therefore, that while the interpretative intention does not suffice,
the actual intention and even, for the most part, the virtual intention
are not necessary. But about the virtual intention the following should
be noted; (a) a virtual and explicit intention is necessary in
Matrimony if a party be considered, not precisely as recipient, but as
minister of the Sacrament (see 2666) and as maker of the contract (see
1883); (b) a virtual and at least implicit intention is necessary in
Penance, if a penitent is considered precisely as positing the
requisite matter or condition of the Sacrament, since this consists in
repentance, and repentance includes either an express or an implied
desire of sacramental absolution.

2674. When an Habitual Intention Suffices.--The habitual intention is
found in those who are not conscious (see 2165), but it suffices for
the reception of a Sacrament, since the recipient does not affect the
Sacrament, and it is enough that he had the good will to accept it and
has not retracted that will.

(a) An habitual and explicit intention suffices for the three
Sacraments that impose special obligations, namely, Baptism, Orders,
and Matrimony. Hence, he who has asked for Baptism is validly baptized
after he becomes delirious; he who has asked for Orders is validly
ordained even when unconscious; he who has sent his consent to a
marriage by proxy receives the Sacrament during his sleep, if the other
party’s consent closing the contract is given at that time.

(b) An habitual and implicit intention included in a particular will to
do a good act on which the Sacrament follows in natural course,
suffices for the other three Sacraments which do not impose special
obligations. Hence, a person who purposed to live as a Catholic is
validly confirmed while unconscious; a person who intended to die as a
Catholic is validly absolved and anointed, as far as intention is
concerned, at the moment of death, even though he be out of his mind.
Further, if an unbaptized person has resolved to become a Catholic but
has no knowledge of Baptism itself, he is validly baptized in virtue of
his implicit desire, even though he be unconscious.

(c) An habitual and implicit intention included in a general will to do
all that is necessary for salvation or a good life is taught by some
authors, and is by them considered sufficient for Baptism, since it is
the most necessary Sacrament, and the Sacraments are for men. An
unbaptized person of good will who has supernatural contrition or
charity is justified through Baptism of desire, but if he has only
supernatural attrition the Sacrament itself is necessary for him.
Hence, in case of urgent need conditional Baptism should be given a
dying and unconscious infidel who was well disposed; but, as the
intention is not certain, the Baptism should be repeated in case of
recovery. The same principle is extended by some moralists to the
administration of Penance and Extreme Unction to schismatics and
heretics who are in danger of death.

2675. Requirements for Lawful or Fruitful Reception of a Sacrament by
an Adult.--(a) Worthiness of the Recipient from Divine Law.--The two
Sacraments of the Dead, Baptism and Penance, were intended by Christ to
be means of forgiveness to the repentant, and hence they require at
least that the recipient believe himself attrite. The five Sacraments
of the Living were meant by Christ to strengthen grace and life already
had, and consequently he who approaches them must have no serious fault
on his conscience. Conscious unworthiness is a sacrilege, and only
extreme necessity can excuse reception in such a state (e.g., when a
sinner takes Communion to save the Host from profanation).

(b) Worthiness from Church Law.--The recipient must be free from church
censures (Canon 2260) or impediments, and must possess the preparation
or qualification which the church law prescribes (e.g., a certain age
is required for Confirmation; the Eucharist must be received fasting;
the candidate for Orders must be approved, etc.).

(c) Worthiness of Reception.--The Sacraments should be received
devoutly, with proper preparation, attention, and thanksgiving. In the
case of the Eucharist, though intention is not necessary for validity,
it is required for a sacramental or fruitful Communion; an habitual and
implicit intention suffices for the Viaticum (and Easter Communion), an
habitual explicit intention for Communion of devotion.

2676. When Is the Minister of the Sacraments Bound to Give Them?--(a) A
pastor is obliged to give a Sacrament to one of his own subjects who
reasonably requests it, and to do so willingly, freely (Canon 736),
and, if he has no substitute, in person; for a spiritual shepherd has a
grave duty of justice and charity to feed his flock. A request is not
reasonable, however, if compliance will put the pastor to an
inconvenience greater than that which the parishioner will suffer from
a refusal, for example, when Baptisms, Confessions, or Communions are
needlessly asked for outside the appointed hours, or when sick calls
that can be attended during the day are sent in at night. The
Sacraments necessary for salvation (Baptism and Penance) should be
given even at the risk of life, if the subject is in grave need and
there is assured hope of success (see 1167), and doubtless this should
be applied also to Extreme Unction or even the Viaticum.

(b) One who is not a pastor is obliged from charity to give the
Sacraments to those who reasonably ask. He would be obliged even to
risk his life to save a soul, if there were no one else to administer a
necessary Sacrament to a person in extreme spiritual peril who could be
saved by his ministry.

2677. When Is the Minister of the Sacraments Bound to Deny Them?--(a)
He must always deny them to those who are incapable, for otherwise he
insults the Sacrament. Under no circumstances, then, may a priest
baptize one who is already baptized, or absolve one who is unrepentant;
and he may not assist at the attempted marriage of a divorcee.
Likewise, as is manifest, he must always deny the Sacraments to those
who ask for them out of hatred or contempt for religion, for to grant
them in such circumstances would be an act intrinsically evil.

(b) He must deny them, as a rule, to those who to his knowledge are
certainly unworthy (e.g., on account of lack of requisite instruction
or moral disposition); otherwise, he casts pearls before swine,
cooperates in the sacrilege of others, and scandalizes the people.
Hence, a public sinner--that is, one whose unworthiness is notorious
(see 2053)--should not be given the Sacraments publicly, until he has
repaired the scandal he gave; and no unworthy person, even though he be
a hidden sinner whose guilt is known only to the minister, should be
given a Sacrament in private until he has shown signs of repentance.
Generally the minister is bound to assure himself beforehand of the
good disposition of the one who asks for a Sacrament, though in case of
Communion this is often impossible, and it suffices to presume that all
who approach the altar becomingly are in the state of grace.

2678. Administration to Unworthy Persons.--Since material cooperation
with sin is lawful for a sufficient reason (see 1515 sqq.), one may
administer a Sacrament to an unworthy person when refusal would cause a
greater evil than ministration. This happens in the following cases:

(a) when refusal will necessitate a more wicked sacrilege (viz., injury
to a Sacrament by the minister himself). This case occurs when the
minister knows the subject’s unworthiness only from the latter’s
sacramental confession, and hence cannot exclude him without violation
of the seal;

(b) when the refusal will bring on more widespread evils (viz.,
discouragement of the use of the Sacraments). This happens when the
subject who asks the Sacrament is not publicly known as a sinner, but
his request is public, so that a refusal will amount to a defamation of
him by the minister. If priests had the right to inflict public
disgrace on those who approached the Sacraments, it is easily seen what
grave scandals and disorders would follow, and that a ready excuse
would present itself for personal spite and neglect of religion. Our
Lord administered Communion to Judas rather than betray his secret
guilt to the other Apostles.

2679. Is the fear of bodily harm or of death a sufficient reason for
administering a Sacrament to an unworthy person? (a) If a greater evil
will be caused by bestowal of the Sacrament, it should not be bestowed.
This happens when the Sacrament is asked out of hatred or contempt of
religion, and when great scandal will result if the priest yields. (b)
If a greater evil will be caused by refusal of the Sacrament, it should
not be refused. Examples are those of the previous paragraph. The mere
private good of the minister is not preferable to the good of the
Sacrament.

2680. Simulation and Dissimulation of a Sacrament?--Is it lawful in
case of difficulty to give a Sacrament only in appearance? (a) If this
means simulation of a Sacrament, or the use of its externals in such a
way as to make it null (i.e., by withholding internal intention or
using invalid matter or form), the answer is in the negative; for
simulation is always an acted lie (see 2403, 2404), and when applied to
Sacraments it produces a sacrilegious mutilation and also, in the case
of the Eucharist (e.g., when an unconsecrated host is given to a
communicant), an occasion of idolatry. (b) If this means dissimulation
of a Sacrament, or the use of some nonsacramental act to conceal the
denial of a Sacrament, the answer is in the affirmative, for it is
lawful to keep from others knowledge to which they have no right. Thus,
a priest who wishes to conceal from onlookers that he has refused
absolution to a penitent, can lawfully say a prayer and make a sign of
the cross over this person.

2681. Administration of Penance and Extreme Unction to Heretics and
Schismatics.--(a) Regularly this is unlawful, even though these persons
are in good faith and ask for the Sacraments. They must first renounce
their errors and become reconciled with the Church (Canon 731).

(b) Exceptionally, according to some moralists, this is lawful when
there is extreme need. Hence, according to this view a priest may
secretly give conditional absolution to an unconscious heretic or
schismatic in danger of death who has given signs of repentance; he may
absolve and anoint a dying heretic or schismatic, even though
conscious, if this person appears to be in good faith and repentant and
willing to do all that God requires of him. But the priest should first
try to convert the dying person, if this is possible and the latter’s
good faith will not be disturbed; and he must also avoid giving scandal.

2682. Repetition of a Sacrament on Account of Invalid
Administration.--(a) This is unlawful when the fear of invalidity is
groundless and foolish; for it is seriously disrespectful to a
Sacrament and disedifying to others to repeat the rite without reason.
But scrupulous persons are sometimes free of grave sin, since they mean
well in repeating and are not accountable for their fears.

(b) This is lawful but not obligatory when there is a prudent misgiving
about a useful Sacrament (Confirmation, Matrimony, anointing of one who
is conscious); also when there is a slight reason of law or fact for
fear about a necessary or more important Sacrament (Baptism, Orders,
absolution of a dying person, anointing of an unconscious person,
consecration of the Eucharist). For the Sacraments are for men. But if
only a small loss or an unlikely loss will be caused by their
non-repetition, the duty of repeating them cannot be insisted on.

(c) This is gravely obligatory when there is a prudent fear about a
necessary or more important Sacrament; it is gravely or lightly
obligatory (to be determined in each case) when there is a well-founded
fear about a useful Sacrament, if charity, justice or religion calls
for repetition and the inconvenience will not be too great. In
Matrimony the alternate methods of convalidation or sanation may be
used as the case demands. Again, the Sacraments are for men, and hence,
if man will likely be subjected to a notable loss by the minister’s
neglect of repetition, the duty of repetition is clear.

2683. Reception of a Sacrament from an Unworthy Minister.--May a
Sacrament be received from a minister who, to one’s certain knowledge,
cannot give it without sin on account of unworthiness (such as a state
of sin or censure)?

(a) _Per se_, this is unlawful, for it is cooperation with sacrilege
and is often attended by scandal and danger of perversion to self.

