the present work, namely, that Music originates in
man’s _need_ of rhythmical sound-vibrations, for the re-establishment
of rhythmical motion in his own nervous system, disturbed by the
evolutionary increase of mental action not rhythmically employed.[10]
In order to view the subject fully, and in all its implications, we
must retrace the path of evolution to that point, where the living
thing which later developed into the man of today, first found itself
in possession of locomotion agencies and prehensile appendages, and
first began to move about in search of energy materials, with which
to satisfy an inward need of integration. The first thing that moved
began to dissipate its motion, and to “need” corresponding integration.
Rhythm marked this primitive inward action, undisturbed by ideas;
rhythm also governed the external stimulus. This prehistoric atavus ate
when hungry, or when he could get food, his need being rhythmical, at
the time when fruit and nuts offered easy satisfaction of a rhythmic
hunger; he awoke at daybreak, and slept with the sun; rhythmic at all
times.

Now, therefore, this early man’s circulation and pulse must have been
relatively rhythmic, yet there is no record of Music as an invention,
until a new factor arose in his environment.[11] The needs of life
began to suggest partnerships, children cemented parenthood groups,
family groups met and associated with other family groups, still
others were added and the Tribe was formed. Much of the Tribal life
of prehistoric times is a matter of conjecture, but enough can be
learned from the _mores_ of later tribes, to suggest with reasonable
probability some of the earliest tribal customs. Music is a late
invention, but the elements out of which Music is fashioned--rhythm,
motion and sound--constitute the first impulses, the first responses
to stimuli in themselves rhythmic; and the oldest peoples exhibit
traces of the love of sound in rhythmic action. The probability is that
association, with man as with birds, developed a need of communication;
from this need originated the acoustic formation of speech, and speech
in turn brought the first conscious interchange of ideas. Intense
mental action causes disturbed physical rhythm. Physical functions
are not yet adapted to the physical disturbance caused by such mental
action. The organs for the assimilation of the terrific stimuli of
modern life, are still imperfectly developed, as is illustrated by the
inability of the body to cope with increasing intellectuality, and the
consequent alleged increase of insanity in modern times. As the eye has
evolved from the sense of touch to its present power, and may progress
to a capacity for still clearer vision, so has the nervous system
evolved from its single cell, to its present cell multiplicity, and may
develop new cell formations, with which to support changing degrees of
added stimuli.

A departure from established belief will be noted at this point.
Ideas were wonderful and powerful stimuli to the primitive mind. That
extreme tension which causes modern minds to become unbalanced, is
not proportionately more intense, than must have been the reaction
of the primitive mind, to the very first question and answer of
primitive speech. A new stimulus acting upon a new organ produced a new
disturbance--a disturbance of a life heretofore purely rhythmic; and a
part of the internal organic family became separated for independent
motion, became differentiated with a rhythm of its own, differing
as a matter of course, from that old established rhythm of the most
ancient physical life. Right at this point of development, the need of
more or less conscious readjustment was instinctively felt. Internal
rhythm had been disturbed, and man immediately invented an artificial
producer of rhythmic vibration: i. e.--percussion. This sent into his
nervous system uncounted thousands of rhythmic impulses, which tended
to reestablish his disturbed rhythmic motion. To hold that the first
rhythmic inventions are to be looked for in war songs, in religious
rites, or in festal diversions, seems to us to ignore, not only all
of the immensely important prior steps by which such comparative
complexity has been attained, but also to leave the phenomenon of
rhythm-craving, before the invention of the most primitive instrument,
entirely unaccounted for. When the war element enters into tribal life,
there has already been some growth of institutionalization. Home life,
marriage, inheritance, government--these we find already in a certain
stage of development, in the very earliest tribes of which we have
any positive knowledge. The life of these tribes, so similar in all
parts of the world, produced certain disturbances within the original
rhythmic bodily motion. The reaction to such disturbance was exactly
expressed, in the rhythm producers instinctively devised at each stage.
War was the only great disturber of habitual rhythm for ages, and
consequently Music of a character to meet the need of this element was
early invented.

For domestic rhythm-disturbing crises, Music--sound--was often employed
by the tribes. The ancient Chinese[12] used to “sound” the house of a
newly wedded couple, under the impression that in this way the bride
and groom would enter a home “cleared of evil demons”. Here we have
a sub-conscious recognition of the actual driving force of rhythmic
vibration. So, in ancient Japan, war songs were the old expressions of
national agitation. These, accompanied as they invariably were, by high
sentiments of loyalty and patriotism, steadied the rage of war-fever
to a good fighting point, and prevented impulsive, or too reckless
charging.

The Hindus[13] believe their musical scale is an inspiration from
Heaven. Their Music is an expression of religious rather than military
agitation.

When we think of how primitive man at first must have wondered at
all the unknown forces about him, is it not possible to believe that
religious, rather than warlike emotion, was the first to intensely
agitate all early tribes?

The ancient peoples of Aryan stock seem to have been highly gifted
musically. Probably because of their roving habits, their warlike
spirit, or their pursuit of culture, the Aryans developed early and
highly, this greater need of rhythmic stimulus in percussion.

Persian agitation took the form of occultism, as is shown in the
devices on the walls of their fire temples. Their Music was held to be
symbolic. They believed, for example, that Music was like a tree, and
that its tones were representative of fire, water, air and earth, of
the signs of the zodiac, of the planets and even of day and night.[14]

Music becomes combined with ideas in the expression of rhythm, in
direct proportion to the development of ideas in the culture of
the several races. When war ceased to be the chief factor in the
disturbance of bodily rhythm, and still later, when periods of rest
became usual between long wars, the impetus already given to tribes
by the decisive occupations of warfare, and the consequent increased
molecular motion of the organs, turned tribal attention in times of
rest to thoughts of love, decoration and poetry, but chiefly to the
thought of recording the stirring deeds of their heroes in music of
some kind. The Indians have probably sung their deeds ever in rhythm,
though often with an instrumental accompaniment in a differing rhythm,
which common practice must have filled the need of a mental state
“disturbed” by the stimuli of ever present danger.[15]

Rhythmic music considered as a creation of mind and as a need of
the body, the measurement of the effect of musical vibrations upon
human action, is sure to lead the way to a surprising fund of new
knowledge. The number of vibrations caught by the ear in the simplest
drum performance must be enormous, and when it is realized that these
vibrations represent a live force striking the tense nerves, and that
the effects are quantitatively measurable in a psycho-physiological
laboratory, a significant development of psychiatry may be confidently
predicted. It would be interesting to study the differing results of
the same musical environment, upon the nervous reactions of partially
deaf, and of normal beings, to find out how far the subjective and
conscious awareness of certain sounds, affects the objective physical
results of the vibratory force producing them.

Animals are known to be sensitive to the sounds of Music, and birds
even create that which is called Music; this creation on the part
of birds, seems to us nothing more than their instinctive effort to
re-establish disturbed internal rhythmic action.[16] At any rate,
vibration is the fundamental element of Music as of life, and where
Music exists there has ever been an antecedent excitement of some sort.

Complicated intellectual stimuli being absent in tribal life, the
general rhythm was at most periods moderately easy to maintain. Events
of sufficient newness to be exciting were rare. Tribal wars were felt
to be the usual occupation of ordinary existence. So that whether
polygamy or monogamy characterized the marriage relation, whether
woman or man ruled the home life, whether human or animal sacrifices
were offered to one or to several gods, the stimuli met in daily
experiences were very similar in their monotony, and very much the
same in all tribes. Customs were handed down from one generation to
another, and carried from one part to another of the earth’s surface,
but ordinary experiences varied little until, under the stimulation of
steam-driven engines and machines, nations developed the industrial
fever, which seems to characterize modern times. Even today in
localities where newspapers and railroads do not penetrate, life tends
to revert to primitive ideals. The interests of the tribes lay in the
raising of cattle, in the birth of male offspring, in the division
of labor into the search for, and the preparation of, food, and in
the unification of a strong group hostile to all other groups. These
occupations coexisted with a simplicity of environment, unexciting to
the reposeful sense organs, amid a scenic surrounding ever untouched
by artificiality; where village scenes of little variety took place;
where no reason existed to cause abnormal quickness of eye movements;
where occurred only rare shocks to the regular rhythm of the nerve
cell motions. Thus there was little or no need of complicated rhythm
in Music. It will be remembered that Music is a need for that part of
humanity or of any living organism which through reason of its prior
reception of irregular stimuli, has disturbed the natural internal
and independent rhythmic motion, imparted by the mother in the birth
process. An augmented heart action is not harmful at times, even if
it be above the normal, but a heart action which is ever changing its
beat, now fast, now slow, now weak, now strong, tends to derange the
normal rhythmic life motion of the cells, a result caused by modern
multiplicity of irregular stimuli, and observable in modern civilized
man. Great multiplicity of stimuli the tribal man rarely experienced.
His percussive Music was not complex, because the life stimuli were
not complex; the nervous system of the savage was disturbed by but few
mental processes--the simple results of the few and unvarying stimuli
offered by his tribal life.

Approaching modern times, let us see what role was assumed by Music
in the tribal life of the early Germanic races. In those times of war
excitement, when tribes fought like wild animals, and the war spirit
held full sway, the Germans on their march to battle, helmets decorated
with the heads of animals, their big bodies clothed in the simple
_sagum_, chanted their war songs, and kept up a rhythmic beating upon
their shields. This ever visible trend toward rhythmic sound indicates
a subconscious need of it, a need which often annoys us in our
children’s craving for the noise of percussion,--a noise, it may have
been observed by long-suffering parents, which they love beyond all
other diversions. So long as war and religion alone occupied mankind,
and before the human need of rhythmic sound became so pronounced, as
to create the very complicated idea of producing vibratory impulse,
from pleasurable sound intervals, combined with word pictures of human
emotions--so long was mere rhythm in Music sufficient to re-establish
disturbed internal motion.

The Gauls advanced a step beyond the Germans toward musical
organization, by their maintenance of “bands of barders,” who were
described by Tacitus as accompanying the Gallic armies in order to
cheer the warriors.

FOOTNOTES:

[7] Part II, p. 375: “The true song however of most birds and various
strange cries are chiefly uttered during the breeding season, and serve
as a charm, or merely as a call-note to the other sex.”

[8] Vol. II, Chap. 19.

[9] Chapter 9.

[10] If, as Haekel says in “The Riddle of the Universe,” p. 116, “When
the mimosa roots are shaken by the tread of a passerby, the stimulus
is immediately conveyed to all the cells of the plant,” may not the
far stronger stimulus of musical sound be similarly transmitted to the
human cells not directly concerned in hearing?

[11] The octave of half-tones sung by the Hylobates Syndactylus is
merely an effort at speech.

[12] American History and Encyclopedia of Music.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid.

