some places in 1783.

"Another argument adduced in the support of the theory of inflation from
below, was, the hollow sound made by the steps of a horse upon the
plain; which, however, proves nothing more than that the materials of
which the convex mass is composed are light and porous. The sound called
"_rimbombo_" by the Italians, is very commonly returned by _made ground_
when sharply struck, and has been observed not only on the sides of
Vesuvius and of other volcanic cones where a cavity is below, but also
in plains, such as the Campagna di Roma, composed in a great measure of
tuff and other porous and volcanic rocks. The reverberation, however,
may be assisted by grottoes and caverns, for these may be as numerous in
the lavas of Jorullo as in many of those of Etna; but their existence
would lend no countenance to the hypothesis of a great arched cavity,
four square miles in extent, and in the centre 550 feet high.[64]

"Mr. Burkhart, a German director of mines, who examined Jorullo in 1827,
ascertained that there had been no eruption there since Humboldt's visit
in 1803. He, went to the bottom of the crater, and observed a slight
evolution of sulphurous acid vapors, but the "hornitos" had ceased
entirely to give forth steam. During the twenty-four years intervening
between his visit and that of Humboldt, vegetation had made great
progress on the flanks of the new hills, and the rich soil of the
surrounding country was once more covered with luxuriant crops of sugar
cane and indigo, and there was an abundant growth of natural underwood
on all the uncultivated tracts."[65]

The State of Mechoacan is extraordinarily rich in rivers and streams.
The Lerma, Balsas, Zitacuaro, Huetamo, CluranÃºeco, MarquÃ©z, Aztala,
Tlalpujahua, and some smaller streamlets and brooks are found in its
vallies; while the lakes and ponds of Cuizco or Aaron, Patzcuaro,
Huango, Tanguato, and Huaniqueo afford supplies to numerous
neighborhoods. The climate of Mechoacan is regular, not liable to
extraordinary or sudden changes, and remarkably genial. On the Pacific
coast and in its vicinity, as in the other middle and southern States of
the Confederacy, agues and intermittent fevers prevail; but the
population seems to have increased considerably since the beginning of
this century, and even in a larger proportion than in some other parts
of Mexico. In 1849, the number of inhabitants was estimated to be not
less than 590,000. Three Indian tribes still dwell within its borders:
1st, the Tarascos; 2d, the Otomies; 3d, the Chichimecas. The whole
southern half of the State is peopled with Indians.

Mechoacan is divided into 4 departments and 62 municipalities:

  1. Department del Norte, with 14 municipalities.
  2.    "       del Oriente, with 15 municipalities.
  3.    "       del Sur, with 11 municipalities.
  4.    "       del Poniente, with 22 municipalities.

These 4 departments contain the three cities of MORELIA, PATZCUARO, and
TZINTZOUTZAN;--the three towns of Zitacuaro, Zamora, and Charo;--256
villages, 333 _haciendas_, and 1,356 _ranchos_, which are divided among
83 parishes.

The agricultural productions of Mechoacan are similar in character to
those of the other Western States of Mexico lying within the same
longitude. The best sugar plantations are about 12 leagues from
Patzcuaro. At the foot of Jorullo, cotton, indigo, cacao and sugar are
planted; and mainoc or cassava, potatoes and yams are sown in genial
spots, whilst maiz, wheat, barley and magueys are cultivated in the
higher and cooler regions. The finest tropical fruits are raised in the
warm portions of the State.

The capital of Mechoacan is Morelia, sometimes called Valladolid, or
Valladolid de Mechoacan. Its modern title is derived from the name of
the insurgent leader Morelos.

MORELIA lies 6,398 feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 19Â° 42Â´
North, 103Â° 12Â´ 15Â´Â´ W. long. from Paris,--between the two streams which
water the Valley of Olid. It is a small, but handsome town, possessing
some fine churches, and a charming passeo and alameda. The climate is
mild and wholesome, but snow falls occasionally during the winter.

PATZCUARO lies on the south-eastern bank of the lake of that name.

TZINTZOUTZAN is about 4 leagues from Patzcuaro, in a northerly
direction, upon the banks of the same lake. It was once the capital of
the ancient Indian Kingdom of Mechoacan, but is now only a small
village of 2,000 inhabitants, who have nevertheless bestowed on it the
title of--"_City._" Some relics of the Tarascan architecture are said to
be found at this place, but we do not possess any authentic accounts or
drawings of them.

ZITACUARO is the capital of the old mining district 7 leagues south of
Angangueo, 6,451 feet above the sea, and contains about 2000
inhabitants. Many small Indian villages are also found in the
neighborhood, but they do not require special notice.

ANGANGUEO is a mining town 7 leagues south of Tlalpujahua, with about
1,900 inhabitants.

San Pedro y San Pablo de Tlalpujahua, also a mining village and
district, 35 leagues north north-west from Mexico, eastward of Morelia,
and about 6 leagues south of the left bank of the Lerma. It lies in a
beautiful mountain region at the foot of the _Cerro del Gallo_, 8,386
feet above the sea. Two leagues north of Tlalpujahua, is the _Hacienda
de Tepetongo_, remarkable for its warm springs, which rising amid
volcanic rocks, maintain a temperature of 27Â° Reaumeur; and are freely
resorted to by the neighboring Indians. Cuizco; Huaniqueo; Zamora;
Tancuancicuaro; Tarecuato; Tlazazalca, Tanguato, are the remaining towns
and villages in this part of the country deserving mention. In the
Department _del Norte_, we find Sirisicuaro; Santa Anna; Araron;
Copandaro; Teremendo; Pareachecuaro, and Tirepiteo. In the Department
_del Oriente_ lie San FelipÃ©; Patambero; Enadio; Orocutui; Tusantla;
Clirangangueo; Tichiqueo; Huetano Pungarahuato; and Cayuca. In the
Department _del Sur_, are Ario; Tacambaro; Turicato; Churumuco; Santiago
Coalcoman; Uruapan and Tancitaro. In the Department _del Poinente_, we
find Chilchote, with about 4,700 inhabitants, and Tincuindui.

The mining districts of Mechoacan are Tlalpujahua, Angangueo, and
Ozumatlan. Formerly, the mines of Zitacuaro, Ingnaran, and a few other
districts were somewhat renowned for their value; but, at present, they
are either entirely abandoned or only slightly worked.

THE STATE OF JALISCO.

The present State of JALISCO and former Intendency of Guadalajara,
formed together with Zacatecas, the old Spanish kingdom of New Galicia.
It is bounded on the north by Durango; on the north-west by Sinaloa; on
the north and east by Zacatecas and Guanajuato; on the south and
south-east by Mechoacan and the Territory of Colima; and on the west by
the Pacific coast, for a distance of 160 leagues. The State stretches
from 19Â° 5Â´ to 23Â° 55Â´ of north latitude; and from 103Â° 45Â´ to 108Â° 28Â´
30Â´Â´ west longitude from Paris. Its population is estimated at about
700,000.

The greater part of Jalisco lies on the western slope of the Cordillera;
and its table lands, which resemble those of the great plateau of
Mexico, are somewhat cut up by mountain spurs. The upper regions
consequently are comparatively sterile, whilst the lowlands are rich and
fruitful.

The Sierras of Bayona, in the north-west end of ChalchihuitÃ©c, in the
north-east of the State, are its most remarkable mountain ranges. The
Rio Grande de Santiago is the principal stream in Jalisco; but during
the six months of the dry season, its waters are either extremely
shallow or disappear altogether. The Bayona is a boundary between this
State and Sinaloa.

The LAKE OF CHAPALA, lies about fifteen leagues from the city of
Guadalajara, and forms a basin among the mountains of 36 to 40 leagues
in length by 5 to 8 in breadth. Its usual depth is about six and a half
fathoms. Its scenery is remarkably beautiful, and it supplies the
neighborhood plentifully with fish and water-fowl.

Jalisco is divided into eight Cantons or Departments:--Guadalajara,
Lagos, La Barca, Sayula, Etzatlan, Autlan, Tepic and Colotlan;--containing
8 large cities and towns, 318 small villages, 387 haciendas or
plantations, and 2,534 ranchos or farms.

The agricultural productions of Jalisco combine those of the _tierras
calientas_ and the _tierras templadas_. On the upper plateaus, grain and
agaves are chiefly planted, and on the coast, sugar and cotton. A small
quantity of cochineal is also raised, and in the district of Autlan de
la Grana, plantations of the cacao-tree have been made. All the fruits
of the tropical and temperate zones are readily grown; sheep, mules,
horses, goats, neat-cattle, are raised in great abundance, and not less
than 10,000 head of cattle are found on many haciendas de GaÃ±ado.

The manufactures of Jalisco are chiefly confined to rude cotton fabrics
or some fanciful articles of dress. The people are celebrated for their
gold and silver embroidery upon leather which is used in the manufacture
of saddles and horse equipage.

Nearly all the importations into this State come either by land from San
Luis Potosi, the city of Mexico, or San Blas, which is the chief port of
Jalisco on the Pacific. A large portion of the foreign wares are
doubtless smuggled into the interior, or introduced through the corrupt
connivance of custom-house officers along the line of the west coast.

[Illustration: PLAZA OF QUADALAJARA.]

The city of GUADALAJARA, 150 leagues from Mexico, the capital of
Jalisco, is situated upon an extensive plain. Its handsome streets are
airy, and many of the houses well built. There are fourteen squares,
twelve fountains, and a number of convents and churches, the principal
of which is the magnificent Cathedral, whose towers were injured by an
earthquake in 1818. An Alameda is beautifully laid out with irregular
alleys, planted with trees, interspersed with flowers, while, in the
centre, a fountain throws up a constant stream of excellent water.

Within the town, the _Portales_ are the principal rendezvous, and
contain numerous shops and stalls filled with European and East India
fabrics, fruit of all kinds, earthenware from Tonala, shoes, mangas,
saddlery, birds, sweetmeats of Calabazato, and a thousand other
varieties to attract the passers by. Each of the stalls pays a small
ground rent to the convents of Guadalajara, and thus afford an ample
revenue to the brotherhoods.

The population of the town may be estimated at 50,000. Its air is mild
and wholesome, and during the season when the neighboring vegetation is
refreshed by rains, the scenery of Guadalajara is considered as
picturesque as that of the city of Mexico.

In the district of Lagos lies the town of SAN JUAN DE LOS LAGOS, in a
deep ravine, almost upon a level with the river of the same name, and
with its mud houses and wild scenery, offers no evidence of the gay and
festive appearance it presents during the famous annual fair which is
held in it, commencing the 5th of December, and lasting eight days. At
that period, San Juan is the resort of merchants, with their wares from
all parts of the Republic, and all the planters or wealthy rancheros
within an hundred leagues, resort thither with their families.

There is a beautiful church in this town, dedicated to Our Lady of the
Lake, and medals struck in honor of her are sold at the door of the
temple.

In the district of _la Barca_ are the towns of La Barca, Tlachichilco,
Chapala, Axixis, Ojotepec, Aranda and Atotomilco.

In the district of _Etzatlan_, we find the capital village of Etzatlan,
Cocula, San Martin, AmÃ©ca, Tequila and Agualco.

In the district of _Sayula_, are Sayula, Zapotlan el grande, Zapotitli,
Tuspan and Zacualco.

In the district of _Autlan_, we find Autlan de la Grana, a town with
4,000 inhabitants, La Villa de la Purificacion, with 3,000, Mascota, San
Sebastian and Tecolotlan, which are large villages.

In the district of _Tepic_ lies the town of Tepic, a fine well built
town in the midst of a rich mountain plain, 2,963 feet above the level
of the sea, and next to the capital, the finest and most populous town
in the State. Besides this, there are Pochotitlan, Compostella,
Ahuacatlan, S. Maria del Oro, Santiago, Centispac, Acaponeta, and
Guajicoria. Three leagues north-east of the latter, a warm spring is
found in the neighborhood of the _Cerro de Huicalapa_.

The capital of the district of _Colotlan_, is San Antonio de Colotlan,
containing about 4,000 inhabitants. In this district we also find Santa
Maria, a large and populous village lying 5,659 feet above the sea,
Huejucar, Cartagena, Tlaltenango and BolaÃ±os, a mining town.

The best sea-port of Jalisco is that of San Blas, whose town lies in 21Â°
32Â´ 24Â´Â´ north latitude and 107Â° 35Â´ 48," west longitude from Paris,
upon a rock of basaltic lava, 90 feet high, isolated entirely on three
sides, and reached by a bad road on the fourth. The haven is
land-locked, and the anchoring ground good and deep; but during the
rainy season the levels around the rock which is the foundation of the
town, become filled with stagnant pools until the whole adjacent country
is covered with water. The burning sun of the coast acts rapidly upon
these shallow marshes and fills them with insects and miasma. San Blas
soon becomes uninhabitable, and its population betake themselves either
to Tepic, Guadalajara, or the first elevations of the mountains in the
interior.

The only mining region of any note in Jalisco is that of BolaÃ±os. The
mines of Hostotipaquillo, near Tepic, are now abandoned; those of
Guichichila, Santa Maria del Oro, Santa Martin and Ameca, in the
district of Etzatlan, in the neighborhood of Cocula, are partially
wrought. Among the unexplored sites of base and spurious metals in this
State, we may mention those found in the vicinity of Compostella, those
near the ranchos of _Rosa Morada_ and _Buena Vista_, towards the coast,
between the villages of Santiago and Acaponeta, and those near
Guajicoria, north of the last named village.

The Islands of La Isabela, San Juanico and Marias, lie on the Pacific
coast of Jalisco.

The aborigines of Jalisco, formerly warlike and devoted to a bloody
religion, belong to the tribes of CazÃ§anes, Guachichiles and Guamanes.
They are most generally tillers of the ground, adhering to the doctrines
of the Catholic church, and they have particular fondness for settling a
while in lonely and wild regions, and for changing their place of
residence frequently. The manners and customs of the Guachichiles are in
many respects peculiar. They still use the bow and arrow as weapons.
Their quivers are made of deer and shark skins, and the points of their
reed arrows are formed of a hard wood and rarely of copper. The garments
of the men consist of a kind of short tunic, roughly made by themselves
of blue or brown cotton material, with a girdle hanging down in front
and behind, to which is generally added a pair of trousers of tanned
goat or deer skin. Married persons, men as well as women, wear straw
hats with broad rims and high crowns, ornamented with a narrow ribbon of
bright colored wool and tassels. Their black bushy hair is worn very
long, bound with bright colored ribbons and tassels, or plaited in
queues. No unmarried person, male or female, dare wear a hat. The women
are clothed with an under garment of rough wool or cotton and a mantle
of the same material, which has an aperture on top through which they
pass their heads. When sober they are peaceable and easily controlled,
but when intoxicated violent and quarrelsome. At marriage the husband
has the right of taking his wife on trial and of sending her back to her
parents after some time if she should not please him, and this, even if
she should be pregnant by him. This, however, does not prevent such a
female marrying afterwards. If she gives satisfaction, the husband has
the ceremony performed by a priest or monk, who for this purpose makes a
yearly circuit, and often performs the marriage and a baptism at the
same time!