(b) _Per accidens_, this is lawful, for material cooperation is
justified when a proportionately grave reason exists (1515 sqq.).
Moreover, often the minister can put himself in the state of grace
before he gives the Sacrament, or can be excused from sacrilege on
account of the necessity. The less the irreverence or danger of
scandal, the less need be the reason for asking or taking a Sacrament
from an unworthy person. If the minister is a sinner or is under
ordinary suspension or other censure, a serious reason of spiritual
advantage suffices (e.g., the opportunity to make the Easter duty); if
the minister is under sentence (Canon 2261 n. 3), only danger of death
suffices; if the minister is a heretic or schismatic, only extreme need
suffices, and the danger of scandal and perversion must be avoided.

2684. Sacramentals.--The sacramentals are the sacred things (e.g.,
rosaries, scapulars, agnus deis) and actions (e.g., consecrations,
blessings, exorcisms) used by the Church in imitation of the Sacraments
to obtain through her intercession blessings chiefly of a spiritual
sort (Canon 1144).

(a) Necessity.--Our Lord gave to the Church the power of instituting
sacramentals, and certain of those used by the Church are but
developments of the blessings and exorcisms that He used. Some of the
sacramentals are commanded by the Church (viz, those that are used in
the administration of the Sacraments or in other sacred services);
others are recommended, but not commanded.

(b) Use.--The virtue of religion requires that the sacramentals be
administered, received and treated with devotion and respect, the
extremes of irreligion and superstition being avoided (see 2244). The
laws of the Church on the ministers, recipients, and rites of the
sacramentals are treated in works on Canon Law and liturgy.

Art. 2: BAPTISM; CONFIRMATION; THE EUCHARIST; THE SACRIFICE OF THE MASS

(_Summa Theologica_, III, qq. 66-83.)

2685. The general duties of the ministers and recipients of the
Sacraments have been outlined in the previous Article. The principles
therein given are the basis of the special duties that pertain to each
of the seven Sacraments. In this and the remaining Articles, therefore,
it will suffice to apply without explaining anew the rules already
given and to add the special details proper to each Sacrament.

2686. The Sacrament of Baptism.--The first and most essential Sacrament
is Baptism (Greek, washing), which may be defined: “The Sacrament of
regeneration by water in the word” (Catechism of the Council of Trent,
page 163). The internal grace of the Sacrament is expressed by
regeneration, the external sign by water and the word.

(a) The effect of Baptism is regeneration, for it cleanses from sin and
penalty, and makes him who was a child of wrath to be a child of God
and a co-heir of Christ. Baptism also christens, since it seals one
with the indelible character of Christian, or member of the Church. As
all are under the original curse by birth from Adam, so all who would
inherit blessing are in need of this new birth through Christ (see
2661): “Unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he
cannot enter into the kingdom of God” (John, iii. 5).

(b) The material element (remote matter) of Baptism is water, that is,
any and every form of liquid which in common estimation is pure and
unchanged water (e.g., water taken from the ocean, from streams,
fountains, or wells; water melted from snow, ice or hail; water
gathered from steam, dew, or mist; chemical and mineral water). But
animal and plant fluids, though they contain water, are looked upon as
distinct substances, and hence Baptism cannot be administered with
milk, blood, spittle, sweat, oil, flower or fruit juices (e.g., wine,
cider), or extracts of barks or roots. Doubtful matter are liquids
that, while in large part composed of water, seem to be generally
regarded as not water (e.g., thin soup, tea or coffee, light beer); and
hence only in necessity can these be lawfully used for Baptism.

(c) The formal element of Baptism is the word or the formula appointed
by Christ. In the Latin Church the words are: “I baptize thee in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,” Almost
every word in this form is necessary for the sense given by Christ, and
hence almost any omission makes it necessary, or at least lawful, to
repeat Baptism (see 2655, 2682). The declaration of the form demands
that the application of the water (proximate matter) be made in the
manner of an ablution (i.e., by sprinkling, pouring or immersion). If
sprinkling or pouring is used, the body of the recipient (i.e., the
skin of his head) must be washed (i.e., the water must touch the head
and flow thereon) by the baptizer (i.e., the person who pronounces the
words must pour or sprinkle the water). But in case of necessity one
may use the opinion that Baptism is valid when the water touches only
the hair or some part distinct from the head, or even the afterbirth of
a fetus.

2687. Solemn and Private Baptism.--Though in essentials Baptism is but
one, it is distinguished in reference to accidental ceremony into
solemn and private.

(a) Solemn Baptism is that which is administered with all the rites
prescribed by the Liturgy. It requires consecrated water, sponsors and
special ceremonies; its minister is a clergyman (ordinarily the
parish-priest or Ordinary, extraordinarily a delegated deacon); its
place is the baptistery or church. In the Baptism of adults even
greater solemnity may be used, for there is a special rite of
administration, and the Church recommends that this Baptism be
performed when possible by the Ordinary, or at least in cathedral
churches, and on the vigil of Easter or Pentecost.

(b) Private Baptism is given in danger of death, or when an adult
convert is rebaptized conditionally (Canon 759). It requires only true
and natural water, though the water should be as clean and decent as
possible, and baptismal or blessed water is preferable; generally the
simple form without other rite suffices; sponsors are not necessary,
unless they can be had without difficulty, but if possible at least one
or two witnesses should be present; the Baptism may be given in the
private home or the hospital or other place where the candidate is
staying; anyone who has the use of reason and is able to perform the
rite may act as minister. When several persons suitable to minister
private Baptism are present, the order of preference to be followed is:
priest, deacon, subdeacon, cleric, layman, woman; but a woman should be
preferred to a man if modesty calls for this, or if the woman is better
acquainted with the manner of baptizing. It is considered a serious sin
needlessly to prefer a non-priest to a worthy priest, a non-Catholic to
a Catholic, an outsider to the parish-priest. If possible, parents
should not baptize their own children, since it is more becoming that
the spiritual parent and the carnal parent be different persons.

2688. Duties of Parish-Priests as to Baptism.--(a) Before
Baptism.--Baptismal water should be blessed, added to or renewed, as
the ritual regulations of one’s place require; the faithful should be
frequently admonished in sermons of the serious duty of having their
infants baptized as soon as possible (Canon 770); the people should
also be told (especially midwives, physicians and surgeons) how lay
Baptism is to be given validly (Canon 743).

(b) At the Time of Baptism.--Converts preparing for Baptism should be
well instructed in the principal religious truths (viz, those contained
in the Creed), and precepts (viz., the laws of the Decalogue and of the
Church, see 914 sqq.), and prayers (viz, the Our Father, the acts of
faith, hope, charity, and contrition); and they should learn the nature
and effects of Baptism. The parish-priest may delegate a deacon to
baptize solemnly in his place, if there is a sufficient reason, as when
he himself is impeded by sickness, absence, or occupation (Canon 741).

(c) After Baptism.--The pastor in virtue of his office has the
responsibility of attending to the registration of baptisms in the
proper book (Canon 777). The registration should be made without
delay--that is, before the sponsors have departed, or immediately after
the ceremony, or at least on the same day, if possible; the entry
should be made accurately and legibly. The duty of keeping proper
baptismal records is considered grave, since important evils would
follow on their neglect.

2689. Duties of Parents and Guardians in Reference to Baptism.--(a) As
to Administration of Baptism.--Parents are obliged under grave sin not
to expose their children to the loss of salvation by undue delay of
Baptism (see 2344, 2630). If there is danger of death, a child must be
baptized at once; if there is no immediate danger of death, the child
must nevertheless, on account of the absolute necessity of Baptism, be
baptized as soon as possible. Some moralists consider a needless delay
gravely sinful if it exceeds three or four days; others, if it exceeds
ten or eleven days. Since infants can be baptized in the womb, a mother
is not obliged to undergo the Caesarean operation to ensure Baptism;
but she may permit the operation for the sake of a more certain
Baptism, unless her obligations to husband or other children will
suffer on account of the danger to her life. If a mother dies in
pregnancy, the fetus should be extracted and baptized. The duty here
rests with the relatives and the physician (Canon 746).

(b) As to Details of Baptism.--Parents should choose suitable names for
their children, avoiding such as are obscene, ridiculous, or impious.
It is advisable that the name of a Saint or of some other person
distinguished for holiness be chosen, for this will be of a spiritual
advantage to the child and an edification to others. Parents have the
right to appoint the sponsors of their infant children, and should
choose only those who are canonically admissible. If Baptism has been
administered at home, the parents should, if the child survives, bring
it as soon as possible to the church for conditional Baptism, or for
the baptismal ceremonies (Canons 759, 760).

2690. Sponsors.--From early times the Church has required in Baptism
the use of sponsors, and the reasons for this usage will appear from
the duties of these god-parents. The present law (Canons 762 sqq.)
retains the ancient tradition, and prescribes as a serious duty that in
Solemn Baptism (even of adults, whenever possible) there shall be at
least one sponsor (male or female), and that not more than two be used,
one a male and the other a female.

(a) Requirements for Validity--Since the sponsor takes obligations, he
must have the use of reason and give consent to the office; since he is
charged with the duty of spiritual guidance, he must be baptized and
not be a member of a heretical or schismatic sect; since he exercises
an office of honor, he must not be under the displeasure of the Church
by sentence of excommunication or the like; since he is to act as
spiritual father, he must not be the parent or spouse of the baptized;
since he is to stand for the baptized person, he must be designated by
the latter or his parents or by the minister. The sponsor must also
indicate (in person or by proxy) his acceptance of the care of the
baptized person by physically touching him at the moment of Baptism
(either by holding the infant over the font, or by placing a hand on
the candidate), or immediately after the Baptism (by raising from the
waters or receiving from the hands of the minister the one who has been
immersed, or by taking from the font one who has been baptized by
pouring). Non-Catholics, therefore, may not be sponsors, but to avoid
great offense or other serious evil they may sometimes be admitted as
witnesses or honorary sponsors (see 956 sqq.).

(b) Requirements for Lawfulness.--The sponsor should have reached his
fourteenth year (unless the minister sees fit for a just cause to admit
a younger person), and should know the rudiments of faith; he must be a
person of respectability among Catholics, and hence one who is
notorious on account of certain penalties or on account of crime or of
membership in the Freemasons is not acceptable; he must be free to act
as sponsor, and hence religious and clerics in Major Orders must have
permission of the superior qualified in each instance to grant this
permission.

2691. Duties of Sponsors.--(a) They are obliged to look upon their
spiritual children as their perpetual charges, to see to their
Christian education and to the fulfillment of the baptismal promises
for which they stood surety (Canon 769).

(b) These obligations are grave, since the matter is grave; but, as the
care of children falls principally upon the parents, it is only when
the parents neglect their duty that the sponsors are held to do what
they can for the instruction and correction of their god-children
(Catechism of Council of Trent, page 175).