[15] It will be noted that the reference to ideas as “disturbances of
purely physical, molecular rhythm” is used throughout this book, for
it is here claimed that just as the unconscious cessation of breathing
for a few seconds during the writing of an idea, expresses the check
of mental action upon heart action and the circulation of the blood,
so also does the continual reception of new impressions into the mind,
affect the original regular rhythmic movement of the entire body. Hence
thought is a real disturber of rhythm within the body. Similarly, any
burst of anger, fear, or joy is immediately registered in the pulse.

[16] We are aware that Darwin stresses the element of sexual selection
in the bird’s song.

                              CHAPTER II.

                           MUSIC AND MOTION.

Music, a recognized but still undirected agent for rhythm maintenance,
is sought and produced in accordance with the disturbance of a
body politic or of a body individual. The musical products of a
nation mirror that nation’s history far better than pen and ink can
laboriously spell it out. Music reaches down into physiological and
psychological needs, and tends to reestablish rhythmic equilibrium,
whether applied to physical organs, or to members of a national body.
And as the aggregates of matter and motion in human bodies combine all
of their unequal, complex, and yet distinct rhythms under one mean
rhythm, which becomes the characteristic rhythm of the whole, so do the
musical products of a nation, during a given time or age, combine their
unequal motions under a mean motion or characteristic, which includes
all rhythmic products and which we see as a characteristic “color,” or
“temperament” in the national Music of that period. And as the mean
governing rhythm or pulse of one being, individual or national, cannot
be mistaken for the mean of any other combination than its own, so
the “color” or “temperament” of the musical products of one country,
is clearly distinguishable from that of the Musical products of other
countries.

In like manner, humanity, that larger aggregate of human molecules,
shows a mean color in the united products or motions of its parts,
the nations. The “tone” of the Music of the Nineteenth century, is
more complex than that of the Eighteenth century, although Spain still
re-establishes her Eighteenth century disturbances with Eighteenth
century Music. England, with few deeply disturbed emotions is satisfied
with doses of early Nineteenth century Music. France applies her own
vivid intellectual sound pictures to her psychological and political
disturbances. Germany finds the panacea for her disturbances in
colors of soul tragedy and strong sentimentality. Italy, until her
recent steps toward modern methods in stimuli productions, sipped her
delightful comedy and her flowery tragedy, from graceful old-fashioned
musical cups. Nineteenth century musical productions in England,
France, Germany and Italy are, we may say, pictures of their several
national “disturbances,” and exact quantitative measurements of the
depth to which the mean national rhythm was disturbed. All of these
musical productions again react upon humanity’s aggregate, and are
combined under what is known as the Nineteenth century mean rhythm, or
age characteristic.

As has been noted above, there are too few data indicative of the
habits of primitive man, for us to learn aught of his Music, but
it is safe to assume that its comparative simplicity or complexity
corresponded with the comparative simplicity or complexity of his
mental and physical life. Undoubtedly, the earliest group complexity
arose with roving habits, the entrance into new environments, and
the subjection of man’s psycho-physical system to new “strains” of
disturbing stimuli.

According to this theory we must define “disturbances” as, such
responses to varying stimuli as unduly accelerate or retard bodily
pulse motion, changing the _normal_ rhythm of the pulse. Examples
are to be found in sudden migrations, outbursts of enthusiasm, wars,
revolts, and even in certain eager intellectual pursuits.

Music is a phase of the evolutionary process. Musical evolution has
also its order: (a) in appreciation,[17] when the primitive human
mind becomes conscious of existing rhythm, of sound combinations;
(b) in utilization, when its seemingly magical effect suggested
its association with the festivities and rites of worship; (c) in
characterization, when it stands on a pedestal of its own, recognized
as a human necessity perfectly adapted to its environment; and (d) in
socialization, when its end as an agent in self-realization shall be
entirely comprehended. Characterization is the mode which Music has
reached today. Socialization is just beginning, and is yet more fully
to be developed with greater understanding.

Again in Musical Evolution there has been an ideo-motor stage of
development.[18] This forceful, aggressive, persistent motor stage was
shown in the rude drums and other rough-hewn instruments of early man.
In its convivial imaginative aspect it has answered to the need of the
ideo-emotional type. The dogmatic emotional need has drawn forth from
that type’s resources the austere musical products of master genius.
Do we not find today in France, Germany and in modern Italy a national
rhythm disturbed by critically intellectual[19] stimuli, which in
turn call forth critically intellectual Music of the most distinct
complexity? Music is both a social and a socializing force, which,
although created by society, reacts upon its creator.

Reviewing the stages of Musical Evolution do we not discern concerted
volition? Does not the mean tone of national musical types show
concerted acceptance of that which answers to national tastes and
needs? The very applause which establishes the modern type, is the
outward sign of an inward intent to embrace that product. Cool and
restrained judgment precedes _that_ acceptance. Any audience manifests
resembling sensations of resembling individuals in that oneness of
criticism so generally exhibited. Clearly indeed in this latter case
do we perceive that reflective sympathy which shows us how like to our
neighbor we are. Then there is the evidence of organic sympathy which
establishes that liking or disliking for certain Music, according
as the mean motion or the rhythm of the Musical sound vibrations,
correspond to a similar combination of motions and rhythms in our
own systems. And is not the affection for a rhythm similar to our
own, stronger than is our liking for one dissimilar? Can a dogmatic
emotional[20] type experience a true affection for, or feel a sincere
need of, ragtime ditties? Could Italy in the early part of the
Nineteenth century feel affection for the Music of a von Weber? Could
Germany in the fever of Franco-Prussian emotionalism feel affection for
the works of Verdi? Paris disliked Wagner’s operas until very recently.

Lest this should seem like an attempt to stretch sociological
terminology to cover territory other than its own, let us continue
our examination. Even in the progress from the homogeneous to
the heterogeneous, Music, in its national parts, though highly
heterogeneous like the integrated parts of the body, is yielding to
the social passion for homogeneity. This is indicated by the increasing
similarity of its ideals. Even Italy in her new awakening is reaching
out toward musical equality with the most complex modern ideals,
illustrating the tendency of all inequality toward final equality.

The Music which answered to the needs of an Ethnic Society could not
possibly re-establish the disturbed rhythm of political groups. The
“gentile family” system for a long time successfully counteracted
the effects of heterogeneous motion attacks upon the calm nervous
structure, by a Music suited to its needs. Only with the decay of
the patriarchal system did groups come to demand complexity in the
re-establishing agency, Music.

Internal disturbances must have been rare in all clan life, surrounding
stimuli being relatively homogeneous, simple and diffused. Paleolithic
man, with his unchanging external environment, had little reason
for internal disturbance. What slight disturbances he suffered were
probably remedied by simple rhythmic composition of some kind: even
babies create a pronounced sound rhythm with any instrument at hand,
and indicate real pleasure derived from what to us seems mere noise.

Sounds produced by non-human beings are mere discharge of surplus
energy, in a creation of rhythmic stimulus, and not conscious sound
combinations in song. Music is a “natural” product of _human_ society.
It must be as old as those integrations of parts in the human body,
which became aggregates of matter and motion, to take care of new
stimuli colliding with the motions already contained. Through lower,
middle, and upper savagery,[21] even before the beginning of speech,
Music must have been at hand, although in its simplest conceivable
form. Music kept pace with the comparatively simple external stimuli of
each period.

With the use of fire and of the bow and arrow in upper savagery, came
a new heterogeneity in the stimuli entering the organism; disturbances
were still simple, but with the domestication of animals, with the
cultivation of plants by irrigation, with the use of adobe brick and
stone in architecture, Music must have gradually increased in its
complexity in order to cope with the new disturbances of bodily motion
consequent upon those changes in man’s reaction to his environment.
Then, with the use of iron in upper barbarism, Music began anew to
exhibit its needed usefulness, as in the Grecian tribes of the Homeric
Age, and in the German tribes of Caesar’s time.

By these times Music had passed well out of the stages of
“appreciation,” into those of “utilization.”[22] Strongly rhythmic,
it contributed to the recreation (re-creations indeed) of bodily
equilibrium! It calmed intense inward motion, or stimulated
flagging circulation in its union with religious rites. From such
accomplishments of later barbarians as poetry, mythology, fine
temple architecture, walled cities, ship building, wine manufacture,
woven fabrics, implements for grinding corn, the side hill furnace
for smelting ore, and many other early mechanical contrivances,[23]
civilization evolved its phonetic alphabet and its literary records,
building the rhythm-disturbing stimuli of civilization. In the
meanwhile the family develops to the point of monogamy, and individual
property rights usher in a new political system. An advanced form of
municipal life in fortified cities having already created the ideal of
city treasure to be protected, the step was ultimately taken from this
to individual property rights distinct from those of the gens.

The fact that Music as we first encounter it is already somewhat
complex, is not surprising when we regard it in terms of motion,
duplicating in principle the construction of the human body. The latter
may also be regarded in terms of motion; for what are bodily organs
but integrations of molecules in motion? The rhythm of a bodily organ
is like a note composed of periodic motions.[24] The various organs of
differing masses and motions, acting together under one chief rhythm,
are but chords of various notes, while that average of averages, the
pulse, registers the governing rhythm of all of these together, as does
the _time_ in music.

With the differentiation of the Aryan race from those barbarians
who were not active in making and utilizing new inventions, certain
re-arrangements of bodily motions resulted which could not fail
to “disturb” old life habits. With artificial rhythm already at
hand, instinct alone would be sufficient to prompt its application.
Appreciation of Music at this stage would mirror only the satisfaction
derived from the hearing of rhythmic sounds, sufficiently varied to
inflame or calm inward motion, without carrying it too far from the
norm. The “gens” system as found in Greece, Rome, and among American
aborigines, as also among the Irish sept, and Scottish clan, would tend
to restrain complex emotions. Such gentes, being consanguine bodies,
descended from the same common ancestor, and having a gentile name,
and held together by actual or fictitious ties of blood, were compact
bodies with institutions comparatively simple. They were like primitive
bodily forms, consisting of motions contained within an outer crust,
and with few distinct inward integrations.

Music, as simple rhythm agreeable to the ear, would fulfill all
disturbance needs of that time, and would itself be a mere contained
motion, with few integrated parts. Only with the beginning of
“rational” thinking or the “interposition of new ideas between
stimulation and the consequent muscular action,”[25] does such
complexity of mental effort induce the integration of new parts with
new motions in order to meet the added strain.

FOOTNOTES:

[17] Giddings’ Descriptive and Historical Sociology, pp. 186 to 212.

[18] Giddings’ Descriptive and Historical Sociology, p. 237.

[19] Otherwise known as rationalistic.

[20] Giddings, op. cit. pp. 238-239.

[21] Morgan: Ancient Peoples.