Church and school matters, particularly the latter, are provided for in
the State of Jalisco in an inferior manner to other parts of the Mexican
Republic. A few years ago, there were in the entire State only 113
elementary schools attended by not more than 6,167 children. The
instruction was limited almost exclusively to reading, for of this
entire number, according to official accounts, there were not more than
2,092 learning to write. For instruction in the higher branches there
were in the entire State only two indifferent institutions located in
the capital--one the Seminario Conciliar for instruction of the clergy,
with thirteen chairs and a species of academy, founded since the
revolution, called El Instituto, with chairs for anatomy, modern
languages, mineralogy, mathematics, &c. The seminary was attended by 120
boarders and 329 day scholars. The institution had one director, ten
professors, two assistant teachers, a secretary, etc.; the available
funds of the same consisted, independent of a fee paid by the wealthier
scholars, of scarcely any thing but an addition of two thousand and
seventy dollars granted by the State treasury. Jalisco felt deeply this
sad condition of public instruction, and numerous propositions for its
amelioration and thorough reformation were made, but money was wanting
and fit men for the professorships, and discretion and tact on the part
of the authorities, and it is scarcely to be expected that since that
time public instruction has been essentially bettered. The "Instituto"
since then has been made a university. The State forms a separate
bishopric. It was erected in the year 1548, and embraced at that time in
like manner the present States of Durango and New Leon. The bishop had
his seat first at Compostela; in 1569 it was transferred to Guadalajara.
In 1631 Durango was separated from Jalisco, and in 1777 both were made
distinct bishoprics. The episcopal chapter of Jalisco consisted of three
dignitaries, four canons and four prebendaries.

THE TERRITORY OF COLIMA.

This territory is bounded north by Jalisco, south by Mechoacan, east by
both of these States, and west by the Pacific. It extends between the
degrees of 18Â° 18Â´ and 19Â° 10Â´ of north latitude, and 102Â° 51Â´ and 104Â°
2Â´ west longitude from Greenwich. Its surface is generally level, broken
by hills, from among which rises the mountain of Colima, the westernmost
of Mexican volcanoes. It lies in the north-eastern corner of the
Territory, and reaches a height of 9,200 feet above the level of the
sea.

The climate of Colima is warm--on the coast it is hot--but the territory
is generally considered healthy and fruitful in all portions. Its
population is estimated at about 45,000. Cotton, sugar, tobacco and
cacao are produced by its agriculturists, while on the coast large
quantities of salt are made from the waters of the sea. Rich iron
deposits have been recently found, and individuals have commenced
developing this important source of national wealth.

The chief town of the Territory is COLIMA, about two leagues south of
the volcano, containing between fifteen and twenty thousand inhabitants.
The other towns and villages are Almoloyan, with 4,000 people, Xala,
Ascatlan and Texupa. The haven of Manzanillo, or port of Colima, as it
is sometimes called, is seventeen leagues west of the capital; and with
but small expense to government might be made one of the best anchorages
in the Republic.

[Illustration: THROWING THE LAZO.]

CHAPTER IX.

     SINALOA--BOUNDARIES--CLIMATE--DIVISIONS--INDIANS--PRODUCTS--TOWNS--MINES.
     --SONORA--BOUNDARIES--DIVISIONS--RIVERS--CLIMATE--INDIANS--TRADE--TOWNS
     --MINES.--TERRITORY OF LOWER
     CALIFORNIA--BOUNDARIES--CHARACTER--POPULATION--PRODUCTS--PEARLS--SALT
     --MINES--SEALS--WHALES--CLIMATE--PORTS--TOWNS--POPULATION.--STATE
     OF GUERRERO.

THE STATE OF SINALOA.

Sinaloa is bounded on the south by Jalisco, on the east by Durango, on
the south-west by Chihuahua, on the north by Sonora and on the west by
the Pacific coast for a distance of 200 leagues along the Gulf of
California. It lies between 22Â° 35Â´ and 27Â° 45Â´ of north latitude and
107Â° and 113Â° west longitude from Paris. The river CaÃ±as divides it from
Jalisco, and the Mayo from Sonora. Its length from south-east to
north-west is about 180 leagues, and its breadth in the centre 50 to 56
leagues. This State is partly mountainous and partly level coast land.
On the east it lies on the limits of the Cordilleras of Mexico. The
levels begin in the west near the boundaries of Jalisco, and stretch out
their broad sand-wastes to the town of Alamos and the river Mayo, until
they are lost in the State of Sonora. This region is scorched with a
blazing sun, and is of course but thinly peopled and little cultivated.
Near the city of Alamos a more genial country begins. The central and
eastern parts of Sinaloa are rich in table lands and values, while the
slopes of the mountains are thickly wooded. In the interior the rains
are not heavy nor the warmth intense. A mild and genial air prevails
during the whole year; but on the coast the heat is excessive, and all
who are able escape from it into the interior.

The State of Sinaloa is divided into three departments:--

1st. The department _del Fuerte_, with three cantons, viz: Fuerte,
Alamos and Sinaloa.

2d. The department of _Culiacan_, with two cantons, viz: Culiacan and
CosalÃ¡.

3d. The department of _San Sebastian_, with three cantons, viz:
Sebastian, Rosario and Piastla.

The principal streams and rivers of this State are those of las CaÃ±as,
or Rio de BayÃ³na, the boundary line in the direction of Jalisco; the
Rosario, and the coast streams of Mazatlan, Piastla, Elota and Tavala.
There are besides these the Culiacan or Sacuda, Imaya, Mocorito, Ocroni,
del Fuerte and Mayo.

The Indians belong to various tribes. The Coras, Nayarites, and
Hueicolhues are found in the south; north of these dwell the Sinaloas,
Cochitas and Tubares; and still further north, on the streams of the
Ocroni, AhomÃ©, del Fuerte and Mayo, we find some tribes of GuasÃ¡res,
Ahomes and Ocronis. The Mayos inhabit chiefly the regions west and
north-west of the town of Alamos.

The white inhabitants of this State are chiefly descendants of emigrants
from Biscay and Catalonia in Spain.

Sinaloa is regarded as a productive State, and yields good crops of
grain in the portions which are easily irrigated. Wheat, Indian corn and
barley, together with some cotton, sugar and tobacco, are cultivated
successfully; whilst all sorts of fruits and vegetables are found in
abundance.

The principal towns are Mazatlan, a port with anchorage on the west
coast, which is much visited by European and American vessels, and has
been the seat of a very large smuggling trade in which the wares of
India and of northern nations were exchanged for the precious metals of
Mexico, her grain and skins.

Asilos del Rosario and the Villa de San Sebastian lie in the department
of San Sebastian. San Ignacio de Piastla is the capital of a canton.
Culiacan lies in the department of Culiacan. Sinaloa or Villa de San
Felipe y Santiago de Sinaloa, the Villa del Fuerte or Montesclaros, and
Alamos, are the other towns of note in this State.

Sinaloa is rich in metallic deposits of base and precious metals, the
chief of which are found at Asilos de Rosario, Cosala, Copala, Alamos,
and San JosÃ© de los Mulatos.

THE STATE OF SONORA.

Sonora bounds eastwardly on Chihuahua and New Mexico; southwardly on
Sinaloa; and westwardly on the Gulf of California for 238 leagues
between the mouths of the Mayo and the Colorado. Its northern boundary
is now the line which divides the Republic of Mexico from the
Californian possessions of the United States.

The western and southern portions of Sonora are generally flat. In the
south, between the rivers Mayo and Yaqui and the Presidio of Buena
Vista, there is a fruitful region, whose productiveness is enhanced by
a number of small lakes formed during the rainy season on the levels,
which are used by the careful agriculturists for the irrigation of their
farms. On the eastern boundary of the State, the ridges of the
Cordillera begin to rise, until they tower into the massive mountains
which form the Sierra Madre, among the spurs of which many valuable
metallic deposits have been discovered. The fine and productive vallies
of Bavispe, Oposura, Sonora and Dolores are found in the neighborhood of
this mountain country.

Sonora is divided into two Departments:

1st. The Department of Arispe, with three cantons, viz: Arispe, Oposura
and Altar.

2nd. The Department of Horcasitas, with three cantons, viz: Horcasitas,
Ostimuri, and Petic.

The chief rivers are the Mayo, the boundary in the direction of Sinaloa;
the Yaqui or Hiaqui; the Rio Grande de Bavispe; Oposura; Sonora;
Dolores; Guayamas; Rio de la Ascencion; San Ignacio; Gila; San Francisco
or Rio Azul; San Pedro; Santa Maria and the Rio Colorado.

The climate of Sonora is warm throughout the year; but the early spring
is subject to remarkable and rapid changes of temperature, and to sudden
variations of wind between the north and east. From April to the end of
September the thermometer ranges between 75Â° and 84Â° Fahrenheit.

A large portion of Sonora is occupied by Indian tribes, some of which
are partially agricultural where they have been brought into contact
with the whites; but the greater portion may be regarded as belonging to
the wild nomadic bands which have hitherto harassed the northern
settlements of Mexico. In the eastern part of the State, on the banks of
the Sonora and Oposura, and in the vicinity of the town of Arispe and
the mineral region of Nocasari, we find large numbers of the OpÃ¡tas.
North of the Ascencion, and stretching far inland from the coast, are
the Pimos Altos, the most northerly bands that have submitted to the
influences of Christianity or of partial civilization. The nomadic
tribes in the north and north-east of the State are Papayos or
PapÃ¡bi-Otawas, the Yumas, the Cucapas or Cupachas, the Cajuenches, the
CoanÃ³pas, the Apaches Tontos, the Cocomaricopas, the Pimo Galenos, the
ApachÃ© Gilenos, ApachÃ© MimbreÃ±os, and ApachÃ© Chiricaguis. Of all these
wild and savage tribes, the ApachÃ©s are the most uncontrollable.

The trade of Sonora is chiefly carried on at Guyamas, in latitude 27Â°
40Â´ N. and 114Â° W. longitude from Paris,--one of the best harbors in
West Mexico, in a healthy region, containing about 3,000
inhabitants;--and at Petic, forty leagues north north-east from
Guyamas, in about 29Â° 20Â´ of north latitude. The latter town, containing
about 8,000 inhabitants, is the depÃ´t for goods imported through the
port of Guyamas which are designed for the northern districts of Mexico.
Besides these two important places, there are the towns of San Miguel
Horcasitas, with 2,500 inhabitants; Arispe, with 3,000; San JosÃ© de
Guyamas 350 to 400; Bayoreca; Onabas; Presidio de Buena Vista; El
AguÃ¡ge; Ures; Babiacora; Banamitza; Batuc; Matape; Oposura; Presidio de
Bavispe; Presidio de Fronteras; San Ildefonso Cieneguilla; Presidio de
Santa Gertrudis del Altar; Oquitoa; Presidio de la Santa Cruz; Presidio
de Tuscon; and Presidio de Tubac.

The mineral characteristics are similar to those of Sinaloa.

THE TERRITORY OF LOWER CALIFORNIA.

The Territory of Lower California is comprehended in that long
peninsular strip of land which extends from the present southern
boundary of the United States to Cape St. Lucas, and which is washed on
the east by the Gulf of California from the point where the Rio Colorado
debouches into it, and on the west by the waves of the Pacific ocean. It
lies between 32Â° 31Â´ 59Â´Â´ 58Â´Â´Â´, and Cape St. Lucas, in about 22Â° 45Â´ of
north latitude.

The country, generally, is represented to be one of the most
unattractive in the warm or temperate regions. The peninsula, about 700
miles long, varies in breadth from thirty to one hundred miles, its mean
breadth being about fifty. The surface of this region is formed of an
irregular chain of rocks, hills and mountains, which run throughout the
central portion of its whole length, and some of which attain a height
of nearly five thousand feet. Amid these dreary ridges there are
occasionally found a few sheltered spots which, though deluged by the
torrents, have not been swept clear of productive earth, and in these
there is a fertile soil of small extent, yielding a thin but nutritious
grass. There are few streams or springs; trees of magnitude are scarce;
and the heavy showers falling on the central rocky peaks and eminences
are drained on the east and west into the Pacific and Gulf of California
by the sloping sides of the peninsula, so as to bear with them into the
sea a large portion of cultivable soil. In the plains and in most of the
dry beds of rivers, water can be obtained by digging wells only a few
feet deep, and wherever irrigation has been adopted by means of these
wells, the produce of the fields has abundantly rewarded the
agriculturist. Much of the soil is of volcanic origin, being washed from
the mountains, as we have already stated, and its yield, by aid of
irrigation, is alleged to be quite marvellous. It is probable therefore,
notwithstanding the unfavorable aspect of the country as seen by a
casual visiter, that its evil repute is chiefly owing to the indolent
and roving character of the inhabitants, and that in the hands of an
industrious and agricultural people, it would be capable of supporting a
population much more numerous than the present. At an earlier period of
the Territory's history, under the dominion of the missions, when very
small portions of the soil were cultivated, and even those but rudely by
the Indians, the four districts of San JosÃ©, Santiago, San Antonio and
Todos Santos, contained 35,000 souls, whereas the present population of
the whole peninsula is probably not more than nine or ten thousand.

During the epoch when the missions of California still flourished the
general barrenness of this territory did not subdue the energy of the
priestly fathers, who in the sheltered vallies near the different
mission sites, which were carefully selected, produced Indian corn,
grapes, dates, figs, quinces, peaches, pears and olives. Much of these
fruits was preserved and exported to the opposite coast of Mexico. But
these articles, together with pearls, tortoise-shell, bullocks' hides,
dried beef, soap and cheese constituted the whole product and commerce
of the peninsula. The waters of the gulf were in former days more
valuable to the Californians than the shores. During the sixteenth
century the pearl fishery produced a valuable revenue, and towards its
close, six hundred and ninety-seven pounds of the precious article were
imported into Seville from America; but at the last authentic dates of
twenty years past, the fishery in lower California had dwindled into
utter insignificance. Four vessels and two boats were alone engaged in
it; and the two hundred divers who still searched the bottom of the
coasts in their perilous trade, obtained only eighty-eight ounces of
pearls valued at little more than thirteen thousand dollars.

