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                     The Foreign Biblical Library.

          EDITED BY THE REV. W. ROBERTSON NICOLL, M.A., LL.D.

           _12 Volumes. Large crown 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. each._

    I. =Still Hours.=
        By RICHARD ROTHE. Translated by JANE T. STODDART. With an
        Introductory Essay by the Rev. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A.

   II. =Biblical Commentary on the Book of Psalms.=
        By Professor FRANZ DELITZSCH, of Leipzig. From the latest
        edition specially revised by the Author. Translated by the
        Rev. DAVID EATON, M.A. In three Volumes.

  III. =A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament.=
        By BERNHARD WEISS. Translated by Miss DAVIDSON. _In 2 Vols._

   IV. =Church History.=
        By Professor KURTZ. Authorized Translation, from the latest
        Revised Edition, by the Rev. J. MACPHERSON, M.A. _In 3 Vols._

    V. =Selected Sermons of Schleiermacher.=
        Translated by MARY F. WILSON.

   VI. =A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah.=
        By Professor FRANZ DELITZSCH. Translated by the Rev. JAMES
        DENNEY, B.D. _In 2 Vols._

          LONDON: HODDER AND STOUGHTON, 27, PATERNOSTER ROW.

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                            CHURCH HISTORY.

                                   BY
                            PROFESSOR KURTZ.

      _AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED EDITION BY THE_
                       REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A.

                       IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. I.

                           _SECOND EDITION._

                                London:
                         HODDER AND STOUGHTON,
                          27, PATERNOSTER ROW.

                               MDCCCXCI.

                            BUTLER & TANNER,
                      THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
                           FROME, AND LONDON.

                                PREFACE.

  The English reader is here presented with a translation of the ninth
edition of a work which first appeared in 1849, and has obtained a most
distinguished place, it might be said almost a monopoly, as a text-book
of Church History in the German Universities. Since 1850, when the
second edition was issued, an English translation of which has been
widely used in Britain and America, Dr. Kurtz has given great attention
to the improvement of his book. The increase of size has not been caused
by wordy amplification, but by an urgent necessity felt by the author as
he used the vast materials that recent years have spread out before the
historical student. In 1870 Dr. Kurtz retired from his professorship,
and has conscientiously devoted himself to bring up each successive
edition of his text-book to the point reached by the very latest
scholarship of his own and other lands. In his Preface to the ninth
edition of 1885 he claims to have made very special improvements on
the presentation of the history of the first three centuries, where
ample use is made of the brilliant researches of Harnack and other
distinguished scholars of the day.

  In the exercise of that discretion which has been allowed him, the
translator has ventured upon an innovation, which he trusts will be
generally recognised as a very important improvement. The German edition
has frequently pages devoted to the literature of the larger divisions,
and a considerable space is thus occupied at the beginning of most of
the ordinary sections, as well as at the close of many of the sub-
sections. The books named in these lists are almost exclusively German
works and articles that have appeared in German periodicals. Experience
has shown that the reproduction of such lists in an English edition is
utterly useless to the ordinary student and extremely repulsive to the
reader, as it seriously interferes with the continuity of the text. The
translator has therefore ventured wholly to cancel these lists,
substituting carefully selected standard English works known to himself
from which detailed information on the subjects treated of in the
several paragraphs may be obtained. These he has named in footnotes at
the places where such references seemed to be necessary and most likely
to be useful. Those students who know German so thoroughly as to be able
to refer to books and articles by German specialists will find no
difficulty in using the German edition of Kurtz, in which copious lists
of such literature are given.

  The first English volume is a reproduction without retrenchment of the
original; but in the second volume an endeavour has been made to render
the text-book more convenient and serviceable to British and American
students by slightly abridging some of those paragraphs which give
minute details of the Reformation work in various German provinces.
But even there care has been taken not to omit any fact of interest or
importance. No pains have been spared to give the English edition a form
that may entitle it to occupy that front rank among students’ text-books
of Church History which the original undoubtedly holds in Germany.

                                                    JOHN MACPHERSON.

  FINDHORN, _July, 1888_.

                               CONTENTS.

                             INTRODUCTION.

    § 1. IDEA AND TASK OF CHURCH HISTORY.

    § 2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO CONTENTS.
          (1) The Various Branches Included in a Complete Course
              of Church History.
          (2) The Separate Branches of Church History.

    § 3. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO PERIODS.

    § 4. SOURCES AND AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORY.
          (1) Literature of the Sources.
          (2) Literature of the Auxiliary Sciences.

    § 5. HISTORY OF GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY.
          (1) Down to the Reformation.
          (2) The 16th and 17th Centuries.
          (3) The 18th Century.
          (4) The 19th Century.
          (5) The 19th Century--Continued.
          (6) The 19th Century--Continued.

              HISTORY OF THE PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY.

               The pre-Christian World preparing the way
                        of the Christian Church.

    § 6. THE STANDPOINT OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

    § 7. HEATHENISM.
          (1) The Religious Character of Heathenism.
          (2) The Moral Character of Heathenism.
          (3) The Intellectual Culture in Heathenism.
          (4) The Hellenic Philosophy.
          (5) The Heathen State.

    § 8. JUDAISM.
          (1) Judaism under special Training of God through the
              Law and Prophecy.
          (2) Judaism after the Cessation of Prophecy.
          (3) The Synagogues.
          (4) Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.

    § 9. SAMARITANISM.

   § 10. INTERCOURSE BETWEEN JUDAISM AND HEATHENISM.
          (1) Influence of Heathenism upon Judaism.
          (2) Influence of Judaism upon Heathenism.

   § 11. THE FULNESS OF TIME.

                     THE HISTORY OF THE BEGINNINGS.

         The Founding of the Church by Christ and His Apostles.

   § 12. CHARACTER OF THE HISTORY OF THE BEGINNINGS.

                         I. THE LIFE OF JESUS.

   § 13. JESUS CHRIST, THE SAVIOUR OF THE WORLD.
          (1) Year of Birth and Year of Death of Jesus.
          (2) Earliest Non-Biblical Witnesses to Christ.

                         II. THE APOSTOLIC AGE.
                              A.D. 30-70.

   § 14. THE MINISTRY OF THE APOSTLES BEFORE PAUL.
              Beginning and Close of Apostolic Age.

   § 15. THE MINISTRY OF THE APOSTLE PAUL.
              Details of Paul’s Life.

   § 16. THE OTHER APOSTLES AFTER THE APPEARANCE OF THE APOSTLE PAUL.
          (1) The Roman Episcopate of Peter.
          (2) The Apostle John.
          (3) James, the brother of the Lord.
          (4) The Later Legends of the Apostles.

   § 17. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, AND DISCIPLINE.
          (1) The Charismata of the Apostolic Age.
          (2) The Constitution of the Mother Church at Jerusalem.
          (3) The Constitution of the Pauline Churches.
          (4) The Church in the Pauline Epistles.
          (5) Congregational and Spiritual Offices.
          (6) The Question about the Original Position of the
              Episcopate and Presbyterate.
          (7) Christian Worship.
          (8) Christian Life and Ecclesiastical Discipline.

   § 18. HERESIES IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE.
          (1) Jewish Christianity and the Council of Apostles.
          (2) The Apostolic Basis of Doctrine.
          (3) False Teachers.

                            FIRST DIVISION.

          History of the Development of the Church during the
                Græco-Roman and Græco-Byzantine Periods.

   § 19. CONTENT, DISTRIBUTION AND BOUNDARIES OF THOSE PERIODS.

                            FIRST SECTION.

              History of the Græco-Roman Church during the
               Second and Third Centuries (A.D. 70-323).

   § 20. CONTENT, DISTRIBUTION AND BOUNDARIES OF THIS PERIOD.
          (1) The Post-Apostolic Age.
          (2) The Age of the Old Catholic Church.
          (3) The Point of Transition from the One Age to the Other.

          I. THE RELATIONSHIP OF EXTRA-CHRISTIAN PAGANISM AND
                         JUDAISM TO THE CHURCH.

   § 21. THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.

   § 22. PERSECUTIONS OF THE CHRISTIANS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
          (1) Claudius, Nero and Domitian.
          (2) Trajan and Hadrian.
          (3) Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.
          (4) Septimius Severus and Maximinus Thrax.
          (5) Decius, Gallus and Valerian.
          (6) Diocletian and Galerius.
          (7) Maximinus Daza, Maxentius and Licinius.

   § 23. CONTROVERSIAL WRITINGS OF PAGANISM.
          (1) Lucian’s Satire _De Morte Peregrini_.
          (2) Worshippers of an Ass.
          (3) Polemic properly so-called.

   § 24. Attempted Reconstruction of Paganism.
          (1) Apollonius of Tyana.
          (2) Neo-platonism.

   § 25. Jewish and Samaritan Reaction.
          (1) Disciples of John.
          (2) The Samaritan Heresiarchs.
                a. Dositheus.
                b. Simon Magus.
                c. Menander.

             II. DANGER TO THE CHURCH FROM PAGAN AND JEWISH
                     ELEMENTS WITHIN ITS OWN PALE.

   § 26. GNOSTICISM IN GENERAL.
          (1) Gnosticism.
          (2) The Problems of Gnostic Speculation.
          (3) Distribution.
          (4) Sources of Information.

   § 27. THE GENTILE CHRISTIAN GNOSTICISM.
          (1) Cerinthus.
          (2) The Gnosticism of Basilides.
          (3) Irenæus’ Sketch of Basilideanism.
          (4) Valentinian Gnosticism.
          (5) Two Divisions of the Valentinian School.
          (6) The Ophites and related Sects.
          (7) The Gnosis of the Ophites.
          (8) Antinomian and Libertine Sects.
                a. The Nicolaitans.
                b. The Simonians.
                c. The Carpocratians.
                d. The Prodicians.
          (9) Saturninus.
         (10) Tatian and the Encratites.
         (11) Marcion and the Marcionites.
         (12) Marcion’s Disciples.
         (13) Hermogenes.

   § 28. EBIONISM AND EBIONITIC GNOSTICISM.
          (1) Nazareans and Ebionites.
          (2) The Elkesaites.
          (3) The Pseudo-Clementine Series of Writings.
                a. Homiliæ XX Clementis.
                b. Recognitiones Clementis.
                c. Epitomæ.
          (4) The Pseudo-Clementine Doctrinal System.

   § 29. MANICHÆISM.
          (1) The Founder.
          (2) The System.
          (3) Constitution, Worship, and Missionarizing.

            III. THE DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT AND APOLOGETICAL
                        ACTIVITY OF THE CHURCH.

   § 30. THE THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE OF THE POST-APOSTOLIC AGE,
         A.D. 70-170.
          (1) The Beginnings of Patristic Literature.
          (2) The Theology of the Post-Apostolic Age.
          (3) The so-called Apostolic Fathers.
                a. Clement of Rome.
          (4)   b. Barnabas.
                c. Pastor Hermas.
          (5)   d. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch.
          (6)   e. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna.
                f. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis.
                g. Epistle to Diognetus.
          (7) The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles.
          (8) The Writings of the Earliest Christian Apologists.
          (9) Extant Writings of Apologists of the
              Post-Apostolic Age.
                a. Justin Martyr.
         (10)   b. Tatian.
                c. Athenagoras.
                d. Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch.
                e. Hermias.

   § 31. THE THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE OF THE OLD CATHOLIC AGE,
         A.D. 170-323.
          (1) The Theological Schools and Tendencies.

                  1. CHURCH FATHERS WRITING IN GREEK.

          (2) Church Teachers of the Asiatic Type.
                a. Irenæus.
          (3)   b. Hippolytus.
          (4) The Alexandrian Church Teachers.
                a. Pantænus.
                b. Titus Flavius Clement.
          (5)   c. Origen.
          (6)   d. Dionysius of Alexandria.
                e. Gregory Thaumaturgus.
                f. Pamphilus.
          (7) Greek-speaking Church Teachers in other Quarters.
                a. Hegesippus.
                b. Caius of Rome.
          (8)   c. Sextus Julius Africanus.
          (9)   d. Methodius.
                e. Lucian of Samosata.

                  2. CHURCH FATHERS WRITING IN LATIN.

          (10) The Church Teachers of North Africa.
                   Tertullian.
          (11)     Cyprian.
          (12) Various Ecclesiastical Writers using the Latin Tongue.
                a. Minucius Felix.
                b. Commodus.
                c. Novatian.
                d. Arnobius.
                e. Victorinus of Pettau.
                f. Lucius Lactantius.

   § 32. THE APOCRYPHAL AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHICAL LITERATURE.
          (1) Professedly Old Heathen Prophecies.
          (2) Old Testament Pseudepigraphs.
                a. Book of Enoch.
                b. Assumptio Mosis.
                c. Fourth Book of Ezra.
                d. Book of Jubilees.
          (3) Pseudepigraphs of Christian Origin.
                a. History of Assenath.
                b. The Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs.
                c. _Ascensio Isaiæ_ and _Visio Isaiæ_.
                d. _Spelunca thesaurorum._
          (4) New Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigraphs.
                I. Apocryphal Gospels.
          (5)  II. Apocryphal Histories and Legends of the Apostles.
          (6)      ---- Apocryphal Monographs.
          (7) III. Apostolic Epistles.
               IV. Apocryphal Apocalypses.
                V. Apostolical Constitutions.
          (8) The Acts of the Martyrs.

   § 33. THE DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES OF THE OLD CATHOLIC AGE.
          (1) The Trinitarian Questions.
          (2) The Alogians.
          (3) The Theodotians and Artemonites.
          (4) Praxeas and Tertullian.
          (5) The Noëtians and Hippolytus.
          (6) Beryllus and Origen.
          (7) Sabellius; Dionysius of Alexandria; Dionysius of Rome.
          (8) Paul of Samosata.
          (9) Chiliasm.

            IV. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP, LIFE AND DISCIPLINE.

   § 34. THE INNER ORGANIZATION OF THE CHURCH.
          (1) The Continuation of Charismatic Endowments into
              Post-Apostolic Times.
          (2) The Development of the Episcopal Hierarchy.
          (3) The Regular Ecclesiastical Offices of the Old
              Catholic Age.
          (4) Clergy and Laity.
          (5) The Synods.
          (6) Personal and Epistolary Intercourse.
          (7) The Unity and Catholicity of the Church.
          (8) The Roman Primacy.