[22] Giddings’ Descriptive and Historical Sociology, pp. 186 to 212.

[23] Morgan’s Ancient Peoples.

[24] Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, Part I, p. 8.

[25] Giddings’ Descriptive and Historical Sociology, p. 346.

                             CHAPTER III.

                GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL REACTION TO MUSIC.

                   _A Brief Record of Experiments._

Music tranquillizes human agitation. We believe that enough of musical
vibration will tranquillize all agitation, whether it be such as is
manifested in abnormal mental, or abnormal physical movements. Music
acts differently upon those low states of motion represented by the
phlegmatic temperament and rural communities. Here music excites more
than it does when colliding with agitated nerve motions. These two
marked effects of music were noticed by the author in the following
experiences which extended over a period of many years, among all of
the classes which compose the civilized group:

 From Concerts through Canada and Western U. S.

 From three successive tours of the Baltic Province of Russia, with
 audiences of the Ideo-Emotional and Dogmatic-Emotional types.

 From Concert and opera tests in Germany and England.

 From Concert and opera tests in the Eastern States of U. S.

 From Concert and opera tests among the revolutionary elements of
 New York City, including Coney Island tent life for five months,
 lower East Side social work for five years, Brooklyn Working Girl
 tests, church, political, and society study among actual audiences
 represented by these classes.

More than two hundred thousand people were observed during these tests
as to the effects of music, and the results suggested the following
needs, which the author believes may be extended to the treatment
of many diseases of the mind. Abnormally heightened or abnormally
lowered bodily agitation, or inward motion, “needs” rhythmic stimulus
from highly agitated motion, as in music; the _like_ state of highly
agitated motion in the body responds to the stimulus in calmed motions;
the abnormally lowered bodily agitation responds to the _unlike_
stimulus in the highly agitated motions of music, in excitation: a
perfectly normal body “needs” no music (but such do not exist).

(1) Those social and individual bodies manifesting abnormal states of
agitation “need” contact with such a body of rhythmic musical vibration
as will calm and impose a normal rhythmic motion upon the disturbed
motion represented by the agitation.

(2) Those social and individual bodies manifesting abnormal states of
phelgma “need” contact with such a body of rhythmic musical vibration
as will _excite_ the low motion states, and impose a normal rhythmic
motion upon the sub-normal motion represented by the phlegmatic states.

Above conclusions are offered as a result of the following types of
experiments.

       _Experiments Upon the Ideo-Motor to Ideo-Emotional Type._

Desiring to try the effects of music combined with lectures of a
political character, among the lower elements of Coney Island dwellers,
we set up a 60 × 90 ft. tent at the foot of Ocean Parkway, in May, 1909;
600 chairs, a decorated platform, a grand piano and gay flags of all
nations were distributed in their proper places. The subject of all
lectures was _Woman’s Suffrage_, a theme most unpopular at that time
and especially distasteful to a Coney Island mind. The prevailing
religion of the district was Catholicism. The first week was devoted
to suffrage lectures without music. Crowds filled the floor space of
our big tent each night, and from the beginning we distinctly felt
the murmurs of intended trouble. Our speakers were men high in public
favor, but one of these made the following unfortunate remark:

“Catholicism is the curse of the laboring class.”

Then a workingman stood up and hurled uncomplimentary epithets at us
for trying to destroy the laboring man’s only blessing--his faith. A
woman added tears for her beloved church, and a socialist added oil to
the flame by a bitter attack upon religion in general. Before we could
make ourselves heard, a fight ensued which attracted a large outside
crowd. Several policemen finally dispersed the excited audience. Our
broken chairs bore mute witness of the damage, but no intention of
giving up was entertained. The certainty of serious trouble for the
following evening hastened our institution of music in the program.
During the afternoon following our mishap, we were informed by the
police that trouble was brewing for the “tent folks.” With some
trepidation we entered the tent that evening. A large crowd of the
“rowdy” element had gathered by eight o’clock. Four policemen guarded
the entrance, but many very rough looking men crawled under the canvas
at the sides and cast knowing glances at acquaintances.

Our artists for this first program had been carefully chosen, a
soprano, delicate in voice and personality, a genial looking baritone,
an excellent “cellest,” one of our best known violinists, and a pianist
of world-wide renown. We all “held our breaths” in anticipation of
what might happen. The speaker began. Immediately cat-calls and horns
drowned her voice. The air was filled with foul epithets. Suddenly some
one threw a stone which struck the speaker on the cheek. The meanness
of the insult quieted the mob, and an officer removed the offender.
Then in a few words the people were asked to reserve judgment until
after the musical program.

A trio performance for violin, “cello” and piano was given. Whispering
and excited murmurs continued all through this long number, but
when the soprano sang the old love aria, “Ah, fors’ e lui,” from “La
Traviata” by Verdi, a sudden hush fell upon the audience. At the close
of this aria, emotional, tuneful and simple in construction, a storm of
applause broke forth. Encores of ballads followed, and when “The Last
Rose of Summer” was given, with the emotional addition of a genuine red
rose, whose petals were scattered in compliance with the text, women
wept, and men settled down sullenly in their seats. The irritation of
the preceding three days had been reduced to normal rhythmic motion, in
less than one hour of musical treatment. The rest of that evening was
in every way a success.

This was not an unique experience. Musicless lectures were always more
excitable in effect than were those combined with music. So certain
were the results of our combination, that before the end of the summer,
we could discuss any “views” with a mob element, by alternating an
exciting subject with an artistically rendered musical selection. At
every step, music proved its power to soothe, and showed how great is
the human need of its vibratory mission.

Instances of similar effect of music upon mental agitation were
observed in other situations. During a trip across the Atlantic on
the old vessel “Trava,” a dangerous accident occurred during a severe
storm. A panic threatened. The first officer whispered to the author
to sing a song. She started the national hymns, inviting the passengers
to show their patriotism and nationality by joining. First the “Star
Spangled Banner” brought out a few voices, then the “Wacht am Rhein”
swelled the chorus; the “Marseillaise” was then responded to, and when
“The Wearing of the Green” brought forth one lusty Irish brogue, such
a laugh ran round the dining saloon as completely broke the strained
condition and re-established normal rhythmic pulse motion.

The tension of nerve during strikes was reduced several times by
musical “benefits.” Dangerous excitement at political meetings was
often converted into harmless emotionalism under evenings of Eighteenth
century comedy opera tests on the East Side of Manhattan. The
establishment of The Working Girls Club in Brooklyn in 1912 afforded
an excellent opportunity for testing the reviving effects of music
upon tired brains and bodies. One hundred and forty young and healthy
working girls from department stores, telephone offices and factories,
used the club house dedicated to their use and at first evidenced
pleasure and benefit from the classes instituted. But presently
a depressing weariness of aspect appeared, a “trying to learn”
expression, which promised little for energetic application. The law
class dwindled to two members; the millinery class could not attract
more than six students, the cooking class began with thirty-five
and ended with four, the dress-making class held but three pupils:
the class in simple science was not attractive, the language classes
began well, but the girls were too tired to study. Finally we gave
them what they wanted, and what they needed--music. What a change came
over the mental attitude! Monday, Wednesday and Friday nights, singing
individually and in chorus was taught. Three hours of music swept away
all traces of weariness, and sparkling eyes and rosy cheeks exhibited
anew the need of music. All through the year 1912-13 for twelve months,
the opera “Martha” by Flotow was rehearsed, and never was there
occasion to complain of poor attendance, wandering attention, or lack
of interest. A public performance was given in the Spring of 1913 at
Labor Lyceum, Brooklyn. Notwithstanding long days of labor, the girls
did great credit to their leaders’ work in training.

Turning to individual experiments, an instance of the strangely
normalizing effects of music upon abnormal nervous conditions comes to
our mind. A noble minded woman, lately deceased, devoted her life to
the Sittig Christmas Tree Celebration, which annually gave a Christmas
feast of presents, candies, books and entertainment to about seven
thousand of Brooklyn’s poor children. She was so deaf that she heard
with great difficulty, even with the aid of electrical devices. Yet
she could hear softly spoken words, _provided the speaker kept playing
softly upon the piano during the conversation_. “I do not need any
artificial aid in hearing any sound audible to a normal ear, while
music is in the air,” she once told us. Another woman, affected with
continual trembling of the hands, became perfectly quiet and normal in
action while riding in a carriage. In reply to our question as to the
reason for this phenomenon, she replied, “The noise of the carriage
wheels resolves itself into regular ‘beats’ which I cannot help trying
to imitate.” It may be that this is but another illustration of the
“need” of disturbed or unrhythmic motion for “regular beats” or
rhythmic motion. A friend in Berlin was painfully deaf, yet he heard
the slightest whisper over the telephone. His similar normality when
listening to music, suggested to the author to class all rhythmic
co-operated vibrations producing a _continuous sensation_ in the ear,
under the name of musical rhythmic vibrations. This would extend the
realm of musical need to many highly active motions not generally
included in the term “music.” Telephones, railway motion sounds,
moaning of winds, continuous washing sounds of waves, do in fact
produce results strangely similar to those seen in the application of
music. Excitable people are quieter at sea-side resorts, and restless
in isolated mountain districts. We have closely observed the types
of individuals at water resorts in Europe and America. Everywhere the
same type prevails. It is the highly strung temperament which needs and
seeks the “highly strung” atmosphere. We have observed like instances
in nervous university students, who study and memorize best in the
street cars.

                       _Ideo-Emotional Groups._

In our German experience, the music which elicited the largest response
seemed to be that which impressed emotional pictures upon the mind.
Schuman lieder are of this character: they are full of chivalric
example, suggestion, symbol, shibboleth, and tend to awaken emotional
reactions. In the home circles, the sentiment in music is strongly
expressed. No true German will allow you to heighten the seat at the
piano with a volume of Beethoven Sonaten. You cannot sit upon Beethoven
in a loyal German house.

Even in the grand opera audiences of Germany, the public persists
in manifesting a love for those musical ideas which awake emotions
rather than cool critical judgment. The simple Kinder Lieder can be
counted upon to bring the emotions to view, and unrequited love, the
romantic woes of a god-like hero, or the dainty texts of sentimental
ballads, are as effectual now as they ever were. Russian audiences
are still more responsive to the emotional element in music, but their
temperaments have a strong dash of the Ideo-motor in them.

All through Canada and the Western part of the United States, the
Ideo-Emotional type of music awakens quickest response. Old ballads
like “Coming Through the Rye,” “Home Sweet Home,” “Annie Laurie,” will
bring applause during the preludes, and only in the most complicated
environment is there a genuine response to the relatively complicated
works of Wagner.