2692. Duties of Adult Recipients of Baptism or of Those Who Have the
Use of Reason.--(a) Before Baptism.--An unbaptized person who has faith
and who sees the necessity of Baptism, is gravely obliged to ask for
Baptism at once, if he is in danger of death, or as soon as he
conveniently can, if he is not in danger of death; for since Baptism is
the divinely appointed means of entering the Church and of sharing in
its privileges, he who would delay it unduly would disobey an important
command of God and would be seriously neglectful of his own salvation.
For a sufficient reason, however (e.g., for the sake of instruction or
probation, or to avoid persecution), Baptism may be delayed even for
years; but the catechumen should then make at once an act of contrition
or charity so as to obtain the benefit of Baptism of desire. Converts
should prepare for Baptism by taking a course of instructions, or, when
there is danger of death, a summary instruction (791 sqq.).

(b) At Baptism.--The internal dispositions include, besides intention,
faith and repentance: “He that believeth and is baptized shall be
saved” (Mark, xvi. 16); “Do penance and be baptized” (Acts, ii. 38).
There must be an explicit faith in the four chief mysteries (see 789).
In this country converts who are being baptized conditionally make an
abjuration and profession of faith before Baptism, and go to confession
and receive conditional absolution after Baptism. The Code recommends
that those who are well receive Baptism fasting; and that, unless grave
reason excuses, the neophyte assist at Mass and receive Communion after
his Baptism (Canon 753).

(c) After Baptism.--Since Baptism makes one a member of the Church,
those who receive it are subject to church laws. The promises made in
Baptism are not strictly vows, but an engagement of loyalty to the
faith and the commandments (see 2191).

2693. Duties of the Minister of Baptism.--(a) In Reference to the
Parents.--If the parents insist on giving an unsuitable name to their
child, the pastor should silently add a suitable name of some Saint
chosen by himself, and should inscribe both names in the register
(Canon 761). A child of non-Catholic parents should not be baptized by
Catholics, unless this can be done without injury to the natural right
of the parents of training their own children and without danger to the
future perseverance of the child. Hence these children, if infants,
should not be baptized against the will of their parents unless they
are in danger of death and can be baptized without too great
inconvenience; but if a child is able to judge for himself, or if there
is no parental opposition (at least not of both parents), and there are
good reasons to believe that the child will be brought up as a
Catholic, he may be baptized (Canons 750, 751).

(b) In Reference to the Sponsors.--If a sponsor cannot be admitted, the
pastor must use great kindness and prudence, so as not to give offense.
If a non-Catholic has been appointed as sponsor, the difficulty may
sometimes be overcome by naming a sacristan or servant as sponsor and
permitting the non-Catholic to act as witness.

(c) In Reference to the Capacity of the Recipient.--The minister must
give the Sacrament only to those who are capable. Hence, he cannot
baptize what is not human (e.g., uterine growths which do not pertain
to a fetus), or not living (e.g., a stillborn infant), or not
unbaptized (e.g., a convert or an infant about whose valid Baptism
there is no reasonable doubt). Speculatively there is some difficulty
about Baptism of unborn fetuses, of abortive fetuses, and of
monstrosities (e.g., an infant with two heads or two hearts). For, as
to the first, it seems that the physically unborn are incapable of
spiritual rebirth; as to the second, it seems that the soul of an
undeveloped fetus may be sub-human; and, as to the third, it may be
doubtful whether a monstrosity is one individual or several
individuals. Practically, however, one should proceed on the principle
that the Sacraments are for men, and give the benefit of a doubt to the
infants by conditional Baptism. Intra-uterine Baptism should not be
used except in case of urgent necessity, and it is then permissible to
employ a mixture of one part of chloride of mercury with two parts of
water to avoid infection. Midwives, nurses, mothers, and physicians
should be especially careful to baptize abortive fetuses, and should
know how this can be done (see Commentaries on Canons 746-748).

(d) In Reference to the Willingness of the Recipient.--An infant is not
required to will the Sacrament, and hence the perpetually insane, who
are unable to distinguish between right and wrong, may be baptized
without any desire on their part. But an adult must intend to be
baptized (see 2671 b). Hence, the minister must inquire about the
wishes of an adult candidate, If an unbaptized person is now out of his
mind (insane, afflicted with lethargy or sleeping sickness, delirious),
but formerly had the use of reason, he is classed with adults, and his
intention has to be considered. He should not be baptized, therefore,
until he comes to himself, unless there is danger of death and signs of
a desire to receive Baptism were given before (Canons 745, 754).

(e) In Reference to the Worthiness of the Recipient.--The minister
should remind the candidate of the duty of attrition. If the person who
asks for Baptism wishes to retain certain habits (e.g., superstition,
concubinage, or unlawful business) which cannot be reconciled with
Christianity, he cannot be regarded as suited for Baptism. But in
danger of death good faith should not be uselessly disturbed.

(f) In Reference to the Pastor.--Solemn Baptism either in or out of
one’s territory may not be given without permission from the proper
pastor who has jurisdiction (Canons 738-740). And a minister who is not
the pastor of the baptized person must send notice of the Baptism to
the pastor, as soon as possible, if the latter was not present (Canon
778).

(g) In Reference to Himself and the Sacrament.--The minister should
inform himself, if necessary, about the existence or validity of a
previous Baptism, and he should observe the ceremonies, essential and
accidental, of his Rite. Foundlings should be baptized conditionally,
unless it is certain that they have been already baptized validly
(Canon 749). The internal dispositions of intention and state of grace
are necessary, while for baptism of adults fasting is advisable (Canon
753).

2694. The Sacrament of Confirmation.--Next to Baptism, not in necessity
or dignity but in likeness and in time, is Confirmation; for
Confirmation completes the work begun in Baptism, and it is also
frequently received immediately or next after Baptism. It may be
defined as “the Sacrament in which through the anointing with chrism
and the prayer of the bishop a baptized person is perfected and
strengthened in the grace received and signed indelibly with the
character of soldier of Jesus Christ.”

(a) The element of the Sacrament (remote matter) is chrism, that is, a
mixture of olive oil and balsam specially blessed by the bishop and
applied (proximate matter) by an anointing and the imposition of hands
on the forehead of the recipient. The law of the Church requires that
the chrism be new (i.e., made at the last previous consecration of
oils), and that the anointing be made with the right thumb in the form
of a cross.

(b) The form of Confirmation in the Latin Church is as follows: “I sign
thee with the sign of the cross, and I confirm thee with the chrism of
salvation in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Ghost.”

2695. The Minister of Confirmation.--(a) Qualifications.--The ordinary
minister of this Sacrament is only the bishop; but a priest may act as
extraordinary minister, either from the common law (viz., Cardinals,
Abbots, etc.), or from special indult (Canon 782). The bishop may
confirm outsiders in his own diocese, unless their own Ordinary
forbids, and with permission he may confirm outside his diocese (Canon
783). Since January 1, 1947, by force of the decree of the Congregation
of the Discipline of the Sacraments (_Spiritus Sanctus_) the following
were established as extraordinary ministers within the limits of their
territories and for subjects in danger of death.

1) “pastors having their own territories, therefore excluding personal
and family pastors, unless they have also their own territory.” Under
this heading are included secular and religious pastors. It is to be
noted that, since national parishes in the United States are assigned a
definite territory, pastors of such parishes enjoy the privilege of
this decree. Pastors of Negro and Indian parishes, even if they are
considered to be personal pastors, may be included, for the
jurisdiction is both personal and territorial. Military chaplains can
not confirm in virtue of this decree.

2) “the vicars spoken of in Canon 471, and also parochial
administrators (_vicarii oeconomi_).” The first group are canonically
innominate and authors adopt various titles for the personages
involved. However, the reference is always to the priests placed in
actual charge of _cura animarum_ in parishes which have been fully
incorporated. The second group mentioned are the _vicarii oeconomi_,
priests appointed canonically as administrators of vacant parishes (see
Canons 472, n.1; 473,1). All other vicars lack the power, namely, the
Diocesan Administrator (_vicarius capitularis_), Vicar General,
_Vicarius Substitutus_ (priest who takes place of absent pastor),
_Vicarius Adjutor_ (assists a disabled pastor), _Vicarius Cooperator_
(curate), those who according to Canon 472, n.2, take temporary charge
of a vacant parish prior to appointment of a true administrator,
chaplains of schools, hospitals, and other charitable institutions (by
rescript of Nov. 18, 1948, the faculty was extended also to chaplains
of maternity hospitals and foundling homes in the United States, and
this faculty is renewable), the seminary rector, religious superiors
even in exempt communities.

3) “priests to whom is entrusted exclusively and permanently within a
definite territory, and with a definite church, the complete care of
souls together with the rights and duties of pastors.” Such territorial
arrangements are not common in the United States. The reference may
be to priests established as quasi-pastors in Canon 216, Sec.3 (hence
pastors in missionary territory and prefectures), episcopal delegates
to the territories later to be erected as parishes or to maintain
the status of a perpetual vicarage. Perhaps the reference is only to
special arrangements made by particular diocesan laws.

(b) Duties.--The ordinary minister of this Sacrament should confer
it when his subjects reasonably request it, and the Ordinary should
see that the Sacrament is administered to his people, if possible, at
least every five years (Canon 785). It would be unreasonable, however,
to expect a bishop to go to every sick or dying person who desires
Confirmation, as the Sacrament is not necessary for salvation and the
task would be morally impossible, The Sacrament should be performed
validly, worthily, and rubrically. When Confirmation is given, fasting
is of counsel, not of precept. The use of a sponsor in Confirmation
seems to be a grave obligation, when possible. A recipient can have but
one sponsor, and a sponsor can act for only one or two confirmandi,
unless it appear to the minister that there is sufficient reason to
have a sponsor act for more (Canon 794). The pastor of the recipient,
if he is unaware of the Confirmation, should be notified as soon as
possible (Canon 799).

(c) Various prescriptions, some of them subjects of special study,
are attendant upon the grant of power to confirm to pastors and
“equivalent pastors.” The major ones are summarily stated here. The
pastor obtains this power when he acquires the office. It lasts as
long as he holds office. The exercise of his power becomes unlawful if
he falls under censure; in certain cases it may then even be invalid.
Theologians disagree as to the precise nature of the power, whether
it be of orders, of jurisdiction, of both, an intrinsic or extrinsic
modification of orders, etc. The common opinion holds that it is solely
a power of orders. Hence, Canon 209 may not be safely used here, and
an ordinary assistant who attempts to confirm would not fall under any
irregularity; a pastor, however, might, by misuse of his power, be not
only deprived of it, but be placed under an irregularity. Use of the
power is not dependent on the permission of the local Ordinary. It may
be necessary to inquire however, whether the bishop wishes to confirm
in particular cases. Episcopal instructions on this matter must be
complied with.