The pearl fishery seems, however, to have revived somewhat, shortly
anterior to the war with the United States, and a report from one of our
most intelligent officers in the Pacific at that period, states that the
annual exportation of pearls amounted then to between forty and fifty
thousand dollars.

Valuable mines of gold, silver, copper and lead are known to exist in
the peninsula, and although only a few are rudely worked, the labor
expended on them is amply rewarded. The salt mines, on the island of
Carmen, in the Gulf of California, near Loreto, are capable of supplying
the whole coast of Mexico and California. The surface of the lake
producing this valuable mineral is covered with a solid crust several
feet in thickness, which is cut in blocks, like ice, and conveyed to the
beach by convicts under the order of the Governor of Lower California,
who has hitherto enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with Mazatlan and San
Blas.

The country about La Paz, situated on the east coast, south of the bay
of La Paz, and near the Pichilingue cove, is represented to be valuable
for grazing. Some of the silver mines near San Antonio, about forty
miles south, are productively wrought. Gold dust and virgin gold are
brought to La Paz, and about one hundred thousand dollars of
_platapina_, are exported from it yearly. The whole coast abounds with
fish, clams and oysters. Among the islands of the gulf immense number of
seal are constantly found, and the whaling grounds on the Pacific coast
are of great value. Magdalena bay alone has, at one time, contained as
many as twenty-eight sail, all engaged in this fishery.

The coasts of Lower California are flat, sandy, irregular, and
frequently indented by coves, inlets and bays, while many islands lie
near and border them in the gulf. The climate is regarded as healthful;
the winter is short, and frost and ice are unknown. A pure air and a
deep blue sky surround and span the region; but the heat of summer is
intense, parching the thin soil, and rendering life almost insupportable
in the more exposed regions, or in the narrow and confined glens.

The principal ports visited by merchantmen or whalers on the west or
Pacific coast, are: 1st. That of San Quentin, in latitude 30Â° 23Â´, which
is said to afford a secure anchorage for vessels of every description,
and to be sufficient for the accommodation of a numerous fleet; and
2dly, the bay of Magdalena, which has acquired notoriety from being
resorted to every winter by numbers of whalers. It is protected by the
two large islands of San Lazaro and Margareta, and possesses many of the
characteristics of an inland sea, being navigable for the distance of
more than a hundred miles. It has several commodious anchorages. The bay
of San JosÃ©, near Cape San Lucas, is ordinarily frequented by coasters,
and is sometimes visited by whalers and men-of-war, being the outlet of
a valley, unusually fertile for Lower California, which extends upwards
of forty miles inland, and affords probably the best watering and
provisioning place on the peninsula, though it is a mere roadstead
yielding no protection in the season of south-easters.

On the west coast of the Peninsula, north of Cape San Lucas, and between
that point and the 24th degree of N. latitude are the bays of San
BarnabÃ© and De los Muertos. Between the 24th and 25th degrees is the bay
of La Paz, an extensive indenture, protected towards the gulf by
numerous isles and islets and affording excellent anchorages for vessels
of any draft or any number. In this vicinity are the principal pearl
fisheries as well as the most reputed mining districts. It is the outlet
of the cultivated valley of Todos Santos and of the produce of the whole
region lying between Santiago and Loreto. The cove or _estero_, opposite
the town of La Paz, furnishes spacious and secure anchorage, which may
be reached by vessels drawing not more than eighteen or twenty feet;
while the cove of Pichilingue, at the south-eastern extremity of the
bay, about six miles from the town, affords anchorage for vessels of any
size; but the inner bay can be reached only by merchantmen. The bar,
however, between the two is only a few yards in extent; and if the
importance of the place should ever justify it, the channel might be
deepened without much expensive labor. There is an anchorage at Loreto
at about 26Â° north, and there are several places of resort and anchorage
in the bay of MulejÃ©, between 26Â° and 27Â°, but none are deemed secure
for large or small craft at any season. Several other ports are found on
the gulf further north, which are visited occasionally by coasters, but
the region is as yet quite unexplored, and their commercial or military
value is of course unknown. Beyond the bay of MulejÃ©, which is nearly
opposite the Mexican port of Guyamas on the main continent, the gulf is
so much narrower than further south, that it becomes in a great degree a
harbor itself.

The only towns of any importance on the peninsula are those of Loreto,
and La Paz the capital and seat of government. The population is of
course chiefly an Indian and mixed race, for but few whites were ever
tempted to prolong their residence in this lonely and unattractive
region.

THE STATE OF GUERRERO.

This State was created by virtue of the fourth article of the Acta de
Reformas, passed on the 18th of May, 1847, amending the constitution of
1847. By this article it was agreed that the STATE OF GUERRERO should be
formed of the districts of Acapulco, Chilapa, Tasco and Tlapa, and the
municipality of Coyucan,--the three first of which belonged to the
State of Mexico, the fourth to Puebla, and the fifth to
Mechoacan--provided the legislatures of these three States gave their
consent, within three months.

It is understood that this consent was yielded, but as the organization
of the new State has not been received, no elucidation of the geography
of the region can be given except in the descriptions of the three
original States whose districts were surrendered, and to which the
reader is referred in the preceding pages.

[Illustration: ANCIENT HEADS MADE OF CLAY.]

CHAPTER X.

INTERIOR STATES.

     STATE OF
     QUERÃTARO--BOUNDARIES--DIVISIONS--CHARACTERISTICS--RIVERS--POPULATION
     AND CLIMATE--DISTRICTS, ETC.--AGRICULTURAL
     PRODUCTS--FORESTS--FACTORIES--CITIES--MINES.--STATE OF
     GUANAJUATO--BOUNDARIES--EXTENT--SOIL--LAKE
     YURIRAPUNDARO--CLIMATE--EFFECT OF
     MALADIES--PRODUCTIONS--VINE--OLIVE--DIVISIONS--POPULATION--CITY OF
     GUANAJUATO--TOWNS IN THE STATE--HACIENDA OF
     JARAL--MINES--SILVER--COPPER--LEAD--CINNABAR.--ZACATÃCAS--BOUNDARIES
     --EXTENT--AGRICULTURE--DIVISIONS--POPULATION--TOWNS--ZACATÃCAS---
     AGUAS CALIENTES, ETC.--PRODUCT AND VALUE OF ZACATÃCAN MINES.--RUINS
     OF QUEMADA IN ZACATÃCAS.

THE STATE OF QUERÃTARO.

The State of Queretaro, one of the smallest members of the Republic, is
situated between 19Â° 35Â´ 42Â´Â´ 7Â´Â´Â´ and 21Â° 17Â´ 16Â´Â´ 45Â´Â´Â´ of north
latitude. By trigonometrical surveys made in 1837, the State was found
to contain 869 square leagues, which were divided between the six
districts as follows:

  1 District of QuerÃ©taro           157 square leagues.
  2     "       San Juan del Rio    128       "
  3     "       Cadereyta           115-1/4   "
  4     "       Toliman             114-3/4   "
  5     "       Jalpam              203-1/4   "
  6     "       Amealco             150-3/4
                                    -------
                          Total     869

This State is bounded on the north by the State of San Luis Potosi, west
and south-west by Guanajuato and Mechoacan, south by Mexico, and east by
Mexico and Vera Cruz. It lies entirely on the central plateau of the
Cordillera, and is consequently intersected by numerous mountain spurs
and elevated hills, some of which are entirely bare, while others are
covered with forests of various kinds of wood. The plains are frequently
cut up by deep _barrancas_ or gullies, rivers and streamlets. The
agricultural portions of the State are consequently confined chiefly to
the vallies of San Juan del Rio, QuerÃ©taro, Cadereyta, Amealco, Toliman
and Jalpam, in which the soil, enriched by the vegetable products and
debris drained from the

[Illustration: QUERETARO.]

mountain sides, is usually found to be very productive. QuerÃ©taro is
generally remarked by travellers for the picturesque character of its
scenery and the beautiful site of its haciendas, cities and ranchos.
Mountainous as is this region, it has no single elevation of remarkable
character in the geography of the republic. In a country thus physically
formed and raised above the sea, important rivers are, of course, not
easily encountered, and although there are fifteen streams which are
dignified by the inhabitants with this title, the only two of importance
are the Tula or Rio de Montezuma, the boundary between the States of
Mexico and Vera Cruz, and the Rio PatÃ© which has cut its deep and stony
bed in the porphyritic rock near San Juan del Rio. The temperature of
the whole region is exceedingly cool and the climate is agreeable and
healthy.

The population assigned to the State in 1845 was 180,161, classified
thus:

  Spaniards, Creoles and Europeans,   36,032
  Indians,                            90,080
  Castes,                             54,049
                                     -------
              Total,                 180,161

QuerÃ©taro is divided into six districts, comprising eight _partidos_.

1st. The prefecture of QuerÃ©taro, with the _partidos_ of the capital and
of La CaÃ±ada; in these two are found the town of San Francisco Galileo,
the villages of Santa Rosa and Huimilpam, and the hamlets of Santa Maria
Magdalena and San Miguel Carillo. 46-1/3 inhabitants to each square
league.

2d. The district of the municipality of San Juan del Rio contains the
village of Tequisquiapam, the hamlets of San Pedrito, San Sebastian, and
the _rancheria_ of La Barranca de los Cocheros. 71 inhabitants to each
square league.

3d. The district of the municipality of Cadeyreta which contains the
mining posts of El Doctor and Maconi, and the villages of San JosÃ©
Vizarron, San Gaspar, San Sebastian de Brual, and San Miguel Tetillas.
183-2/3 inhabitants to each square league.

4. The district of Santa Maria Amealco, containing the village of
Huimalpam and the hamlets of San JosÃ© de Ito, San Bartolo, San Miguel
Deti, San Juan de GÃ¼edÃ³, San Miguel Tlaxcaltepec, San Pedro Tenango, San
Ildefonso, and Santiago Mexquitlan. 80 inhabitants to each square
league.

5th. The district of San Pedro TolimÃ¡n, contains the villages of San
Francisco Tolimanejo, Santa Maria PeÃ±amillera, San Miguel TolimÃ¡n, San
Miguel de las Palmas, a mission station, Santo Domingo de Soriano, San
Antonio de Bernal, and the mining post of Rio Blanco. 213 inhabitants to
the square league.

6th. The district of Jalpam, contains three _partidos_ and in these
there are two sub-prefectures, which are Landa and Aguacatlan a mining
post; besides these there are the villages of ConcÃ¡, Sancillo, Bucareli,
Arroyoseco, Tancoyol and Xilapan; the mining posts of San JosÃ© de los
Amoles and San Pedro Escanela; and the missions of Tilaco and Pacula. 64
inhabitants to the square league.

The whole State is calculated to contain 124 _haciendas_ or large
plantations, and 392 _ranchos_ or farms, while nearly 30,000 of its
inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits.

The products of the soil are similar to those already described in the
other States on the central plateau. In the valleys some of the tropical
productions are found, but grain and cattle form the staples of the
farmer's care. Very thick forests are seldom found in any part of the
State, and many regions are almost entirely denuded. It will be seen
from our chapter upon the manufactures of Mexico, that QuerÃ©taro is
remarkable for the zeal and success with which it has applied itself to
this branch of industry. Most of the woollen fabrics of this State are
made of the Lana de Chinchorro which is produced within its limits, and
is commonly sold at $15 per 100 lbs. Besides this there is a species of
cotton, raised in some of the districts, used in the manufacture of a
favorite kind of mantas, shawls and rebozos. The trade of the State is
carried on chiefly with Mexico, Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosi.

The principal city is that of QuerÃ©taro, the capital and seat of
government, lying in 19Â° 58Â´ 2Â´Â´ 15Â´Â´Â´ N. latitude, and 1Â° 5Â´ W.
longitude from the meridian of Mexico, 6,365 feet above the sea. This
fine, picturesque and well built town, containing about 50,000
inhabitants, is situated on the sides and summit of converging hills,
and is divided into several parishes, or _curatos_, some of which are in
the body of the city and others in the suburbs, being separated from the
rest by a scant stream which has been dignified with the title of El
Rio--the river. QuerÃ©taro stands nearly 7,000 feet above the level of
the sea, and enjoys a delightful temperature. A noble aqueduct, two
miles in length, with arches ninety feet high, spanning a plain of
meadow land--joins a tunnel from the opposite hills, and supplies the
city with an abundance of excellent water from a distance of two
leagues. It is a magnificent and enduring structure, and the honor of
its erection is due to the taste and judgment of the Marquis de Valero
del Aguila, who caused it to be built at his own cost during his
viceroyal government of Mexico. QuerÃ©taro has become interesting in our
history, inasmuch as it was the city in which the treaty of peace
between Mexico and the United States was finally ratified by the Mexican
Congress in 1848.

The other important towns are those of San Juan del Rio, San Pedro de la
CaÃ±ada, and Cadereyta.

The chief mining district, and the only one of any note in the State, is
that of _El Doctor_, in the district of Cadereyta. Its principal veins
are those of El Doctor and San Cristoval; but famous as they once were,
they are now of but little importance. The quicksilver mine of San
OnÃ³fre, in the same region, is also failing.

The mining districts of El Doctor, Rio Blanco, Maconi and Escanelella,
contain 216 mines--divided as follows: five of gold; 193 of silver; 7 of
copper; 1 of lead; 1 of tin; 6 of quicksilver; 2 of antimony; 1 of
jaldre.

THE STATE OF GUANAJUATO.

The State of Guanajuato is comprehended between 20Â° and 21Â° 49Â´ of north
latitude, and 0Â° 31Â´ 05Â´Â´ and 2Â° 51Â´ of longitude west from the meridian
of Mexico, and is situated upon the grand Mexican Cordillera. It is
bounded on the north by the State of San Luis Potosi, on the south by
Mechoacan, on the east by QuerÃ©taro, and on the west by Jalisco and
Zacatecas. Its superficial extent is 1,545 Mexican leagues of 26-1/2 to
the degree. With the exception of the State of QuerÃ©taro, Guanajuato is
the smallest of the Republic, yet it contains, comparatively, the
greatest number of inhabitants, as will be seen hereafter.

Large portions of the soil of Guanajuato are fertile; especially the
magnificent and productive plains of the Bajio, in the southern part of
the State, which extend for more than 34 leagues from Apasco to beyond
Leon;--and, in the north, where the splendid plains or Llanos of San
FÃ©lipe spread far and wide.