In a concert test upon the stone-working Italians at Wappingers Falls,
N. Y., the home-sick Italians were so affected by “Santa Lucia” that
they all closed their eyes and joined the singer, weeping as they sang.
It was reported dangerous for a woman to go alone among these men, but
they sang song after song for us, and escorted her five miles to the
railroad station.[26]

                      _Dogmatic-Emotional Types._

The Greek Church music and the music of the Catholic Church acts
specially upon the Dogmatic-Emotional types. It is a curious sight
to Americans to watch Russian peasants and officials praying in
the railroad stations before rough altars and highly gilded images.
The candles, always burning, suggest the strength of that command,
authority, dogma, belief, which lies so heavily upon Russian minds.
Under such a burden, the type of music must come within the restricted
range of comprehension permitted to this type of mind. Yet this
enforced religion does not act more sternly upon the choice of music in
Russia, than does the free Dogmatic-Emotionalism seen in Ocean Grove,
N. J. Here you find response to the same musical type that satisfied
Russian audiences of a Dogmatic-Emotional character. Ocean Grove
inhabitants do not pray in public stations, but no car runs on Sunday;
no wagons deliver goods on the Sabbath, the rules which govern conduct
and musical production in Russia, are not more strictly obeyed than are
those which frown upon Sunday amusement in Ocean Grove, or dictate its
musical supply. Strange to note, the Catholic element is more open in
its “desecration” of the Sabbath, than is the Protestant element. This
may be accounted for by the larger degree of Ideo-Motor activity among
Catholic groups, notwithstanding the strength of the Church hold upon
the fidelity of its members.

The Dogmatic-Emotional groups “need” a music to correspond to their
type, and only such music is successful with them. Many years in church
circles have proved to us the real desire or “need” of hymns and
sacred songs, as a satisfaction of this type’s yearnings.

                      _The Rationalistic Group._

Now we come to a class of comparatively few representatives. It
presents a nearer approach to symmetry in its curve of mental and
physical poise. It responds to stimuli appealing through knowledge
to the higher intellectual processes. Ideals are stronger than their
physical manifestations; the idea is more important than the model;
the type is less affected by common stimuli; it secludes itself in
contemplation, in more cool investigation of its own responses; it
seeks food for mental labor, with time for detailed analysis of that
work. All this means a more normal equilibrium between periods of
high motion and rest; it means that a smaller chance of “disturbance”
is encountered by this type, and consequently a smaller “need” of
_rhythmic_ music. The problem opera will satisfy it. In less need of
marked rhythm, the analysis of new musical form will occupy these
minds, regardless of the lack of either rhythmic or harmonious
effects. The smallness of the Rationalistic group is indicated by the
unpopularity of rationalistic composition. Opera managements produce
the new “rationalistic” works, but they make up their financial losses
by the Ideo-Emotional works like Faust, Carmen, Cavaleria Rusticana,
Madam Butterfly and most of the beloved works of the popular operatic
repertoire.

Thus we see that if music is a human need, it is a need greatest among
the Ideo-motor and Ideo-Emotional types, or among the lower and middle
classes chiefly. The Dogmatic-Emotional type needs a music of its own,
and never fails to produce it. The Rationalistic type, also needs its
music, because its rationalism has not yet extended to an absolute
perfection of equilibrium between dissipation and integration of bodily
forces, and wherever abnormality of pulse exists, there musical rhythm
is “needed.” Even were this theory of musical need not admitted, the
genuine love of music constitutes a need. So intense a yearning,
unsatisfied, cannot be beneficial to the human system. Whether we
admit music as a necessary part of human pleasure, or as a necessary
stimulus to human rhythm of bodily motions, its “need” will scarcely be
denied in the face of its constant demand and supply. Music reinforces
human energy, aids in the control and order of the mind, elevates the
conception of life, and furnishes repose for the overstimulated nerves
of urban communities. Placing music then where you will, it belongs
among those “better materials for storing, conveying and transforming
energy”[27] and its wise application may lead to surprising results,
in the conservation of faculties, now doomed to decay under the law of
diminishing returns.

That some change in the bodily molecules takes place as a result of
musical indulgence is believed by the author. The change in the pulse
rate before and after a musical performance indicates an effect upon
the circulation. The same time spent in listening to a lecture, shows
less freedom from tension. This was shown in the 84 experiments with
working girls. The 103 benefit tests upon revolutionary audiences
showed marked effects in calming power: ten years’ experience in church
choirs, showed the vast superiority of service with music, over service
without music, in calming excitable congregations and in rousing
phlegmatic ones; ninety-one consecutive experiments at Coney Island
demonstrated that music can calm revolt, and change irritation to
tranquillity; over three hundred concert studies in Russia and in the
United States have shown marked increase in the normality of expression
in audiences, after an evening of music, and twelve years of experience
in teaching music, have shown so decided results in greater health and
happiness in pupils, that music as a human “need” appears to us to be
established beyond doubt.

The Federal government of our United States may not be able under its
Constitution to institute Schools of Music, but the states should begin
to give more consideration to State Schools of Music. If the U. S.
Government is constitutionally unable to maintain National Schools of
Music, any comparison with European governments so licensed by their
constitutions, would be unjust and misleading. The statistics given are
intended merely to show what the various governments are doing along
the line of national support of musical culture, and no comparison is
attempted. Our States and cities are expending vast sums upon music.
The contention of the author, however, is that State Musical Colleges
will not produce a national type of music, and that the highest ideal
rests in a Federal control of musical culture. When music can be
regarded as a national need, and not merely as a social diversion,
the Federal government may see its way clear to a Federal support of
musical education. Music as an important measure in social control,
and as an equally important factor in individual health, belongs under
the eye of the national head. With the faint hope that this place will
sometime be granted to music, we submit this work.

FOOTNOTES:

[26] An atrocious murder had been committed by one of this group during
the week and the Mission Superintendent warned us by telegram of
serious revolt and danger.

[27] Professor Giddings’ “Law of Increasing and Diminishing Returns”
would apply here as elsewhere.

                              CHAPTER IV.

                  TONEUROLOGY: A NEW BRANCH OF STUDY.

Humanity then must maintain its pulse in a
rhythmic-stimulation-and-repose-for-distribution system. This can
best be done by the greater exercise of the emotional nature, and by
the indulgence of romantic ideals, for emotions are pulse-lifters,
dragging the stagnant life motions up to a normal mean rhythm. The
man or nation, whose pulse is kept most constantly keyed up to the
normal, is the man or nation which achieves the finest results.
Our four national examples, England, France, Germany, and Italy,
demonstrate these emotional products. Germany leads in her quality of
musical (or emotional) output, because she led during the century in
her sufferings, prepared, as they were, by so much of heart breaking
experience during the preceding century. France comes next. Her
national emotions have been weakened in tragic elements by the love
of the spectacular, by the intellectual need of vivid pictures and
colors, and by the assertiveness and pride of an ancestral supremacy,
hard to subdue to the state of tender romance and heart tragedy, which
characterized Germany’s strong and sentimental temperament. After
France comes Italy, emotional, poetic, merry-hearted, making a farce
of tragedy because her century’s life produced so little national
sadness. Only in recent years has it come to be felt that the mean
rhythm of Germany can become like the mean rhythm of any nation, even
of Italy, if the depths or motions are sounded as were Germany’s.
England brings up the rear, her century’s mean rhythm being far below
the high water mark. This is shown by the delicate comedies, and naive
sentimentalism of her music, which are the fit measure of her national
pulse rate of emotionalism.

Music, as a human need, carries us deep into the secrets of life, and
will in time open the way for a new science. Music is not the name for
this new branch of knowledge, as the study would involve an exhaustive
investigation of nervous reactions in their social and individual
relations to sound vibrations. We would suggest the name “Toneurology”
because tone is understood in all modern languages, and “neuros” has
the same advantage. This study would involve research along entirely
new lines, such as an investigation of motions in bodily organs;
mathematical estimation of the vibration value of each pulse beat, and
of the sums of tone vibrations in chords, upon one instrument and upon
many, as in an orchestra; the rate of increase or decrease of the pulse
after contact with tonal force, with approximate computation of the
time that the latter can maintain a normal pulse, and the necessary
frequency of its application. The research student in this new science
must have a working knowledge of physics, biology, psychology,
sociology, harmony, counterpoint, musical history, political history
and physiology, with a new study of the Human Will. We should thus add
a new science to the group of exact concrete sciences.

It is with no little diffidence that we suggest this as a new branch
of study. There are indications that universities adopting Music into
their lists of studies, recognize the need of Music’s closer touch
with scientific courses. If Music is ever to outgrow its swaddling
clothes of sentimental and frivolous superficiality, and mere amusement
conception, it must clearly manifest its scientific dignity, and its
inseparable connection with physics, sociology, biology and psychology.
It must take its place among those studies which encourage scientific
tests and lifelong research. It must leave its hitherto “divine aspect”
on the rubbish heap, along with the “divine rights” of kings, magic,
ancestor worship, and ghost theories. We believe some secrets of life
preservation will be found in Toneurology.

The curious effect of Music upon groups suggests a possible counterpart
of such reaction upon individuals. Music, once regarded in terms
of motion, with laws of motion likewise applied to the bodily
integrations, the path opens out clear and true.

The fact that men, in spite of all the great scientific discoveries,
harden and fade with age, tends to prove that the human body has not
been completely envisaged by any or all of them. We offer here a study
which includes many of the abstract and concrete sciences but directed
towards a new combination, _i. e._, tone and nerve, to be tested and
quantitatively measured under the laws of motion instead of under the
laws of perception and of appreciation. We take Music out of the field
of ideals entirely, and place it upon a level with rhythm establishers,
incident forces, and pulse fillers. Our statistics[28] show the
sub-conscious appreciation of Music as a human need by the countries
represented, and those governments show a larger proportion of
internal unrest where musical provision is small. This test, although
indicative, is far from satisfactory, since no provision, adequate to
act constantly upon the life forces, has as yet been made.

FOOTNOTES:

[28] See page 102.

                               PART II.

            THE INTER-REACTIONS OF MUSIC AND NATIONAL LIFE.

                _Introductory Note to Chapters V-VII._

The following outlines of musical productions during the Nineteenth
century in Italy, England, Germany, France, and the United States, are
intended to show how precisely the depth and nature of disturbances are
measurable by the Music of each country. Each musical type pictures the
“need” of the nation in question, and is peculiar to the character of
each human aggregate.

The statistics received by us and presented later in this work,[29]
indicate not only the extent to which Music is now regarded in its
utility aspect by different nations, but also show the protection given
to this as-yet-misunderstood force. In this day of general culture,
the reader’s acquaintance with the main outlines of the political and
economic history of these peoples may be assumed. The Music of each
nation will be seen to picture closely the national emotions consequent
upon the national stimuli.

FOOTNOTES:

[29] The statistics upon which these conclusions are based will be
found in Appendix C and E.

                              CHAPTER V.

                          ITALY (1800-1913).