   § 35. THE ADMINISTRATION OF BAPTISM.
          (1) The Preparation for Receiving Baptism.
          (2) The Baptismal Formula.
          (3) The Administration of Baptism.
          (4) The Doctrine of Baptism.
          (5) The Controversy about Heretics’ Baptism.

   § 36. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND ITS VARIOUS PARTS.
          (1) The Agape.
          (2) The _Missa Catechumenorum_.
          (3) The _Missa Fidelium_.
          (4) The _Disciplina Arcani_.
          (5) The Doctrine of the Lord’s Supper.
          (6) The Sacrificial Theory.
          (7) The Use of Scripture.
          (8) Formation of a New Testament Canon.
          (9) The Doctrine of Inspiration.
         (10) Hymnology.

   § 37. FEASTS AND FESTIVAL SEASONS.
          (1) The Festivals of the Christian Year.
          (2) The Paschal Controversies.
          (3) The Ecclesiastical Institution of Fasting.

   § 38. THE CHURCH BUILDINGS AND THE CATACOMBS.
          (1) The Catacombs.
          (2) The Antiquities of the Catacombs.
          (3) Pictorial Art and the Catacombs.
          (4) Pictorial and Artistic Representations.
                a. Significant Symbols.
                b. Allegorical Figures.
                c. Parabolic Figures.
                d. Historical Pictures of O. T. Types.
                e. Figures from the Gospel History.
                f. Liturgical Figures.

   § 39. LIFE, MANNERS, AND DISCIPLINE.
          (1) Christian Morals and Manners.
          (2) The Penitential Discipline.
          (3) Asceticism.
          (4) Paul of Thebes.
          (5) Beginning of Veneration of Martyrs.
          (6) Superstition.

   § 40. THE MONTANIST REFORMATION.
          (1) Montanism in Asia Minor.
          (2) Montanism at Rome.
          (3) Montanism in Proconsular Africa.
          (4) The Fundamental Principle of Montanism.
          (5) The Attitude of Montanism toward the Church.

   § 41. SCHISMATIC DIVISIONS IN THE CHURCH.
          (1) The Schism of Hippolytus at Rome about A.D. 220.
          (2) The Schism of Felicissimus at Carthage in A.D. 250.
          (3) The Schism of the Presbyter Novatian at Rome in
              A.D. 251.
          (4) The Schism of Meletius in Egypt in A.D. 306.

                            SECOND SECTION.

               The History of the Græco-Roman Church from
                         the 4th-7th centuries.
                             A.D. 323-692.

                          I. CHURCH AND STATE.

   § 42. THE OVERTHROW OF PAGANISM IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
          (1) The Romish Legend of the Baptism of Constantine.
          (2) Constantine the Great and his Sons.
          (3) Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361-363).
          (4) The Later Emperors.
          (5) Heathen Polemics and Apologetics.
          (6) The Religion of the Hypsistarians.

   § 43. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE AND THE ECCLESIASTICAL LAW.
          (1) The _Jus Circa Sacra_.
          (2) The Institution of Œcumenical Synods.
          (3) Canonical Ordinances.
          (4) Pseudepigraphic Church Ordinances.
          (5) The Apostolic Church Ordinances.

             II. MONASTICISM, CLERICALISM AND HIERARCHISM.

   § 44. MONASTICISM.
          (1) The Biography of St. Anthony.
          (2) The Origin of Christian Monasticism.
          (3) Oriental Monasticism.
          (4) Western Monasticism.
          (5) Institution of Nunneries.
          (6) Monastic Asceticism.
          (7) Anti-Ecclesiastical and Heretical Monasticism.

   § 45. THE CLERGY.
          (1) Training of the Clergy.
          (2) The Injunction of Celibacy.
          (3) Later Ecclesiastical Offices.
          (4) Church Property.

   § 46A. THE PATRIARCHAL CONSTITUTION AND THE PRIMACY.
          (1) The Patriarchal Constitution.
          (2) The Rivalry between Rome and Byzantium.

   § 46B. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN CHAIR AND ITS CLAIMS TO THE PRIMACY.
          (3) From Melchiades to Julius I., A.D. 310 to A.D. 352.
          (4) From Liberius to Anastasius, A.D. 352 to A.D. 402.
          (5) From Innocent I. to Zosimus, A.D. 402 to A.D. 418.
          (6) From Boniface I. to Sixtus III., A.D. 419 to A.D. 440.
          (7) From Leo the Great to Simplicius, A.D. 440 to A.D. 483.
          (8) From Felix III. to Boniface II., A.D. 483 to A.D. 532.
          (9) From John II. to Pelagius II., A.D. 532 to A.D. 590.
         (10) From Gregory I. to Boniface V., A.D. 590 to A.D. 625.
         (11) From Honorius I. to Gregory III., A.D. 625 to A.D. 741.

                III. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND LITERATURE.

   § 47. THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR MOST CELEBRATED
         REPRESENTATIVES.
          (1) The Theological Schools and Tendencies.
                a. In the 4th and 5th centuries.
                b. Of the 6th and 7th Centuries.

         1. THE MOST IMPORTANT TEACHERS OF THE EASTERN CHURCH.

          (2) The Most Celebrated Representative of the Old
              Alexandrian School----Eusebius.
          (3) Church Fathers of the New Alexandrian School.
                a. Athanasius.
          (4) ---- The Three Great Cappadocians.
                b. Basil the Great.
                c. Gregory Nazianzen.
                d. Gregory of Nyssa.
          (5)   e. Apollinaris.
                f. Didymus the Blind.
          (6)   g. Macarius Magnes.
                h. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria.
                i. Isidore of Pelusium.
          (7) ---- Mystics and Philosophers.
                k. Macarius the Great or the Elder.
                l. Marcus Eremita.
                m. Synesius of Cyrene.
                n. Nemesius, Bishop of Emesa.
                o. Æneas of Gaza.
          (8) The Antiocheans.
                a. Eusebius of Emesa.
                b. Diodorus of Tarsus.
                c. John of Antioch (Chrysostom).
          (9)   d. Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia.
                e. Polychronius, Bishop of Apamea.
                f. Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus.
         (10) Other Teachers of the Greek Church during the 4th
              and 5th Centuries.
                a. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem.
                b. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis.
                c. Palladius.
                d. Nilus.
         (11) Greek Church Fathers of the 6th and 7th Centuries.
                a. Johannes Philoponus.
                b. Dionysius the Areopagite.
         (12)   c. Leontius Byzantinus.
                d. Maximus Confessor.
                e. Johannes Climacus.
                f. Johannes Moschus.
                g. Anastasius Sinaita.
         (13) Syrian Church Fathers.
                a. Jacob of Nisibis.
                b. Aphraates.
                c. Ephraim the Syrian.
                d. Ibas, Bishop of Edessa.
                e. Jacob, Bishop of Edessa.

         2. THE MOST IMPORTANT TEACHERS OF THE WESTERN CHURCH.

         (14)   f. During the Period of the Arian Controversy.
                    a. Jul. Firmicus Maternus.
                    b. Lucifer of Calaris.
                    c. Marius Victorinus.
                    d. Hilary of Poitiers.
                    e. Zeno, Bishop of Verona.
                    f. Philaster, Bishop of Brescia.
                    g. Martin of Tours.
         (15)   g. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan.
                h. Ambrosiaster.
                i. Pacianus, Bishop of Barcelona.
         (16) During the Period of Origenistic Controversy.
                a. Jerome.
         (17)   b. Tyrannius Rufinus.
                c. Sulpicius Severus.
                d. Peter Chrysologus, Bishop of Ravenna.
         (18) The Hero of the Soteriological Controversy--Augustine.
         (19) Augustine’s Works.
                a. Philosophical Treatises.
                b. Dogmatic Treatises.
                c. Controversial Treatises.
                d. Apologetical Treatises.
                e. Exegetical Works.
         (20) Augustine’s Disciples and Friends.
                a. Paulinus, Deacon of Milan.
                b. Paul Orosius.
                c. Marius Mercator.
                d. Prosper Aquitanicus.
                e. Cæsarius, Bishop of Arelate.
                f. Fulgentius, Bishop of Ruspe.
         (21) Pelagians and semi-Pelagians.
                I. Pelagius.
               II. Semi-Pelagians or Massilians.
                    a. Johannes Cassianus.
                    b. Vincent Lerinensis.
                    c. Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons.
                    d. Salvianus, Presbyter at Marseilles.
                    e. Faustus of Rhegium.
                    f. Arnobius the Younger.
         (22) The Most Important Church Teachers among the Roman Popes.
                a. Leo the Great.
                b. Gelasius I.
                c. Gregory the Great.
         (23) The Conservators and Continuators of Patristic Culture.
                a. Boëthius.
                b. Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus.
                c. Dionysius Exiguus.

   § 48. BRANCHES OF THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND CHRISTIAN POETRY.
          (1) Exegetical Theology.
          (2) Historical Theology.
          (3) Systematic Theology.
                a. Apologetics.
                b. Polemics.
                c. Positive Dogmatics.
                d. Morals.
          (4) Practical Theology.
          (5) Christian Poetry.
          (6) Christian Latin Poetry.
          (7) Poetry of National Syrian Church.
          (8) The Legendary History of Cyprian.

               IV. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES AND HERESIES.

   § 49. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE GENERALLY.
              Heretical Developments.

   § 50. THE TRINITARIAN CONTROVERSY, A.D. 318-381.
          (1) Preliminary Victory of the Homoousia, A.D. 318-325.
          (2) Victory of Eusebianism, A.D. 328-356.
          (3) Victory of Homoiousianism, A.D. 357-361.
          (4) Final Victory of the Nicene Creed, A.D. 361-381.
          (5) The Pneumatomachians, A.D. 362-381.
          (6) The Literature of the Controversy.
          (7) Post-Nicene Development of the Dogma.
          (8) Schisms in consequence of the Arian Controversy.
                I. The Meletian Schism at Antioch.
               II. The Schism of the Luciferians.
              III. The Schism of Damasus and Ursacius at Rome.

   § 51. THE ORIGENIST CONTROVERSIES, A.D. 394-438.
          (1) The Monks of the Scetic and Nitrian Deserts.
          (2) The Controversy in Palestine and Italy, A.D. 394-399.
          (3) The Controversy in Alexandria and Constantinople,
              A.D. 399-438.

   § 52. THE CHRISTOLOGICAL CONTROVERSY.
          (1) The Apollinarian Controversy, A.D. 362-381.
          (2) Christology of the Opposing Theological Schools.
          (3) The Dyoprosopic or Nestorian Controversy, A.D. 428-444.
          (4) The Monophysite Controversy.
                I. Eutychianism, A.D. 444-451.
          (5)  II. Imperial Attempts at Union, A.D. 451-519.
          (6) III. Justinian’s Decrees, A.D. 527-553.
          (7)  IV. The Monophysite Churches.
          (8) The Monothelite Controversy, A.D. 633-680.
          (9) The Case of Honorius.

   § 53. THE SOTERIOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES, A.D. 412-529.
          (1) Preliminary History.
          (2) The Doctrine of Augustine.
          (3) Pelagius and his Doctrine.
          (4) The Pelagian Controversy, A.D. 411-431.
          (5) The Semi-Pelagian Controversy, A.D. 427-529.

   § 54. REAPPEARANCE AND REMODELLING OF EARLIER HERETICAL SECTS.
          (1) Manichæism.
          (2) Priscillianism, A.D. 383-563.

                V. WORSHIP, LIFE, DISCIPLINE AND MORALS.

   § 55. WORSHIP IN GENERAL.
              The Age of Cyril of Alexandria.

   § 56. FESTIVALS AND SEASONS FOR PUBLIC WORSHIP.
          (1) The Weekly Cycle.
          (2) Hours and Quarterly Fasts.
          (3) The Reckoning of Easter.
          (4) The Easter Festivals.
          (5) The Christmas Festivals.
          (6) The Church Year.
          (7) The Church Fasts.

   § 57. WORSHIP OF SAINTS, RELICS AND IMAGES.
          (1) The Worship of Martyrs and Saints.
          (2) The Worship of Mary and Anna.
          (3) Worship of Angels.
          (4) Worship of Images.
          (5) Worship of Relics.
          (6) The Making of Pilgrimages.

   § 58. THE DISPENSATION OF THE SACRAMENTS.
          (1) Administration of Baptism.
          (2) The Doctrine of the Supper.
          (3) The Sacrifice of the Mass.
          (4) The Administration of the Lord’s Supper.

   § 59. PUBLIC WORSHIP IN WORD AND SYMBOL.
          (1) The Holy Scriptures.
          (2) The Creeds of the Church.
                I. The Nicæno-Constantinopolitan Creed.
               II. The Apostles’ Creed.
              III. The Athanasian Creed.
          (3) Bible Reading in Church and Preaching.
          (4) Hymnology.
          (5) Psalmody and Hymn Music.
          (6) The Liturgy.
          (7) Liturgical Vestments.
          (8) Symbolical Acts in Worship.
          (9) Processions.

   § 60. PLACES OF PUBLIC WORSHIP, BUILDINGS AND WORKS OF ART.
          (1) The Basilica.
          (2) Secular Basilicas.
          (3) The Cupola Style.
          (4) Accessory and Special Buildings.
          (5) Church furniture.
          (6) The Graphic and Plastic Arts.

   § 61. LIFE, DISCIPLINE AND MORALS.
          (1) Church Discipline.
          (2) Christian Marriage.
          (3) Sickness, Death and Burial.
          (4) Purgatory and Masses for Souls.

   § 62. HERETICAL REFORMERS.
          (1) Audians and Apostolics.
          (2) Protests against Superstition and External Observances.
          (3) Protests against the Over-Estimation of Doctrine.

   § 63. SCHISMS.
          (1) The Donatist Schism, A.D. 311-415.
          (2) The _Concilium Quinisextum_, A.D. 692.