All the _Sierra_ of Santa Rosa forms a chain of porphyritic mountains
and elevations of greater or less elevation, which pass under the
general name of _Cerros_. The highest of these, two leagues, north of
the capital is known as the Cerro de los Llanitos. It rises to the
height of 3,359 _varas_ above the level of the sea, and is the loftiest
in the State. Besides these, there are the _Cerros_ del Gigante, El
Cubilete, La Bufa, La Garrida, La Beata and San Juan de Mendoza.

The river Lerma, anciently known as Tolotlan, and commonly designated in
Guanajuato as the _Rio Grande_, is the only one which really merits
this name in the State, and crosses the southern portion of it for near
35 leagues. The river Laja and the river Turbio are of less consequence;
and all the other streams, though generally known among the people of
these districts by the dignified title of _rivers_, scarcely merit a
higher position among the fluvial characteristics of the State than
brooks or mountain torrents, which only obtain real consideration when
they are swollen by heavy rains.

The lake of YurirapÃºndaro, is the only one which belongs to this
State;--it is four leagues long by one and a half in width, and embosoms
several islands. Its sweet waters are filled with small fish, which are
taken daily by the Indians, for the markets of the neighborhood and the
capital, but its actual depth is unknown.

The climate of Guanajuato is genial, its sky nearly always clear, and
its atmosphere pure. Owing to its site, immediately north of the torrid
zone, the inhabitants do not suffer the extremes of heat or cold.
Elevated about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, its rarefied
atmosphere counteracts the direct rays of the sun, so that its mean
temperature is 21Â° of the centigrade thermometer, whilst it never
exceeds 28Â° in the months between April and June, which are generally
reckoned the warmest in this part of the Republic. During this season
the rain usually begins to fall, and lowers the temperature agreeably.
The north wind prevails during the greater part of the year; yet near
the period of the annual rains it changes for a while to the south,
bringing with it an abundance of moist vapor to fertilize the soil.
Nothing is sadder for the people of Guanajuato and the adjacent States
than to find, as sometimes happens, the months passing without this
customary change of wind. In such years the crops fail; the prices of
grain consequently rise, and the poor classes suffer extremely. The year
1786, is known in the annals of this region, as one well remembered
still for the famine that prevailed in consequence of a severe frost
that occurred on the 28th of the preceding August, blighting the
prospects of the farmer, and carrying off 8,000 victims in the capital
and the adjacent mines alone. In the month of May agriculture often
suffers from violent hail storms that prostrate the young grain which at
this season of the year is usually extremely dry in consequence of the
early heats and the want of irrigation.

The mild and pure climate of Guanajuato renders it a healthy residence.
In its southern part, about Salvatierra and YurirapÃºndaro, intermittent
fevers, called _los frios_, or agues, occasionally prevail. Dropsy,
rheumatism, common lever, and dysenteries, which usually sweep off large
numbers of Mexicans, are milder and more

[Illustration: GUANAJUATO.]

easily treated in this region than in other portions of the Republic.
The laborers in the mines formerly suffered from diseases of the chest,
arising probably from the mephitic vapors which were confined in the
badly ventilated galleries; but the Deputacion de la Mineria took this
subject into consideration, and have forced the owners of mines by
stringent laws to construct shafts and openings by which these buried
workmen may receive continual supplies of fresh air.

Maize, wheat, frijoles, beans, and the common cereal grains are produced
abundantly in the fertile plains of the Bajio and San FelipÃ©. Corn,
though the chief product for consumption, not only for man but for
beasts, is often so abundant, that the farmers are obliged to export it
to other States. The quality of the wheat of this State is so excellent,
that when it will bear the cost of transportation, it is sent to the
national capital, where it commands a better price than even the grain
raised in the immediate vicinity of the city. The _frijol_,--a fine
dark, nutritious bean, which is commonly used throughout Mexico, by all
classes, from the highest to the lowest,--grows abundantly in
Guanajuato. The Chile pepper is used in Mexico, not only as a seasoning
for food as in other countries, but as an aliment of life, which is
placed on tables of all ranks at dinner. It is consumed both in its
green and dry states, and in the latter, it is exported from Guanajuato
to the capital, where the product of the haciendas or plantations at
Apaseo are preferred by the epicures as being of the best flavor in the
Republic. The vine, is also cultivated in various parts of this State,
especially at Dolores Hidalgo, Celaya, and Chamacuero, but as
manufactories of wine have not been established, its culture does not
extend beyond the quantity of grapes required for consumption in the
markets. The potato does not flourish in this State.

It is believed that the olive may be advantageously reared in
Guanajuato. At the beginning of the present century, Joaquin Gutierrez
de los Rios made the experiment at his _hacienda_ de Sarabia, within the
district of Salamanca. The scarcity and dearness of oil in Spain, at
that period, in consequence of the war, enabled the mill established by
this person to supply the neighborhood with the article at such prices,
that the lucky proprietor realized a large income from his enterprize.
But during the insurrection in 1810, his property was destroyed, and
with it, a large part of his olive plantation. At present, considerable
plantations are making at several haciendas, especially at that of
Mendoza, where 30,000 olive trees had been already planted in 1849.

The State of Guanajuato is divided into four departments or
prefectures:--1st. San Miguel de Allende; 2d. Leon; 3d. Guanajuato; 4th
Celaya; whose capitals or chief towns bear the same names. The
possession by this State of the great and celebrated _Veta Madre_ which
passes nearly through its centre, and of the wide and prolific plains of
the Bajio and of San FelipÃ© renders it equally valuable as a mining and
agricultural region, and divides it fairly between the two branches of
industry. Its population may be estimated at about 560,000; twenty-five
per cent. of which comprises the whites, thirty-six per cent. the mixed
races, and thirty-nine per cent. the Indian. Guanajuato contains three
cities, four market-towns, thirty-seven villages, and four hundred and
fifty estates, plantations and farms.

The capital of the State is the city of GUANAJUATO, or Santa FÃ© de
Guanajuato, situated in 21Â° 0Â´ 15Â´Â´ north latitude and 103Â° 15Â´ west
longitude from Paris, about 6,869 feet above the level of the sea,
according to the measurement of Burkhart, and containing between 35,000
and 40,000 inhabitants. The town is perhaps the most curiously
picturesque and remarkable in the republic. "Entering a rocky CaÃ±ada,"
says a recent traveller, "the bottom of which barely affords room for a
road, you pass between high adobe walls, above which, up the steep, rise
tier above tier of blank, windowless, sun-dried houses, looking as if
they had grown out of the earth. You would take them to be a sort of
cubic crystallization of the soil. Every corner of the windings of the
road is filled with buildings of mining companies--huge fortresses of
stone, ramparted as if for defence. The scene varies with every
moment;--now you look up to a church with purple dome and painted
towers; now the blank adobe walls, with here and there a spiry cypress
or graceful palm between them, rise far above you, along the steep
ledges of the mountain; and again the mountain itself, with its waste of
rock and cactus, is all you see. The CaÃ±ada, finally seems to close. A
precipice of rock, out of a rift in which the stream flows, shuts the
passage. Ascending this by a twist in the road you are in the heart of
the city. Lying partly in the narrow bed of the ravine and partly on its
sides and in its lateral branches, it is only by mounting to some higher
eminence that one can realize its extent and position. At the further
end of the city the mountains form a _cul de sac_. The CaÃ±ada is a blind
passage which can only be left by the road you came. The streets are
narrow, crooked, and run up and down in all directions, and there is no
room for plazas or alamedas. A little triangular space in front of the
cathedral, however, aspires to the former title." Such is the aspect of
a city which is the focus of a mineral region surrounded by more than
one hundred mines, which are wrought by seventy-five thousand laborers.

In spite of all the natural difficulties and impediments for fine
architecture, Guanajuato contains some fine edifices, especially among
the private residences of the wealthy miners, such as the families of
Otero, Valenciana, Rhul and Perez Galvez. The church of the Jesuits was
built by the Marquis Rayas. Besides the cathedral, the town contains two
chapels, three monasteries, five convents, a college, a Bethlehemite
hospital, a theatre, a barrack, a mint, an university, and a gymnasium.

The VILLA DE LEON, is a market town west north-west from Guanajuato, in
21Â° 6Â´ 38Â´Â´ north latitude, and 103Â° 39Â´ west longitude, 6,004 feet
above the sea, in the productive plain of Leon.

SAN FELIPÃ is another market town, 32 leagues north of Guanajuato, on
the road to San Luis Potosi, 6,906 feet above the sea. Ten leagues
north-east from San FelipÃ© is the valuable estate of Jaral, the property
of the Marquis del Jaral, the wealthiest and largest land owner in
Mexico. His stock of cattle, comprising horses, mules, horned-cattle,
sheep and goats amounts to nearly three million head![66] Thirty
thousand sheep alone, and as many goats, are annually slaughtered on
this estate for the markets of Guanajuato and Mexico, where the sheep
sell for from two and a half to three dollars a piece, and the goats
from seventy-five cents to one dollar each!

CELAYA is a city, and next in importance to Guanajuato in the State. It
lies in 20Â° 38Â´ north latitude, and 102Â° 52Â´ west longitude, near the
boundary of QuerÃ©taro, 6,020 feet above the sea, and contains about
15,000 inhabitants.

SALAMANCA is a market town in the Bajio, nine leagues west from Celaya,
and is the chief place of a region possessing twenty-nine haciendas, or
plantation estates, and sixty-nine valuable farms. Its population is
estimated at 15,000. Irapuato, lies about six leagues north-west from
Salamanca, and contains perhaps an equal number of inhabitants.

SAN MIGUEL ALLENDE, formerly _San Miguel el Grande_, is the capital of
the department of that name, lies directly north of Celaya, on the river
de la Laja, where it cuts the division between the two departments.
Dolores Hidalgo is on the same stream, north-west of the last town, and
is remarkable in the annals of the country as the residence of the
priest Hidalgo, under whose auspices the revolutionary movement against
Spain originated.

The mineral products of this State have been and still continue very
valuable. The chief silver mines are those of Guanajuato, Villalpando,
Monte de San Nicolas, Santa Rosa, Santa Anna, S. Antonio de las Minas,
Comanja, El Capulin, Comangilla, San Luis de la Paz, San Rafael de los
Lobos, El Duranzo, San Juan de la Chica, Rincon de Zenteno, San Pedro de
los Pozos, El Palmar de la Viga, San Miguel y San FelipÃ©. All these
mines and mineral districts recognize the jurisdiction of the Deputacion
de Mineria de Guanajuato, although some of them lie out of the immediate
boundaries of the State.

Besides the silver yielded at these places, copper and iron are produced
by some of them; and at El Gigante cinnabar has been discovered
disseminated among other substances. Lead is taken abundantly from the
mine of La Targea; but the mining operations of the State are chiefly
confined to silver.

In the southern part of the State large quantities of soda are found
near Celaya, Salamanca and Valle de Santiago; and in the north, in the
vicinity of San FelipÃ©, the earth is impregnated, in many places, with
nitrate of potash or nitre. Mineral waters and thermal springs exist on
the southern slope of the Cerro del Cubilete, near Silao, and are used
by invalids; while in the jurisdictions of Leon, near Irapuato or San
Miguel Allende and Celaya, other warm and sulphur springs are found
which are beneficially frequented by persons who suffer from rheumatism
and cutaneous diseases.

THE STATE OF ZACATECAS.

This rich metallic region and State lies between the 21st and 25th
degrees of north latitude and 102-1/2 and 105-1/2 west longitude from
Paris. It is bounded on the north by Durango and Nuevo Leon on the east
by San Luis Potosi; on the south-east by Guanajuato; and on the west and
south-west by Jalisco. Its greatest breadth, from SombreretÃ© to Real del
Ramos, in the State of San Luis, is fifty-seven leagues, and its extreme
length is 90. The superficial area of the State is reckoned at 2,355
square leagues.

ZacatÃ©cas is a mountain country of the high plateau of Mexico, cut up by
spurs of the Cordillera and inhospitably arid. The region between
CatorcÃ© in San Luis Potosi, and SombreretÃ© and Mazapil in ZacatÃ©cas is a
broad plain, interspersed by a few

[Illustration: ZACATECAS.]

swelling knolls, and an occasional group of hills or small mountains.
The agricultural productions are of course suitable to such a geological
structure; but in the _Haciendas de Ganado_, or cattle farms, immense
herds are constantly raised by the thrifty vaqueros of this region. As
the country is unusually dry, water tanks, _algibes_, and _norias_ are
established on all the estates, and are watched with the greatest care.
There is no river of any note whatever in ZacatÃ©cas. The Arroyo de
ZacatÃ©cas, the Rio Xeres, the Rio Perfido, del Maguey, and BaÃ±uelos, are
but slender streams.

ZacatÃ©cas is divided into eleven partidos or districts. 1st. ZacatÃ©cas,
2d Aguas Calientes, 3d SombreretÃ©, 4th Tlaltenango, 5th Villa Nueva, 6th
Fresnillo, 7th Xeres, 8th Mazapil, 9th PiÃ±os, 10th Nieves, and 11th
Juchipila; possessing in all 3 cities, 5 market towns, 34 villages and
mining works, 139 agricultural and cattle farms, 562 smaller similar
establishments, 683 ranchos, 11 convents for monks, 4 for nuns, and four
hospitals. The population has been calculated at about 350,000; and it
is remarkable that, according to reliable statistical data, 14,937 more
individuals were born than died in this State during the year 1830.

  Births,{males,   14,709 Deaths  {males,   7,012    Births, 28,795
         {females, 14,086         {females, 6,846    Deaths, 13,858
                   -----                   ------           -------
                   28,795                  13,858  Increase, 14,937

The most valuable agricultural district lies in the district of Aguas
Calientes. The best cultivation begins at the _hacienda_ of San Jacinto,
12 leagues from the town of ZacatÃ©cas, and in this region it is reckoned
that the farmers annually gather from their harvests, 140,952 fanegas of
Corn (of 150 lbs.); 4,719 cargas (of 300 lbs.) of wheat; 7,293 fanegas
of frijoles or beans, and 4,291 arrÃ³bas (of 25 lbs. each,) of chile.

The mainspring of the wealth of ZacatÃ©cas is its mineral production. The
vein of the Veta Negra of SombreretÃ© has been the most productive in the
new or old world. El Pavellon, La Veta Grande, San BernabÃ©, and the
isolated hill of ProaÃ±o at Fresnillo constantly yielded in former times
the most extraordinary results for the labor bestowed in working them.
Their present value may be estimated from the chapter on Mines in the
preceding book.