National Music is the language of national emotion. The latter is
the result and reflection of economic stimuli. The Music of a period
exhibits the characteristics of national disturbances at every point in
economic history.

Italy, subjected to a much lighter form of stimuli than
England or Germany, has not yet ceased to manifest her
short-duration-excitability, her love of the merely sensuous in beauty,
which shows that the ancient intense disturbances of her real depths
have not been repeated in recent times.

The period from 1800 to 1848 presents a mental state of little
disturbance, the Italian social mind having not yet awakened from its
Eighteenth century submissiveness and inaction. It will be interesting
to analyze emotions of this period and their expression in Music.

Was tragedy the dominant factor in economic life? No. The social
pressure of this period was light, even merry, with the lightness of
lazy enjoyment in an unambitious mind. Curiosity was awakened but it
was in its wonder stage, acting slowly upon hints received from the
cynicism of France, from the power of labor ideas from England, and
from the disrespect for Papal authority coming from Germany. Like a
mirror for the reflection of the sharp but shallow emotions produced
by these stimuli, were the musical works of Rossini constituting
the public emotional valves. The “Barbiere di Sevilla,” with its
witching humor, its delicate satire, its political allusions, and its
portraits of the life of the nation, was a constant source of delight
to unreflecting Italian thought. Rossini’s skill in the opera-buffa
was marked. For the party of the Catholic faith he composed his
“Stabat Mater,” equally fine, but picturing even in these more serious
emotion-valves, those superficial moulds in which the public thought
was cast. The works of Donizetti were no less bewitching and no less
trivial, while the soft and sentimental character of Bellini’s genius
found answering echoes in every Italian ideal. Dramatic passion was not
lacking in “Norma,” but the atmosphere of even this glimpse of future
depth in Italian emotionalism, was never quite free from the weak
traits of Bellini’s school. Vocalism extraordinary was the demand of
the opera, and the display in voice technique was remarkable. This was
not, however, out of place in comedy opera, where depth of sentiment
never reached the modern ridiculous spectacle of vocalized heart
breakings, tuneful murders, and death gasps upon assigned tone pitches.
The over-dressed orchestrations of present day operas, the senseless
howling of a single voice above the combined vibrations of a hundred or
more active instruments, the absurd idea of profound _vocal_ passion,
had not yet distorted the original operatic idea, which still dwelt in
the true realm of its effectiveness, namely, that of the presentation
of the lovely, the gay, the pathetic, the comic. The supremacy of the
human voice as a vehicle of expression was in no way endangered by the
abnormal taste of our own day. Toward the middle of the Nineteenth
century, as the spirit of the time deepened in intensity, operas of a
more serious nature held their share of public attention. Donizetti’s
“Lucrezia Borgia” was presented in 1844, after several others of
dramatic color, among which Rossini’s “William Tell” and “Othello” were
works of real dramatic power.

For several centuries the State had exercised control over musical
education in Italy. In Rome, from its earliest days, institutions of
Music had existed. Music was regarded as a necessity rather than as a
luxury. Such will be the attitude assumed toward Music in the future,
when psychologists and sociologists shall have studied more deeply into
the relations of artificially created rhythm to bodily rhythm, and also
into the need of re-establishing disturbed bodily rhythm, manifested in
the abnormal pulse during emotional states of mind.

During the Eighteenth century each of the large towns of Italy
supported its own opera house and one cannot estimate to what extent
these emotion valves were instrumental in the easy subjugation of the
people.

Were Music to be banished from any one of the civilized countries
today, anarchy might very shortly result. Who can say that the frenzied
license which followed Cromwell’s suppression of musical indulgence,
was not due in part to the closing of England’s emotion valves?

The present craze for the violent action dances, represented in
the turkey-trot and the tango, is, in the opinion of the author, a
natural expression of the human need of pronounced rhythm. It is
a sub-conscious effort to supply the lack of pronounced rhythmic
stimulus in economic life. The late tendency in musical composition
has also been away from the old rhythmic accent and in the direction
of disturbed harmonies, and lack of restful melodies. Thus the
over-stimulated nerves of humanity have been exposed to an unchecked
abnormality of their motions. The dances above mentioned partly remedy
this defect in bodily action, and restore relative equilibrium--hence
the craze for this form of amusement. Notice, however, that people
will not take part in either of these dances for a moment, _without
the Music_. The movement alone is not the need; the Music is the
chief factor, the rhythm of which is merely accented and accentuated
by the movements. These dances may be saving the sanity of countless
thousands. Why then the suggested ban on this human need? If these
dance forms are not desirable, then sweep away the present musical
abominations and bring melody and--above all--_marked rhythm_ within
reach of the masses.

We shall now proceed to take up the thread of Italian musical life
at 1848 when social pressure was assuming a darker hue, acute even
in its short-lived terrors, as befits the Italian temperament. This
temperament, unlike that of Germany under tragic conditions, must
either die in despair or recover quickly. It is ever in short runs
between sobs and a jest, ever in fiery moments and merry half-hours,
ever child-like at heart, yet marvellously gifted, beauty-loving and
sentimental. Italy might not live through a “Thirty Years War,” but
with the inspiration of the right leaders, she might create a new
Roman Republic, under the forceful stimulus of oft-relieved bursts of
enthusiasm.

The strenuous years from 1848 to 1860, sufficiently aroused the Italian
spirit to produce much that has since developed to the credit of the
country. A deeper tone had been struck in Italian ideals, though not
sufficiently deep to revolutionize completely the nation’s taste for
those old forms of Music, so essentially a part of the melody loving
race.

Still tragedy shadowed the public mind, and Verdi pictured these gloomy
years in the operas “Rigoletto” (1851), “La Traviata” (1853), “Il
Trovatore” (1853), and “Aida” (1871). Verdi was the idol of the people,
because his genius fitted into the conditions of his time, illustrating
the theory of the present investigation.

The ignorance of the Italians, patricians and peasantry alike, made
the functioning of Italy’s really great literary works during the
Nineteenth century, impotent as stimuli productive of national and
contemporaneous reactions. Of late, however, a new educational impulse
has been given by the establishment of the public school. This is
certain greatly to increase stimuli products in the Italian nervous
system, and the Italian need for a corresponding complexity in its
Music is even now being manifested.

With the installation of transport facilities to the new world, a
fresh and somewhat romantic stimulus has been given to the Italian
people. The letters of absent relatives reflect world news, and widen
mental views for whole villages. Besides, railroads have opened up new
intercourse between the various parts of Italy, and the telegraph,
electric light, new home inventions, industrial occupations, factories
and so forth, each in turn--or at times all together--have disturbed
the bodily rhythm by increased stimulation, so that the late demands
for realism in France and Germany did indeed find partial echo in
Italy, in “The Cavalleria Rusticana” of Mascagni, a spectacular but not
profound opera, which aroused amazing enthusiasm by its characteristic
presentation of familiar forms. These were new in their realistic
color, yet old in Italian life, and they pictured in their dramatic
action, the stronger taste of the day. Puccini mirrored the still
deeper stimulus of his time, in his “Manon Lescaut” (1893), “La Boheme”
(1896), “La Tosca” (1900) and “Madam Butterfly” (1904), the latter
inconsistent in its mixture of tragedy with soft Italian tunefulness,
for even Puccini fails to discard the characteristic tunefulness of
his race, in his too evident striving for such discordant effects, as,
however, unintentionally represent the discordant elements in Italy’s
modern civilization.

These works show that Italy has awakened from her lazy sleep under the
rule of foreigners, and that she is now beginning to feel the stir
of larger economic disturbances, in those depths of the social mind,
already so thoroughly stirred and active in France and Germany.

The care given to the musical needs of Italy by her central authorities
is shown later in this book.[30]

FOOTNOTES:

[30] See Appendices C and E.

                              CHAPTER VI.

                         ENGLAND (1800-1913).

The history of England during the Nineteenth century presents but
little disturbance at home, along lines calculated so to move mental
depths, as to produce complicated re-establishing forms in musical
rhythm. Labor troubles harassed the national thought in their usual
superficial manner, rarely causing the loss of a night’s sleep, or
the disturbance of appetite, and the many reforms in the interest of
trade, affected but slowly the depths of emotionalism. It has ever
been a noticeable fact, that impersonal or distant calamities but
slightly arouse the national emotions. People read and comment upon
the slaughter of women and children, and at the same time pleasurably
partake of a good dinner. The fact is, that emotions are not easily
aroused by distant stimuli, and people also respond with ever
decreasing force to unchanging present stimuli.

Present day labor agitations have already passed the boundaries of mild
stimulation, and are fast becoming emotional forces which are evidently
driving headlong into governmental change. Capitalism has run its
oppressive course, and for the near future a genuinely soul-tearing
agitation is preparing, which, if allowed to rip open the veins of the
nation, will produce the stimuli, that eventually will endow English
Music with a richness and depth, superior to that of any other country.
British emotions have been sleeping deeply under two centuries of mild
emotional stimuli, but when they do stretch their strong fibres for
action, then one may indeed tremble for the old systems of English
government; and then also the great musical triumphs of Belgium and
Germany may be surpassed. Considering the mental attitude of the
British community during the Nineteenth century, and at the present
day, it was to be expected that Balfe’s “Lurline” should represent
the nation’s rhythmic need up to 1870, and that the musical works of
Benedict (“The Lily of Killarney,” and the oratorios of “St. Peter”
and “St. Cecilia”), should have found popular appreciation up to
1885. But the composer who best illustrates England’s characteristic
activity,--that of colonization,--its military and political aspects,
the clean minded and religious attitude of Victoria’s rule, and the
general lightly disturbing characteristics of Nineteenth century
economic stimuli, was Sir Arthur Sullivan in his charming works, “The
Mikado,” “Pinafore,” “The Pirates of Penzance,” “Patience,” “The Yeoman
of the Guard,” “Iolanthe” and “The Sorcerer.” England did much in this
century to advance the culture of Music within her borders. The Royal
head was patron of such institutions as The Royal Academy of South
Kensington, The Royal College of Music, The Guildhall School of Music
and Trinity College. These are in general supported by government
grants, donations, and subscribing patrons.[31] The national faith is
still strongly expressed in the extensive cultivation of the oratorio,
while the secular ideal has not yet become sufficiently abnormal to
genuinely encourage Music of the present French and German schools.
This is probably because England’s emotions are not in need of such
representations, since they are still adequately reflected in the
lighter works of Italian genius, as expressed by Verdi[32] and in
her own lovely light operas. It seems more than a coincidence that
the Music of a country so marvellously reflects the character of the
economic stimuli of its period, as does Great Britain’s.

That England has a genuine care for the development of musical culture
in her realm is shown by the letter from the Board of Education,
Whitehall, London.[33]

FOOTNOTES:

[31] “American History and Encyclopedia of Music,” volume on Foreign
Music, p. 206.