              VI. THE CHURCH OUTSIDE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

   § 64. MISSIONARY OPERATIONS IN THE EAST.
          (1) The Ethiopic-Abyssinian Church.
          (2) The Persian Church.
          (3) The Armenian Church.
          (4) The Iberians.

   § 65. THE COUNTER-MISSION OF THE MOHAMMEDANS.
          (1) The Fundamental Principle of Islam.
          (2) The Providential Place of Islam.

                             THIRD SECTION.

                 HISTORY OF THE GRÆCO-BYZANTINE CHURCH
                       IN THE 8TH-15TH CENTURIES
                            (A.D. 692-1453).

           I. Developments of the Greek Church in Combination
                           with the Western.

   § 66. ICONOCLASM OF THE BYZANTINE CHURCH (A.D. 726-842).
          (1) Leo III., the Isaurian, A.D. 717-741.
          (2) Constantine V. A.D. 741-775.
          (3) Leo IV., Chazarus, A.D. 775-780.
          (4) Leo V., the Armenian, A.D. 813-820.

   § 67. DIVISION BETWEEN GREEK AND ROMAN CHURCHES AND ATTEMPTS
         AT UNION, A.D. 857-1453.
          (1) Foundation of the Schism, A.D. 867.
          (2) Leo VI., the Philosopher, A.D. 886-911.
          (3) Completion of the Schism, A.D. 1054.
          (4) Attempts at Reunion.
          (5) Andronicus III. Palæologus and Barlaam.
          (6) Council of Florence.
          (7) Decay of Byzantine Empire.

           II. Developments in the Eastern Church without the
                      Co-operation of the Western.

   § 68. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND LITERATURE.
          (1) Revival of Classical Studies.
          (2) Aristotle and Plato.
          (3) Scholasticism and Mysticism.
          (4) The Branches of Theological Science.
          (5) Distinguished Theologians.
          (6) Barlaam and Josaphat.

   § 69. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES IN THE 12TH-14TH CENTURIES.
          (1) Dogmatic Questions.
          (2) The Hesychast Controversy, A.D. 1341-1351.

   § 70. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP AND LIFE.
          (1) The Arsenian Schism, A.D. 1262-1312.
          (2) Public Worship.
          (3) Monasticism.
          (4) Endeavours at Reformation.

   § 71. DUALISTIC HERETICS.
          (1) The Paulicians.
          (2) The Children of the Sun.
          (3) The Euchites.
          (4) The Bogomili.

   § 72. THE NESTORIAN AND MONOPHYSITE CHURCHES OF THE EAST.
          (1) The Persian Nestorians.
          (2) Monophysite Churches.
          (3) The Maronites.
          (4) The Legend of Prester John.

   § 73. THE SLAVONIC CHURCHES ADHERING TO THE ORTHODOX GREEK
         CONFESSION.
          (1) Slavs in the Greek Provinces.
          (2) The Chazari.
          (3) The Bulgarians.
          (4) The Russian Church.
          (5) Russian Sects.
          (6) Romish Efforts at Union.

                            SECOND DIVISION.

       THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN AND ROMAN CHURCH
                        DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.

   § 74. CHARACTER AND DIVISIONS OF THIS PERIOD OF THE DEVELOPMENT.
          (1) The Character of Mediæval History.
          (2) Periods in the Church History of the German-Roman
              Middle Ages.

                            FIRST SECTION.

           HISTORY OF THE GERMAN-ROMAN CHURCH FROM THE 4TH TO
                  THE 9TH CENTURY (DOWN TO A.D. 911).

       I. Founding, Spread, and Limitation of the German Church.

   § 75. CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERMANS.
          (1) The Predisposition of the Germans for Christianity.
          (2) Unopposed Adoption of Christianity.
          (3) Mode of Conversion in the Church of these Times.

   § 76. THE VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM.
          (1) The Goths in the lands of the Danube.
          (2) The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain.
          (3) The Vandals in Africa.
          (4) The Suevi.
          (5) The Burgundians.
          (6) The Rugians.
          (7) The Ostrogoths.
          (8) The Longobards in Italy.
          (9) The Franks in Gaul.

  § 77. VICTORY OF THE ROMISH OVER THE OLD BRITISH CHURCH.
          (1) The Conversion of the Irish.
          (2) The Mission to Scotland.
          (3) The Peculiarities of the Celtic Church.
          (4) The Romish Mission to the Anglo-Saxons.
          (5) Celtic Missions among the Anglo-Saxons.
          (6) The Celtic Element Driven out of the Anglo-Saxon
              Church.
          (7) Spread and Overthrow of the British Church on the
              Continent.
          (8) Overthrow of the Old British System in the
              Iro-Scottish Church.

   § 78. THE CONVERSION AND ROMANIZING OF GERMANY.
          (1) South-Western Germany.
          (2) South-Eastern Germany.
          (3) North-Western Germany.
          (4) The Missionary Work of Boniface.
          (5) The Organization Effected by Boniface.
          (6) Heresies Confronted by Boniface.
          (7) The End of Boniface.
          (8) An Estimate of Boniface.
          (9) The Conversion of the Saxons.

   § 79. THE SLAVS IN GERMAN COUNTRIES.
          (1) The Carantanians and Avars.
          (2) The Moravian Church.
          (3) The Beginnings of Christianity in Bohemia.

   § 80. THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS.
          (1) Ansgar.
          (2) Ansgar’s Successor--Rimbert.

   § 81. CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM.
          (1) Islam in Spain.
          (2) Islam in Sicily.

              II. THE HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY AND THE MONKS.

   § 82. THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS.
          (1) The Period of the Founding of the States of the Church.
          (2) Stephen III., A.D. 768-772.
              Hadrian I., A.D. 772-795.
          (3) Charlemagne and Leo III., A.D. 795-816.
          (4) Louis the Pious and the Popes of his Time.
          (5) The Sons of Louis the Pious and the Popes of their Days.
          (6) The Legend of the Female Pope Joanna.
          (7) Nicholas I. and Hadrian II.
          (8) John VIII. and his Successors.
          (9) The Papacy and the Nationalities.

   § 83. THE RANK OF METROPOLITAN.
          (1) The Position of Metropolitans in General.
          (2) Hincmar of Rheims.
          (3) Metropolitans in other lands.

   § 84. THE CLERGY IN GENERAL.
          (1) The Superior Clergy.
          (2) The Inferior Clergy.
          (3) Compulsory Celibacy.
          (4) Canonical life.

   § 85. MONASTICISM.
          (1) Benedict of Nursia.
          (2) Benedict of Aniane.
          (3) Nunneries.
          (4) The Greater Monasteries.
          (5) Monastic Practices among the Clergy.
          (6) The Stylites.

   § 86: THE PROPERTY OF CHURCHES AND MONASTERIES.
          (1) The Revenues of Churches and Monasteries.
          (2) The Benefice System.

   § 87. ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION.
          (1) Older Collections of Ecclesiastical Law.
          (2) The Collection of Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore.
          (3) Details of the History of the Forgery.
          (4) The Edict and Donation of Constantine.

                    III. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE.

   § 88. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND ART.
          (1) Liturgy and Preaching.
          (2) Church Music.
          (3) The Sacrifice of the Mass.
          (4) The Worship of Saints.
          (5) Times and Places for Public Worship.
          (6) Ecclesiastical Architecture and Painting.

   § 89. NATIONAL CUSTOMS, SOCIAL LIFE AND CHURCH DISCIPLINE.
          (1) Superstition.
          (2) Popular Education.
          (3) Christian Popular Poetry.
          (4) Social Condition.
          (5) Practice of Pubic Law.
          (6) Church Discipline and Penitential Exercises.

                     IV. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES.

   § 90. SCHOLARSHIP AND THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
          (1) Rulers of the Carolingian Line.
                  Charlemagne, A.D. 768-814.
                  Louis the Pious, A.D. 814-840.
                  Charles the Bald, A.D. 840-877.
          (2) The most distinguished Theologians of the
              Pre-Carolingian Age.
                1. Merovingian France.
                2. South of the Pyrenees.
                3. England.
          (3) The most distinguished Theologians of the Age of
              Charlemagne.
                1. Alcuin.
                2. Paulus Diaconus.
                3. Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans.
                4. Paulinus, Patriarch of Aquileia and
                   Bishop Leidrad of Lyons.
                5. Hatto, Abbot of Reichenau.
          (4) The most distinguished Theologians of the Age of
              Louis the Pious.
                1. Agobard of Lyons.
                2. Claudius, Bishop of Turin.
                3. Jonas of Orleans.
                4. Amalarius of Metz.
                5. Christian Druthmar.
                6. Rabanus Magnentius Maurus.
                7. Walafrid Strabo.
          (5) The Most Distinguished Theologians of the Age of
              Charles the Bald.
                1. Hincmar of Rheims.
                2. Paschasius Radbertus.
                3. Ratramnus.
                4. Florus Magister.
                5. Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt.
                6. Servatus Lupus.
                7. Remigius of Auxerre.
                8. Regius of Prüm.
          (6)   9. Anastasius Bibliothecarius.
               10. Eulogius of Cordova.
          (7)  11. Joannes Scotus Erigena.
          (8) The Monastic and Cathedral Schools.
          (9) Various Branches of Theological Science.
                1. Exegesis.
                2. Systematic Theology.
                3. Practical Theology.
                4. Historical Theology.
         (10) Anglo-Saxon Culture under Alfred the Great,
              A.D. 871-901.

   § 91. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES.
          (1) The Adoptionist Controversy, A.D. 782-799.
          (2) Controversy about the Procession of the Holy Spirit.
          (3) The Eucharistic Controversy, A.D. 844.
          (4) Controversy about the Conception of the Virgin.
          (5) The Predestinarian Controversy A.D. 847-868.
          (6) The Trinitarian Controversy, A.D. 857.

   § 92. ENDEAVOURS AFTER REFORMATION.
          (1) The Carolingian Opposition to Image Worship,
              A.D. 790-825.
          (2) Agobard of Lyons and Claudius of Turin.

                             INTRODUCTION.

                 § 1. IDEA AND TASK OF CHURCH HISTORY.

  The Christian Church is to be defined as the one, many-branched
communion, consisting of all those who confess that Jesus of Nazareth
is the Christ who in the fulness of time appeared as the Saviour of
the world. It is the Church’s special task to render the saving work of
Christ increasingly fruitful for all nations and individuals, under all
the varying conditions of life and stages of culture. It is the task
of Church History to describe the course of development through which
the Church as a whole, as well as its special departments and various
institutions, has passed, from the time of its foundation down to our
own day; to show what have been the Church’s advances and retrogressions,
how it has been furthered and hindered; and to tell the story of its
deterioration and renewal.

       § 2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO CONTENTS.

  The treatment of Church History, on account of its manifold
ramifications, demands a distribution of its material, on the one hand,
according to definite periods, during which the end hitherto aimed at in
the whole course of development has been practically attained, so that
either entirely new phenomena gain prominence, or else the old go forth
in an altogether different direction; on the other hand, according to
the various phases of endeavour and development, which in respect of
time are evolved alongside of one another. When this last-mentioned
method of division is adopted, we may still choose between two different
modes of treatment. First, we may deal with national churches, in so
far as these are independent and have pursued some special direction;
or with particular churches, which have originated from the splitting
up of the church universal over some important difference in doctrine,
worship, and constitution. Secondly, we may group our material according
to the various departments of historical activity, which are essential
to the intellectual and spiritual life of all national churches and
denominations, and are thus common to all, although in different
churches in characteristic ways and varying degrees. It follows however
from the very idea of history, especially from that of the universal
history of the church, that the distribution according to periods must
be the leading feature of the entire exposition. At the same time,
whatever may now and again, in accordance with the other principles of
arrangement, be brought into prominence will be influenced materially
by the course of the history and formally by the facility afforded for
review by the mode of treatment pursued.

  § 2.1. =The Various Branches Included in a Complete Course of
  Church History.=--The Christian Church has undertaken the task
  of absorbing all peoples and tongues. Hence it is possessed of
  an eager desire to enlarge its borders by the conversion of all
  non-Christian races. The description of what helps or hinders
  this endeavour, the history of the spread and limitation of
  Christianity, is therefore an essential constituent of church
  history. Since, further, the church, in order to secure its
  continued existence and well-being, must strive after a legally
  determined position outwardly, as well as a firm, harmonious
  articulation, combination and order inwardly, it evidently also
  belongs to our science to give the history of the ecclesiastical
  constitution, both of the place which the church has in the state,
  and the relation it bears to the state; and also of its own
  internal arrangements by superordination, subordination, and
  co-ordination, and by church discipline and legislation. Not
  less essential, nay, even more important for the successful
  development of the church, is the construction and establishment
  of saving truth. In Holy Scripture the church indeed has
  possession of the fountain and standard, as well as the
  all-sufficient power and fulness, of all saving knowledge.
  But the words of Scripture are spirit and life, living seeds of
  knowledge, which, under the care of the same Spirit who sows them,
  may and shall be developed so as to yield a harvest which becomes
  ever more and more abundant; and therefore the fulness of the
  truth which dwells in them comes to be known more simply, clearly,
  fully, and becomes always more fruitful for all stages and
  forms of culture, for faith, for science, and for life. Hence
  church history is required to describe the construction of the
  doctrine and science of the church, to follow its course and the
  deviations from it into heresy, whenever these appear. The church
  is, further, in need of a form of public worship as a necessary
  expression of the feelings and emotions of believers toward
  their Lord and God, as a means of edification and instruction.
  The history of the worship of the church is therefore also an
  essential constituent of church history. It is also the duty of
  the church to introduce into the practical life and customs of
  the people that new spiritual energy of which she is possessor.
  And thus the history of the Christian life among the people comes
  to be included in church history as a further constituent of the
  science. Further, there is also included here, in consequence of
  the nature and aim of Christianity as a leaven (Matt. xiii. 33),
  an account of the effects produced upon it by the development of
  art (of which various branches, architecture, sculpture, painting,
  music, have a direct connexion with Christian worship), and
  likewise upon national literature, philosophy, and secular
  science generally; and also, conversely, an estimate of the
  influence of these forms of secular culture upon the condition
  of the church and religion must not be omitted. The order of
  succession in the historical treatment of these phases under
  which the life of the church is manifested, is not to be rigidly
  determined in the same way for all ages after an abstract logical
  scheme. For each period that order of succession should be
  adopted which will most suitably give prominence to those matters
  which have come to the front, and so call for early and detailed
  treatment in the history of that age.