The chief cities, towns and villages of this State are the capital,
ZACATÃCAS, containing from 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. It lies in 22Â°
47Â´ 19Â´Â´ of north latitude and 164Â° 47Â´ 41Â´Â´ west longitude, at an
elevation of 7,976 feet.

The town itself is not visible until the traveller approaches within a
mile and a half, when it is seen below following the turns of a deep
barranca or ravine, of which the mountain of _la Bufa_, with a chapel on
its crest, forms one side. The streets are narrow and dirty, and swarm
with uncleanly children, whose appearance, like that of their squalid
parents, is by no means prepossessing. But the distant view of the city
is picturesque from the number of religious edifices which rise above
the roofs of the other buildings. In the vicinity of the _plaza_ there
are some fine houses, and the market place presents a curious and busy
provincial scene.

AGUAS CALIENTES is situated upon the banks of a stream of the same name,
in a broad and rich valley, at the distance of 25 leagues south of
ZacatÃ©cas. The neighborhood is famous for its warm thermal springs; the
chief of which, El BaÃ±o de la Cantera, lies a league south-west of the
town. Aguas Calientes contains several thousand inhabitants and is
celebrated for its woollen manufactories, among which the one belonging
to the family of Pimentel employed about 350 men and women at its looms.

FRESNILLO is a mining town, and capital of its district, 14 leagues
north-west from ZacatÃ©cas, in the wide plain which divides the mountains
of Santa Cruz and Organos from the mountain ranges about ZacatÃ©cas. It
lies at the foot of the isolated knoll of ProaÃ±o, in which its mines are
situated. The neighborhood of the town is pretty, but the region which
intervenes between it and SombreretÃ© is a waste and sterile moorland.

SOMBRERETÃ is a mining town, and capital of its district, 25 leagues
north-westward of Fresnillo, lying at the foot of the mountain of
Sombreretillo, or "little hat," whose name is derived from a singular
formation of rock on its summit which resembles that article of dress.
In its vicinity are the once renowned and rich mines of La Veta Negra
and El Pavellon.

Upon the table lands between SombreretÃ©, Fresnillo, and CatorcÃ©, in the
State of San Luis, are several towns or villages deserving of notice,
and the _hacienda_ of Sierra Hermosa, a cattle estate, which is one of
the most remarkable in the Republic for its extent and production. It
covers an area of 262 _sitios_ or square leagues, and supports immense
herds of horned cattle, horses, mules, goats and sheep. The latter,
alone, are estimated at 200,000 head, about 30,000 of which are annually
disposed of. The wool yielded by these animals amounts to from 4,000 to
5,000 arrobas yearly.

The other towns and villages of note are ASIENTOS DE IBARRA, Xeres,
Villanueva, Mazapil.

[Illustration: RUINS OF QUEMADA.]

The Sierra de PiÃ±os, ChalchiguitÃ©c, Los Angelos, Plateros, and other
metallic deposits were formerly celebrated for their productive value;
but they are now either partially or entirely abandoned.

We may deduce some interesting statistical information from the labors
of Berghes in regard to the mineral wealth of ZacatÃ©cas and the
productiveness of its mines. According to the tables of this writer,
published in 1834, it appears that from the year

  1548 to 1810 the mines of this region produced $588,041,956
  1810 to 1818       "             "        "      20,060,363
  1818 to 1825       "             "        "      17,912,475
  1825 to 1832       "             "        "      30,028,540
                                                 ------------
                                                 $656,043,335

These rates gave an annual mean product, from

  1548 to 1810          "      "     "         of $2,244,434
  1810 to 1818          "      "     "         "   2,507,545
  1818 to 1825          "      "     "         "   2,558,925
  1825 to 1832          "      "     "         "   4,003,128

It will be seen by reference to our table on page 88 of this volume,
that the value of the products of ZacatÃ©cas in the ten years from 1835
to 1844, was $43,384,215; giving a mean annual rate of $4,338,421, and
exhibiting the important fact, in spite of revolutionary troubles and
consequent social, commercial and industrial disorganization, that the
mineral yield of this region, instead of diminishing, has steadily
_increased_ with every year. In 1845, the _Mint_ in ZacatÃ©cas issued
$4,429,353.

The State of ZacatÃ©cas contains some remarkable remains of Indian
architecture on the CERRO DE LOS EDIFICIOS, situated two leagues
northerly from the village of Villanueva, twelve leagues south-west from
ZacatÃ©cas, and about one league north of La Quemada, at an elevation of
7,406 feet above the sea.

RUINS NEAR QUEMADA.

"We set out," says Captain Lyon, in a volume of his travels in Mexico,
"on our expedition to the Cerro de los Edificios under the guidance of
an old ranchero, and soon arrived at the foot of the abrupt and steep
rock on which the buildings are situated. Here we perceived two ruined
heaps of stones, flanking the entrance to the causeway, ninety-three
feet broad, commencing at four hundred feet from the cliff.

"A space of about six acres had been enclosed by a broad wall, the
foundations of which are still visible, running first to the south and
afterwards to the east. Off its south-western angle stands a high mass
of stones which flanks the causeway. In outward appearance it is of a
pyramidal form, owing to the quantities of stones piled against it
either by design or by its own ruin; but on close examination its figure
could be traced by the remains of solid walls to have been a square of
thirty-one feet by the same height: the heap immediately opposite is
lower and more scattered, but, in all probability, formerly resembled
it. Hence the grand causeway runs to the north-east till it reaches the
ascent of the cliff, which, as I have already observed, is about four
hundred yards distant. Here again are found two masses of ruins, in
which may be traced the same construction as that before described; and
it is not improbable that these two towers guarded the entrance to the
citadel. In the centre of the causeway, which is raised about a foot and
has its rough pavement uninjured, is a large heap of stones, as if the
remains of some altar, round which we can trace, notwithstanding the
accumulation of earth and vegetation, the paved border of flat slabs
arranged in the figure of a six rayed star.

"We did not enter the city by the principal road, but led our horses
with some difficulty up the steep mass formed by the ruins of a
defensive wall, inclosing a quadrangle two hundred and forty feet by two
hundred, which to the east, is sheltered by a strong wall of unhewn
stones, eight feet in thickness and eighteen in height. A raised terrace
of twenty feet in width passes round the northern and eastern sides of
this space, and on its south-east corner is yet standing a round pillar
of rough stones, of the same height as the wall, and nineteen feet in
circumference.

"There appear to have been five other pillars on the east, and four on
the northern terrace; and as the vein of the plain which lies to the
south and west is very extensive, I am inclined to believe that the
square has always been open in these directions. Adjoining to this we
entered by the eastern side to another quadrangle, surrounded by perfect
walls of the same height and thickness as the former one, and measuring
one hundred and thirty-four feet by one hundred and thirty-seven. In
this were yet standing fourteen very well constructed pillars, of equal
dimensions with that in the adjoining enclosure, and arranged four in
length and three in breadth of the quadrangle, from which, on every
side, they separated a space of twenty-three feet in width, probably a
pavement of a portico of which they once supported the roof. In their
construction, as well as that of all the walls which we saw, a common
clay having straw mixed with it has been used. Rich grass was growing
in the spacious court where Aztec monarchs may once have feasted; and
our cattle were so delighted with it that we left them to graze while we
walked about three hundred yards to the northward, over a very wide
parapet, and reached a perfect, square, flat-topped pyramid of large
unhewn stones. It was standing unattached to any other buildings, at the
foot of the eastern brow of the mountain which rises abruptly behind it.
On the eastern face is a platform of twenty-eight feet in width, faced
by a parapet wall of fifteen feet, and from the base of this extends a
second platform with a parapet like the former, and one hundred and
eighteen feet wide. These form the outer defensive boundary of the
mountain, which from its figure has materially favored its construction.
There is every reason to believe that this eastern face must have been
of great importance. A slightly raised and paved causeway descends
across the valley, in the direction of the rising sun, and being
continued on the opposite side of a stream which flows through it, can
be traced up the mountains at two miles distant, till it terminates at
the base of an immense stone edifice which probably may also have been a
pyramid. Although a stream (Rio del Partido) runs meandering through the
plain from the northward, about midway between the two elevated
buildings. I can scarcely imagine that the causeway should have been
formed for the purpose of bringing water to the city, which is far more
easy of access than in many other directions much nearer to the river,
but must have been constructed for important purposes between the two
places in question; and it is not improbable once formed the street
between the frail huts of the poorer inhabitants. The base of the large
pyramid measured fifty feet, and I ascertained by ascending with a line
that its height was precisely the same. Its flat top was covered with
earth and a little vegetation: and our guide asserted, although he knew
not where he obtained the information, that it was once surmounted by a
statue. Off the south-east corner of this building, and about fifteen
yards distant, is to be seen the edge of a circle of stones about eight
feet in diameter, enclosing as far as we could judge by scraping away
the soil, a bowl-shaped pit, in which the action of fire was plainly
observable; and the earth from which we picked some pieces of pottery,
was evidently darkened by an admixture of soot and ashes. At the
distance of one hundred yards south-west of the large pyramid is a small
one, twelve feet square, and much injured. This is situated on somewhat
higher ground, in the steep part of the ascent to the mountain's brow.
On its eastern face, which is towards the declivity, the height is
eighteen feet; and apparently there have been steps by which to ascend
to a quadrangular space, having a broad terrace around it, and extending
east one hundred feet by a width of fifty. In the centre of this
enclosure is another bowl-shaped pit, somewhat wider than the first.
Hence we began our ascent to the upper works, over a well buttressed yet
ruined wall built of the rock. Its height on the steepest side is
twenty-one feet, and the width on the summit, which is level, with an
extensive platform, is the same. This is a double wall of ten feet,
having been first constructed and then covered with a very smooth kind
of cement, after which the second has been built against it. The
platform, (which faces to the south, and may, to a certain extent, be
considered as a ledge from the cliff,) is eighty-nine feet by
seventy-two; and on its northern centre stand the ruins of a square
building, having within it an open space of ten feet by eight, and of
the same depth. In the middle of the quadrangle is to be seen a mound of
stones eight feet high. A little farther on we entered by a broad
opening between the perfect and massive walls, to a square of one
hundred and fifty feet. This space was surrounded on the south-east and
west by an elevated terrace of three feet by twelve in breadth, having
in the centre of each side steps by which to descend to the square. Each
terrace was backed by a wall of twenty-eight feet by eight or nine. From
the south are two broad entrances, and on the east is one of thirty
feet, communicating with a perfect enclosed square of one hundred feet,
while on the west is one small opening, leading to an artificial cave or
dungeon, of which I shall presently speak.

"To the north, the square is bounded by the steep mountain; and, in the
centre of that side, stands a pyramid of seven ledges or stages, which
in many places are quite perfect. It is flat topped, has four sides, and
measures at the base thirty-eight by thirty-five feet, while in height
it is nineteen. Immediately behind this, and on all that portion of the
hill that presents itself to the square, are numerous tiers of seats
either broken in the rock or built of rough stones. In the centre of the
square, and due south of the pyramid, is a small quadrangular building,
seven feet by five in height. The summit is imperfect, but has
unquestionably been an altar; and from the whole character of the space
in which it stands, the peculiar form of the pyramid, the surrounding
terrace, and the seats or steps on the mountain, there can be little
doubt that this has been the grand Hall of Sacrifice or Assembly, or
perhaps both.

"Passing to the westward, we next saw some narrow enclosed spaces,
apparently portions of an aqueduct leading from some tanks on the
summit of the mountain, and then we were shown to the mouth of the cave,
or subterraneous passage, of which so many suspicious stories are yet
told and believed. One of the principal objects of our expedition had
been to enter this place, which none of the natives had ever ventured to
do, and we came provided with torches accordingly: unfortunately
however, the mouth had very recently fallen in, and we could merely see
that it was a narrow, well built entrance, bearing in many places the
remains of good smooth plastering. A large beam of cedar once supported
the roof, but its removal by the country people had caused the
dilapidation which we now observed. Mr. Sindal, in knocking out some
pieces of regularly burnt brick, soon brought a ruin upon his head, but
escaped without injury; and this accident caused a thick cloud of yellow
dust to fall, which, on issuing from the cave, assumed a bright
appearance under the full glare of the sun;--an effect not lost on the
natives, who became more than ever persuaded that an immense treasure
lay hidden in that mysterious place. The general opinion of those who
remember the excavation is that it is very deep; and from many
circumstances there is a probability of its having been a place of
confinement for victims. Its vicinity to the great hall, in which there
can be little doubt that the sanguinary rites were held, is one argument
in favor of this supposition; but there is another equally
forcible;--its immediate proximity to a cliff of about one hundred and
fifty feet, down which the bodies of victims may have been precipitated,
as was the custom at the inhuman sacrifices of the Aztecs.[67] A road or
causeway to be noticed in another place, terminates at the foot of the
precipice, exactly beneath the cave and over-hanging rock, and
conjecture can form no other idea of its intended utility, unless as
being in some manner connected with the dungeon.

"Hence we ascend to a variety of buildings, all constructed with the
same regard to strength, and inclosing spaces on far too large a scale
for the abode of common people. On the extreme ridge of the mountain
were several tolerably perfect tanks.

"In a subsequent visit to this extraordinary place, I saw some buildings
which had at first escaped my notice. These were situated on the summit
of a rock terminating the ridge, and about a mile and a half north
north-west of the citadel.

"The first is a building originally eighteen feet square, but having
the addition of sloping walls to give it a pyramidal form. It is flat
topped, and on the centre of its southern face there appears to have
been steps to ascend to its summit. The second is a square altar, its
height and base being each about sixteen feet. These buildings are
surrounded at no great distance by a strong wall, and at a quarter of a
mile to the northward, advantage is taken of a precipice to construct
another wall of twelve feet in width from its brink. On a small flat
space between this and the pyramid are the remains of an open square
edifice, to the southward of which are two long mounds of stone, each
extending about thirty feet; and to the north-east is another ruin,
having large steps up its side. I should conceive the highest wall of
the citadel to be three hundred feet above the plain, and the base rock
surmounts it by about thirty feet more.