(d) Subjects of the Extraordinary Minister. The decree, _Spiritus
Sanctus_, in its second rule lays down a condition for the valid
administration of Confirmation by the extraordinary minister and
determines the proper subject. The new faculty is strictly personal
(hence it may not be delegated to others) and strictly territorial
(hence the administration must take place within the confines of the
minister’s district and therein extends even to exempt places). The
recipient must be “in real danger of death because of a serious illness
from which it is foreseen that he will die.”

Before treating the illness established as a condition for validity,
other conditions of the subject must be considered. The decree
describes the proper recipient as _fidelis_ in two places. The question
has been discussed whether this limits the subjects to Catholics and
excludes validly baptized Protestants. Authors are not agreed. Perhaps,
since the extraordinary minister can act only within the powers given
him in the decree, he would have to interpret _fidelis_ as extending
solely to Catholics. On May 1, 1948, the Congregation for the Oriental
Church issued a grant of powers to the Latin extraordinary ministers
to confer Confirmation under the same conditions to Catholics of the
Oriental rite who live under the jurisdiction of a Latin Ordinary,
who are in the territory of the Latin pastor and whose rite has no
established parish or mission in the locality. (This grant of power
was previously impossible by virtue of Canon 782, Sec.4.) In emergency
cases there would be no need to await the arrival of the proper pastor.
Since Ruthenian Catholics are not under the Latin Ordinaries in this
country, it seems that the decree might not extend to them. The point
is disputed, but it would be imprudent to act on the opinion that the
Ruthenians are included until the question is officially settled. The
recipient need not be a permanent resident in the territory by reason
of domicile or quasi-domicile; physical presence suffices.

The final condition of dangerous sickness is similar to the one in
Extreme Unction; it must arise from an intrinsic cause, not from an
extrinsic cause. and includes not only sickness, but also wounds and
accident cases. The decree speaks of the subject in “_vero mortis
periculo_.” Some thought that the wording distinguished the sickness
from mere “_periculo” mortis_, and hence must be certain, not doubtful
or probable. In response to the Cardinal of Palermo, on March 6,
1947, the Congregation of the Sacraments favored the opinion that the
norms for “_urgente mortis periculo_” (Canons 1043, 1044, 1046) are
applicable. As a rule of thumb, many authors propose: if the sickness
permits the administration of Extreme Unction, it also justifies the
giving of Confirmation in accordance with the terms of the decree.

2696. The Recipient of Confirmation.--(a) Qualifications.--The subject
of this Sacrament is only a baptized person, and in adults intention
is necessary. The general custom in the Latin Church is not to confirm
before the seventh year, or thereabout, has been attained; but the
Sacrament may be given even earlier, if an infant is in danger of
death, or if there seems to the minister to be a just and grave
reason for confirming one under seven years of age (Canon 788). Those
who have the use of reason should not be admitted to Confirmation
without previous instruction on the nature of the Sacrament and the
requirements for its proper reception.

(b) Duties.--There is an obligation to receive this Sacrament when one
has the opportunity (Canon 787); but apart from scandal, contempt,
or danger to salvation the obligation seems light. Hence, if a
person advanced in years is ashamed to receive Confirmation with the
children, he should be advised but not reproved; nor should he be
denied absolution as if he were certainly guilty of serious fault. The
recipient should be in the state of grace, and it is advisable that he
go to confession beforehand if he have serious sin on his conscience.
Though not necessary, it is more suitable that the recipient be
fasting. A new name may be taken in Confirmation, and it is proper that
those whose baptismal name is unsuitable should either have it changed
at this time or add the name of a Saint. Those who are being confirmed
should be present for the entire ceremony (Canon 789).

2697. The Sponsors in Confirmation.--(a) Qualifications.--The
requirements for validity are, _mutatis mutandis_, practically the same
as for baptismal sponsorship. Thus, the sponsor must be designated by
the parents or the candidate, or, in default of them, by the pastor or
minister; he must not be the parent or spouse of the confirmandus; he
must physically touch the confirmandus at the moment of Confirmation.
Further, it is required that the sponsor be already confirmed himself.
The requirements for licitness are the same as for Baptism, and
moreover, as a rule, the sponsor at Confirmation should be of the
same sex as the recipient and be different from the baptismal sponsor
(Canons 795, 796).

(b) Duties.--The godfather at Confirmation contracts a lifelong
spiritual relationship with his godchild (which does not constitute a
matrimonial impediment). The latter should have a special place in his
prayers according to the order of charity, and, if necessity arises,
should receive his protection and assistance in spiritual matters
(Canon 797).

2698. Duties of the Pastor in Reference to Confirmation.--(a) The
pastor should instruct his people on the nature and advantages of
Confirmation and should see to it that they receive the Sacrament in
due time (Canon 787). He should also instruct his parishioners about
the terms of _Spiritus Sanctus_. His power as extraordinary minister
imposes an obligation _per se_ grave to use it when the cases arise;
excusing causes, however, are possible, and neglect in a single case
would be only venial. At appointed times each year he should hold a
continuous course of instructions over a period of several days in
order to prepare the classes of children for the proper reception of
Confirmation (Canon 1300).

(b) The pastor should see that the Confirmations of his parishioners
are entered in a special book of record, and should also note in the
baptismal register the fact of Confirmation (Canons 798, 470, n. 2).

2699. The Sacrament of the Eucharist.--This is the chief Sacrament,
for, while the other Sacraments produce the grace or the grace and the
character of Christ, this one contains Christ Himself; and, while the
other Sacraments are means that prepare man to consecrate or to receive
the Eucharist or at least symbolize it, the Eucharist is the end of
them all. The Eucharist may be defined as follows: “The body and blood
of our Lord Jesus Christ present through the words of consecration
under the appearances of bread and wine to be offered to God and to
be received by man.” Thus, we may distinguish various aspects of the
Eucharist.

(a) It is a sacrifice, since the Mass is the supreme act of worship and
is one with the sacrifice of the cross (see 2178 sqq.).

(b) It is a permanent Sacrament, since unlike the other Sacraments
it does not consist in the passing application of a sacred sign to a
recipient, but in the abiding presence of a thing absolutely sacred
contained under sensible forms.

(c) It may be considered in its passing phases of beginning, in which
it is consecrated by the priest (performance of the Sacrament), and
termination, in which it is received by the communicant (application,
dispensation of the Sacrament).

2700. The Matter and Form of the Eucharist.--Since the essence of a
Sacrament is found in the outward sign, it is commonly held that the
Sacrament of the Eucharist consists in the species of bread and wine as
signifying the body and blood of the Saviour, which is really, truly
and substantially contained under them.

(a) The matter of the first consecration is that which Christ used,
namely, bread. The bread must be true bread in the strict and usual
Scriptural sense of the word. Hence, for validity it is necessary that
it be made from wheat flour (bread made from beans, peas or other
legumes, bread made from non-wheaten cereals such as corn, oats,
and probably also rye and barley, is not valid matter); that the
flour be mixed with water (bread made from a notable quantity, i.e.,
about one-third of other liquid, such as milk, oil, wine, is invalid
matter); further, that the mixture be sufficiently baked (dough or
half-baked cakes are invalid matter). The bread must be entire and
not substantially adulterated or changed; hence, bread from which all
the gluten has been abstracted, bread to which a notable amount of
foreign substance (such as sugar or non-wheaten flour) has been added,
bread so old that it has corrupted, cannot be consecrated. Accidental
qualities do not affect validity, and hence any kind of wheat may be
used (hard, soft, red, or white). But the church law strictly requires
that a priest observe the tradition of his own Church (i.e., among
Latins the bread must be unleavened and the host round), and that all
consecrated matter be new (i.e., not baked more than fourteen days, or,
according to others, twenty or forty days), clean, and unbroken. The
small particles for the laity should be about one inch in diameter, the
large hosts about two or three inches; and all altar breads should be
of moderate thickness.

(b) The matter of the second consecration is likewise that appointed by
Christ at the Last Supper, namely, wine. Only wine strictly so called
according to Scriptural and common usage is valid matter. Hence, the
Eucharistic wine must be made from grapes, and consequently cherry
wine, currant wine, peach wine, blackberry wine, cider, wild grape
wine, artificial wine, etc., are insufficient; the grapes must be
ripe, and verjuice is therefore invalid matter. The wine must also be
entire, unadulterated, and uncorrupted; and hence wine from which all
the alcohol has been removed, brandy or cognac (i.e., spirits distilled
from wine), wine to which a notable quantity of water, tartaric acid,
sugar, alcohol or other substance has been added, and wine which has
become vinegar, are not fit matter for the Sacrament. Accidental
qualities are of no importance to validity, and hence the wine may be
red or white, dry or sweet; it may be made either from ripe or dry
grapes (raisin wine); and the Church permits the fortification of weak
wine by a process of heating that does not prevent fermentation, or
by the addition when fermentation has begun to subside of grape or
wine alcohol on condition that the final alcoholic strength does not
exceed 12%, or in some cases, if the wine possessed so much, 17% or
18%. But the church law strictly requires for licit matter that wine be
fermented, though must or new wine is permissible in case of necessity,
if it have about 5% alcohol; that it be neither souring nor frozen, nor
mixed with substances added for the sake of aroma, color or sweetness,
nor with water poured in before Mass. The tradition and law of the
Church, based on the example of Christ, make it a grave obligation that
a few drops of water be added to the wine at the altar, but, if the
water equals a third part of the wine, the matter becomes of doubtful
sufficiency.

(c) The form is contained essentially in the words of consecration
used by Christ at the institution of the Eucharist, namely, “_Hoc est
corpus meum_” over the bread, and “_Hic est calix sanguinis mei_” over
the wine. But a grave precept of the Church requires that all the other
principal words of the consecration be pronounced (i.e., the “_novi et
aeterni testamenti_, etc.,” the “_Haec quotiescumque_, etc.,” the “_Qui
pridie_,” the “_Simili modo_”). The omission of the particle “_enim_”
would be only venially sinful.

2701. The Minister of Consecration.--(a) Qualifications.--Every priest
and only a priest can consecrate validly, for only to the Apostles and
their successors in the priesthood were spoken the words of Christ: “Do
this in commemoration of Me.” But only those priests can consecrate
lawfully who have the faculty of celebrating Mass (see 2709).

(b) Duties as regards Valid Consecration.--Internally, there must be
the intention (actual or virtual) of acting in the name of Christ,
and of effecting what the words of consecration signify; and hence a
merely narrative recitation of the form is insufficient. This actual
or virtual intention must also determine the individual matter to be
consecrated, and hence a host placed on the corporal is not consecrated
if the priest neither saw it nor took it up for consecration. Small
crumbs in the ciborium and small drops of wine on the inner side of the
chalice are consecrated, unless excluded by the priest’s intention;
but drops of wine on the outside of the chalice should be considered
unconsecrated, since it is unlawful to consecrate what is not contained
in the chalice.