    § 2.2. =The Separate Branches of Church History.=--The
    constituent parts of church history that have been already
    enumerated are of such importance that they might also be treated
    as independent sciences, and indeed for the most part they have
    often been so treated. In this way, not only is a more exact
    treatment of details rendered possible, but also, what is more
    important, the particular science so limited can be construed in
    a natural manner according to principles furnished by itself. The
    history of the spread and limitation of Christianity then assumes
    a separate form as the History of Missions. The separate history
    of the ecclesiastical constitution, worship, and customs is
    known by the name of Christian Archæology, which is indeed,
    in respect of title and contents, an undefined conglomeration
    of heterogeneous elements restricted in a purely arbitrary way
    to the early ages. The treatment of this department therefore
    requires that we should undertake the scientific task of
    distinguishing these heterogeneous elements, and arranging them
    apart for separate consideration; thus following the course of
    their development down to the present day, as the history of the
    constitution, of the worship, and of the culture of the church.
    The history of the development of doctrine falls into four
    divisions:

    a. The History of Doctrines in the form of a regular historical
       sketch of the doctrinal development of the church.

    b. Symbolics, which gives a systematic representation of the
       relatively final and concluded doctrine of the church as
       determined in the public ecclesiastical confessions or
       symbols for the church universal and for particular sects:
       these again being compared together in Comparative Symbolics.

    c. Patristics, which deals with the subjective development of
       doctrine as carried out by the most distinguished teachers
       of the church, who are usually designated church Fathers,
       and confined to the first six or eight centuries.

    d. And, finally, the History of Theology in general, or the
       History of the particular Theological Sciences, which treats
       of the scientific conception and treatment of theology
       and its separate branches according to its historical
       development; while the History of Theological Literature,
       which when restricted to the age of the Fathers is called
       Patrology, has to describe and estimate the whole literary
       activity of the church according to the persons, motives,
       and tendencies that are present in it.

  As the conclusion and result of church history at particular
  periods, we have the science of Ecclesiastical Statistics, which
  describes the condition of the church in respect of all its
  interests as it stands at some particular moment, “like a slice
  cut cross-wise out of its history.” The most important works in
  these departments are the following:

    a. =History of Missions.=--
        Brown, “Hist. of Propag. of Christ. among Heathen since
            Reformation.” 3rd Ed., 3 vols., Edin., 1854.
        Warneck, “Outlines of Hist. of Prot. Miss.” Edin., 1884.
        Smith, “Short Hist. of Christ. Miss.” Edin., 1884.

    b. =History of the Papacy.=--
        Ranke, “History of Papacy in 16th and 17th Cent.” 2 vols.,
            Lond., 1855.
        Platina (Lib. of Vatican), “Lives of Popes.” (1481). Trans.
            by Rycaut, Lond., 1685.
        Bower, “Hist. of Popes.” 7 vols., Lond., 1750.
        Bryce, “Holy Rom. Empire.” Lond., 1866.
        Creighton, “Hist. of Papacy during the Reformation.”
            Vols. I.-IV., from A.D. 1378-1518, Lond., 1882-1886.
        Janus, “Pope and the Council.” Lond., 1869.
        Pennington, “Epochs of the Papacy.” Lond., 1882.

    c. =History of Monasticism.=--
        Hospinianus [Hospinian], “De Monachis.” Etc., Tigur., 1609.
        Maitland, “The Dark Ages.” Lond., 1844.

    d. =History of Councils.=--
        Hefele, “Hist. of Councils.” Vols. I.-III., to A.D. 451,
            Edin., 1871-1883. (Original German work brought down
            to the Council of Trent exclusive.)

    e. =Church law.=--
        Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Eccl. Documents illust.
            Eccl. Hist. of Gr. Brit. and Ireland.” 3 vols.,
            Lond., 1869 ff.
        Phillimore, “Eccl. Law.” Lond., 1873.

    f. =Archæology.=--
        By Cath. Didron, “Christ. Iconography; or, Hist. of Christ.
            Art in M. A.” Lond., 1886.
        By Prot. Bingham, “Antiq. of Christ. Church.” 9 vols.,
            Lond., 1845.
        “Dictionary of Christ. Antiquities.” Ed. by Smith &
            Cheetham, 2 vols., Lond., 1875 ff.

    g. =History of Doctrines.=--
        Neander, “Hist. of Christ. Doct.” 2 vols., Lond.
        Hagenbach, “Hist. of Christ. Doctrines.” 3 vols.,
            Edin., 1880 f.
        Shedd, “Hist. of Christ. Doc.” 2 vols., Edin., 1869.

    h. =Symbolics and Polemics.=--
        Winer, “Confessions of Christendom.” Edin., 1873.
        Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Edin., 1877 ff.
        Möhler, “Symbolism: an Expos. of the Doct. Differences
            between Catholics and Protestants.” 2 vols., Lond.,
            1843.

    i. =Patrology and History of Theolog. Literature.=--
        Dupin, “New History of Ecclesiastical Writers.”
            Lond., 1696.
        Cave, “Script. Eccl. Hist. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1668.
        Fabricii, “Biblioth. Græca.” 14 vols., Hamb., 1705;
            “Biblioth. Mediæ et infinæ Latin.” 6 vols.,
            Hamb., 1734.
        Teuffel, “Hist. of Rom. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1873.

    k. =History of the Theological Sciences.=--
        Buddæus, “Isagoge Hist. Theol. ad Theol. Univ.” Lps., 1727.
        Räbiger, “Encyclopædia of Theology.” 2 vols., Edin., 1884.
        Dorner, “Hist. of Prot. Theol.” 2 vols., Edin., 1871.

        =History of Exegesis.=--
        Davidson, “Sacred Hermeneutics; including Hist. of Biblical
            Interpretation from earliest Fathers to Reformation.”
            Edin., 1843.
        Farrar, “Hist. of Interpretation.” Lond., 1886.

        =History of Morals.=--
        Wuttke’s “Christian Ethics.” Vol. I., “Hist. of Ethics.”
            Edin., 1873.

    l. =Biographies.=--
        “Acta Sanctorum.” 63 vols. fol., Ant., 1643 ff.
        Mabillon, “Acta Ss. ord. S. Bened.” 9 vols. fol.,
            Par., 1666 ff.
        Flaccius [Flacius], “Catalog. Testium Veritatis.” 1555.
        Piper, “Lives of Leaders of Church Universal.” 2 vols.,
            Edin.
        Smith and Wace, “Dict. of Chr. Biog.” etc., 4 vols.,
            Lond., 1877 ff.

       § 3. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO PERIODS.

  In the history of the world’s culture three historical stages
of universal development succeed each other: the Oriental, the
Franco-German, and the Teutono-Romanic. The kingdom of God had to enter
each of these and have in each a distinctive character, so that as
comprehensive a development as possible might be secured. The history
of the preparation for Christianity in the history of the Israelitish
theocracy moves along the lines of Oriental culture. The history of
the beginnings of Christianity embraces the history of the founding of
the church by Christ and His Apostles. These two together constitute
Biblical history, which, as an independent branch of study receiving
separate treatment, need be here treated merely in a brief, introductory
manner. This holds true also of the history of pagan culture alongside
of and subsequent to the founding of the church. Church history,
strictly so-called, the development of the already founded church,
begins therefore, according to our conception, with the Post-Apostolic
Age, and from that point pursues its course in three principal divisions.
The ancient church completes its task by thoroughly assimilating
the elements contributed by the Græco-Roman forms of civilization.
In the Teutono-Romanic Church of the middle ages the appropriation
and amalgamation of ancient classical modes of thought with modern
tendencies awakened by its immediate surroundings were carried out and
completed. On the other hand, the development of church history since
the Reformation has its impulse given it by that Teutono-Christian
culture which had maturity and an independent form secured to it by the
Reformation. This distribution in accordance with the various forms of
civilization seems to us so essential, that we propose to borrow from
it our principle for the arrangement of our church history.

  The chronological distribution of the material may be represented in
the following outline:

    I. =History of the Preparation for Christianity=: Preparation
       for Redemption during the Hebraic-Oriental stage of
       civilization, and the construction alongside of it in the
       universalism of classical culture of forms that prepared the
       way for the coming salvation.

   II. =History of the Beginnings of Christianity=: a sketch of the
       redemption by Christ and the founding of the Church through
       the preaching of it by the Apostles.

  III. =History of the Development of Christianity=, on the basis
       of the sketch of the redemption given in the history of the
       Beginnings:

       A. =In the Græco-Roman and Græco-Byzantine Period, under
          Ancient Classical Forms of Civilization.=
              _First Section_, A.D. 70 to A.D. 323,--down to
          the final victory of Christianity over the Græco-Roman
          paganism; the Post-Apostolic and Old Catholic Ages.
              _Second Section_, from A.D. 323 to A.D. 692,--down
          to the final close of œcumenical development of doctrine
          in A.D. 680, and the appearance of what proved a lasting
          estrangement between the Eastern and the Western Churches
          in A.D. 692, which was soon followed by the alliance of
          the Papacy with the Frankish instead of the Byzantine
          empire; the Œcumenico-Catholic Church, or the Church of
          the Roman-Byzantine Empire.
              _Third Section_, from A.D. 692 to A.D. 1453,--down
          to the overthrow of Constantinople. Languishing and decay
          of the old church life in the Byzantine Empire; complete
          breach and futile attempts at union between East and West.
          The Church of the Byzantine Empire.

       B. =In the Mediæval Period, under Teutono-Romanic Forms of
          Civilization.=
              _First Section_, 4-9th cent.--from the first
          beginnings of Teutonic church life down to the end of the
          Carlovingian Age, A.D. 911. The Teutonic Age.
              _Second Section_, 10-13th cent.--down to
          Boniface VIII., A.D. 1294; rise of mediæval
          institutions--the Papacy, Monasticism, Scholasticism;
          Germany in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political
          movement.
              _Third Section_, the 14-15th cent.--down to the
          Reformation in A.D. 1517; deterioration and collapse of
          mediæval institutions; France in the foreground of the
          ecclesiastico-political movement.

       C. =In the Modern Period, under the European Forms of
          Civilization.=
              _First Section_, the 16th cent. Age of
          Evangelical-Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic
          Counter-Reformation.
              _Second Section_, the 17th cent. Age of Orthodoxy
          on the Protestant side and continued endeavours after
          restoration on the side of Catholicism.
              _Third Section_, the 18th cent. Age of advancing
          Illuminism in both churches,--Deism, Naturalism,
          Rationalism.
              _Fourth Section_, the 19th cent. Age of re-awakened
          Christian and Ecclesiastical life. Unionism,
          Confessionalism, and Liberalism in conflict with
          one another on the Protestant side; the revival of
          Ultramontanism in conflict with the civil power on the
          Catholic side. In opposition to both churches, widespread
          pantheistic, materialistic, and communistic tendencies.

           § 4. SOURCES AND AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORY.[1]

  =The sources of Church history= are partly original, in the shape of
inscriptions and early documents; partly derivative, in the shape of
traditions and researches in regard to primitive documents that have
meanwhile been lost. Of greater importance to church history than the
so-called dumb sources, _e.g._ church buildings, furniture, pictures,
are the inscriptions coming down from the earliest times; but of the
very highest importance are the extant official documents, _e.g._
acts and decisions of Church Councils, decrees and edicts of the
Popes,--decretals, bulls, briefs,--the pastoral letters of bishops,
civil enactments and decrees regarding ecclesiastical matters, the rules
of Spiritual Orders, monastic rules, liturgies, confessional writings,
the epistles of influential ecclesiastical and civil officers, reports
by eye witnesses, sermons and doctrinal treatises by Church teachers,
etc. In regard to matters not determined by any extant original
documents, earlier or later fixed traditions and historical researches
must take the place of those lost documents.--=Sciences Auxiliary
to Church History= are such as are indispensable for the critical
estimating and sifting, as well as for the comprehensive understanding
of the sources of church history. To this class the following branches
belong: _Diplomatics_, which teaches how to estimate the genuineness,
completeness, and credibility of the documents in question; _Philology_,
which enables us to understand the languages of the sources; _Geography
and Chronology_, which make us acquainted with the scenes and periods
where and when the incidents related in the original documents were
enacted. Among auxiliary sciences in the wider sense, the history of the
_State_, of _Law_, of _Culture_, of _Literature_, of _Philosophy_, and
of _Universal Religion_, may also be included as indispensable owing to
their intimate connection with ecclesiastical development.