[32] We leave out of account his “Falstaff.”

[33] See Appendix E.

                             CHAPTER VII.

                         GERMANY (1800-1913).

The world today is still perceiving in Germany’s Music, the intensity
of Germany’s emotions, as aroused during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth
centuries.

Let us see if Germany’s tragic emotionalism has produced its likeness
in Music, thus wisely furnishing an outlet for revolutionary energy,
and at the same time wielding a powerful and tranquillizing wand over
a growing restlessness of spirit. Let us see whether the great tragic
depths of emotional life through which Germany has passed, during
at least two-thirds of the Nineteenth century, support our thesis
by having resulted in the creation of a deep and tragic Music, with
revolutionary harmony at its summit.

Ludwig von Beethoven’s genius was such as greatly to influence the
entire Nineteenth century Music. He reigned supreme in the symphony
and sonata fields, where dignified composition found its most fitting
musical forms. The public was, at the close of the Eighteenth century,
actively supporting its own musical market through publishing houses
and public concerts, so that the exclusive patronage of the nobility
could be largely dispensed with by composers, to their own infinite
advantage, by making possible a wider psychic expression in their
works, and in the production of Music of more pronounced national
color. Pensions were still granted to noted composers, but these did
not fetter them as completely as they had formerly done. That Germany,
at that time, could produce a character so simple and noble, as was
manifested by Beethoven’s life, suggests the religious stimuli which
acted upon his parents. All of his early works exhibit this chaste
adherence to the established ideals in Music. Beautiful depths are
revealed everywhere, and a solemn earnestness pervades his lightest
productions. We love and revere Beethoven, unconsciously feeling some
strong, pure and noble influence which was awakening in the German
mind.[34]

The early years of the Nineteenth century brought, with their political
disturbance, a taste for the old knightly ballads. These were, with
the “Lieder,” which so closely pictured the newly rising fearlessness
of the people, beautifully expressed in the genius of Franz Schubert.
At this time the social position of the nobility was as insecure
as was the political peace of all Europe. The rise of the people’s
voice was shown in the importance given to the “folk-song.” Great
emphasis was now laid upon the texts of these songs themselves, thus
again subjecting Music to poetry, the people’s speech, as opposed to
what was the rule in the Eighteenth century, when texts meant nothing
to the empty-headed aristocracy, and sensuous tones and bewildering
technique held sway. Yet rhythm still remains marked, and the tunes
are still full of sentimental suggestion. Song is not the vehicle of
intense emotion, and indeed at this period, emotion had not yet reached
a point of intensity in German economic life. The great emotional
possibilities of Germany were still subdued by petty powers, and the
“Lied” sufficiently expressed the social pressure of the time, when
the people did not care much who ruled them, so long as there was
enough to eat, and so long as good beer accompanied their merriment.
Tragedy was in action, but had not yet dug her claws into the depths
of German emotion. It was not the time for deep dramatic opera. The
prevailing taste craved the romantic quality suggested by war heroes of
the Napoleonic type. Napoleon’s almost unvarying triumph embellished
his reputation with god-like, impossible attributes. Finally his
romantic sway and sad end awakened echoes of ancient chivalry in the
thoughts woven about his name. As a matter of fact, Schubert’s works
were not published before 1821, because the German musician was still
dominated by the Italian school. The disturbed period before this date
was unproductive of nationalism in any form. The mental color of 1821
was essentially lyrical, and Schubert’s songs struck the right note in
public feeling from this date on. New forms were arising on every hand.
Classic themes had had their day. Schiller and Goethe had inspired art
and literature with new ideals. Carl von Weber exhibited new methods in
his epoch marking German opera “Der Freischutz,” in 1821. This opera
sounded the death knell of the reign of Italian Music in Germany.
In this work von Weber dared to picture the real life of the German
people, and to give the folk-song a prominent position, though he
weakened the presentation by the introduction of supernatural effects.

Note the public mind in this success! Germany wanted its own texts,
its own life, its own style represented in the Music it was to enjoy.
When had the Germans ever dared to show so strange a tendency before?
Then came the “heroic” opera with its silly plot, sustained musical
invention, new method of treating the recitative as part of the melody,
and greater richness of orchestral effects, in which one sees the
first touches of real dramatic instrumental treatment. Von Weber was
the flag-pole for the banner of Wagner, and his genius is a true
reflection of Germany’s social pressure. Up to 1859 Spohr exerted a
serious and dignified influence upon the violin art of Germany, but his
heavier works did not reach the importance of von Weber’s, which had
truly illustrated the mental tendency of the time. In works of great
beauty and merit Kreutzer, Lortzing and Nicolai represented different
phases of this social mind.

Robert Schumann did not contribute to the actual need of the people
until 1840-1841 when he produced a large number of exquisite songs.
His piano works, however, exhibit more originality and greater
strength and depth; they indicate a greater mastery of the classic
ideal, show extended chord effects, and present broadness of idea.
A new feature here was the syncopated accent.[35] This was the
beginning of that breaking of the rhythmic effect which, to our mind,
has not only been detrimental to the beneficial results of Music as
a rhythm-re-establisher, but which has also been the forerunner of
our American “craze” for “ragtime” Music. It was an “out-of-order”
effect, and came from an “out-of-order” mind, for poor Schumann died
insane at Bonn in 1856. Schumann, more than any other composer of his
time, connected economic stimuli with emotionalism, and the titles he
gave his piano works, revealed his belief that Music could be made
to express definite conceptions. Schumann not only felt the need of
rhythmic works, but he also produced them, and the richness of his
harmony is more pronounced in effect than Schubert’s. Yet even Schumann
did not sound the depths of German tragedy, because the social pressure
was not yet charged with tragic stimuli. The century had not yet
wrung the German heart. It was still submissive, although in fearful
contemplation of its possibilities, nor had it as yet been aroused
into active fury for national unity. Tragedy alone could fully move
those much tried Teutonic depths. The interest manifested in Schumann’s
musical periodical “Die Neue Zeitschrift für Musik” proved that the
growth of musical knowledge in public culture was keeping pace with
the increasing complication of economic life, and with the growing
intensity of its emotion-producing influences. As complicated as the
forces which succeed in arousing national emotions, are the musical
constructions which are contemporaneous with such forces. Mendelssohn
reflected the reactionary feeling of one part of public thought, but
he did not dominate in his field as did von Weber and Schumann. Bach
and Händel influenced his work, and lent it the chief beauty evident
in his many charming productions. His own life of ease and wealth
prevented his being subjected to those harrowing experiences, so
necessary to the soil of genius. For these reasons he cannot represent
more than a certain phase of that whole social mind, which found
its complete reflection in Schumann. During the period before 1849,
it is significant that the waltz and the operetta should have begun
their shallow but necessary existences in German life. Progress and
prosperity had given a kind of careless capacity for enjoyment to the
people, and a tendency toward unhealthy sluggishness of the national
pulse. But we must notice that the public demanded the most pronounced
rhythm as a means of imparting to the body an _excitation_ of a higher
degree of rhythmic motion. This was supplied perfectly in the waltz.
Was this the first step backward to Grecian rhythmic exercises? The
dance is as old as human life, but the waltz is peculiarly sensuous
and suavely rhythmic, and its development by Johann Strauss came at an
extraordinarily receptive moment in social desire. One must attempt to
place one’s own consciousness in the imaginary body of a person living
in those times, in order to feel the need of the waltz. As our own time
is near enough in stimuli similar to that period before 1848, the feat
may not be impossible. The younger Strauss reflected most perfectly the
restful period, which followed the unification of the Germans.

But Richard Wagner marks the highest point of German social pressure.
This master did not defeat our thesis in the least degree, even in
his early works, which were as conservative as any others of the
times. Until 1842 his life was unsettled and his career doubtful.
“Rienzi,” given at Dresden in this year, proved a great success, and
in 1843 is “Fliegende Hollender” showed the first positive adoption
of _revolutionary ideas_ in Music, although “Rienzi” contained some
significant references to freedom and to the power of the people.
Wagner certainly held the radical convictions of the time, and his
later works were undoubtedly inspired by the stirring stimuli of then
existing social pressure. In 1850 “Lohengrin” was produced with great
success. Many trials tormented the spirit of Wagner until 1861, when
his “Tannhäuser” was produced in Paris amid the howling of radical
mobs, who literally forced it into failure. All this time his operas
had been a part of Germany’s operatic repertoire, but his greatest
strokes in musical revolution were yet unfelt. Humiliation and poverty,
malice and active enmity, assailed him at every point. Yet bravely
defiant, _truly reflecting the German temper of that period_, he
succeeded in gaining the patronage of King Ludwig II of Bavaria, and in
1865 “Tristan” was produced. This was a work which entirely _overturned
the traditional structure of operatic ideals_ and made it possible
for his enemies to deprive him of his hoped-for refuge in the King’s
favor. But in 1868 “Die Meistersänger” was performed at Munich. This
work presented a genuine plea for _greater freedom_ in art creations
and exhibited a perfection of musical treatment, combined with _daring
innovations_, which to this day constitute a lasting charm. After many
misfortunes, but with a consciousness that his works had established
German opera upon a new and ideal basis, Wagner realized his dreams
in the production of “Der Ring des Nibelungen” in his own theatre
at Bayreuth, in August, 1876. Note how close in time was Wagner’s
climax, in his activity of _revolutionary Music_, and the triumph of
united Germany over the disdainful powers of Europe! At one and the
same period (1876), we see Wagner established as the German emotional
dictator, and German solidarity in Prussia’s settled supremacy. At this
time also, after a most distressing period of bloody warfare and mental
torture, all Europe was at comparative peace. Does not our thesis hold
good?

Now in the years of progress and peace from 1876 to 1882, what happens
to the mind of Wagner, as we behold him finally freed from toil,
poverty, enmity and humiliation? The same thing that happened to the
social mind under the suave influence of constitutional government,
headed by a wise and good king. Stimuli became softer, and the social
mind became more complicated in sense-perceptions, more sentimental,
with a dramatic expression less colored by earthly strife and blood,
more refined by spiritual and intellectual habits, and lo! in 1882
“Parsifal” marks the last production of the mighty Wagner. This work
presents a decided falling back from the standards he had created in
spontaneity and thematic development. The fact and the cause are plain.
The cause of the “falling off” is to be found in the absence of deeply
stirring economic stimuli, in the social pressure of the quiet years
during which this work was in preparation. Let the historical facts
speak for themselves. Assuredly the day will come, when sociologists
and psychologists will recognize as a scientific phenomenon, and one
admitting of quantitative psychiatric measurement, the relation between
social nerve disturbance in emotion, and social tranquillization in
Music, with its uncountable millions of vibrations which strike the
nerves, and act in ways now seemingly mysterious, upon the life of a
group.