"The whole place in fact, from its isolated situation, the disposition
of its defensive walls, and the favorable figure of the rock must have
been impregnable to Indians; and even European troops would have found
great difficulty in ascending those works which we have ventured to name
the Citadel. There is no doubt that the greater mass of the nation who
once dwelt here must have been established on the plain beneath, since
from the summit of the rock we could distinctly trace three straight and
very extensive causeways diverging from that over which we first passed.
The most remarkable of these roads runs south-west for two miles, is
forty-six feet in width, and crossing the grand causeway is continued to
the foot of the cliff immediately beneath the cave which I have
described. Its more distant extreme is terminated by a high and long
artificial mound immediately beyond the river toward the hacienda of La
Quemada. We could trace the second road south and south-west to a small
rancho named Cayotl, about four miles distant, and the third ran
south-west by south still farther, ceasing, as the country people
informed us, at a mountain six miles distant. All these roads have been
slightly raised, were paved with rough stones, still visible in many
places above the grass, and were perfectly straight.

"From the flatness of the fine plain over which they extended, I cannot
conceive them to have been constructed as paths, since the people who
walked barefoot and used no beasts of burden, must naturally have
preferred the smooth earthen foot-ways which presented themselves on
every side, to these roughly paved roads. If this be admitted, it is not
difficult to suppose that they were the centres of streets whose huts
constructed of the same kind of frail materials as those of the present
day, must long since have disappeared. Many places on the plain are
thickly strewn with stones which may once have formed materials for the
town; and around the cattle farms there are extensive modern walls
which, not improbably, were constructed from the nearest street. At all
events, whatever end these causeways answered, the citadel itself still
remains, and by its size and strength confirms the accounts given by
CortÃ©z, Bernal Diaz, and others of the conquerors of the magnitude and
strength of the Mexican edifices, but which have been doubted by
Robertson, De Pau, and others. We observed also in some sheltered
places, the remains of good plaster, confirming the accounts above
alluded to; and there can be little doubt that the present rough, yet
magnificent buildings were once encased in wood, as ancient Mexico, the
towns of Yucatan, Tabasco, and many other places are described to have
been in the voyage of Juan De Grijalvis in 1518, and also in the
writings of Diaz, CortÃ©z and Clavigero.

"The Cerro de Edificios and the mountains of the surrounding range, are
all of gray porphyry, easily fractured into slabs, and this, with
comparatively little labor, has furnished materials for the edifices
which crown its summit. We saw no remains of obsidian among the ruins or
on the plain--which is remarkable, as it is the general substance of
which the knives and arrow-heads of the Mexicans were formed; but a few
pieces of very compact porphyry were lying about and some appeared to
have been chipped into a rude resemblance of arrow-heads.

"Not a trace of the ancient name of this interesting place, or that of
the nation which inhabited it, is now to be found among the neighboring
people, who merely distinguished the isolated rock and buildings by one
common name, 'Los Edificios.' I had inquired of the best instructed
people about these ruins; but all my researches were unavailing until I
fortunately met with a note in the AbbÃ© Clavigero's history of Mexico
which appears to throw some light on the subject. 'The situation of
Chico-moztoc, where the Mexicans sojourned nine years is not known, but
it appears to be that place, twenty miles distant from ZacatÃ©cas,
towards the south, where there are still some remains of an immense
edifice, which, according to the tradition of the ancient inhabitants of
that district was the work of the Aztecs during their migration; and it
certainly cannot be ascribed to any other people, the Zacatecanos
themselves being so barbarous as neither to live in houses nor to know
how to build them.'"

CHAPTER XI.

     STATE OF SAN LUIS
     POTOSI--BOUNDARIES--LAKES--RIVERS--CLIMATE--DEPARTMENTS--PRODUCTS--SAN
     LUIS--TOWNS--MINING REGION.--NEW LEON--BOUNDARIES--CHARACTER
    --RIVERS--CLIMATE--DEPARTMENTS--AGRICULTURE--GRAZING,
     ETC.--MONTEREY.--COAHUILA--BOUNDARY--POSITION
    --CLIMATE--PRODUCTIONS--TOWNS.--STATE OF
     DURANGO--BOUNDARY--CHARACTER--DIVISIONS--STREAMS--PRODUCTIONS
    --CITY OF DURANGO--TOWNS--MINES--IRON--SILVER--INDIAN
     NECROLOGY--CAVE BURIAL.

STATE OF SAN LUIS POTOSI.

[Illustration: CITY OF SAN LUIS POTOSI.]

The State of San Luis Potosi is bounded on the east by the State of
Tamaulipas; on the north by Nuevo Leon; on the west by ZacatÃ©cas; on the
south by Guanajuato and QuerÃ©taro, and on the south-east by Vera Crux.
The western portion of the State is quite mountainous; but towards
Tamaulipas, the Cordillera is somewhat broken, and a lower hilly
country stretches out towards the south-east. The Panuco and the
Santander are the only two rivers, and the lagunes of Chariel and Chila
the only two lakes of importance in the State.

The climate of the mountain region and table lands is cold, while that
of the lower elevations and flats towards the eastern boundary is much
warmer, and, at certain seasons, very unhealthy.

The State of San Luis Potosi is divided into four departments, ten
cantons, and fifty-two municipalities, with a population of over
300,000.

1st. Department of SAN LUIS with the cantons San Luis, Santa Maria del
Rio and Guadalcazar.

2d. Department of RIO VERDE, with the cantons of Rio Verde and del Maiz.

3d. Department of TANCANHUITZ, with the cantons of Tancanhuitz and De
Valles.

4th. Department of VENADO, with the cantons of Venado, CatorcÃ© and
Ojocaliente.

The agriculturists of San Luis are engaged chiefly in the production of
corn, wheat, barley and fodder; all of which are yielded plentifully by
the genial soil of the State. But the toils of the farmer and the
generosity of the ground are not always repaid by suitable prices or a
good market. Corn ranges from fifty cents to seventy-five the fanega;
and even at this rate often lacks purchasers. Cattle are raised in large
quantities, as in ZacatÃ©cas, Durango and Chihuahua. Manufactures are
progressive. Woollen and cotton fabrics are produced of excellent
quality and favor among the masses. Glass, leather, pottery and metallic
wares are also made in large quantities, and a busy traffic in foreign
goods is carried on with the port of Tampico, and the States of
ZacatÃ©cas, Durango, Sonora, New Leon, Guanajuato, Mechoacan and Jalisco.
The position of this State, and especially of its principal town,
naturally makes it an _entrepÃ´t_ between the coast and the interior, for
imports from America and Europe. Nevertheless, a small trade, only,
exists in home products, and these are chiefly sent to New Leon and
Coahuila.

The chief towns are SAN LUIS POTOSI, the capital of the State and seat
of government, lying on a level plain, among the steep declivities of
the Cordillera in the neighborhood of the sources of the Panuco, in 22Â°
4Â´ 58Â´Â´ north latitude, 103Â° 7Â´ west longitude from Paris, 5,959 feet
above the sea. It is a regular, well built city, with broad, paved
streets, a fine _plaza_ or public square, and six handsome churches,
three convents, and one hospital. Its population may be estimated at
35,000.

GUADALCAZAR, is the capital of the _partido_ or district of that name,
18 leagues north-west of San Luis Potosi, in 22Â° 31Â´ 25Â´Â´ north latitude
and 102Â° 59Â´ 30Â´Â´ west longitude from Paris, 5,132 feet above the sea,
in a valley south of a mountain group which was once extremely
productive in mineral riches.

RIO VERDE is the capital of the Department of Rio Verde, 34 leagues east
of San Luis. The town of VALLES, with 3,500 inhabitants, lies on the
left bank of the Rio Montezuma, in the _tierra caliente_, on the
boundary of the State of Vera Cruz. Its neighborhood is rich in sugar
plantations and in tropical productions generally.

VENADO, 29 leagues north of San Luis, is the chief town of its
Department; it lies on the road from the capital of the State to
CatorcÃ©, and contains about 8,000 inhabitants.

In the _partido_ OJOCALIENTE lies the town of that name, 28 leagues
north-west of the city of San Luis, and 10 leagues south-east of the
capital of ZacatÃ©cas, 6,714 feet above the sea.

CATORCÃ is a mining town, likewise in the department of Venado, and is
sometimes known by the sounding title of "REAL DE LA PURISIMA CONCEPCION
DE ALAMOS DE LOS CATORCÃ." The name is supposed to be derived from the
slaughter of fourteen Spanish soldiers who are said to have been killed
in its vicinity by a tribe of savages inhabiting these wild mountain
regions before the discovery of the adjacent mines.

Nothing can be more dreary, bleak and desolate than the aspect of the
Cordillera of CatorcÃ©. A few narrow mule paths, or the worn bed of a
mountain torrent alone break the monotonous coloring of the mass; and
the town placed at the great height of 8,788 feet above the sea, is
completely hidden from below by the bold brow of the mountain.[68] There
is neither a tree nor a blade of grass on the steep and sterile flanks
of these rocky elevations, though seventy years ago the whole district
was covered with wood which might have endured for centuries had not the
improvident and wasteful spirit of the first adventurers wantonly
destroyed these valuable resources. Forests were burnt to clear the
ground, and the larger timber which was required for the mines when they
were wrought again after the revolution, was brought from a distance of
twenty-two leagues.

On reaching a high ridge above the adjacent valley, the town of CatorcÃ©
is immediately perceived at the feet of the traveller, lying in a hollow
beyond which the mountain steeps again rise precipitously above a
thousand feet,--the course of the _Veta Madre_, or great "mother vein,"
being distinctly traced upon it by the buildings belonging to the mines
and miners. The site of the town is extremely singular, as it is
intersected by deep ravines, or _barrancas_, upon the ledges of which
many of the dwellings are erected. Some of these strange edifices, like
those of Edinburg, have one story on one side, and two or three on the
other; and most of them are surrounded by massive fragments of rock,
amongst which the laborers shelter themselves from inclement weather.

In this region the most valuable mines of the State of San Luis Potosi
have been found and wrought.

Within a few years past a profitable quicksilver mine was discovered,
south of the capital, in the jurisdiction of the Hacienda de Villela.
This mine, in the months of August and September, 1843, produced 1,068
pounds of the metal _en caldo_.

THE STATE OF NEW LEON.

This fine portion of the present Mexican Confederacy was colonized at
the end of the sixteenth century by the Viceroy Monterey, and was then
known by the proud title of EL NUEVO REYNO DE LEON, or, the New Kingdom
of Leon. The modern State is bounded on the east by Tamaulipas; on the
north by Coahuila; on the west by that State and Durango; on the
south-west and south by ZacatÃ©cas and San Luis Potosi.

The geological formation of this State is generally mountainous. It lies
among the first spurs and ridges of the Sierra Madre, south of the Rio
Bravo, or Grande del Norte, and is interspersed with wide plains and
fruitful valleys which produce good crops under careful cultivation. The
rivers, all of which flow eastwardly towards the Gulf of Mexico, are the
Rio Tigre, the San Juan, the Rio Blanco or BorbÃ³n, and the Sabinas,
which passes into this State from Coahuila, and falls into the Rio Bravo
near Revilla. There are numerous other small streams and brooks, of no
geographical but of considerable agricultural importance. The climate is
generally warm, except among the higher ranges of mountains; and, in
summer, it is usually extremely hot, though healthy. The population is
estimated at about 130,000.

New Leon is divided into five Partidos or Departments, with 25
districts.

1st. Department of Monterey, with seven districts: Monterey, Salinas
Victorias, Absalo, San Nicolas Hidalgo, Pesqueria Grande, Santa
Catarina, and Guajuco.

2d. Department of Cadereyta Ximenes, with five districts: Cadereyta,
Santa Maria, Cerralvo, Agualequas, and Santa Maria de las Aldamas.

3d. Department of Monte MorÃ©los, with three districts: Monte MorÃ©los,
Mota and China.

4th. Department of Linares, with five districts: Linares, GalÃ©ana,
Hualahuises, Rio Blanco and Concepcion.

5th. Department of AldÃ¡ma, with five districts: Villa AldÃ¡ma,
Vallecillo, Sabinas, Lampazos and Tlascala.

The agriculture of New Leon has not been as carefully and successfully
pursued as it might have been, in the hands of a different population.
The annual product of the soil has been stated by the Mexican
authorities, to average 120,600 fanegas of corn; 5,700 fanegas of
frijoles or beans, and 46,500 hundred-weight of sugar;--the home market
affording one dollar per fanega for corn, three dollars per fanega for
frijoles, and three dollars per hundred weight for raw sugar.

The chief occupation of the landholders is the grazing of cattle, and
the yearly return of animals, shows that the State is quite productive
in this branch of rural labor. It is calculated by official reporters
that New Leon annually feeds and sends to market:--50,000 horses, 12,000
mules, 75,000 large horned cattle, and 850,000 sheep, goats, and hogs.
The local value of which is six dollars a head for horses, twelve for a
mule, four for neat cattle, and from fifty cents to a dollar, a piece,
for sheep, goats, and swine. The State is regarded as rich in minerals
of silver and lead, but the mining operations are almost abandoned,
except at Cerralvo and Vallecillo. Salt is made at the salt mines on the
banks of the Rio Tigre. The domestic trade is carried on in State
productions with Mexico and QuerÃ©taro, and North American or European
fabrics are imported through the port of Tampico de Tamaulipas.

The capital of the State is MONTEREY, in 25Â° 59Â´ north latitude and 102Â°
33Â´ west longitude from Paris, about 220 leagues north of the city of
Mexico, situated on the plain at the foot of the Sierra Madre on the
margin of one of the affluents of the Rio Tigre. Its population is
estimated at about 13,000, and its climate is considered agreeable and
healthy. Monterey is connected with the history of North American
victories, by the capitulation it made to General Taylor, September,
1846.

The other principal towns, villages and settlements in New Leon, are SAN
FELIPÃ DE LINARES, containing 6,000 inhabitants, 40 leagues south-east
of Monterey; Buena Vista, a village 7 leagues north-west of Linares;
Cadereyta Ximenes, a small town of 2,000 people, 10 leagues south-east
of Monterey; Salinas Victorias, 10 leagues north of Monterey; Pesqueria
Grande, a village north-west from Monterey, and formerly the site of
silver mines and salt works; Villa Aldama; San Carlos de Vallecillo;
Lampazos; Agualequas; China, and Galeana.

THE STATE OF COAHUILA.

Coahuila was formerly united with the ancient Mexican province of Texas,
until the revolution, which resulted in the independence of the latter,
sundered the bond and added it to the United States of North America.
The present State of Coahuila is bounded on the east by New Leon and
Tamaulipas; on the south by ZacatÃ©cas; on the west by the Indian
territory known as the Bolson de Mapimi, Durango and Chihuahua; and on
the north by Texas.