  § 4.1. =Literature of the Sources.=--

      a. =Inscriptions=:
         de Rossi, “Inscriptt. chr. urbis Rom.” Vols. I. II.,
             Rome, 1857.

      b. =Collections of Councils=:
         Harduin [Hardouin], “Conc. coll.” (to A.D. 1715),
             12 vols., Par., 1715.
         Mansi, “Conc. nova et ampl. coll.” 31 vols., Flor., 1759.

      c. =Papal Acts=:
         Jaffe, “Regesta pont. Rom.” (to A.D. 1198), 2 ed.,
             Brl., 1881.
         Potthast, “Regesta pont. Rom.” (A.D. 1198-1304), 2 Vols.,
             Brl., 1873.
         The Papal Decretals in “Corp. jur. Canonici.” ed.,
              Friedberg, Lips., 1879.
         “Bullarum, diplom. et privil. SS. rom. pont.” Taurenensis
             editio, 24 vols., 1857 ff.
         Nussi, “Conventiones de reb. eccl. inter s. sedem et civ.
             pot. initæ.” Mogunt., 1870.

      d. =Monastic Rules=:
         Holstenii, “Cod. regul. mon. et. can.” 6 vols., 1759.

      e. =Liturgies=:
         Daniel, “Cod. liturg. eccl. univ.” 4 vols., Leipz.,
             1847 ff.
         Hammond, “Ancient Liturgies.” Oxf., 1878.

      f. =Symbolics=:
         Kimmel, “Ll. Symb. eccl. Orient.” Jena., 1843.
         Danz, “Ll. Symb. eccl. Rom. Cath.” Weimar, 1835.
         Hase, “Ll. Symb. eccl. evang.” Ed. iii., Leipz., 1840.
         Niemeyer, “Coll. Conf. eccl. Ref.” Leipz., 1840.
         Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Lond., 1882.

      g. =Martyrologies=:
         Ruinart, “Acta prim. Mart.” 3 vols., 1802.
         Assemanni [Assemani], “Acta SS. Mart. orient. et occid.”
             2 vols., Rome, 1748.

      h. =Greek and Latin Church Fathers and Teachers=:
         Migne, “Patrologiæ currus completus.” Ser. I., Eccl. Græc.,
             162 vols., Par., 1857 ff.; Ser. II., Eccl. Lat.,
             221 vols., Par., 1844 ff.
         Horoy, “Media ævi biblioth. patrist.” (from A.D. 1216 to
             1564), Paris, 1879.
         “Corpus Scriptorum eccl. lat.” Vindob., 1866 ff.
         Grabe, “Spicilegium SS. Pp. et Hærett.” Sæc. I.-III.,
             3 vols., Oxford, 1698.
         Routh, “Reliquiæ sac.” 4 vols., Oxford, 1814 ff.
         “Ante-Nicene Christian Library; a collection of all the
             works of the Fathers of the Christian Church prior to
             the Council of Nicæa.” 24 vols., Edin., 1867 ff.

      i. =Ancient Writers of the East=:
         Assemanus [Assemani], “Biblioth. orient.” 4 vols.,
             Rome, 1719.

      k. =Byzantine Writers=:
         Niebuhr, “Corp. scr. hist. Byz.” 48 vols., Bonn, 1828 ff.
         Sathas, “Biblioth. Græc. Med. ævi.” Vols. I.-VI., Athens,
             1872 ff.

  § 4.2. =Literature of the Auxiliary Sciences.=--

      a. =Diplomatics=:
         Mabillon, “De re diplomatic.” Ed. ii., Par., 1709.

      b. =Philology=:
         Du Fresne (du Cange), “Glossarium ad scriptt. med. et
             infim. Latin.” 6 vols., Par., 1733; New ed., Henschel
             and Favre, in course of publication.
         Du Fresne, “Glossarium, ad scriptt. med. et infim. Græc.”
             2 vols., Leyden, 1688.
         Suiceri, “Thesaurus ecclesiast. e patribus græcis.”
             Ed. ii., 2 vols., Amst., 1728.

      c. =Geography and Statistics=:
         Mich. le Quien, “Oriens christianus in quatuor
             patriarchatus digestus.” 3 vols., Par., 1704.

      d. =Chronology=:
         Nicolas, “The Chronology of History.” 2 ed., Lond., 1838.
         “L’art de verifier les dates, by d’Antine.” Etc., ed. by
             Courcelles, 19 vols., Par., 1821-1824.

                § 5. HISTORY OF GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY.

  The earliest writer of church history properly so called is Eusebius,
Bishop of Cæsarea, † 340. During the fifth century certain members
of the Greek Church continued his work. The Western Church did not
so soon engage upon undertakings of that sort, and was contented with
translations and reproductions of the materials that had come down from
the Greeks instead of entering upon original investigations. During the
middle ages, in consequence of the close connection subsisting between
Church and State, the Greek _Scriptores historiæ Byzantinæ_, as well as
the Latin national histories, biographies, annals, and chronicles, are
of the very utmost importance as sources of information regarding the
church history of their times. It was the Reformation, however, that
first awakened and inspired the spirit of true critical research and
scientific treatment of church history, for the appeal of the Reformers
to the pure practices and institutions of the early days of the church
demanded an authoritative historical exposition of the founding of the
church, and this obliged the Catholic church to engage upon the studies
necessary for this end. The Lutheran as well as the Catholic Church,
however, down to the middle of the 17th century, were satisfied with
the voluminous productions of the two great pioneers in Church history,
Flacius and Baronius. Afterwards, however, emulation in the study of
church history was excited, which was undoubtedly, during the 17th
century, most successfully prosecuted in the Catholic Church. In
consequence of the greater freedom which prevailed in the Gallican
Church, these studies flourished conspicuously in France, and were
pursued with exceptional success by the Oratorians and the Order
of St. Maur. The Reformed theologians, especially in France and the
Netherlands, did not remain far behind them in the contest. Throughout
the 18th century, again, the performances of the Lutheran Church came to
the front, while a laudable rivalry leads the Reformed to emulate their
excellencies. In the case of the Catholics, on the other hand, that
zeal and capacity which, during the 17th century, had won new laurels in
the field of honour, were now sadly crippled. But as rationalism spread
in the domain of doctrine, pragmatism spread in the domain of church
history, which set for itself as the highest ideal of historical writing
the art of deducing everything in history, even what is highest and
most profound in it, from the co-operation of fortune and passion,
arbitrariness and calculation. It was only in the 19th century, when a
return was made to the careful investigation of original authorities,
and it came to be regarded as the task of the historian, to give a
conception and exposition of the science as objective as possible, that
this erroneous tendency was arrested.

  § 5.1. =Down to the Reformation.=--The church history of
  =Eusebius=, which reaches down to A.D. 324, was to some extent
  continued by his _Vita Constantini_, down to A.D. 337 (§ 47, 2).
  The church history of =Philostorgius=, which reaches from
  A.D. 318-423, coming down to us only in fragments quoted by
  Photius, was an Arian party production of some importance.
  During the 5th century, however, the church history of Eusebius
  was continued down to A.D. 439 by the Catholic =Socrates=, an
  advocate at Constantinople, written in a simple and impartial
  style, yet not altogether uncritical, and with a certain measure
  of liberality; and down to A.D. 423, by =Sozomen=, also an
  advocate at Constantinople, who in large measure plagiarizes from
  Socrates, and is, in what is his own, uncritical, credulous, and
  fond of retailing anecdotes; and down to A.D. 428 by =Theodoret=,
  Bishop of Cyrus in Syria, who produces much useful material in
  the shape of original authorities, confining himself, however,
  like both of his predecessors, almost exclusively to the affairs
  of the Eastern Church. In the 6th century, =Theodorus=, reader at
  Constantinople, made a collection of extracts from these works,
  continuing the history down to his own time in A.D. 527. Of this
  we have only fragments preserved by Nicephorus Callisti. The
  continuation by =Evagrius= of Antioch, reaching from A.D. 431-594,
  is characterized by carefulness, learning, and impartiality,
  along with zealous orthodoxy, and an uncritical belief in the
  marvellous. Collected editions of all these works have been
  published by Valesius (Par., 1659), and Reading (Cantab., 1720),
  in each case in 3 vols. folio.--In the Latin Church =Rufinus= of
  Aquileia translated the work of Eusebius and enlarged it before
  the continuations of the three Greek historians had appeared,
  carrying it down to his own time in A.D. 395 in an utterly
  uncritical fashion. =Sulpicius Severus=, a presbyter of Gaul,
  wrote about the same time his _Historia Sacra_, in two books,
  from the creation of the world down to A.D. 400. In the 6th
  century, =Cassiodorus= fused together into one treatise in
  12 books, by means of extracts, the works of the three Greek
  continuators of Eusebius, under the title _Hist. ecclesiastica
  tripartita_, which, combined with the history of Rufinus,
  remained down to the Reformation in common use as a text-book.
  A church history written in the 6th century in Syriac, by the
  monophysite bishop, =John of Ephesus=, morbidly fond of the
  miraculous, first became known to us in an abridged form of
  the third part embracing the history of his own time. (Ed.
  Cureton, Oxf., 1853. Transl. into Engl. by Payne Smith, Oxford,
  1859.)--Belonging to the Latin church of the middle ages, =Haymo=
  of Halberstadt deserves to be named as a writer of universal
  history, about A.D. 850, leaning mainly upon Rufinus and
  Cassiodorus. The same too may be said about the work entitled,
  _Libri XIII. historiæ ecclesiasticæ_ written by the Abbot
  =Odericus Vitalis= in Normandy, about A.D. 1150, which forms
  upon the whole the most creditable production of the middle
  ages. In the 24 books of the Church history of the Dominican and
  Papal librarian, =Tolomeo of Lucca=, composed about A.D. 1315,
  church history is conceived of as if it were simply a historical
  commentary on the ecclesiastical laws and canons then in force,
  as an attempt, that is, to incorporate in the history all the
  fictions and falsifications, which Pseudo-Isidore in the 9th
  century (§ 87, 2-4), Gratian in the 12th century, and Raimundus
  [Raimund] de Penneforti [Pennaforte] in the 13th century
  (§ 99, 5), had wrought into the Canon law. Toward the end of
  the 15th century, under the influence of humanism there was an
  awakening here and there to a sense of the need of a critical
  procedure in the domain of church history, which had been
  altogether wanting throughout the middle ages. In the Greek
  Church again, during the 14th century, =Nicephorus Callisti=
  of Constantinople, wrote a treatise on church history, reaching
  down to A.D. 610, devoid of taste and without any indication of
  critical power.

  § 5.2. =The 16th and 17th Centuries.=--About the middle of the
  16th century the Lutheran Church produced a voluminous work in
  church history, the so-called =Magdeburg Centuries=, composed
  by a committee of Lutheran theologians, at the head of which was
  =Matthias Flacius=, of Illyria in Magdeburg. This work consisted
  of 13 folio vols., each of which embraced a century. (_Eccles.
  Hist., integram eccl. ideam complectens, congesta per aliquot
  studiosos et pios viros in urbe Magdb._ Bas., 1559-1574.) They
  rest throughout on careful studies of original authorities,
  produce many documents that were previously unknown, and, with
  an unsparingly bitter polemic against the Romish doctrinal
  degeneration, address themselves with special diligence to the
  historical development of dogma. In answer to them the Romish
  Oratorian, =Cæsar Baronius=, produced his _Annales ecclesiastici_,
  in 12 vols. folio, reaching down to A.D. 1198 (Rome, 1588-1607).
  This work moves entirely along Roman Catholic lines and is quite
  prejudiced and partial, and seeks in a thoroughly uncritical
  way, by every species of ingenuity, to justify Romish positions;
  yet, as communicating many hitherto unknown, and to others
  inaccessible documents, it must be regarded as an important
  production. It secured for its author the cardinal’s hat,
  and had wellnigh raised him to the chair of St. Peter. In the
  interests of a scholarly and truth-loving research, it was
  keenly criticised by the Franciscan Anthony Pagi (_Critica
  hist-chronol._ 4 vols., Antw., 1705), carried down in the 17th
  century from A.D. 1198-1565, in 9 vols. by Oderic. Raynaldi, in
  the 18th century from A.D. 1566-1571, in 3 vols. by de Laderchi,
  and in the 19th century down to A.D. 1585 in 3 vols. by August
  Theiner. A new edition was published by Mansi (43 vols., 1738
  ff.), with Raynaldi’s continuation and Pagi’s criticism.--During
  the 17th century the French Catholic scholars bore the palm
  as writers of Church history. The course was opened in general
  church history by the Dominican =Natalis Alexander=, a learned
  man, but writing a stiff scholastic style (_Selecta hist. eccl.
  capita et diss. hist. chron. et dogm._ 24 vols., Par., 1676 ff.).
  This first edition, on account of its Gallicanism was forbidden
  at Rome; a later one by Roncaglia of Lucca, with corrective notes,
  was allowed to pass. Sebast. le Nain de =Tillemont=, with the
  conscientiousness of his Jansenist faith, gave an account of
  early church history in a cleverly grouped series of carefully
  selected authorities (_Memoires pour servir à l’hist. eccl. des
  six premiers siècles, justifiés par les citations des auteurs
  originaux._ 16 vols., Par., 1693 ff.). =Bossuet= wrote, for
  the instruction of the Dauphin, what Hase has styled “an
  ecclesiastical history of the world with eloquent dialectic
  and with an insight into the ways of providence, as if the wise
  Bishop of Meaux had been in the secrets not only of the king’s
  but also of God’s councils” (_Discours sur l’hist. universelle
  depuis le commencement du monde jusqu’à l’empire de Charles M._
  Par., 1681). =Claude Fleury=, aiming at edification, proceeds in
  flowing and diffuse periods (_Histoire ecclst._ 20 vols., Par.,
  1691 ff.).--The history of the French Church (A.D. 1580) ascribed,
  probably erroneously, to Theodore Beza, the successor of Calvin,
  marks the beginning of the writing of ecclesiastical history
  in the Reformed Church. During the 17th century it secured an
  eminence in the department of church history, especially on
  account of learned special researches (§ 160, 7), but also to
  some extent in the domain of general church history. =J. H.
  Hottinger= overloaded his _Hist. ecclst. N. T._ (9 vols., Fig.,
  1651 ff.) by dragging in the history of Judaism, and Paganism,
  and even of Mohammedanism, with much irrelevant matter of that
  sort. Superior to it were the works of =Friedr. Spanheim= (_Summa
  hist. eccl._ Leyd., 1689) =Jas. Basnage= (_Hist. de l’égl._
  2 vols., Rotd., 1699). Most important of all were the keen
  criticism of the Annals of Baronius by =Isaac Casaubon=
  (_Exercitt. Baronianæ._ Lond., 1614), and by =Sam. Basnage=
  (_Exercitt. hist. crit._ Traj., 1692; and _Annales polit. ecclst._
  3 vols., Rotd., 1706).