Externally, bread and wine must be physically present to the priest,
that is, so within his reach or range that according to human usage
they can be correctly designated by the demonstrative pronoun “this”
used in the form. Accordingly, they must be near the minister; how
near cannot be mathematically defined, and authors variously assign
about ten, twenty, thirty, forty and fifty paces as the extreme limit.
Again, the bread and wine must not be separated from the minister by
any dividing partition, such as a wall, or the altar, or perhaps even
the closed door of the tabernacle, though a closed container (such as
a covered ciborium or chalice) would not put the matter away from the
minister’s presence. Finally, they must not be behind the minister’s
back, and, even if they are before him but hidden (e.g., hosts under
the corporal or chalice), the consecration is doubtful.

(c) Duties as regards Lawful Consecration.--Internally, there must be
the state of grace, which the divine law prescribes, Further, one who
is conscious of grave sin certainly committed and certainly unconfessed
(unless inculpably omitted in confession) must go to confession
beforehand, unless there be need to celebrate at once (e.g., because
otherwise there will be no parochial Mass on a day of precept, or
because grave scandal or defamation will result, or a dying person will
be deprived of the Viaticum) and confession is impossible (i.e., there
is no confessor present who has jurisdiction, or who can be resorted to
without a serious inconvenience extrinsic to confession, and moreover
it is very difficult on account of distance, health, weather, or other
like reasons to go elsewhere to confession). Under these circumstances,
he may make an act of perfect contrition and then proceed to celebrate.
But one who has consecrated without confession because of such
necessity must go to confession as soon as possible--i.e., within three
days, or, if circumstances so require, earlier than that (e.g., if a
confessor can be had the same day, but not again for a week) or later
(e.g., if a confessor cannot be had for a week). These rules about
confession are of grave obligation, from Church law at least (Canon
807). On account of disrespect, it seems that grave sin is committed
when the celebrant is voluntarily and advertently distracted during
consecration, but he should not repeat the form unless it is certain or
very probable that something essential has been omitted. Externally,
consecration must be made only during Mass, both species must be
consecrated, a larger quantity must not be consecrated than can be
conveniently used, the matter at the moment of consecration must rest
on the corporal and above the stone of the altar, and a ciborium must
be uncovered while its bread is being consecrated.

2702. Inadvertent Neglect of Grave Liturgical Precept.--Is the
consecration valid when the minister inadvertently neglects some grave
liturgical precept as to the matter or manner of consecration?

(a) Some authors reply in the negative, because they feel that
no priest has the will to consecrate in a way forbidden by the
Church under pain of grave sin. According to this opinion, then, if
accidentally no water were placed in the chalice, or if the chalice
were unconsecrated, or if the ciborium were left off the corporal, the
consecration would be invalid.

(b) Other authors distinguish as follows: if the celebrant intended not
to consecrate with a material breach of grave liturgical prescription,
the consecration would be null; if the celebrant had only the intention
to consecrate all valid matter before him, the consecration would be
valid. This latter intention, it seems, should be formed by all priests
once for all, since it ensures the validity of their consecrations and
is not sinful, as it does not aim to violate the rubrics, but only to
provide for exceptional cases when a rubric is unintentionally violated.

2703. The Minister of Communion.--(a) Qualifications.--The ordinary
minister of Communion is a priest, the extraordinary minister a deacon.
Pastors and other priests to whose custody the Blessed Sacrament
is entrusted have the right to give Communion, and others also who
have express or presumed permission. The celebrant of Mass may give
Communion during his Mass, and, if Mass is private, just before and
just after it. A sick priest who is unable to say Mass may communicate
himself, at least when there is no other minister at hand; and even
a layman may, in the absence of a major cleric, give himself the
Viaticum, or consume the Host to save it from profanation (Canons
845-850).

(b) Duties.--Internally, the minister is bound _sub levi_ to be in
the state of grace, and _sub gravi_ to be free from censures (such as
suspension) which forbid him the exercise of the ministry. Externally,
he must observe the church laws on the manner, time and place for
distribution of the Sacrament (Canons 851, 852, 867-869), and also
the liturgical rules for Communion during and outside of Mass, for
Communion of the sick and the dying, and for the avoidance of defects
in giving Communion (Rituale Rom., Tit. IV; Missale Rom., de defectibus
Missae).

2704. The Recipient of the Eucharist.--(a) Those Who May Receive
Communion.--According to divine law, every living person who has
received Baptism of water is capable of receiving the Eucharist,
infants and the insane not excluded. Ecclesiastical law requires other
conditions, which are justified by considerations of respect for the
Blessed Sacrament or other good reason. Communion may not be given,
first, to those who have not the use of reason (i.e., to infants and
the perpetually insane), nor to those who are unable to understand the
essential truths of religion and morality (i.e., to those who have
always been deaf and dumb or blind, and who are uninstructed); for, on
the one hand, the Sacrament is not necessary for these persons, and,
on the other hand, there is great danger of irreverence if it be given
them. Secondly, Communion may not be given to those who cannot receive
without grave peril of unbecoming treatment of the Sacrament, as in
the case of those who cough or vomit continually or frequently, or of
those who are delirious, or unconscious, or insane, But if the danger
is certainly slight (e.g., if the person can swallow an unconsecrated
host without spitting it out), Communion may be given, at least the
Viaticum or Easter Communion. Next those persons are denied Communion
who cannot receive without scandal (e.g., those who are infamous, such
as prostitutes or defamers, persons intoxicated or insufficiently
dressed). Finally, no one may receive Communion who has already
received it that day, lest the Sacrament become common and be taken
without due preparation; but exception is made when it is necessary
to communicate a second time in order to comply with the divine law
of receiving Viaticum or of saving the Host from profanation (Canons
853-858).

(b) Those Who Must Receive Communion.--There is a divine precept that
adults receive the Eucharist worthily (John, vi. 54). It obliges _per
se_, when one is certainly or almost certainly in proximate danger of
death, unless one has recently (that is, according to some, within a
week’s time) received Communion; for this Sacrament is the wayfarer’s
provision for his journey to eternity. It obliges also now and then
during life, since the Eucharist is man’s spiritual nourishment for
the journey of life. It obliges _per accidens_, when Communion is
necessary to avoid grave sin, for charity to self obliges one to use
the means without which serious spiritual harm cannot be escaped. The
church law determines the details for the fulfillment of the divine
precept. All the faithful who have reached the age of reason, even
though they be under seven years, must fulfill the yearly Easter duty
(see 2592, 2593). In reference to First Communion, the Church requires
that children who are not in danger of death must have a mental and
moral fitness, consisting in a knowledge of the chief mysteries of
faith and a devotion towards the Eucharist such as is possible at their
time of life. In reference to the last Communion, or Viaticum, the Code
declares that it is obligatory, no matter what be the cause of the
danger of death; it reminds us that the duty should not be put off too
long; it recommends that the Viaticum be administered even to those who
had communicated the same day before the danger of death arose, and
that it be given on distinct days during the danger. For children who
are in danger of death it suffices that they are able to distinguish
the Eucharist from ordinary food and to adore it reverently (Canons
859-865, 854).

2705. Dispositions for Worthy Communion.--(a) Dispositions of
Soul.--The divine law requires the state of grace (I Cor., xi. 27
sqq.), and probably also the previous sacramental confession which the
Church prescribes _sub gravi_ for one who is conscious of serious sin
not yet remitted through absolution. But he is excused from the duty
of previous confession who cannot omit Communion now (e.g., because
while at the rails he remembers a grave sin and cannot leave without
being disgraced) and who is unable to go to confession (see 2701 c).
The recipient must also have a knowledge of the Sacrament suited to
his mental capacity, and he must desire it, at least habitually. Since
the Sacraments are fruitful in proportion to the cooperation given
them, and since the presence and visit of Christ deserves honor and
recognition, Communion should be received devoutly, and should be
preceded by a preparation and followed by a thanksgiving (Canons 856,
731). The faithful may receive in any Rite, but their own Rite is
advised for Easter Communion and strongly urged for the Viaticum (Canon
866).

(b) Dispositions of Body.--The communicant must observe the Eucharistic
fast and must conduct himself with external reverence.

By ecclesiastical law a person is bound to the fasting from midnight
to receive the Holy Eucharist lawfully (Canons 808, 858). Despite the
changes made by the Apostolic Constitution, _Christus Dominus_ (Jan.
16, 1953) and the _Motu Proprio, “Sacram Communionem_” (Mar. 19, 1957),
priests and the faithful who are able to do so are exhorted to observe
this venerable and ancient form of Eucharistic fast before Mass or
Holy Communion. The legislation of these two papal documents, intended
to increase devotion to the Blessed Sacrament by fostering frequent
Communion, decrees:

1) that natural water does not break the fast;

2) that the period for observing the Eucharist fast before Mass,
at whatever hour it may be said (morning, afternoon, midnight), is
three hours from solid food and alcoholic beverages, and one hour
from non-alcoholic beverages. The priest who is to celebrate computes
his time from the beginning of Mass; the faithful, from the time of
Communion;

3) that the sick, although not confined to bed, may consume
non-alcoholic beverages and real and appropriate medicines, liquid or
solid, without any restriction of time.

The Eucharistic fast is based on primitive tradition and is enjoined by
the Church as a grave obligation that admits of no lightness of matter.
The fast is violated by the smallest portion of food or alcoholic
drink. Food is any solid which the physician considers digestible or
alterable by the stomach, and hence the fast is not broken if wood,
string, paper, hairs or fingernails are swallowed. But the food or
drink must be eaten or drunk, that is, it must come from outside the
mouth and be taken into the stomach in the way of consumption, and
hence the fast is not broken by what comes from within the mouth (e.g.,
blood from the gums, food remaining in the teeth from the previous day)
or by what is taken into the stomach in the way of saliva (e.g., the
accidental remnants of a mouth wash or of a throat gargle, or spray,
or of a chew of tobacco or gum, when one has spit out the contents as
much as possible), or in the way of breathing (e.g., snuff, tobacco
smoke inhaled, an insect or a raindrop blown into the mouth). A solid,
like a caramel, however, which is dissolved in the mouth before it is
swallowed, can not be considered as a liquid. The liquid of the _Sacram
Communionem_ must be a liquid before it enters the mouth. (See “Some
Further Elucidations on Sacram Communionem” by Cardinal Ottaviani,
_American Ecclesiastical Review_, Vol. CXXXXVII, No, 2, August 1957, p.
74.)