The whole State lies on the first steps of the Sierra Madre; its
southern portion, beyond the Rio Sabinas, is extremely mountainous; but
from the northern bank of this stream, the land sinks gradually into
levels until it is lost in the well-watered and fruitful plains of
Texas. The principal rivers in this State are the Rio Grande del Norte
or Rio Bravo, the Sabinas and the Rio Tigre; and the chief lakes or
lagunes are those of Parras and Agua Verde.

The climate of Coahuila is equable and healthy. From the middle of May
to the middle of August the greatest heat is generally experienced, and,
during this season, the country is torn by high winds which nearly every
day begin to blow at sunset. The population of the State is estimated at
about 97,000. Large bodies of Indians inhabit the lonelier regions of
Coahuila; and, in the north, beyond the Rio Grande, the country swarms
with ferocious tribes of Lipans and Cumanches. Agriculture is not
flourishing though the soil of large portions of the State is good and
capable of production. The remote position of Coahuila, and the thinness
of its population, have probably obliged the inhabitants to congregate
in towns and villages where they might afford each other mutual
protection against the frontier savages; and thus they have been
induced to abandon agriculture for the wilder life of vaqueros or
herdsmen. Wheat, corn, beans and vegetables are easily raised in the
best parts of the State, and in the vicinity of Parras extensive
vineyards have been planted which produce an excellent wine. Horses,
mules, wine and corn form the home commerce of the State; while in the
neighborhood of Santa Rosa, and of two or three other villages, a small
number of persons are engaged in the exploration of mines.

The principal town of Coahuila is SALTILLO, or, as it is sometimes
called, _LÃ©ona-Vicario_, situated in the south near the boundary of
Nuevo Leon, twenty-five leagues westward of Monterey, at the foot of a
hill in the midst of a fruitful region. Its geographical position,
according to Wislizenius, is about 25Â° 25Â´ of north latitude, and 101Â°
west longitude from Greenwich. It is a well built town, whose straight
streets radiate at right angles from the public square, in the middle of
which a tasteful fountain constantly supplies the population with
excellent water. The population exceeds 20,000; and the town is
celebrated for the production of woollen blankets and _serapes_ or
_ponchos_, which are in demand all over the Republic.

SAN FERNANDO, or, _La Villa de Rosas_, is a town and military post in
the north of the State, south of the Rio Grande, containing about 3,000
inhabitants.

MONCLOVA, is a town of 3,700 inhabitants on the Coahuila, an affluent of
the Rio Tigre.

PARRAS lies west of Saltillo, on the east bank of the lake of the same
name, and some years ago was estimated to contain nearly 17,000
inhabitants, including the adjacent farmers, planters and their
laborers. It is celebrated for its grapes and wine, as we have already
remarked.

The other villages and settlements worthy of note are Villa Longia,
Viesca y Bustamante, Santa Rosa, Guerrero, Cienegas, Abasoto, Nadadores,
S. Buenaventura, San Francisco y San Miguel Aguayo, Capillania and
Candela.

THE STATE OF DURANGO.

Durango is bounded on the north by Chihuahua; on the west by Sinaloa; on
the east by Coahuila, and on the south by ZacatÃ©cas and Jalisco.

This State is penetrated, from near its centre, in a north-westwardly
direction by the main artery of the great Cordillera; and whilst the
north-eastern section of Durango slopes gradually downward towards the
waters of the Rio Grande, its south-western part lies high up among the
table lands and mountain spurs that lean towards Sinaloa and the Pacific
coast. The climate of this mountainous State is healthy and cool, and
its agricultural productions are similar to those of other Mexican
States whose geological formation resembles it.

Durango is divided into twelve _partidos_ or departments:--Durango, San
Juan del Rio, Nombre de Dios, San Dimas, Mesquital Papasquiaro, Oro,
Indee, Tamasula, CuencamÃ©, Mapimi, and Nasas;--comprising 38
municipalities, 4 cities, 5 towns, 54 villages, 52 mineral works, 48
parishes, 111 haciendas, 48 estancias, and 521 ranchos. The population
is estimated at about 300,000.

The chief streams and bodies of waters in the State are the Rio Nasas,
Rio GuanÃ¡bas, Rio Florida, and the lagunes of Cayman and Parras, the
latter of which, though lying in Coahuila, bounds upon the edge of
Durango.

The wealth of Durango exists in its minerals and in its cattle estates.
Its _haciendas de cria_ produce immense quantities of horses, mules,
sheep and horned beasts which are readily sold in the various markets
and fairs of the republic. At the hacienda of La Sarca, a stock of
200,000 sheep and 40,000 mules and horses, is constantly kept on hand,
and at Ramos, which contains four hundred square leagues of land, 80,000
sheep are annually fed for their fleece, skins and carcasses. About
150,000 sheep are every year sent from Durango to the market of Mexico
alone.

In the valley of Poanas, fifteen leagues east from the capital, there
are fine corn lands; and in the deep valleys of the Sierra Madre even
sugar is raised wherever the exposure and the moisture of the situation
permits the successful cultivation of cane. Indigo and coffee grow wild
in the warm barrancas on the genial slopes of the Cordillera; but
neither of these articles is as yet cultivated by the planters. Cotton
is grown in the vicinity of the Rio Nasas, and the town of Cinco SeÃ±ores
is the centre of a district covered with plantations which supply most
of the factories of San Luis Potosi, ZacatÃ©cas and Saltillo. Mescal, a
species of brandy is distilled in large quantities from the maguey which
grows abundantly in Durango.

The capital of the State, seat of government, and residence of the
bishop, is the city of DURANGO, sometimes known as _La Ciudad de
Victoria_, or, _Guadiana_. It lies under 24Â° 25Â´ north latitude and 105Â°
55Â´ west longitude, at an elevation of 6,847 feet above the level of the
sea, and sixty-five leagues north-westwardly from ZacatÃ©cas. It is in
the southern section of the State, and was originally founded, in 1559,
by the Viceroy Velasco, as a military post designed for the control of
the Chichimecas. Its population at present may be estimated at between
thirty and forty thousand.

This capital, and most of the other noted towns in Durango, owe their
existence to the mineral wealth of the neighborhood. Before the mines of
Guarisamey were discovered the city of Durango was a mere village, or
_pueblo ranchero_, containing, as late as 1783, no more than eight
thousand inhabitants. But the exploration of the mines infused life,
activity, and wealth into the population, and the State progressed
rapidly as its resources were developed. The fine streets of the
capital, its great _plaza_ or square, its theatre, and all its public
edifices were erected by Zambrano, who is said to have extracted upwards
of thirty millions of dollars from his mines at Guarisamey and San
Dimas. A mint has been established in the city, and, besides this, it
possesses factories of cotton, glass and tobacco.

The towns of VILLA DEL NOMBRE DE DIOS, with 7,000 inhabitants, SAN JUAN
DEL RIO with 12,000 and CINCO SEÃORES DE NASAS, are almost the only ones
in the State unconnected with mines. The two first are supported chiefly
by the sale of Mescal distilled from the maguey or aloe; and the last,
by the extensive cotton plantations which have been already mentioned.

Besides these towns there are the Villa FELIZ DE TAMASULA, north-west of
Durango on the boundary of Sinaloa; PAPASQUIARO with 6,000 inhabitants;
Guarisamey, a mining town, in a deep and warm valley, surrounded with
steep mountains near 9,000 feet high, and containing about 4,000 people;
La Villa de Mapimi, north of the Rio Nasas, on the borders of the Bolson
de Mapimi, and east of the Cerro de la Cadena, with about 3,000
inhabitants; Cuencame; El Oro; and many other villages and towns, too
numerous and too unimportant for separate notice, but which deserve
recollection as indicating the tendency of this region to aggregate
population. The State contained in 1833, 250,000 inhabitants, according
to good authority, and it is probable that at present it does not number
less than 300,000.

Durango is rich in mineral deposits. Iron abounds within a quarter of a
league of the gates of the capital. The Cerro del Mercado is entirely
composed of iron ores of two distinct qualities,--crystallized and
magnetic,--but almost equally rich, as they contain from sixty to
seventy-five per cent. of pure metal. Silver is also abundant in the
mountains; but the mines have been carelessly worked, and, in some
places, are abandoned for want of suitable machinery or enterprize. The
principal districts and places in which this precious deposit has been
found and profitably wrought, are at Gavalines, Guarisamey and San
Dimas, in the two last of which the fortunate adventurer Zambrano,
acquired, during twenty-five years, the extraordinary wealth he
possessed. These mines are divided into Tamasula, CanÃ©las and Sianori,
lying on the western slope of the Cordillera; and Guanasevi, IndÃ©e, El
Oro, Cuencame and Mapimi, on the eastern declivities. They lie about
five days' journey west of the capital.

The following interesting sketch of Indian necrology is given in the
valuable and recent work of MÃ¼hlenpfordt upon the Mexican Republic.

In the State of Durango,--says this interesting German
author,--especially in the unexplored portion of the Bolson de Mapimi,
many relics of antiquity, important for the history of this country, are
probably hidden. In the summer of 1838, a remarkable old Indian cave of
sepulture was discovered in this singular region. Among the few
establishments which enterprizing settlers have founded in that lonely
territory which is overrun by wild Indians, one of the most important is
the estate of San Juan de Casta, on its western border, 86 leagues north
of the town of Durango. Don Juan Flores, its proprietor, rambling one
day with several companions in the eastern part of the Bolson, remarked
the entrance of a cavern on the side of a mountain. He went in, and
beheld, as he imagined, a great number of Indians sitting silently
around the walls of the cave. Flores immediately rushed forth in
affright, to communicate his remarkable discovery to his friends, who at
once supposed that the story of the adventurer was nothing but an affair
of fancy, as they no where found any trace or foot path to show that the
secluded spot had been hitherto visited. But, in order to satisfy
themselves, they entered the cavern with pine torches,--and their sight
was greeted by more than a thousand corpses in a state of perfect
preservation, their hands clasped beneath their knees, and sitting on
the ground. They were clad in mantles excellently woven and wrought of
the fibres of a bastard aloe, indigenous in these regions, which is
called _lechuguilla_, with bands and scarfs of variegated stuffs. Their
ornaments were strings of fruit-kernels, with beads formed of bone,
ear-rings, and thin cylindrical bones polished and gilt, and their
sandals were made of a species of _liana_.

CHAPTER XII.

     STATE OF
     CHIHUAHUA--POSITION--BOUNDARIES--EXTENT--CHARACTERISTICS--RIVERS
     --LAKES--INDIANS--DIVISIONS--CLIMATE--PRODUCTIONS--CATTLE
     ESTATES--MINT--MINES--PRINCIPAL TOWNS--CHIHUAHUA--EL PASO DEL
     NORTE--MILITARY IMPORTANCE--EL PASO WINE, ETC.--ANTIQUITIES--INDIAN
     RAVAGES--THE BOLSON DE MAPIMI--MEXICAN MODES OF TRAVELLING AND
     TRANSPORTATION--LITERA--MULES--ARRIEROS--CONDUCTA--COACHES--FREIGHT
     WAGONS--MEXICAN HABIT OF HOME-STAYING--WANT OF EXPLORATION--MODERN
     ADVANCEMENT.

THE STATE OF CHIHUAHUA.

The State of Chihuahua, containing an area of 17,151-1/2 square leagues,
or 119,169 English square miles, and reaching from 26Â° 53Â´ 36Â´Â´ to 32Â°
57Â´ 43Â´Â´ north latitude, is bounded on the north by New Mexico, east by
Coahuila and Texas, south by Durango, south-west by Sinaloa, and
north-west by Sonora. The great mountain chain of Mexico, which is the
connecting link between the Rocky Mountains of the north and the Andes
of the south, is here known as the Sierra Madre, and occupies chiefly
the western part of the State, where its elevations attain a vast
height, and at length, descend abruptly, cut by deep _barrancas_ or
ravines, until they are lost in the plains of Sonora and Sinaloa.
Mexican authorities state the highest point of the Sierra Madre, at the
Peaks of Jesus Maria, to be 8,441 feet above the level of the sea. The
greater portion of Chihuahua consequently lies, like Durango, upon the
_plateau_ of Mexico, and only a small part upon the western slope of the
Sierra Madre. The loftier elevations of the Cordillera, as it passes
upward from Durango, lean towards the west until they pass the centre of
Chihuahua, and then bending once more, nearly north, pursue their way
through New Mexico into the remote wilderness of our Union. Towards the
east these steeps become gradually depressed until they are lost in the
vast and uncultivated regions of the Bolson de Mapimi, whose elevation
above the sea is still 3,800 feet, according to the measurement of Dr.
Wislizenius.

Seventeen rivers and streams flow through the territory of this State.
The Rio Bravo, or Rio Grande del Norte; the Rio Conchas; Florida;
Chihuahua; Tonachi; Llanos; Casas Grandes; San Buenaventura; Carmen;
Santa Isabel; Pasesiochi; Mulatos; ChiÃ±apas; Parral; San Pedro;
Batopilas; and Rio Grande de Bavispe. The lakes or lagunes are those of
San Martin; Guzman; Patos, or Candelaria; Encinillas; and Castilla. The
river Nasas, which rises in Durango debouches in the Lake of Cayman, in
the Bolson de Mapimi. The climate resembles that of the adjoining State
of Durango. In the year 1834, the population, according to official
statistics was 145,182; at present, it is estimated at from 150,000 to
160,000, which number would give about 1.3 for each English square mile.
This is probably the actual number of inhabitants within the State,
exclusive of Indians and some wild dwellers among the mountains who were
not comprised in the census of 1833. Large numbers of aborigines occupy
the lonelier portions of Chihuahua. Tribes of TepehuanÃ©s, Llanos,
Acotlames, Cocoyames and a few remnants of the Aztecs are found within
its borders. In the Bolson de Mapimi, and on the borders of the mountain
ranges of the ChanÃ¡te, El Diabolo Puerco, and Pilares, swarm numbers of
the Apaches MescalÃ©ros and Farones, who are often engaged in war with
the savage and robber tribes of Cumanches, whose constant inroads into
the Mexican territory are a source of incessant annoyance and insecurity
to the people of the frontier. In the ravines and valleys of the Sierra
de los Mimbres, in the north-west of the State, the Apache MÃmbreÃ±os are
found, while further south, in the wild and deep dells of TararÃ©cua and
Santa Sinforosa various bands of the Tarahuamares still pursue their
hunter-life in perfect freedom.