  § 5.3. =The 18th Century.=--After the publication of the
  Magdeburg _Opus palmare_ the study of church history fell
  into the background in the Lutheran Church. It was George
  Calixtus († A.D. 1658) and the syncretist controversies which
  he occasioned that again awakened an interest in such pursuits.
  =Gottfr. Arnold’s= colossal party-spirited treatise entitled
  “Unparteiische Kirchen- und Ketzerhistorie” (2 vols. fol., Frkf.,
  1699), which scarcely recognised Christianity except in heresies
  and fanatical sects, gave a powerful impulse to the spirit of
  investigation and to the generous treatment of opponents. This
  bore fruit in the irenical and conciliatory attempts of =Weismann=
  of Tübingen (_Introd. in memorabilia ecclst._ 2 vols., Tüb.,
  1718). The shining star, however, in the firmament of church
  history during the 18th century was =J. Lor. v. Mosheim= in
  Helmstedt [Helmstadt] and Göttingen, distinguished alike for
  thorough investigation, with a divinatory power of insight, and
  by a brilliant execution and an artistic facility in the use
  of a noble Latin style (_Institutionum hist. ecclst. Libri IV._
  Helmst., 1755; transl. into English by Murdock, ed. by Reid,
  11th ed., Lond., 1880). =J. A. Cramer=, in Kiel, translated
  Bossuet’s _Einl. in die Gesch. d. Welt u. d. Relig._, with a
  continuation which gave a specially careful treatment of the
  theology of the middle ages (7 vols., Leipz., 1757 ff.). =J. Sal.
  Semler=, in Halle, shook, with a morbidly sceptical criticism,
  many traditional views in Church history that had previously been
  regarded as unassailable (_Hist. eccl. selecta capita._ 3 vols.,
  Halle, 1767 ff.; _Versuch e. fruchtb. Auszugs d. K. Gesch._
  3 vols., Halle, 1773 ff.). On the other hand, =Jon. Matt. Schröckh
  of Wittenberg= produced a gigantic work on church history, which
  is characterized by patient research, and gives, in so far as
  the means within his reach allowed, a far-sighted, temperate, and
  correct statement of facts (_Christl. K. G._ 45 vols., Leipz.,
  1772 ff., the last two vols. by Tzschirner). The Würtemburg
  [Württemberg] minister of state, Baron =von Spittler=, sketched
  a _Grundriss der K. Gesch._, in short and smartly expressed
  utterances, which in many cases were no better than caricatures
  (5th ed. by Planck, Gött., 1812). In his footsteps =Henke=
  of Helmstedt [Helmstadt], followed, who, while making full
  acknowledgment of the moral blessing which had been brought by
  true Christianity to mankind, nevertheless described the “_Allg.
  Gesch. der Kirche_” as if it were a bedlam gallery of religious
  and moral aberrations and strange developments (6 vols.,
  Brsweig., 1788 ff.; 5th ed. revised and continued by =Vater= in
  9 vols.).--In the Reformed Church, =Herm. Venema=, of Franeker,
  the Mosheim of this church, distinguished himself by the thorough
  documentary basis which he gave to his exposition, written in
  a conciliatory spirit (_Institutt. hist. eccl. V. et N. T._
  7 vols., Leyd., 1777 ff.). In the Catholic Church, =Royko= of
  Prague, favoured by the reforming tendencies of the Emperor
  Joseph II., was able with impunity to give expression to his
  anti-hierarchical views in an almost cynically outspoken statement
  (_Einl. in d. chr. Rel. u. K. G._ Prague, 1788).

  § 5.4. =The 19th Century.= In his _Handb. d. chr. K. G._, publ.
  in 1801 (in 2nd ed. contin. by Rettberg, 7 vols., Giessen, 1834),
  =Chr. Schmidt= of Giessen expressly maintained that the supreme
  and indeed the only conditions of a correct treatment of history
  consisted in the direct study of the original documents, and a
  truly objective exhibition of the results derived therefrom. By
  objectivity, however, he understood indifference and coolness
  of the subject in reference to the object, which must inevitably
  render the representation hard, colourless, and lifeless.
  =Gieseler= of Göttingen, † 1854, commended this mode of treatment
  by his excellent execution, and in his _Lehrbuch_ (5 vols., Bonn,
  1824-1857; Engl. transl. “Compendium of Church History.” 5 vols.,
  Edinb., 1846-1856), a master-piece of the first rank, which
  supports, explains and amplifies the author’s own admirably
  compressed exposition by skilfully chosen extracts from the
  documents, together with original and thoughtful criticism under
  the text. A temperate, objective, and documentary treatment of
  church history is also given in the _Handbuch_ of =Engelhardt=
  of Erlangen (5 vols., Erlang., 1832 ff.). Among the so-called
  _Compendia_ the most popular was the _Universalgeschichte d. K._
  by =Stäudlin=, of Göttingen (Hann., 1807; 5th ed. by Holzhausen,
  1833). It was superseded by the _Lehrbuch_ of =Hase=, of Jena
  (Leipz., 1834; 10th ed., 1877; Engl. transl. from 7th Germ. ed.,
  New York, 1855), which is a generally pregnant and artistically
  tasteful exposition with often excellent and striking features,
  subtle perception, and with ample references to documentary
  sources. The _Vorlesungen_ of =Schleiermacher=, † 1834, published
  after his death by Bonell (Brl., 1840), assume acquaintance
  with the usual materials, and present in a fragmentary manner
  the general outlines of the church’s course of development.
  =Niedner’s= _Lehrbuch_ (2nd ed., Brl., 1866), is distinguished by
  a philosophical spirit, independent treatment, impartial judgment,
  and wealth of contents with omission of customary matter, but
  marred by the scholastic stiffness and awkwardness of its style.
  =Gfrörer’s= († 1861) _Kirchengeschichte_ (7 vols. reaching down
  to A.D. 1000, Stuttg., 1840) treats early Christianity as purely
  a product of the culture of the age, and knows of no moving
  principles in the historical development of the Christian church
  but clerical self-seeking, political interests, machinations
  and intrigues. Nevertheless the book, especially in the portion
  treating of the middle ages, affords a fresh and lively account
  of researches among original documents and of new results,
  although even here the author does not altogether restrain his
  undue fondness for over subtle combinations. After his entrance
  into the Catholic Church his labours in the domain of church
  history were limited to a voluminous history of Gregory VII.,
  which may be regarded as a continuation of his church history,
  the earlier work having only reached down to that point. =Baur=
  of Tübingen began the publication of monographical treatises on
  particular periods, reaching down to the Reformation (3 vols.,
  2nd ed., Tüb., 1860 ff.), a continuation to the end of the 18th
  cent. (published by his son F. Baur, 1863), and also a further
  volume treating of the 19th cent. (publ. by his son-in-law Zeller,
  2nd ed., 1877). These works of this unwearied investigator show
  thorough mastery of the immense mass of material, with subtle
  criticism and in many cases the first establishment of new views.
  =Böhringer’s= massive production (_Die Kirche Christi und ihre
  Zeugen, oder Kirchengeschichte in Biographien_. 24 vols., Zur.,
  1842; 2nd ed., Zur., 1873), upon the basis of an independent
  study of the several ages down to the Reformation, characterizes
  by means of detailed portraiture the personalities prominent
  during these periods. In the second edition, thoroughly recast
  with the assistance of his two sons, there is evidence of a more
  strictly critical research and a judicial frame of mind, so that
  the predominantly panegyrical character of the first edition is
  considerably modified. =Rothe’s= lectures, edited after his death,
  with additions from his literary remains, by Weingarten (2 vols.,
  Hdlb., 1875) are quite fragmentary because the usual historical
  matter was often supplied from Gieseler, Neander, or Hase. The
  work is of great value in the departments of the Constitution
  and the Life of the Church, but in other respects does not at
  all satisfy the expectations which one might entertain respecting
  productions bearing such an honoured name; thoroughly solid and
  scholarly, however, are the unfortunately only sparse and short
  notes of the learned editor.

  § 5.5. Almost contemporaneously with Gieseler, =Aug. Neander=
  of Berlin, † 1850, began the publication of his _Allg. Gesch. d.
  chr. Kirche_ in xi. divisions down to A.D. 1416 (Ham., 1824-1852.
  Engl. Transl. 9 vols., Edin., 1847-1855), by which ground
  was broken in another direction. Powerfully influenced by the
  religious movement, which since the wars of independence had
  inspired the noblest spirits of Germany, and sympathizing with
  Schleiermacher’s theology of feeling, he vindicated the rights of
  subjective piety in the scientific treatment of church history,
  and sought to make it fruitful for edification as a commentary
  of vast proportions on the parable of the leaven. With special
  delight he traces the developments of the inner life, shows what
  is Christian in even misconceived and ecclesiastically condemned
  manifestations, and feels for the most part repelled from
  objective ecclesiasticism, as from an ossification of the
  Christian life and the crystallization of dogma. In the same way
  he undervalues the significance of the political co-efficients,
  and has little appreciation of esthetic and artistic influences.
  The exposition goes out too often into wearisome details and
  grows somewhat monotonous, but is on every side lighted up by
  first hand acquaintance with the original sources. His scholar,
  =Hagenbach= of Basel, † 1874, put together in a collected form
  his lectures delivered before a cultured public upon several
  periods of church history, so as to furnish a treatise dealing
  with the whole field (7 vols., Leipz., 1868). These lectures are
  distinguished by an exposition luminous, interesting, sometimes
  rather broad, but always inspired by a warm Christian spirit and
  by circumspect judgment, inclining towards a mild confessional
  latitudinarianism. What, even on the confessional and
  ecclesiastical side, had been to some extent passed over by
  Neander, in consequence of his tendency to that inwardness that
  characterizes subjective and pectoral piety, has been enlarged
  upon by =Guericke= of Halle, † 1878, another of Neander’s
  scholars, in his _Handbuch_ (2 vols., Leipz., 1833; 9th ed.,
  3 vols., 1866; Eng. transl. “Manual of Ch. Hist.” Edinb., 1857),
  by the contribution of his own enthusiastic estimate of the
  Lutheran Church in a strong but clumsy statement; beyond this,
  however, the one-sidedness of Neander’s standpoint is not
  overcome, and although, alongside of Neander’s exposition, the
  materials and estimates of other standpoints are diligently used,
  and often the very words incorporated, the general result is not
  modified in any essential respect. Written with equal vigour,
  and bearing the impress of a freer ecclesiastical spirit, the
  _Handbuch_ of =Bruno Lindner= (3 vols., Leipzig, 1848 ff.)
  pursues with special diligence the course of the historical
  development of doctrine, and also emphasizes the influence
  of political factors. This same end is attempted in detailed
  treatment with ample production of authoritative documents in
  the _Handbuch_ of the author of the present treatise (vol. I.
  in three divisions, in a 2nd ed.; vol. II. 1, down to the end
  of the Carlovingian Era. Mitau, 1858 ff.). =Milman= (1791-1868)
  an English church historian of the first rank (“Hist. of Chr.
  to Abolit. of Pag. in Rom. Emp.” 3 vols., London, 1840; “History
  of Latin Christianity to the Pontificate of Nicholas V.” 3 vols.,
  London, 1854), shows himself, especially in the latter work,
  learned, liberal and eloquent, eminently successful in sketching
  character and presenting vivid pictures of the general culture
  and social conditions of the several periods with which he deals.
  The _Vorlesungen_ of =R. Hasse [Hase]=, published after his death
  by Köhler (2nd ed., Leipz., 1872), form an unassuming treatise,
  which scarcely present any trace of the influence of Hegel’s
  teaching upon their author. =Köllner= of Giessen writes an
  _Ordnung und Uebersicht der Materien der chr. Kirchengeschichte_,
  Giess., 1864, a diligent, well-arranged, and well packed, but
  somewhat dry and formless work. =H. Schmid= of Erlangen has
  enlarged his compendious _Lehrbuch_ (2nd ed., 1856), into a
  _Handbuch_ of two bulky volumes (Erlang., 1880); and =O. Zöckler=
  of Greifswald has contributed to the _Handbuch d. theolog.
  Wissenschaften_ (Erlang., 1884; 2nd ed., 1885) edited by him an
  excellent chronological summary of church history. =Ebrard’s=
  _Handbuch_ (4 vols., Erlang., 1865 ff.) endeavours to give
  adequate expression to this genuine spirit of the Reformed
  conception of historical writing by bringing church history and
  the history of doctrines into organic connection. The attempt is
  there made, however, as Hase has expressed it, with a paradoxical
  rather than an orthodox tendency. The spirit and mind of the
  Reformed Church are presented to us in a more temperate, mild
  and impartial form, inspired by the pectoralism of Neander, in
  the _Handbuch_ of =J. J. Herzog= of Erlangen, † 1882 (3 vols.,
  Erlang., 1876), which assumes the name of _Abriss_ or Compendium.
  This work set for itself the somewhat too ambitious aim
  of supplying the place of the productions of Gieseler and
  Neander,--which, as too diffuse, have unfortunately repelled many
  readers--by a new treatise which should set forth the important
  advances in the treatment of church history since their time,
  and give a more concise sketch of universal church history.
  The _Histoire du Christianisme_ of Prof. =Chastel= of Geneva,
  (5 vols., Par., 1881 ff.) in its earlier volumes occupies the
  standpoint of Neander, and we often miss the careful estimation of
  the more important results of later research. In regard to modern
  church history, notwithstanding every effort after objectivity
  and impartiality, theological sympathies are quite apparent. On
  the other hand, in the comprehensive _History of the Christian
  Church_ by =Philip Schaff= (in 8 vols., Edinb., 1885, reaching
  down to Gregory VIII., A.D. 1073), the rich results of research
  subsequent to the time of Neander are fully and circumspectly
  wrought up in harmony with the general principles of Neander’s
  view of history. Herzog’s _ Realencyclopædie für protest. Theol.
  u. Kirche_, especially in its 2nd ed. by Herzog and Plitt, and
  after the death of both, by Hauck (18 vols., Leipz., 1877 ff.),
  has won peculiar distinction in the department of church history
  from the contributions of new and powerful writers. Lichtenberger,
  formerly Prof. of Theol. in Strassburg, now in Paris, in his
  _Encyclopédie des sciences relig. _ has produced a French work
  worthy of a place alongside that of Herzog. _The Dictionary of
  Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines during
  the first eight centuries_, edited with admirable circumspection
  and care by Dr. Wm. Smith and Prof. Wace, combines with a
  completeness and richness of contents never reached before,
  a thoroughgoing examination of the original sources. (4 vols.,
  Lond., 1877 ff.) =Weingarten’s= Chronological Tables for Church
  History (_Zeittafeln z. K.G._ 2nd ed., Brl., 1874) are most
  useful to students as the latest and best helps of that kind.