With Wagner’s death, attention descends the mount of achievement along
emotional lines in Germany. Brahms, Strauss, Bruch, Bruchner and other
recent composers, all cling to the robe of Wagner. Here and there these
composers attempted alterations which distorted his idea, but succeeded
only in picturing the milder intellectual stimuli which now ruled
German thought.

FOOTNOTES:

[34] Even Beethoven illustrates the progressive idea of the time,
in the evolution of free initiative in new forms, exhibited in
his symphonies, which are progressive steps in greater freedom of
treatment, from the first, to the revolutionary introduction of
choruses in the ninth.

[35] Beethoven’s exquisite works for stringed instruments show
syncopation effects, but the hard, syncopated “accent” seems first
evident as sharp contrasts, in the works of Schumann.

                             CHAPTER VIII.

                          FRANCE (1800-1913).

France, as a most progressive nation, presents a splendid musical
system and a correspondingly good product of musical culture. The
French national mind is peculiarly sensitive to modern social pressure.
Let this pressure be relieved by musical rhythm and France will bound
ahead in musical paths as she has in so many other lines. In money
expenditure, she stands high, but this expenditure is made largely in
Paris. Culture in a State must be considered in its relation to all of
its inhabitants, and while France shows a large absolute expenditure,
her _per capita_ expenditure is relatively low. This expenditure,
however, is independent of private donations, which have no place in
State control, and which are a detriment rather than a benefit to the
general public, representing as they do, a control by the princely
“fads” of a ruling class. National musical genius is expressed in the
degree to which the national emotions are aroused by national stimuli.
Had France reacted to her social pressure in the same manner as did
Germany with practically the same stimuli, our history might have
properly closed with Germany’s triumph. But France had received quite
a different mental preparation from that which tortured the German
heart in the 18th century, and the nature of French emotionalism was
both far less sincerely tragic, and far more highly intellectual at
every phase, than was Germany’s. The common people of France were
indeed subjected to genuine misery before the downfall of the monarchy,
but they were ever arrayed in the glory of a conquering nation,--a
leading power, conscious of its own supremacy in European affairs,
although the peasantry were ground down with taxes, and made to be
the overburdened supporters of a vicious royalty; yet the tone of the
public mind, while somewhat critical, was chiefly domineering, and
capable of great enthusiasm. Free thought was still in the freshness of
youth, so that oppressions, as they came, were analyzed and denounced
even while endured. Germany had never thought of doing this until 1848.
The troubles of France were a direct consequence of the desires of
the common people, and were not so much brought upon them by outside
forces, as they were voluntarily encountered and even created, by
themselves, in their conscious development of a new idea of popular
rule. France wanted to do great and new deeds before she was mentally
ready for such achievements, and her trials were of her own making.
This fact does not lessen her emotional response to her social
pressure, but it does color it with a certain control even in its
deepest action. Thus it was with France, Napoleon draining her soil of
its best blood, but crowning the nation with laurels. The philosophical
spirit aroused by the genius of Voltaire did not weaken even under this
glory, and the French mind, although wearied by the revolution, rested
only a moment in the re-actions under Napoleon. The reckless Republic
was but the first sign of the new national temper, and--although all
Europe united to subdue it, and Napoleon’s Empire patted it into
momentary quiet with an encouragement of all forms of progress--the
national mind had tasted freedom and the old tolerance of royalty
was dying. During the fourteen years of his reign, Napoleon gave
substantial benefits to France. Continental Europe bent in submission
at his feet. Although the French people hated the old idea of monarchy,
they could not deny the advantages which France received from his
powerful genius. His death in 1821 left his former subjects in a bad
way, the people striving for constitutional government, against the
allies in favor of absolutism. But little by little, certain advances
were made by the people, in a gradual assertion of their opinions.
Revolution was a constant menace in the social pressure of the half
century following Napoleon’s downfall.

The rebellious fanaticism underlying each and all of civilized
manifestations, is certain to strike new and staggering blows at the
commercialism of our times. We feel as though terror and its causes in
religion were lurking very near the surface of the world politics today.

Along many lines France has not lost her old ascendency in leadership,
but her discipline has perhaps been too weak in the direction of dogged
persistence. Her actions possibly have been governed at home and in
her colonization efforts, by too much of a fatalistic policy, to give
strong promise of any continuous establishment of power under the
people’s rule. Yet much is to be expected, from the daring courage,
enthusiasm, and intellectual splendor of the French mind.

The whole country has furnished a strange contrast to German social
reaction, for under the same stimuli the one wept while the other
laughed. During the first forty years of the Nineteenth century, the
piano virtuoso, with his superficial flourishes of finger technique
reigned supreme over instrumental Music in France. The sonata, so
representative of dignity and noble sentiment, was accorded only an
obscure position during this superficial period, and the short piano
piece took its place. On the other hand, performers gave stimulus to
improvements in piano manufacture, as well as to composition of piano
works. Liszt and Thalberg dazzled the Parisians, and the public mind
demanded no deeper expression of its emotional disturbance than that
which was represented in pianistic display. After 1831 Chopin lived in
Paris, and his works continued to express the French love of the dance,
of ornamental display, and of delicate sentimentality. But in 1830 the
romantic movement had made itself felt in Music under Berlioz, who
produced a Music which suited perfectly the hot-headed revolutionary
tendencies of this time. Orchestration attained a tone-color, a new
technical possibility under Berlioz’s manipulation, and the bizarre
aspects of the then economic life were exactly reflected in his
_revolutionary effects_. His book on instrumentation, published in
1844, became an authority, and he influenced musicians to attempt new
forms, however these might be opposed to classical traditions. Berlioz
desired to invent astonishing instrumental effects, and did so, but his
efforts did not win him lasting popularity, although he is the real
founder of modern French Music.

But it is in the field of grand opera that we must look for those
amazingly accurate reflections of economic and social pressure, as
evidenced in the Music of France during the nineteenth century.
Cherubini contributed an earnest musicianship to French opera seria,
but he exhibits strong influences of foreign models. Napoleon
encouraged only the most trivial of the Italian operas; his attitude
was naturally disadvantageous to serious attempts in this field.
Opera-comique began to exhibit dramatic color under Mehul but it
remained for Spontini to reflect the Napoleonic regime, in opera which
glorified the heroic in all its splendor. His French works “La Vestale”
(1807), “Fernando Cortez” (1809), and “Olympie” (1819), reflect the
mental attitude of the time, but true to this reflection, also show
the lack of real depths of emotions not yet touched in France by the
social pressure of the time. The opera-comique more truly represented
public sentiment in the works of Boildieu, in “Le Calife de Bagdad,”
and “La Dame Blanche” which manifest a more serious tone and refinement
than had as yet been known in this field. Auber, however, knew best how
to call forth French admiration. His fame commenced about 1820, when
ideals were beginning to be colored by a darker hue of seriousness,
and his “Fra Diavolo” and “Le Domino Noir” exhibit his fine gift of
characterization. Herold’s “Zampa” presented new orchestral elements,
and is still very popular in America and England. Grand opera of the
heroic character received a strong impulse at the hands of Rossini,
(who lived at Paris after 1824), in his French work “Guillaume Tell”
(produced in 1829). Dramatic expression finds here some scope, although
without any great depth, and Auber’s “La Muette de Portici” (1828),
more nearly expresses the revolutionary feeling of the people, for the
subject of the Music is _popular revolt against tyranny_. The works of
Meyerbeer carry French grand opera to its highest point; his “Robert le
Diable” (1831), and “Les Huguenots” (1836) fit into the expression of
those years admirably, while his last work “L’Africaine” (1864), shows
all of that ferment in French thought which was so inevitably leading
up to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.

The dramatic events of French Nineteenth century history had produced
the genuine histrionic instinct in musical composition; and the
complication of orchestral effects, was a natural expression of
the multiplicity of stimuli accompanying every economic impulse.
_Consistency_ in Meyerbeer’s Music was as conspicuous by its absence as
it was in the French economic world, where the abnormal, sensational,
religious and absurd were so inconsistently jumbled up with plans
for a stable constitutional government, and peaceful relations with
Europe. Simplicity was not to the taste of the time. Glaring colors
and noisy effects much more nearly reflected the social mode, and
Meyerbeer responded as the musician in him should have done, to the
prevailing social pressure. The greatest development was exhibited in
the orchestral dramatic expression, and the action in a scene began
to take a superior place above vocalization, in the formation of the
Music drama. This departure may be said to mark the beginning of the
degeneration of the real purpose of the opera.

With the reign of peace after the Franco-Prussian war, a new element
entered the musical productions of the time. Orchestral concerts
abounded. Church Music by Dubois, Gounod and Franck was of an excellent
character, in line with the increasing agitation over religious
questions. France needed rhythm, as a hungry man needs bread, and she
found it in a partial return to Bach, and to the still earlier masters
of sacred Music. Popular concerts were instituted for the benefit of
the people in 1861. These have continued their useful mission to the
present day. France has demanded that life shall be actually pictured
in her Music. This impossible demand is leading French Music far from
the relative characterizations as presented in Guonod’s “Faust” and
Bizet’s “Carmen,” and into the ridiculous “tonal tears” region, where a
printed program is needed to inform the hearers, that the staccati of
the piccolo are meant to indicate the rain drops on my lady’s brow, and
not intended to announce the squeal of a pig. Without the program, who
would know?

Towards the close of the century, there is a decline in the sensuous
and mystical elements, both in economic and in musical affairs.
Gounod’s “Faust” in 1859 had reflected these qualities of the social
mind, and his “St. Cecilia Mass” in 1856 expressed the religious
attitude of the people. But the rise of the present Republic gave
the sceptre into sterner hands, and the skillful use of Music in
characterization was vividly expressed, in so far as it could be,
in Bizet’s “Carmen” in 1873. Saint Saens and Massenet show the
intellectual refinement of the period now ushered in, with its strong
suggestions of dramatic feeling so exquisitely expressed, yet clinging
to ancient models in melodic construction, and avoiding the harsh and
bizarre effects lately manifested in French tendencies. Cesár Franck,
in his beautiful oratorio, “Les Beatitudes” (produced in 1891),
demonstrates the real depth of religious sentiment existing under the
intellectual adornments of the French mind at this period, and the
great depth, and musical value of this work exhibit a fund of religious
sentiment, which we do not believe has been crushed by the recent
separation of Church and State, and which will show itself in revolt at
no distant period.