The reasons that excuse from the Eucharist fast, in regard to solids or
alcoholic beverages, in lay Communion, are, in case of the well, the
good of the Sacrament (i.e., its preservation from profanation), or the
good of self (e.g., avoidance of serious disgrace, as when one who is
at the altar rail remembers only then that he is not fasting); in the
case of the ill, the danger of death (the Viaticum may be received even
daily after nourishment). The salt taken in Baptism does not break the
fast, and one who has a papal indult, which is granted for sufficient
reasons, may receive Communion when not fasting.

External reverence means that one should approach Communion with
cleanliness of body, respectability of dress, and modesty of behavior.
No one is unfitted for Communion because of inculpable unsightliness
(e.g., a sick man who has irremovable scars or deformities, a poor man
who cannot afford any but the simplest garb, a crippled person whose
gait is awkward). But unwashed hands and face, dirty mouth or teeth,
worn or torn dress, and the like, which one avoids elsewhere as
unsuited for human company, should be avoided when receiving the
Eucharist. Women immodestly dressed should be refused Communion, if
otherwise scandal will result (Canon 858).

2706. Frequent Communion.--What dispositions are required for frequent
Communion (i.e., Communion made several times a week) and daily
communion?

(a) The necessary dispositions are the same as for rare Communion,
namely, the state of grace and a right intention. Right intention means
positively that one have in view the ends that Christ intended when He
instituted the Sacrament, namely, that by means of Communion one may
please Him, may be more closely united to Him, and may receive a remedy
for one’s defects and infirmities. Those who receive devoutly have
these purposes at least implicitly, which suffices; but it would be a
serious sin wilfully to exclude all these ends. Right intention means
negatively that one must not frequent Communion merely from routine, or
from vanity, or from purely human motives, such as pecuniary profit or
advantage. If the true ends are not excluded, these improper motives do
not exceed a venial sin.

(b) Useful, but not necessary, dispositions are freedom from venial
sins, especially such as are deliberate, and freedom from affection for
venial sins.

2707. Duties of Parents, Pastors, Confessors in Reference to
Communion.--(a) Parents.--The obligation of the Easter duty for boys
under fourteen and for girls under twelve rests morally and juridically
upon the consciences of those who are charged with their care, namely,
parents, guardians, pastors, and confessors (see 2630, 2631). The
parents are the best judges of the mental development, moral
disposition and instruction of their children, and therefore of their
fitness for First Communion (Canons 860, 854, n. 4).

(b) Confessors.--The decision or counsel about the fitness of children
for First Communion, of penitents for frequent or daily Communion,
about the frequency of the Viaticum, is left by the Church to the
prudence of the confessor (Canons 860, 863, 864, 858, n.2).

(c) Pastors.--The Code prescribes that pastors be especially zealous in
the matter of holding Lenten classes for the instruction of children in
order that they may receive their First Communion worthily; it vests in
the pastor the duty of seeing that no child approaches First Communion
who has not the use of reason or proper dispositions, as well as of
seeing that those children who are fit receive Communion without delay;
it also requires that he provide for the fuller instruction in
Christian doctrine of children who have made their First Communion
(Canons 1330, 854, n. 5, 1331). Pastors should recommend to their
people the practices of frequent Communion and of worthy Communion at
every Mass they hear, and should take care that the dying receive the
Viaticum while they are in possession of their mental faculties (Canons
863, 865). On the duty of administering Communion see 2676.

2708. Reservation of the Blessed Sacrament.--Having considered the
duties owed to the consecration and communion of the Eucharist, we
shall conclude by mentioning those that are owed to the Sacrament in
its permanency or to Christ dwelling in the tabernacle.

(a) The Duty of Custody.--The Blessed Sacrament must be reserved in
cathedral, abbatial, parochial, and religious churches; and it may be
reserved with due permission of the Ordinary in collegiate churches and
in certain public oratories; but there must be someone in charge, and
it is not allowed to reserve the Eucharist in private homes or to carry
it about when travelling. Churches which have the Blessed Sacrament
should be open at least a few hours daily to the faithful. It is not
lawful to reserve the Sacrament habitually on more than one altar of
the church, and that altar should be the one that is most honorable or
most suited for worship, and it should be suitably decorated. The
tabernacle should be as precious as possible and be carefully guarded,
and the Hosts should be reserved inside in a solid pyx or ciborium.
Before the tabernacle should burn day and night a sanctuary lamp fed by
olive or other oil (Canons 1265-1271).

(b) The Duty of Renewal of the Hosts.--The consecrated species kept for
Communion and adoration should be frequently renewed, lest they be
corrupted. It would be a serious sin of irreverence to neglect this
duty for over one or two months, or even for a shorter time if the
danger of corruption is great on account of local conditions, such as
dampness (Canon 1272).

(c) The Duty of Worship.--Pastors and others in charge of religious
instruction should encourage devotion to the Eucharist, and especially
the practice of assistance at Mass even on weekdays and of visits to
the Blessed Sacrament. Benediction may be given frequently, and at
least once a year there should be held in every parish church the
Devotion of the Forty Hours, or at least some more solemn exposition of
the Blessed Sacrament for a number of hours (Canons 1273-1275).

2709. The Sacrifice of the Mass.--In the Eucharist is contained not
only a Sacrament which confers the grace of spiritual nutrition on its
recipients, but also a sacrifice which offers to God Christ’s oblation
as an act of adoration, thanksgiving, satisfaction and intercession. It
is this sacrifice--which is one with the sacrifice of the cross, though
offered unbloodily--that is known as the Mass. The chief persons who
have duties in reference to the Mass are the celebrant and the
assistants.

(a) The celebrant is the priest, who acts in the name and person of
Christ. To say Mass validly one must have the power of Orders conferred
in the presbyterate or priesthood, and must intend to consecrate (see
2701 b); to say Mass licitly one must be free from impediments which
debar from Mass, such as suspension or irregularity. Strange priests
who wish to say Mass are required to present a celebret or testimonial
letter to the rector of the church (Canon 804), without prejudice,
however, to their right to say Mass once or twice when they present
themselves in clerical garb and sign the visiting priest’s book.

(b) The assistants are all those who hear Mass. Their duties were
already explained in the question on the first precept of the Church
(2576 sqq.). We shall confine ourselves here, therefore, to the duties
of the celebrant.

2710. The Obligation of Saying Mass.--(a) The Obligation by reason of
Orders or Priesthood.--Divine law imposes on priests as a body a grave
obligation of celebrating Mass with such frequency that the memory of
Christ’s passion be kept alive, which is the purpose of the priesthood,
according to the words: “Do this in commemoration of Me.” Divine law
also imposes on each individual priest the obligation of saying Mass at
frequent intervals (i.e., at least, it would seem, on the greater
feasts and at dates not more than six months apart); for a priest is
ordained primarily to give glory to God and to impart blessings to man
by the Sacrifice of the Mass (Heb., v. 1). It seems, therefore, that a
priest receives grace in vain or neglects the sacrifice (II Cor., vi.
1, II Mach., iv. 14) if he omits Mass on the most solemn occasions of
the year when nearly all the faithful are accustomed to receive
Communion, or if he omits it for such a notable period as more than six
months. It seems that the sin is _per se_ venial, as being opposed to
fervor rather than to charity; but it may be mortal _per accidens_, as
when serious scandal is given. There is no sin, however, if a priest
has no opportunity to celebrate, or is lawfully impeded (e.g., on
account of humility, scrupulosity, illness, or censure). The law of the
Church recalls this obligation in Canon 805, and calls on bishops and
religious superiors to exhort their subjects to say Mass at least on
all Sundays and holydays. Daily Mass is quite customary today, and
there might be serious scandal if without reason Mass were said only
exceptionally.

(b) The Obligation by Reason of Special Offices or Duties.--Pastors are
bound to say or provide Mass for their people on days of obligation as
a duty of justice, and it seems on other days also as a duty of charity
if there is a great need or demand and no reasonable impediment. There
is an obligation of justice to celebrate Mass, if one has contracted to
do so; an obligation of fidelity, if one has freely promised; an
obligation of religion, if one has vowed; an obligation of obedience,
if one has been lawfully commanded by one’s superior.

2711. Dispositions for the Celebration of Mass.--(a) Dispositions of
Soul.--The celebrant must be in the state of grace, and must go to
confession before Mass if he has a serious sin on his conscience (see
2701 c). He must have the intention and attention which the validity of
the consecration requires (2701 b), and the reverence and devotion
which is due the prayers of the Mass (2153 sqq.), Voluntary and fully
deliberate distractions entertained for a considerable time during the
Canon seem to be seriously sinful. It is most suitable, though
apparently not commanded by the Church, that Matins and Lauds be said
before Mass. There is, however, a duty of religion and of charity to
self to make a suitable preparation and thanksgiving; but negligence
here is a light sin, unless there be contempt or serious scandal.
Fifteen minutes or a half-hour is recommended by ascetical writers, and
the prayers may be taken from those given in the Breviary and Missal,
Internal prayer, however, is more important than external recitation
(Canon 810).

(b) Dispositions of Body.--The Eucharistic or natural fast is of grave
obligation for the celebration of Mass (Canon 808). The only excuses
are necessity according to divine law or exemption by ecclesiastical
law. Necessity occurs when one must complete the sacrifice (e.g., when
after the Communion the priest notices that he consecrated one species
invalidly), or must avoid scandal (e.g., when a priest remembers after
going to the altar that he is not fasting), or must consecrate for the
Viaticum (e.g., when there is no consecrated host for a dying person).
Since the law is ecclesiastical, the Church could dispense for a grave
reason (e.g., to enable a sickly priest to say Masses on Sunday at
widely separated points of his missions). It is clear that the
celebration of Mass calls for cleanness of body, suitableness of dress,
neatness and rubrical correctness of vestments (Canon 811). The
omission of a principal vestment (i.e., blessed alb, stole or chasuble)
is a serious sin, except in grave necessity; the omission of minor
vestments (e.g., amice) is a venial sin, unless there is a just reason.
The color of the day is not gravely obligatory, except by reason of
scandal, and a good reason makes it lawful to use another color.

2712. Gravity of Regulations Concerning Circumstances of Mass.--Serious
disrespect or serious scandal is caused by disregard of important
regulations concerning the circumstances of the Mass. Hence, the
following rules oblige under grave sin, though exceptions are permitted
for cases of grave or very grave necessity.