  § 5.6. In the Catholic Church of Germany too a great activity has
  been displayed in the realm of church history. First of all in
  general Church history we have the diffuse work of the convert
  =von Stolberg= (_Gesch. d. Rel. Jesu_, 15 vols., down to A.D. 430,
  Hamb., 1806 ff., continued by von Kerz, vols. 16-45, and by
  Brischar, vols. 46-52, Mainz, 1825-1859), spreading out into
  hortatory and uncritical details. The elegant work of =Katerkamp=
  (_K.G._, 5 vols., down to 1153, Münst., 1819 ff.) followed it,
  inspired by a like mild spirit, but conceived in a more strictly
  scientific way. Liberal, so far as that could be without breaking
  with the hierarchy, is the _Handbuch der K.G._ (3 vols., Bonn,
  1826 ff.; 6th ed. by Ennen, 2 vols., 1862), by =I. Ign. Ritter=.
  The ample and detailed _Gesch. d. Chr. Rel. u. d. K._ (8 vols.,
  down to 1073, Ravensb., 1824 ff.) of =Locherer= reminds one of
  Schröckh’s work in other respects than that of its voluminousness.
  A decidedly ultramontane conception of church history, with
  frequent flashes of sharp wit, first appears in =Hortig’s=
  _Handbuch_ (2 vols., Landsh., 1826). =Döllinger= in 1828 publ. as
  a 3rd vol. of this work a _Handbuch d. Neuern K.G._, which, with
  a similar tendency, assumed a more earnest tone. This theologian
  afterwards undertook a thoroughly new and independent work of a
  wider range, which still remains incomplete (_Gesch. d. chr. K._,
  I. 1, 2, partially down to A.D. 630, Landsh., 1833-1835). This
  work with ostensible liberality exposed the notorious fables
  of Romish historical literature; but, on the other hand, with
  brilliant ingenuity, endeavoured carefully to preserve intact
  everything which on ultramontane principles and views might seem
  capable of even partial justification. His _Lehrbuch_ (I. II. 1.,
  Rgsb., 1836 ff.), reaching down only to the Reformation, treats
  the matter in a similar way, and confines itself to a simple
  statement of acknowledged facts. In the meantime =J. A. Möhler=,
  by his earlier monographical works, and still more decidedly
  by his far-reaching influence as a Professor at Tübingen, gave
  rise to an expectation of the opening up of a new epoch in the
  treatment of Catholic church history. He represented himself
  as in spiritual sympathy with the forms and means of Protestant
  science, although in decided opposition and conflict with its
  contents, maintaining his faithful adhesion to all elements
  essential to Roman Catholicism. This master, however, was
  prevented by his early death, † 1838, from issuing his complete
  history. This was done almost thirty years after his death by
  Gams, who published the work from his posthumous papers (_K. G._,
  3 vols., Rgsb., 1867 ff.), with much ultramontane amendment. It
  shows all the defects of such patchwork, with here and there,
  but relatively, very few fruitful cases. Traces of his influence
  still appear in the spirit which pervades the _Lehrbücher_
  proceeding from his school, by Alzog († 1878) and Kraus. The
  _Universalgeschichte d. K._, by =J. Alzog= (Mainz, 1841; 9th ed.,
  2 vols., 1872; transl. into Engl., 3 vols., Lond., 1877), was,
  in its earlier editions, closely associated with the lectures of
  his teacher, not ashamed even to draw from Hase’s fresh-sparkling
  fountains something at times for his own yet rather parched
  meadows, but in his later editions he became ever more
  independent, more thorough in his investigation, more fresh and
  lively in his exposition, making at the same time a praiseworthy
  endeavour at moderation and impartiality of judgment, although
  his adhesion to the Catholic standpoint grows more and more
  strict till it reaches its culmination in the acceptance of the
  dogma of Papal Infallibility. The 10th ed. of his work appeared
  in 1882 under the supervision of Kraus, who contributed much to
  its correction and completion. The _Lehrbuch_ of =F. Xav. Kraus=
  of Freiburg (2nd ed., Trier, 1882) is without doubt among all
  the Roman Catholic handbooks of the present the most solid from
  a scientific point of view, and while diplomatically reserved
  and carefully balanced in its expression of opinions, one of
  the most liberal, and it is distinguished by a clever as well as
  instructive mode of treatment. On the other hand, the Würzburgian
  theologian, =J. Hergenröther= (since 1879 Cardinal and Keeper of
  the Papal Archives at Rome), who represents the normal attitude
  of implicit trust in the Vatican, has published a _Handbuch_
  (2 vols. in 4 parts, Freib., 1876 ff.; 2nd ed., 1879, with a
  supplement: Sources, Literat., and Foundations). In this work
  he draws upon the rich stores of his acknowledged scholarship,
  which, however, often strangely forsakes him in treating of the
  history of Protestant theology. It is a skilful and instructive
  exposition, and may very fitly be represented as “a history of
  the church, yea, of the whole world, viewed through correctly set
  Romish spectacles.” Far beneath him in scientific importance, but
  in obstinate ultramontanism far above him, stands the _Lehrbuch_
  of =H. Bruck [Brück]= (2nd ed., Mainz, 1877). A far more solid
  production is presented in the _Dissertatt. selectæ in hist.
  ecclst._ of Prof. =B. Jungmann= of Louvain, which treat in
  chronological succession of parties and controversies prominent
  in church history, especially of the historical development of
  doctrine, in a thorough manner and with reference to original
  documents, not without a prepossession in favour of Vaticanism
  (vols. i.-iii., Ratisb., 1880-1883, reaching down to the end
  of the 9th cent.). The _Kirchenlexikon_ of Wetzer and Wette
  (12 vols., Freib., 1847 ff.) gained a prominent place on account
  of the articles on church history contributed by the most eminent
  Catholic scholars, conceived for the most part in the scientific
  spirit of Möhler. The very copious and of its kind admirably
  executed 2nd ed. by Kaulen (Freib., 1880 ff.), under the
  auspices of Card. Hergenröther, is conceived in a far more
  decidedly Papistic-Vatican spirit, which often does not
  shrink from maintaining and vindicating even the most glaring
  productions of mediæval superstition, illusion and credulity,
  as grounded in indubitable historical facts. Much more
  important is the historical research in the _Hist. Jahrbuch
  der Görres-Gesellschaft_, edited from 1880 by G. Hüffer, and
  from 1883 by B. Gramich, which presents itself as “a means of
  reconciliation for those historians with whom Christ is the
  middle point of history and the Catholic Church the God-ordained
  institution for the education of the human race.”--In the French
  Church the following are the most important productions: the
  _Hist. de l’égl._ of =Berault-Bercastel= (24 vols., Par., 1778
  ff.), which have had many French continuators and also a German
  translator (24 vols., Vienna, 1784 ff.); the _Hist. ecclst.
  depuis la création_, etc., of =Baron Henrion=, ed. by Migne
  (25 vols., Par., 1852 ff.); and the very diffuse compilation,
  wholly devoted to the glorification of the Papacy and its
  institutions, _Hist. universelle de l’égl. Cath._ of the Louvain
  French Abbé Rohrbacher (29 vols., Par., 1842 ff.; of which an
  English transl. is in course of publication). Finally, the
  scientifically careful exposition of the Old Catholic =J. Rieks=,
  _Gesch. d. chr. K. u. d. Papstthums_, Lahr., 1882, though in some
  respects onesided, may be mentioned as deserving of notice for its
  general impartiality and love of the truth.

              HISTORY OF THE PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY.

               The pre-Christian World preparing the way
                        of the Christian Church.

               § 6. THE STANDPOINT OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

  The middle point of the epochs and developments of the human race is
the incarnation of God in Christ. With it begins, upon it rests, the
fulness of the time (Gal. iv. 4), and toward it the whole pre-Christian
history is directed as anticipatory or progressive. This preparation has
its beginning in the very cradle of humanity, and is soon parted in the
two directions of Heathenism and Judaism. In the former case we have the
development of merely human powers and capacities; in the latter case
this development is carried on by continuous divine revelation. Both
courses of development, distinguished not only by the means, but also by
the task undertaken and the end aimed at, run alongside of one another,
until in the fulness of the time they are united in Christianity and
contribute thereto the fruits and results of what was essential and
characteristic in their several separate developments.

                            § 7. HEATHENISM.

  The primitive race of man, surrounded by rich and luxuriant forms
of nature, put this abundance of primeval power in the place of the
personal and supramundane God. Surrounded by such an inexhaustible
fulness of life and pleasures, man came to look upon nature as more
worthy of sacrifice and reverence than a personal God removed far off
into supramundane heights. Thus arose heathenism as to its general
features: a self-absorption into the depths of the life of nature,
a deification of nature, a worshipping of nature (Rom. i. 21 ff.),
therefore, the religion of nature, in accordance with which, too,
its moral character is determined. Most conspicuously by means of its
intellectual culture has heathenism given preliminary aid to the church
for the performing of her intellectual task. And even the pagan empire,
with its striving after universal dominion, as well as the active
commercial intercourse in the old heathen world, contributed in
preparing the way of the church.

  § 7.1. =The Religious Character of Heathenism.=--The hidden
  powers of the life of nature and the soul, not intellectually
  apprehended in the form of abstract knowledge, but laid hold of
  in immediate practice, and developed in speculation and mysticism,
  in natural magic and soothsaying, and applied to all the
  relations of human life, seemed revelations of the eternal spirit
  of nature, and, mostly by means of the intervention of prominent
  personalities and under the influence of various geographical
  and ethnographical peculiarities, produced manifold systems of
  the religion of nature. Common to all, and deeply rooted in the
  nature of heathenism, is the distinction between the _esoteric_
  religion of the priests, and the _exoteric_ religion of the
  people. The former is essentially a speculative ideal pantheism;
  the latter is for the most part a mythical and ceremonial
  polytheism. The religious development of heathenism has
  nevertheless been by no means stripped of all elements of truth.
  Apart from casual remnants of the primitive divine revelation,
  which, variously contorted on their transmission through heathen
  channels, may lie at the foundation or be inwrought into its
  religious systems, the hothouse-like development of the religion
  of nature has anticipated many a religious truth which, in the
  way of divine revelation, could only slowly and at a late period
  come to maturity, but has perverted and distorted it to such a
  degree that it was little better than a caricature. To this class
  belong, for example, the pantheistic theories of the Trinity and
  the Incarnation, the dualistic acknowledgment of the reality of
  evil, etc. To this also especially belongs the offering of human
  victims which has been practised in all religions of nature
  without exception,--a terrible and to some extent prophetic cry
  of agony from God-forsaken men, which is first toned down on
  Golgotha into hymns of joy and thanksgiving. Witness is given to
  the power and energy, with which the religions of nature in the
  time of their bloom took possession of and ruled over the minds
  and emotions of men, by the otherwise unexampled sacrifices
  and self-inflictions, such as hecatombs, offerings of children,
  mutilation, prostitution, etc., to which its votaries submitted,
  and not less the almost irresistible charm which it exercised
  again and again upon the people of Israel during the whole course
  of their earlier history. It also follows from this that the
  religion of heathenism does not consist in naked lies and pure
  illusions. There are elements of truth in the lies, which gave
  this power to the religion of nature. There are anticipations
  of redemption, though these were demoniacally perverted, which
  imparted to it this charm. There are mysterious phenomena of
  natural magic and soothsaying which seemed to establish their
  divine character. But the worship of nature had the fate of all
  unnatural, precocious development. The truth was soon swallowed
  up by the lies, the power of development and life, of which more
  than could possibly be given was demanded, was soon consumed and
  used up. The blossoms fell before the fruit had set. Mysteries
  and oracles, magic and soothsaying, became empty forms, or organs
  of intentional fraud and common roguery. And so it came to pass
  that one harauspex could not look upon another without laughing.
  Unbelief mocked everything, superstition assumed its most absurd
  and utterly senseless forms, and religions of an irrational
  mongrel type sought in vain to quicken again a nerveless and
  soulless heathenism.

  § 7.2. =The Moral Character of Heathenism.=--Religious character
  and moral character go always hand in hand. Thus, too, the moral
  life among heathen peoples was earnest, powerful, and true,
  or lax, defective, and perverse, in the same proportion as was
  the religious life of that same period. The moral faults of
  heathenism flow from its religious faults. It was a religion of
  the present, to whose gods therefore were also unhesitatingly
  ascribed all the imperfections of the present. In this way
  religion lost all its power for raising men out of the mire and
  dust surrounding them. The partly immoral myths sanctioned or
  excused by the example of the gods the grossest immoralities. As
  the type and pattern of reproductive power in the deified life
  of nature, the gratification of lust was often made the central
  and main point in divine service. The idea of pure humanity was
  wholly wanting in heathenism. It could only reach the conception
  of nationality, and its virtues were only the virtues of citizens.
  In the East despotism crushed, and in the West fierce national
  antipathies stifled the acknowledgment of, universal human rights
  and the common rank of men, so that the foreigner and the slave
  were not admitted to have any claims. As the worth of man was
  measured only by his political position, the significance of
  woman was wholly overlooked and repudiated. Her position was at
  most only that of the maid of the man, and was degraded to the
  lowest depths in the East by reason of the prevalent polygamy.
  Notwithstanding all these great and far-reaching moral faults,
  heathenism, in the days of its bloom and power, at least in those
  departments of the moral life, such as politics and municipal
  matters, in which pantheism and polytheism did not exert
  their relaxing influence, had still preserved much high moral
  earnestness and an astonishing energy. But when the religion of
  their fathers, reduced to emptiness and powerlessness, ceased to
  be the soul and bearer of those departments of life, all moral
  power was also withdrawn from them. The moral deterioration
  reached its culminating point in the dissolute age of the Roman
  Emperors. In this indescribable state of moral degeneration, the
  church found heathenism, when it began its spiritual regeneration
  of the world.