There is some doubt, in consequence of the conflict of authorities, as
to the divisions of the State of Chihuahua. According to the _Noticias
Estadisticas_ of SeÃ±or Escudero, published in 1834, it was composed of
four districts: Chihuahua, Hidalgo, Paso del Norte, and Guadalupe y
Calvo,--in the first of which are the _partidos_ of Aldama,
Cosihuiriachi, Papigochi, and Jesus Maria de Rosales;--in the second,
the _partidos_ of Allende and Jimenez;--in the third, the _partidos_ of
Galeanas and Janos;--and in the fourth, those of Batopilas and Balleza
or Tepehuanes. According to an article published by the same writer in
the fourth volume of the Museo Mexicano, in 1844, he apparently
entertains the opinion that the same divisions still continue; but, if
the authority of another and very positive correspondent of the same
work is to be relied on in reference to the last mentioned period,
Chihuahua was divided into the _partidos_ of Aldama, Allende, Balleza,
Batopilas, Concepcion, Cosihuiriachi, Galeana, Hidalgo, Jimenez, Paso,
and Rosales, formerly Tapacolmes.

Nature has endowed Chihuahua with a pleasant and temperate climate and a
fertile soil, which is said by those who are best acquainted with the
State to be capable of producing abundantly, if the county is ever freed
from savage inroads and filled with an industrious population of
agriculturists. The forests, the streams, the valleys and the plains,
all yield their tributes of valuable articles of trade. Vast herds of
cattle are fed upon the large _haciendas de ganado_; and the mountains
are veined with the precious deposits which form the wealth of so many
other Mexican States. The prompt settlement of the frontier, and the
security of its inhabitants against the Indians, under the protection of
armed forces by the conterminous Republics, seem to be all that is
requisite for the development of the fine natural resources of this
hitherto neglected State.

Field and garden cultivation is not much attended to by the present
inhabitants; but wherever farming operations are carried on in suitable
spots, corn, wheat, barley, frijoles, and all the finest fruits, plants
and vegetables, are found to repay bountifully the husbandman's labor.
Even indigo and cotton are found growing wild in some of the districts,
notwithstanding the proximity of the mountain region, and the bleaker
exposure of the soil.

At El Paso del Norte, the right bank of the Rio Grande, is covered for a
distance of seven leagues with excellent vineyards, whose capital fruit
produces an abundance of wine, which is greedily purchased in the
markets of the adjacent States. In the neighborhood of Aldama, Allende,
and of many other towns, the grape is also successfully cultivated, and
the liquor produced is highly esteemed by competent judges. But the
chief sources of the present prosperity of Chihuahua are its mines and
cattle. The best data in our possession assign to this State 56 large
estates, upon all of which about 70,000 horses, 190,000 horned cattle,
and 550,000 head of sheep, swine and goats are constantly fed. The
silver, gold and copper mines have been in former years exceedingly
productive, and even in 1844, the mint of Chihuahua, struck $61,632 in
gold, and 290,000 in silver. In 1814, the coinage of the same
institution reached the sum of $1,818,604 in silver, after which period
it ceased operating until 1832; but since then its annual emission has
never exceeded $544,244 in coins of both the precious metals. Gold was
first struck at this mint in 1841, and in 1842 it sent into circulation
$164,744, since which its issue has sensibly decreased. The best copper
mines at present known, are those of Santa Rita, near the union of the
Rio Florida with the Rio Conchas. Veins of iron, cinnabar, lead,
sulphur, coal, and nitre have been found and explored; but owing to the
disturbed and insecure condition of the State, are altogether abandoned.

The chief mining districts and mineral deposits are at Allende or San
BartolomÃ©; Santa Barbara; Chihuahua; Cosihuiriachi; Santa Eulalia; Jesus
Maria; Loreto; Moris; Mulatos; Minas Nuevas; Parral; San Pedro; El
Refugio; Santa Rita; Sierra Rica; Batopilas; Urique y Ximenes, or as it
is at present called, Guajuquilla. A considerable portion of the product
of these mines may have been extracted from the Mexican Republic, before
they were coined, by the inland trade with the United States, which has
been carried on extensively for many years. The gold dust, especially,
both of Chihuahua and New Mexico, has formed the principal return for
American merchandize; and thus the diminution of the Chihuahuan coinage
may be partially accounted for. Nevertheless we are informed by the best
authorities, as well as by the statistics of the mint, that the mines of
this State have been negligently wrought for some years past by the
unsettled inhabitants of the frontier.

The chief towns in the State are the capital, Chihuahua, situated 4,640
feet above the level of the sea, in 28Â° 38Â´ north latitude and 106Â° 30Â´
west longitude from Greenwich, containing a population of from 12,000 to
15,000. It lies in a beautiful valley opening towards the north, and
hemmed in, on the other sides, by the arms of the Sierra Madre. The city
is regularly built, on wide, clean streets, with many handsome and
convenient houses, plentifully supplied with water, which is brought to
the town by an aqueduct extending 6,533 _varas_. The plaza, or public
square, is quite imposing. Its spacious area is adorned with a fountain
and walks, with benches and pillars of white porphyry. Three sides of
this square are occupied with public edifices and stores, while on the
fourth is the cathedral.

The other towns are San Pedro de Batopilas, a mining post on the western
slope of the Cordillera, in a deep dell;--San JosÃ© del Parral, at the
eastern foot of the Sierra Madre on the southern limit of Chihuahua,
about eighty leagues east of Batopilas, containing about 5,000
inhabitants; Valle de San BartolomÃ©, on the road from Chihuahua to
Durango; Allende, with 11,000 inhabitants; Santa Rosa de Cosihuiriachi,
with 3,000; and various other villages and Presidios of lesser note.

One of the most important towns in the State of Chihuahua, since the
annexation of a part of Mexico to the United Slates by the treaty of
1848, is El Paso del Norte. According to the observations of Dr.
Wislizenius, it lies in 31Â° 45Â´ 50Â´Â´ north latitude, 3,814 feet above
the level of the sea, on the Rio Grande, distant about 340 miles from
Santa FÃ©, and about 240 from the town of Chihuahua. The Rio Grande or
Rio del Norte, having escaped the mountain pass, runs here in an open
fertile field, at the beginning of which El Paso is situated. The town
is principally built on the right bank of the river while a few houses
are on the left. Stretched out along the stream for many miles, all its
dwellings are surrounded and embosomed in groves, gardens, orchards,
vineyards and cultivated fields as far as the eye can reach. The
position of this town is an important one, inasmuch as the road by it is
the only practicable one for wagons leading from Santa FÃ© to Chihuahua.
A circuitous road might, in case of necessity, be made from the right
bank of the river, on the northern end of the Jornado del Muerto, to the
copper mines near the sources of the Gila, and thence by Carmen to
Chihuahua; but it is by far more mountainous, winding and difficult than
the direct road through El Paso which has long been the only highway
between New Mexico and Chihuahua. Besides these advantages of commercial
intercourse, the point is deemed of the greatest value as a military
post, in which a well provided garrison could hold out against a
ten-fold stronger force.[69] The population of the town proper, and of
the line of settlements extending about twenty miles down the river is
estimated at from ten to twelve thousand.

Besides these important considerations, the valley of El Paso is
probably the most fertile country along the river. In addition to maize
and wheat the inhabitants raise a large quantity of fruits, such as
apples, pears, figs, quinces, peaches, &c., but especially an excellent
grape from which the celebrated El Paso wine is prepared, and a liquor
is made called by the Americans "Pass Whiskey." The grape which is so
extensively cultivated is of Spanish origin; it is blue, very rich and
juicy, and produces a strong, sweet, southern, straw-colored wine. For
want of barrels, the natives preserve the liquor in earthern jars or in
ox skins. The wine has a strong body, and when mellowed by age, has the
flavor of Malaga. Besides the blue grape, a white species is also
raised, having the flavor of the Muscadine, but it is believed that it
is not used for wine.

The mode of cultivating the vineyards in this region is simple. The
vines are covered in winter with earth, are kept clear from weeds, hoed
and pruned at the proper season, but they are not attached to stakes or
espaliers. The soil and climate are so genial that less labor is
required than in other countries; but a great deal of the fertility of
the beautiful valley must be ascribed to the ingenious system of
irrigation, which is produced by a dam constructed in the river above El
Paso, which turns a large body of water into a canal. This canal,
spreading into numerous branches and re-uniting again, provides all the
cultivated land with a sufficiency of moisture.

Some remains of antiquity are found in the north-western part of the
State, lying near the village and creek of the Casas Grandes, between
Janos and Galeana. Ruins of large houses, known as "Casas Grandes" in
the language of the country, exist in this neighborhood, built of
sun-dried bricks, or _adobes_, and squared timber. They are three
stories high with a gallery of wood and stairway from the exterior, with
very small rooms and narrow doors in the upper stories but without means
of entrance in the lower. Water was brought to the spot from a
neighboring spring by a canal; and a watch-tower, commanding an
extensive prospect, stands on an elevation two leagues south-west of it.
A series of mounds, containing earthen vessels, weapons, instruments of
stone, and fragments of white, blue and violet colored pottery, extends
along the banks of the Casas Grandes and Janos creeks.

The State of Chihuahua has suffered and still suffers greatly and
constantly from the incursions of the barbarians who ravage her
frontiers and descend boldly into the very heart of the settlements. The
uncertainty of life and insecurity of property have, of course,
prevented the development of a region so valuable for its mineral and
agricultural resources; nor is it likely that any sensible progress will
be made until the four warring tribes of GileÃ±os, Mesclaros, MimbreÃ±os
and Lipanes, are destroyed by the advance of the civilized nations from
the north as well as from the south.

A recent Mexican author, in describing the condition of Chihuahua,
declares that at "present every hacienda must be converted into a castle
of the middle ages, every shepherd into a soldier:--proprietors of
estates enjoy no security of their possessions, and the common people
gather themselves into villages to escape from the exposed country in
which they must become the victims of the bloodthirsty savages and
robbers from the wilderness."

There is a singular geological formation in the northern part of Mexico,
lying on the road between the cities of Chihuahua and Monterey, and
extending northwardly from the towns and haciendas of Mapimi, San Juan,
San Lorenzo and San Sebastian towards the Rio Grande, called the Bolson
de Mapimi, or Pouch of Mapimi. Leaving Mapimi, the road continues about
three miles to the eastern mountain chain, and then winding nearly two
miles through a caÃ±on, or gorge, it leads to a very open level valley,
which is the commencement of the Bolson. Towards the right of the road,
eastwardly, at the distance of from three to five miles, a steep, high
mountain chain of limestone, rises precipitously, while another chain
towers up to the left, at the distance of about twelve miles. Both
chains gradually diverge, but especially the eastern arm, which
stretches north-eastwardly and then bends to the south-west, at an
angle, leaving a deep _cul de sac_ or depression in the middle from
which the country has probably derived its name. All around is an
immense chapparal plain, while in the distance the Rio Nasas runs
towards the north into the immense basin, and forms the large Laguna de
Tlagualila, usually set down on maps and mentioned in geographical works
as Lake Cayman. The Nasas is said by Dr. Wislizenius to be the Nile of
the Bolson. Coming about 150 leagues from the western part of Durango,
from the Sianori mountains, it runs north-westwardly and northerly
towards this Pouch, and the wide and level country along the river is
yearly inundated by the floods, and owes its fertility to this
circumstance. The limits of the Bolson de Mapimi have never been clearly
defined either geographically or politically for its immense wilderness
has been neither fully explored or occupied in consequence of the danger
of encountering the robber hordes by whom its recesses are infested. The
northern portion is supposed to belong to the State of Chihuahua, and
the southern to Durango. Nor are its general physical properties clearly
known, though the common and perhaps erroneous impression in the country
is that it is a low, flat, swampy country and a mere desert. The two
terminating points of Dr. Wislizenius's transit through the Bolson are
Mapimi, where he entered it, and El Paso, or a point between Paso and
Parras, where he left it. At Mapimi, the elevation above the sea was
4,487 feet; in the valley of the Nasas, at San Sebastian, 3,785; at San
Lorenzo, 3,815; at San Juan, 3,775; and towards the eastern edge of the
Bolson, at El Paso, 3,990, and at Parras, 4,987. We perceive, therefore,
that the valley of the Nasas, which may be called the vein and centre of
the Bolson has a mean elevation of 3,800 feet; and though from 500 to
1,000 feet lower than the surrounding county, it nevertheless occupies a
considerable elevation above the sea.

The soil in the Bolson is less sandy and of a better quality than in the
higher country. Besides wheat and corn, a quantity of cotton is raised
in the valley of the river, and wine has been successfully tried. The
climate is represented to be so mild, that the root of the cotton plant
is seldom destroyed in winter, and thrives for many years.

We have dwelt upon the character and qualities of this extraordinary
depression among the mountain ridges of northern Mexico, because we
believe that when it is finally explored, the savages exterminated, and
the country opened to the advance of civilization, El Bolson de Mapimi
may become one of the most important and perhaps fruitful basins among
the temperate lands of Mexico.

CONCLUSION.

We have completed the proposed task of sketching the history and
geography of Mexico, accompanied by notices of its social and political
condition, and of the remains of antiquity sprinkled over its territory.
We acknowledge the imperfection of the work, and its unsatisfactoriness
even to ourselves. But we have diligently searched the best authorities
that could be obtained at home and abroad, and, while we have omitted
nothing that might be relied on for the purpose of displaying the
physical and intellectual character of the country and people, we have
endeavored to indicate clearly those historical antecedents and
geographical peculiarities upon which the future progress or decline of
the nation is to be founded.

Perhaps no countries are more difficult for full and minute description,
in their present social state, than Mexico and the South American
nations. Mexico, as we have seen, is a mountain country, with very few
navigable streams opening the interior to travellers, and with badly
constructed roads, which were scarcely adequate for the most needful
transportation required for the subsistence of the people. As soon as
the way-farer left the coasts of the Gulf or of the Pacific he
penetrated the glens of lofty mountains, or slowly toiled along the
inclined plains of their precipitous sides. Wide levels opened in the
interior, at considerable distances, but these were separated by ridges
of the Cordillera which were, in fact, ramparts capable of defending a
warlike people almost without the aid of military improvement. Until
within a few years, the back of a horse or of a mule; an old fashioned
LITERA swung between two beasts

[Illustration: TRAVELLING IN A LITERA]

of burthen, or an antiquated clumsy Mexican coach, were the only means
of travelling. Of these, the litera, a species of palanquin in which the
traveller reclined at ease upon his mattress and cushions, was by far
the most comfortable, and the use of this convenient vehicle is still
continued especially in the warmer parts of the country where exposure