(a) The Time of Mass.--Mass may not be said on Good Friday, nor private
Masses on Holy Thursday and Holy Saturday. Only one Mass may be said a
day, except on Christmas Day and All Souls’ Day, and on other days when
there is reason for bination or trination allowed by the Church.
Ordinarily the hour for beginning Mass should not be earlier than one
hour before dawn (i.e., in the latitude of New York from about 1:27
a.m. to 5:00 a.m., according to the season), nor later than one hour
after noon. But the time is to be understood morally, and it is not a
grave sin in being earlier or later than the times fixed, unless there
is a difference of an entire hour (e.g., if one began Mass at 2:00
p.m.) and not just excuse or dispensation. The Holy See has extended to
local Ordinaries the power to permit the daily celebration of Mass
after noon, if the spiritual good of a considerable number of the
faithful demands it (_Sacram Communionem_). The Holy See has also
granted permission to Ordinaries to allow the celebration of an evening
Mass on Palm Sunday accompanied by the blessing of palms and
procession. On Holy Thursday the Mass of the Lord’s Supper must be
celebrated at the most convenient hour, but not before 4:00 p.m. and
not after 9:00 p.m.; Ordinaries may grant permission for one or even
two low Masses (besides the principal Mass) to be celebrated in
churches and public oratories, and for one in semi-public oratories
within the same hours, 4:00-9:00 p.m. The proper hour for the Easter
Vigil is that which permits the Mass of the Easter Vigil to be started
around midnight. Permission may be granted to conduct the vigil at a
time not before sunset (Dispositions and Regulations concerning the
Holy Week Liturgy, Feb. 1, 1957, Sacred Congregation of Rites). One
Christmas may be said at midnight. It is a serious sin to say Mass in
less than a quarter of an hour, and a private Mass should not be
prolonged beyond a half-hour.

(b) Place.--Mass may not be celebrated regularly except in a church or
oratory that is at least blessed and is not polluted, execrated or
interdicted. It must be said on an altar, and it would be a serious
sin, except in grave or very grave necessity, to celebrate without at
least one altar cloth or one lighted wax candle, or without a rubrical
chalice, paten, or corporal (Canons 822, 823).

(c) Rites.--The principal rubrics of the Mass are gravely obligatory,
for example, to use an acolyte unless excused by dispensation or
necessity, to say each prayer of the Canon, and each part outside the
Canon that occurs in every Mass (e.g., the prayers at the foot of the
altar, the Gospel), to perform the main liturgical actions (e.g., the
Offertory, the breaking of the host, the purification of the chalice).
The secondary rubrics oblige under venial sin (see Canons 803, 812-819).

2713. Is it Lawful to Discontinue a Mass?--(a) To terminate Mass before
the end has been reached is unlawful unless there be a serious reason;
otherwise, disrespect is shown the Holy Sacrifice. A grave reason
(e.g., sudden sickness) suffices if Mass be discontinued before the
Consecration; a most grave reason (i.e., danger of death or of
profanation of the Sacrament) if Mass be discontinued between the
Consecration and the Communion. But a Mass that is broken off after the
Consecration and before the Communion must be completed by the
celebrant or another, at least if this can be done within an hour from
the time of cessation; else the sacrifice is mutilated.

(b) To interrupt Mass is also unlawful without serious cause. Thus, a
grave reason excuses an interruption outside the Canon, for example, to
preach a sermon after the Gospel or Communion; but only a very grave
reason excuses an interruption during the Canon, for example, a sick
call to give a necessary Sacrament (Baptism, Penance, Extreme Unction,
or Viaticum) to a dying person.

2714. Application of the Mass.--All the faithful, especially those who
are present and also the celebrant himself, benefit by the Mass, but
there is a special fruit reserved to those for whose intention the Mass
is offered by the priest; for the Mass is a sacrifice of intercession,
propitiation, and satisfaction, and since the priest acts in the person
of Christ he may apply its benefits specially to some particular person
or persons. In the following cases the celebrant is bound to make this
application of the ministerial fruit of the Mass.

(a) In virtue of their office, pastors are seriously obliged to say
Mass for their flocks. There is a natural obligation on account of the
relationship between the pastor and the people, and there is also a
divine obligation, inasmuch as the priest is appointed to offer gifts
and sacrifices for sin (Heb., v, 1). The details of this duty, as to
the time, place and person, are prescribed in Canons 306, 339, 466.
There is a grave duty of saying for the people the number of Masses
which the Church orders; but the non-observance of the circumstances is
not a mortal sin, unless it happens frequently and without reason.

(b) In virtue of justice, a priest who has received a stipend is bound
to apply the Mass for the intention of the donor, and to observe the
conditions of the agreement (i.e., the time, place, and kind of Mass
specified by the donor). The duty of application is a grave one,
because the loss inflicted on the donor by non-application of the Mass
to his intention is serious; the duty of observance of the accidental
conditions, however, is not generally grave, but it becomes grave if
its neglect inflicts serious harm (e.g., if the donor makes the date of
the Mass a _conditio sine qua non_, or if the Mass must be said at once
on account of an urgent and immediate necessity). Restitution is
obligatory if the Mass is not applied, or if essential conditions are
not complied with; it is obligatory _sub gravi_, if the stipend equals
what is relatively grave matter in theft.

(c) In virtue of obedience, subjects are held to apply Masses for the
intention of their prelates, secular or religious, though bishops are
counselled to exact this most rarely. The obligation is grave or light
according to the intention of the superior, but if the application is
also due in justice to the giver of the stipend, there is a serious
duty.

(d) In virtue of religion or fidelity, there is an obligation of
application when a priest has vowed this to God, or freely promised it
to man. The duty is grave or light according to the intention of the
vower or promisor (see 2210, 2407). But if there is an onerous promise
(e.g., in a society of priests whose members agree to say Mass for
fellow-members who have died), the duty is one of justice. One Mass
satisfies several free promises, if distinct Masses were not promised.

2715. Duties of the Priest as to the Application of Mass.--(a) For Whom
May Mass Be Applied?--Mass may be offered for all objects not
forbidden. From the divine law it is forbidden to offer Mass for those
who are incapable of receiving its benefits (e.g., the demons, infants
who died without Baptism, the Saints), or for intentions that are
displeasing to God (e.g., for success in evil). From the ecclesiastical
law certain restrictions are made on the application of Mass in order
to safeguard reverence and prevent scandal. Thus, Mass may be said only
privately (that is, without publicity or special liturgical solemnity)
and prudently (that is, with avoidance of scandal, for example, by the
declaration that Mass is said for the faithful departed with the
purpose of aiding also a departed unbeliever, if this is pleasing to
God) for the living and dead outside the Church, such as infidels,
heretics, schismatics, and the excommunicated. Moreover, for a
_vitandus_ Mass may be applied only when the intention is his
conversion (Canon 809).

(b) How Mass Must Be Applied.--The intention must be formed by the
priest, since he represents Christ. But since his application does not
produce but only bestows the fruits, it suffices that his applicatory
intention be habitual and implicit, as when the celebrant has forgotten
the intention formed before Mass, or applies according to the mind of
his superior. The person or purpose to which Mass is applied must be at
least implicitly determined, and the application must be made at least
before the second consecration. If there are two conflicting
intentions, the stronger prevails (2667), and, if it is doubtful which
one was stronger, Mass should be next offered for the intention which
God knows was not satisfied. It is unlawful to apply Mass by
anticipation for the next person who will offer a stipend.

2716. Mass Stipends.--It is not unlawful to receive a stipend for the
application of Mass, but irreligion, injustice, avarice, scandal and
disobedience must be avoided. (a) Irreligion is committed if the
stipend is offered or taken as the price of the Mass, or if Mass is
said only because of the stipend, or is requested only for the sake of
human favor (see 2333); (b) injustice is committed, if an excessive
stipend is exacted; (c) avarice is committed when one is over-anxious
about large stipends; (d) scandal is given when there is commercialism
or the appearance of it in dealing with stipends; (e) disobedience is
incurred when the laws of the Church on the amount of a stipend, the
number of stipends that may be taken, their distribution, satisfaction,
etc., are violated (see Canons 824-844). It is forbidden to require two
stipends for one Mass, or one stipend for mere celebration and another
for application.

Art. 3: REPENTANCE; PENANCE; EXTREME UNCTION

(_Summa Theologica_, III, qq. 84-90; Supplement, qq. 1-33.)

2717. Penance is the name both of a virtue and of a Sacrament of the
New Law. The virtue was at all times necessary; the Sacrament is
necessary since its institution by Christ. Having considered in the
previous Article how the spiritual life is begotten, matured and
preserved through the Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation and
Eucharist, we shall consider in the present Article how spiritual death
and infirmity are overcome by the remedies of Penance and Extreme
Unction. But first we shall speak of the virtue of penance or
repentance which is a requisite for the fruitful reception of the
Sacrament of Penance and of its complement, Extreme Unction.

2718. The Virtue of Repentance.--This virtue is a gift of God and a
permanent habit of the soul, but there are certain acts by which man
cooperates with God and prepares himself for the gift. Sometimes a
sinner is converted through consideration of God’s goodness or of the
rewards of heaven; but usually those who have been drawn by sinful
delights are first deterred from them by the thought of God’s justice,
and amendment begins from fear. Faith, hope, fear and love, at least
virtually, are always found in the process of turning to God, and
usually they follow one another in that process in the order here
given. (a) The beginning of conversion is with God who draws the heart:
“Convert us to Thee, O Lord, and we shall be converted” (Lament, v.
21). (b) Then follows the movement of faith, for he that would come to
God must first believe that He is (Heb., xi. 6). (c) Next follow
servile fear, which removes one from sin, and hope, which leads one to
God, for faith holds out both threats of punishment and promises of
mercy. (d) Then come the movements of love, which detests sin for its
own sake, and of filial fear, which offers satisfaction to God out of
reverence.

2719. Repentance.--Repentance may be defined as “a moral virtue that
inclines the will of one who is subject to sin to grieve over it and to
make reparation to God for the injury it does to His rights.”

(a) Thus, repentance has its remote subject in one who is subject to
sin, that is, in a person who has sinned or who is able to sin. Hence,
it is not in Christ, who is impeccable, nor in the holy Angels, whose
wills are fixed in good; but it is found in the Saints, inasmuch as
their former sin is displeasing to them and their former contrition and
satisfaction pleasing.

(b) The proximate subject of repentance is the will, for its acts of
regret, resolution, and reparation belong to the higher appetitive
faculty, Hence, repentance does not consist in emotional sorrow, and it
does not need to be sensibly felt or joined with tears.

(c) The formal object or motive of repentance is reparation to Goal for
the injury done Him by one’s own personal sin. Sin may be considered as
opposed to the divine goodness, and in this respect it is detested by
charity; or as opposed to the good of man himself, and so hope detests
it; or as opposed to the moral goodness of some particular virtue, and
in this respect it is hated by that virtue, as temperance shuns
intemperance; or as opposed to the right which belongs to God, the Last
End, that all actions be done for Him, and in this respect sin is
considered by repentance. One may regret original sin or sins done by
others, but one is not properly said to repent of them.