The very latest operatic works of French composers are exhibiting a mad
desire for an expression of a national Music, which looks more like an
effort to root out the musical supremacy of Germany, than like a plan
to establish a genuine progression in French art. France would like to
have a Music all its own, be it ever so ugly, distorted, or bizarre.
She wants to lead in musical art, to tear up old models, to force a
new-old scale upon her half distracted people, and to over-dress the
misshapen things in absurd orchestral exaggeration, which so drowns
the poor human voice, that the helpless vocal organ is obliged to
shout dramatic phrases to a deafened audience, over the countless
unrestrained vibrations of a hundred or more madly ringing instruments.
What a farce it is! A grand opera presenting a modern girl of Paris, in
a modern shirt-waist, yelling common-place remarks to the accompaniment
of a monster band! But it must change. The human voice will come into
its own again, when the over-excited modern mentality shall have calmed
itself down to the normal. The orchestra will shrink to its diminutive
and correct position, as a mere suggestor of the harmony which supports
the voice, and the emotions of life will find their true relief in
accentuated rhythm, soothing melody, and noble harmonies. France is
still passing through, and she certainly will not come out of, her
transition period with the thing she is now trying to call “Music.”

French pride in musical accomplishment is well exhibited in the aid
extended to this culture by State activity.[36]

FOOTNOTES:

[36] The statistics will be found in Appendix E.

                              CHAPTER IX.

                            UNITED STATES.

It is a matter for surprise and deep regret that the United States
Federal Government should show a lack of interest in musical education.
But our young country is not likely to remain for long behind smaller
lands. Our hope is secure in the fundamental generosity and wisdom
of our national mind, which now squanders vast sums upon musical
diversion, but spends nothing at all for the free musical education of
its gifted citizens.

We have in this country a strange mixture of races and of ideals,
all contributing something of Old World conditions, and combining
to form a new type. The people who struggled so bravely through the
Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries were of various origins, but all
came to the struggle with tragedy of some kind or other implanted in
their mental composition. Emotions beat the pioneers into their one
refuge, the Church; even the ballad, simple as it was, found but scant
room where the prayer book lay. Pioneer life gave little ground for
complication of stimuli, until the Nineteenth century opened the gates
of our country to the industrial inventions, and to the discontent
of foreign labor. A subdued and almost religious atmosphere stifled
emotions during the first half of the Nineteenth century, but the waves
of reform sweeping over Europe found their way even here by 1861, and
the Great Civil War would have stirred us to our depths, had not the
mighty currents of feeling within us been kept in subjection by our
Church habits. The few valves of relief permitted to our people in the
primitive vaudeville and theatre productions, were not sufficient to
offset the irritation of quickly complicating economic stimuli. At this
period our immigrant population came from England, Ireland, Scotland,
Wales, Denmark, Belgium, Germany, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland.
These immigrants generally possessed cool heads, and were of fine
stern characters, skilled in various crafts, and they came to stay
permanently. They became one with our people, and our struggles were
their struggles. Italian opera and the higher intellectual diversions
were later additions to the pleasures of the rich, but the masses
rarely shared in such amusements, and the old-fashioned ballads, and
the splendidly developed hymnal Music furnished our only relief for
emotional disturbance. Yet this was endurable because of the beautiful
hymnal exercise, until the gold-fever and the oil-madness, united
with the agitation of the Southern States, set our emotional depths
to new movements, and the cry of the laborer for liberty and of the
manufacturer for more power, added fear and rage to our every-day
emotions. The rapid rise of our national power, the enormous strides
in public education, and the incredible multiplication of stimuli upon
every side, twisted and stretched our national nerves until we now see
ourselves confronted with an abnormal type, which must soon find its
normal calm in rhythmic pulse action, or else go to pieces under the
strain. Nowhere have we any outlet or re-establishing agency, except
in the dance, and in such cheap shows as permit of but a partial
relief. The class of foreign labor arriving since 1883 is from the
south of Europe, illiterate, fiery, adding another element of danger
to our tense nationality, and still our blind government has not
opened musical safety valves, for the steam that is fast rising to the
bursting point. Our musical talent is of the finest order, but, not
having any governmental aid in free instruction, is obliged to go to
Europe, there to learn to compound a German, French or Italian medicine
for an American disease, when our peculiar social pressure demands a
particular American remedy. Private schools, having only their own
financial gains in mind, are farcical agents for carrying out any truly
social functions. The land cries out for its own musical culture, as
strongly in rural districts as in urban. Cannot the government see
that musical employment in America is already covering a vast field?
Scarcely any function is conducted without Music. Restaurants, hotels,
clubs, opera houses, plays, churches, funerals, weddings, social
events, parades, steamboat service, labor union meetings, support
hundreds of thousands of professional musicians. Yet practically all
of this employment is given to foreign-born talent, because only the
well-to-do in America can study Music, and the common people who may
possess the best talent, and who may both love it and need it the most,
are denied this means of making a living, while municipal governments
spend useless thousands upon concerts, and a few park bands which but
whet the public appetite, while our rich musical talent among the poor
lies dying and neglected.[37] No wonder revolution knocks at the door!
The government is giving the eye-openers in its free educational plan,
so aiding the disturbance of human rhythm by sensational newspapers,
noisy streets, high prices and too quick life, yet closes the door to
free musical instruction which would tranquillize the mind, and restore
equilibrium of pulse. The churches nail down the natural impulses, and
society frowns upon “new” forms, but nature will generate her energy
nevertheless, and pent up in the human system it will boil over at a
certain point.

The United States is by no means lacking in prosperity, sufficient for
the maintenance of public musical instruction for the culture of a wage
earning occupation. Our financial reports speak for themselves. In
comparing our prosperity and our neglect of musical culture with the
activities along this line as carried on by other countries, great and
small, the following letter from ex-President Taft may be of interest:

  The White House,      July 3rd, 1909.
      Washington.

  My dear Sir:--

 I have your letter and I do not think it possible to secure from the
 American government any appropriation for the promotion of musical
 schools. This must be done by private munificence if at all.

                                                       Sincerely yours,

                                                           WM. H. TAFT.

America is mad for Music. The moving-picture shows are saving our
sanity with their rhythmic combinations of light and sound waves,
their daily audiences amounting to 5,000,000 people in 14,000 picture
theaters, and 4,000 subjects annually placed upon the American
market.[38] By this means we retain our rhythm, but the higher remedies
of the orchestral concert, opera and chamber Music performances are
denied the people who have no wealth, while the hundreds of thousands
of paying positions in the bodies which compose these forces, are
likewise prohibited to our native talent, because there are no free
schools in which such talent can be developed. Only the well-to-do may
study Music in the United States and, strangely enough, our real talent
often lies not in this class, but outside of this charmed circle, down
among the elements of our foreign-born and the natives of foreign-born,
whose ancestral nerves have been fed upon nationally provided musical
rhythm.

United States gold should be showered over the health-giving and
joy-bestowing field of National Music, so fondly loved by the people,
and so necessary to mental and physical relaxation from the maddening
strain of modern life. A bright star will adorn the administration of
the first President to take this need in hand.

FOOTNOTES:

[37] The value of the musical instruction as given in public schools
is not worth consideration beyond its diversion aspect. The singing is
a menace to correct voice placement and the remaining exercises are
insignificant.

[38] American Industries, January, 1913.

                              APPENDIX A.

                            QUESTIONNAIRE.

The exact form of the American questionnaire employed in the gathering
of statistics is given below. The inquiries sent abroad followed the
same plan and had the same scope, but were couched in somewhat more
indirect and formal terms, and of course each separate set of questions
was sent out in the language of the country to whose officials it was
directed.

For a statistical work I need some official information in regard to
the following queries:

 1. How much does the American Government expend annually upon public
 conservatories for free tuition of pupils?

 2. How much do the single states contribute annually for the same
 purpose?

 3. Is there any subvention for Grand Opera from the American
 Government or from the States?

 4. Is there any subvention for Orchestra organizations, or for Choral
 Societies?

 5. Are there any prizes granted annually from the State for musical
 achievements to composers, singers, players?

 6. Are there any endowments from the American Government or from the
 States to enable young gifted musicians to complete their musical
 education in America or abroad?

                              APPENDIX B.

                   SOURCES OF STATISTICAL MATERIAL.

The sources of the statistics in this appendix are indicated in the
first table below.

Gladly I take this opportunity again to express my appreciation of the
invariable courtesies extended in answer to my inquiries. Elsewhere[39]
will be found the names of the officials whose painstaking and
often detailed reports made it possible for the author to convey to
the reader a picture of the relative support given to music by the
governments of foreign states.

                _Official or Institution_      _Communication_
  _Country_       _Furnishing Statistics_            _Dated_

  Austria    Imperial Academy of Music and      Dec. 13, 1912
               the Fine Arts.
  Bavaria    Minister of the Interior for       Apr. 21, 1913
               Religion and Education.
  Belgium    Minister of Arts and Sciences.     Feb. 4, 1913
  Denmark    Danish Consul-General in New       May 8, 1913
               York.                            May 13, 1913
  Equador    Quito Conservatory of Music.       Aug. 31, 1913
  England    National Education Board,          Dec. 24, 1912
             Whitehall, London, England.
  France     Paris Conservatoire.               Feb.  9, 1913
  Holland    Minister of the Interior.          Mar. 19, 1913
  Hungary    Secretary of State, Budapest.      Mar. 23, 1913
  Italy      Minister of Instruction.           Mar. 10, 1913
  Norway     Royal Inspector of Music in        Dec. 15, 1912
               Christiania.
  Prussia    Consul-General of the United       Mar. 10, 1913
               States in Berlin.
  Russia     First Secretary to the Russian     May 28, 1913
               Embassy, Washington, D.C.
  Saxony     Minister of the Interior.          Apr. 8, 1913
  Sweden     Royal Conservatory of Music,       Jan. 4, 1913
               Stockholm.
  United     Chief Clerk, United States         Mar. 15, 1913
  States       Bureau of Education.

FOOTNOTES:

[39] See pages 16-17.

                              APPENDIX C.

These figures are merely intended to give an idea of foreign activities
in national annual support of musical culture. Comparisons, without
more detailed statistics would be misleading and unjust. Therefore per
capita calculations have been purposely omitted.

All Military Band expenses and appropriations have been deducted from
the statistics received. Saxony and Bavaria as mere states, do not
belong to above list, but the praiseworthy achievements of Bavaria are
shown in her total expenditures of 703,030 Marks annually.

                                  _Square_       _Foreign_    _American_
  _Countries_    _Population_[40]  _Miles_         _Money_     _Dollars_
  Austria         28,568,000       115,903  1,730,084 Kronen    351,207
  Belgium          7,317,561        11,373    641,275 Francs    123,766
  Denmark          2,775,000        15,582     20,600 Kronen      5,520
  Equador (1913)   1,400,000       116,000     28,500 Sucre      13,879
  France          39,252,000       207,054  1,971,118 Francs    380,425
  Great Britain   45,947,000       121,510      4,600 Lbs        22,385
  Holland          5,858,000        12,648     32,000 Florins    12,864