  § 7.3. =The Intellectual Culture in Heathenism.=--The
  intellectual culture of heathenism has won in regard to the
  church a twofold significance. On the one hand it affords a
  pattern, and on the other it presents a warning beacon. Pagan
  science and art, in so far as they possess a generally culturing
  influence and present to the Christian church a special type
  for imitation, are but the ultimate results of the intellectual
  activity which manifested itself among the Greeks and Romans
  in philosophy, poetry and historical writing, which have in two
  directions, as to form and as to contents, become the model for
  the Christian church, preparing and breaking up its way. On the
  one side they produced forms for the exercise of the intellectual
  life, which by their exactness and clearness, by their variety
  and many-sidedness, afforded to the new intellectual contents of
  Christianity a means for its formal exposition and expression.
  But, on the other side, they also produced, from profound
  consideration of and research into nature and spirit, history
  and life, ideas and reflections which variously formed an
  anticipation of the ideas of redemption and prepared the soil
  for their reception. The influence, however, on the other hand,
  which oriental forms of culture had upon the development and
  construction of the history of redemption, had already exhausted
  itself upon Judaism. What the symbolism of orientalism had
  contributed to Judaism, namely the form in which the divine
  contents communicated by Old Testament prophesy should be
  presented and unfolded, the dialectic of classical heathenism was
  to Christianity, in which the symbolic covering of Judaism was to
  be torn off and the thought of divine redemption to be manifested
  and to be laid hold of in its purely intellectual form. The
  influence of heathenism upon the advancing church in the other
  direction as affording a picture of what was to be avoided, was
  represented not less by Eastern culture than by the classical
  culture of the Greeks and Romans. Here it was exclusively the
  contents, and indeed the ungodly anti-Christian contents, the
  specifically heathen substance of the pagan philosophy, theosophy,
  and mysteriosophy, which by means of tolerated forms of culture
  sought to penetrate and completely paganize Christianity. To
  heathenism, highly cultured but pluming itself in the arrogance
  of its sublime wisdom, Christianity, by whose suggestive
  profundity it had been at first attracted, appeared altogether
  too simple, unphilosophical, unspeculative, to satisfy the
  supposed requirements of the culture of the age. There was needed,
  it was thought, fructification and enriching by the collective
  wisdom of the East and the West before religion could in truth
  present itself as absolute and perfect.

  § 7.4. =The Hellenic Philosophy.=--What is true of Greek-Roman
  culture generally on its material and formal sides, that it
  powerfully influenced Christianity now budding into flower,
  is preeminently true of the Greek Philosophy. Regarded as
  a prefiguration of Christianity, Greek philosophy presents
  a negative side in so far as it led to the dissolution of
  heathenism, and a positive side in so far as it, by furnishing
  form and contents, contributed to the construction of
  Christianity. From its very origin Hellenic philosophy
  contributed to the negative process by undermining the people’s
  faith in heathenism, preparing for the overthrow of idolatry, and
  leading heathenism to take a despondent view of its own future.
  It is with =Socrates=, who died in B.C. 399, that the positive
  prefiguring of Christianity on the part of Greek philosophy comes
  first decidedly into view. His humble confession of ignorance,
  his founding of the claim to wisdom on the Γνῶθι σεαυτόν,
  the tracing of his deepest thoughts and yearnings back to
  divine suggestions (his Δαιμόνιον), his grave resignation to
  circumstances, and his joyful hope in a more blessed future,
  may certainly be regarded as faint anticipations and prophetic
  adumbrations of the phenomena of Christian faith and life.
  =Plato=, who died B.C. 348, with independent speculative and
  poetic power, wrought the scattered hints of his teacher’s wisdom
  into an organically articulated theory of the universe, which
  in its anticipatory profundity approached more nearly to the
  Christian theory of the universe than any other outside the range
  of revelation. His philosophy leads men to an appreciation of his
  God-related nature, takes him past the visible and sensible to
  the eternal prototypes of all beauty, truth and goodness, from
  which he has fallen away, and awakens in him a profound longing
  after his lost possessions. In regard to matter =Aristotle=, who
  died B.C. 322, does not stand so closely related to Christianity
  as Plato, but in regard to form, he has much more decidedly
  influenced the logical thinking and systematizing of later
  Christian sciences. In these two, however, are reached the
  highest elevation of the philosophical thinking of the Greeks,
  viewed in itself as well as in its positive and constructive
  influence upon the church. As philosophy down to that time,
  consciously or unconsciously, had wrought for the dissolution
  of the religion of the people, it now proceeded to work its own
  overthrow, and brought into ever deeper, fuller and clearer
  consciousness the despairing estimate of the world regarding
  itself. This is shown most significantly in the three schools
  of philosophy which were most widely spread at the entrance of
  the church into the Græco-Roman world, Epicureanism, Stoicism,
  and Scepticism. =Epicurus=, who died B.C. 271, in his philosophy
  seeks the highest good in pleasure, recognises in the world only
  a play of fortune, regards the soul as mortal, and supposes that
  the gods in their blissful retirement no longer take any thought
  about the world. =Stoicism=, founded by Zeno, who died in B.C.
  260, over against the Epicurean deism set up a hylozoistic
  pantheism, made the development of the world dependent upon the
  unalterable necessity of fate, which brings about a universal
  conflagration, out of which again a new world springs to follow
  a similar course. To look on pleasure with contempt, to scorn
  pain, and in case of necessity to end a fruitless life by
  suicide--these constitute the core of all wisdom. When he has
  reached such a height in the mastery of self and of the world the
  wise man is his own god, finding in himself all that he needs.
  Finally, in conflict with Stoicism arose the =Scepticism= of the
  _New Academy_, at the head of which were Arcesilaus who died B.C.
  240 and Carneades who died B.C. 128. This school renounced all
  knowledge of truth as something really unattainable, and in the
  moderation (ἐποχή) of every opinion placed the sum of theoretic
  wisdom, while it regarded the sum of all practical wisdom to
  consist in the evidence of every passionate or exciting effort.

  § 7.5. =The Heathen State.=--In the grand endeavour of heathenism
  to redeem itself by its own resources and according to its own
  pleasure, the attempt was finally made by the concentration of
  all forces into one colossal might. To gather into one point all
  the mental and bodily powers of the whole human race, and through
  them also all powers of nature and the products of all zones
  and lands, and to put them under one will, and then in this
  will to recognise the personal and visible representation of the
  godhead--to this was heathenism driven by an inner necessity.
  Hence arose a struggle, and in consequence of the pertinacity
  with which it was carried on, one kingdom after another was
  overthrown, until the climax was reached in the Roman empire.
  Yet even this empire was broken and dissolved when opposed by the
  spiritual power of the kingdom of God. Like all the endeavours
  of heathenism, this struggle for =absolute sovereignty= had a
  twofold aspect; there are thereby made prominent men’s own ways
  and God’s ways, the undivine aims of men, and the blessed results
  which God’s government of the world could secure for them. We
  have here to do first of all simply with the Roman universal
  empire, but the powers that rose in succession after it are only
  rejuvenations and powerful continuations of the endeavour of the
  earlier power, and so that is true of every state which is true
  of the Roman. Its significance as a preparer of the way for the
  church is just this, that in consequence of the articulation of
  the world into one great state organisation, the various stages
  and elements of culture found among the several civilized races
  hitherto isolated, contributed now to one universal civilization,
  and a rapid circulation of the new life-blood driven by the
  church through the veins of the nations was made possible and
  easy. With special power and universal success had the exploits
  of Alexander the Great in this direction made a beginning, which
  reached perfection under the Roman empire. The ever advancing
  prevalence of one language, the Greek, which at the time of the
  beginning of the church was spoken and understood in all quarters
  of the Roman empire, which seemed, like a temporary suspension
  of the doom of the confusion of languages which accompanied the
  rise of heathenism (Gen. xi.), to celebrate its return to the
  divine favour, belongs also pre-eminently to those preparatory
  influences. And as the heathen state sought after the
  concentration of all might, =Industry= and =Trade=, moved by
  the same principle, sought after the concentration of wealth and
  profit. But as worldly enterprise for its own ends made paths for
  universal commerce over wastes and seas, and visited for purposes
  of trade the remotest countries and climes, it served unwittingly
  and unintentionally the higher purposes of divine grace by
  opening a way for the spread of the message of the gospel.

                             § 8. JUDAISM.

  In a land which, like the people themselves, combined the character
of insular exclusiveness with that of a central position in the ancient
world, Israel, on account of the part which it was called to play in
universal history, had to be the receiver and communicator of God’s
revelations of His salvation, had to live quiet and apart, taking
little to do with the world’s business; having, on the other hand, the
assurance from God’s promise that disasters threatened by heathenish
love of conquest and oppression would be averted. This position and
this task were, indeed, only too often forgotten. Only too often did
the Israelites mix themselves up in worldly affairs, with which they
had no concern. Only too often by their departure from their God did
they make themselves like the heathen nations in religion, worship,
and conversation, so that for correction and punishment they had
often to be put under a heavy yoke. Yet the remnant of the holy seed
(Isa. iv. 3; vi. 13) which was never wholly wanting even in times of
general apostasy, as well as the long-suffering and faithfulness of
their God, ensured the complete realisation of Israel’s vocation, even
though the unspiritual mass of the people finally rejected the offered
redemption.

  § 8.1. =Judaism under special Training of God through the Law and
  Prophecy.=--Abraham was chosen as a single individual (Isa. li. 2),
  and, as the creator of something new, God called forth from an
  unfruitful womb the seed of promise. As saviour and redeemer
  from existing misery He delivered the people of promise from the
  oppression of Egyptian slavery. In the Holy Land the family must
  work out its own development, but in order that the family might
  be able unrestrainedly to expand into a great nation, it was
  necessary that it should first go down into Egypt. Moses led the
  people thus disciplined out of the foreign land, and gave them
  a theocratic constitution, law, and worship as means for the
  accomplishment of their calling, as a model and a schoolmaster
  leading on to future perfection (Gal. iii. 24; Heb. x. 1). The
  going out of Egypt was the birth of the nation, the giving of
  the law at Sinai was its consecration as a holy nation. Joshua
  set forth the last condition for an independent people, the
  possession of a country commensurate with the task of the nation,
  a land of their own that would awaken patriotic feelings. Now the
  theocracy under the form of a purely popular institution under
  the fostering care of the priesthood could and should have borne
  fruit, but the period of the Judges proves that those two factors
  of development were not sufficient, and so now two new agencies
  make their appearance; the Prophetic order as a distinct and
  regular office, constituted for the purpose of being a mouth
  to God and a conscience to the state, and the Kingly order for
  the protecting of the theocracy against hurt from without and
  for the establishment of peace within her borders. By David’s
  successes the theocracy attained unto a high degree of political
  significance, and by Solomon’s building of the temple the typical
  form of worship reached the highest point of its development.
  In spite, however, of prophecy and royalty, the people, ever
  withdrawing themselves more and more from their true vocation,
  were not able outwardly and inwardly to maintain the high level.
  The division of the kingdom, internal feuds and conflicts,
  their untheocratic entanglement in the affairs of the world, the
  growing tendency to fall away from the worship of Jehovah and
  to engage in the worship of high places, and calves, and nature,
  called down incessantly the divine judgments, in consequence of
  which they fell a prey to the heathen. Yet this discipline was
  not in vain. Cyrus decreed their return and their independent
  organization, and even prophecy was granted for a time to the
  restored community for its establishment and consolidation. Under
  these political developments has prophecy, in addition to its
  immediate concern with its own times in respect of teaching,
  discipline, and exhortation, given to the promise of future
  salvation its fullest expression, bringing a bright ray of
  comfort and hope to light up the darkness of a gloomy present.
  The fading memories of the happy times of the brilliant victories
  of David and the glorious peaceful reign of Solomon formed the
  bases of the delineations of the future Messianic kingdom, while
  the disasters, the suffering and the humiliation of the people
  during the period of their decay gave an impulse to Messianic
  longings for a Messiah suffering for the sins of the people
  and taking on Himself all their misery. And now, after it
  had effected its main purpose, prophecy was silenced, to be
  reawakened only in a complete and final form when the fulness
  of time had come.

  § 8.2. =Judaism after the Cessation of Prophecy.=--The time had
  now come when the chosen people, emancipated from the immediate
  discipline of divine revelation, but furnished with the results
  and experiences of a rich course of instruction, and accompanied
  by the law as a schoolmaster and by the light of the prophetic
  word, should themselves work out the purpose of their calling.
  The war of extermination which Antiochus Epiphanes in his heathen
  fanaticism waged against Judaism, was happily and victoriously
  repelled, and once more the nation won its political independence
  under the Maccabees. At last, however, owing to the increasing
  corruption of the ruling Maccabean family, they were ensnared by
  the craft of the Roman empire. The Syrian religious persecution
  and the subsequent oppression of the Romans roused the national
  spirit and the attachment to the religion of their fathers to the
  most extreme exclusiveness, fanatical hatred, and proud scorn of
  everything foreign, and converted the Messianic hope into a mere
  political and frantically carnal expectation. True piety more
  and more disappeared in a punctilious legalism and ceremonialism,
  in a conceited self-righteousness and boastful confidence in
  their own good works. Priests and scribes were eagerly bent
  on fostering this tendency and increasing the unsusceptibility
  of the masses for the spirituality of the redemption that was
  drawing nigh, by multiplying and exaggerating external rules
  and by perverse interpretation of scripture. But in spite of all
  these perverting and far-reaching tendencies, there was yet in
  quiet obscurity a sacred plantation of the true Israel (John i. 47;
  Luke i. 6; ii. 25, 38, etc.), as a garden of God for the first
  reception of salvation in Christ.

  § 8.3. =The Synagogues.=--The institution of the =Synagogues=
  was of the greatest importance for the spread and development of
  post-exilian Judaism. They had their origin in the consciousness
  that, besides the continuance of the symbolical worship of the
  temple, a ministry of the word for edification by means of the
  revelation of God in the law and the prophets was, after the
  withdrawal of prophecy, all the more a pressing need and duty.
  But they also afforded a nursery for the endeavour to widen and
  contract the law of Moses by Rabbinical rules, for the tendency
  to external legalism and hypocrisy, for the national arrogance
  and the carnal Messianic expectations, which from them passed
  over into the life of the people. On the other hand, the
  synagogues, especially outside of Palestine, among the dispersion,
  won a far-reaching significance for the church by reason of