(d) The material object or subject-matter of repentance is the acts by
which reparation is made to God, namely, grief over sin and its
accompaniments, hatred of moral wickedness in the present, regrets for
the past, and good resolutions for the future. Thus, repentance differs
from religion, for religion looks upon God as Lord and Benefactor and
offers Him worship, while repentance considers Him as the Last End who
has been offended and offers Him satisfaction. The difference between
filial fear and repentance is seen in this, that the former falls back
upon its own littleness, whereas the latter throws itself at the feet
of God.

2720. The Character of Repentance.--(a) It is a virtue, since it is
commanded (“Do penance,” Matt., iii. 2), and also since it moderates
according to reason the sorrow felt for sin, keeping it from the
extreme of despair, lest it become the remorse of a Cain or a Judas.

(b) It is a moral virtue, since its direct object is the human acts by
which reparation is made to God, and its office the regulation of those
acts within the bounds of moderation.

(c) It belongs to justice, being a compensation offered for injury to
another’s right; but it is only a potential part of justice, as there
is not perfect justice between an inferior and the superior to whose
power the former is subject (2142). It is classed under commutative
justice on account of the return that is offered for the offense;

2721. The Excellence of Repentance.--(a) Its Dignity.--Repentance ranks
below other virtues, for, while they are naturally advantageous to man,
repentance is beneficial only hypothetically, namely, in the
supposition of sin. In one respect, however, it holds a certain
preeminence, for the infused virtues are bestowed only in
justification, whereas the acts of repentance that prepare for
justification come before those virtues.

(b) Its Necessity.--In the actual providence of God no mortal sin is
remitted unless it be first repented of, and hence it is said: “Unless
you do penance, you shall all likewise perish” (Luke, xiii. 5). This is
reasonable, since it is fitting that he who has turned away from God by
his own act, should also return to God by his own act. As to venial
sin, since it consists in an inordinate cleaving to created things and
must be removed by its contrary, there is need of an actual rejection
of the exaggerated attachment, and hence need of repentance; moreover,
since one should be restored to God’s friendship before being restored
to His familiarity, penitence in regard to a venial sin does not avail,
unless the penitent is in the state of grace. The act of repentance
need not be formal (i.e., one in which a person expressly thinks of his
sins and expressly detests them), but a virtual act suffices, that is,
an act of love of God which implicitly includes repentance, though the
latter is not expressly taken into consideration.

2722. Is Repentance Necessary as a Means or as a Precept?--(a) It is
necessary as a means of salvation because, if it be omitted, salvation
cannot be attained. God desires that the sinner assist in and consent
to his own forgiveness, and repentance, as we saw, is the most suitable
way in which the sinner can do this. (b) It is also necessary as a
precept. The natural law requires that those who have done an injury,
make reparation; the divine law calls on sinners to repent and be
converted to God (Acts, ii. 38, iii. 19, viii. 22), and the church law
prescribes annual confession.

2723. How Soon Does the Precept of Repentance Oblige?--(a) It obliges
at once (i.e., without any delay), when there is immediate necessity
for it. This happens _per se_, when one is in grave danger of death,
for at that moment one is bound to prepare immediately to meet God,
which supposes repentance. It happens _per accidens_, when by reason of
some urgent precept distinct from that of repentance one is obligated
here and now to rid oneself of sin (e.g., when one is called on to
administer a Sacrament and must have a pure conscience, or when one is
gravely tempted and will surely fall unless one repents of the past).

(b) It obliges soon (i.e., without any unreasonable delay), when there
is no immediate necessity. It is not a new sin to put off repentance
until tomorrow or next week in such a case; for the commandment of
repentance, being affirmative, does not bind for each instant, but only
for a reasonable time. But the common opinion is that a new sin is
committed when repentance is delayed for a considerable time, since
this exposes the sinner to further sins, impenitence, and damnation.
Practically, it seems that those who comply with the church law of
yearly confession commit no sin of unrepentance, though some consider
it a mortal sin to delay repentance beyond a month.

2724. Accompaniments of Repentance as to Mortal Sin.--(a) When one
mortal sin is forgiven, every other mortal sin is forgiven at the same
time. For no one can be truly repentant unless he grieves over his
separation from God, and this means that he grieves over each
individual mortal sin. But, since venial sin does not separate from
God, it is possible to be sorry for one venial sin without being sorry
for another.

(b) When mortal sin is forgiven, the eternal punishment is also
forgiven, for forgiveness makes man a friend of God and an heir to
heaven. But the temporal punishment may remain due, as is proved by the
examples of Adam (Gen., iii. 23; Wisd., x. 2), of Mary, the sister of
Moses (Num., xii.), of Moses (Num., xx. 12), of David (II Kings, xii.
13, 14), and of others. God is not only a merciful Father, but also a
just Ruler, and it is fitting that He should exact satisfaction even
for sin forgiven. But if repentance is very perfect like that of
Magdalen and St. Paul, even the temporal punishment is forgiven.

2725. The Fruits of Repentance.--(a) Every sin, no matter how grievous,
is removed by repentance (Is., i. 18), and hence there is always room
for forgiveness. For man is always able to repent and God is always
ready to pardon the penitent (Joel, ii. 13). The unpardonable sin is
refusal to repent of sin, if one continues in that refusal, but even
impenitence is forgiven when laid aside (see 900).

(b) Sin once forgiven does not return, for God does not regret His
gifts (Rom, xi. 29), and His pardon means that the guilt of a sin is
destroyed and wiped out forever, But he who falls into the same sins
after pardon increases his guilt by reason of his ingratitude.

(c) The repentant sinner recovers the infused virtues he lost by sin
and also his former merits (Luke, XV. 22; Joel, ii. 25; Ezech., xxxiii.
12; Heb., vi. 10). Virginity of body and innocence of soul are not
recovered as to their material elements (i.e., bodily integrity and
freedom from all sin), but they are restored as to their formal part,
which is the resolve to abstain from all venereal pleasure or to avoid
all sin. It seems that former merits are also recovered, not
necessarily in their entirety, but in a degree that corresponds with
the greater or less excellence of repentance.

2726. Forgiveness of Sin through the Use of the Sacraments.--(a) Mortal
sins are forgiven by the Sacraments in virtue of the rite itself (_ex
opere operato_) and immediately; that is, the Sacraments either _per
se_ or _per accidens_ (according as they are Sacraments of the Dead or
Sacraments of the Living) produce in the soul first grace or
justification, which is the opposite of mortal sin.

(b) Venial sins are forgiven by the Sacraments in virtue of the rite
itself but not immediately; that is, the Sacraments produce directly
either first or second grace, and indirectly through this grace they
may awaken fervor, which is the opposite of venial sin. The
sacramentals, on the contrary, remit venial sins, not in virtue of the
rite itself but in virtue of the intercession of the Church attached to
the rite (_ex opere operantis Ecclesiae_); for the prayers of the Church
are acceptable to God and can obtain from Him a grace of repentance
that will remove venial sin.

2727. The Sacrament of Penance.--For those who lose grace after Baptism
the Sacrament of Penance is necessary as a part of repentance and a
means of forgiveness. This Sacrament may be defined as “a Sacrament of
the New Law instituted by Christ in the form of a judicial process, in
which, through the absolution of the priest, sins committed after
Baptism are forgiven to penitents who confess them with sorrow.”

(a) The remote matter of this Sacrament is the personal sins committed
after Baptism, for Baptism washes away all sins committed before its
reception. Of this remote matter, some is necessary (i.e., sins that
must be confessed), namely, post-baptismal mortal sins not yet declared
or directly absolved in confession; some is free (i.e., sins that may,
but need not be confessed), namely, post-baptismal mortal sins already
forgiven in confession, and post-baptismal venial sins, whether already
remitted or not (Canon 902). Imperfections which are not sins, or whose
sinfulness is doubtful, are not sufficient matter for absolution; and
if they alone are confessed, absolution may not be given, unless there
is necessity, and then it may be granted conditionally (see 185, 186).

(b) The proximate matter of this Sacrament, according to the view
commonly held, is the three acts of the penitent--contrition in the
heart, confession in words, and satisfaction in work. Contrition must
exist actually, but the other two acts in case of necessity need not
exist actually, but are included implicitly in the act of contrition.

(c) The form of the Sacrament is contained in the words of absolution
spoken by the priest. Certainly the words, “_Ego te absolvo a peccatis
tuis_,” are sufficient for validity. But lawfulness requires that one
use the entire form and the other accompanying prayers as given in
one’s approved Ritual. In case of necessity, as in shipwreck or sudden
danger of death, an abbreviated form is permitted. Absolution must be
spoken or vocal, for the Church has never recognized absolution by
signs or in writing. It must be given to one who is present, that is,
one who is in the same place and not too far away to hear and be heard.
Those who are in different rooms that do not open on each other are not
in the same place; those who are more than twenty feet apart are too
far away for presence, according to the common opinion; but in great
need a more liberal view may be followed, and even absolution by
speaking tube or telephone may be resorted to.

(d) The subject of the Sacrament of Penance is every baptized person
who has committed venial or mortal sin after Baptism. If there is doubt
about the Baptism or about the sin, absolution may be given
conditionally. Besides the conditions given for the Sacraments in
general, the recipient of Penance must exercise the three acts of
contrition, confession and satisfaction. The first is essential in
every case, and the second when possible; and without the third the
Sacrament is not integral or complete.

2728. Probabilism in Administration of the Sacrament.--In the
administration and reception of the Sacrament of Penance it is lawful
to follow opinions that are truly probable except in the following
cases: (a) when the validity of the Sacrament is at stake (678), unless
there is a case of emergency (679). Hence, as the law of material
integrity pertains to the lawful, not to the valid use of Penance, one
may use probable opinions in its regard (see 2740); (b) when the seal
of the Sacrament is involved, lest confession become odious.

2729. Contrition.--The first act of the penitent is contrition. It is
defined by the Council of Trent as a sorrow and hatred for sin
committed, with a resolution of sinning no more and a desire of doing
what is necessary for the proper reception of the Sacrament of Penance.

(a) Thus, it presupposes a hatred of personal past transgressions, for
one grieves only about that which displeases one, and the acts of the
will begin with likes and dislikes.

(b) It consists essentially in sorrow or affliction of spirit, for
contrition, being the chief act of repentance, looks to reparation to
God for the injury done Him, and it therefore punishes the sinner by
sadness for his misdeeds.

(c) It includes as a property or consequence the resolution to avoid
future sin and to do what God requires for forgiveness; for no one is
sincerely sorry for the past unless this sorrow makes him decide not to
repeat the offense, and makes him desire to fulfill the conditions that
God lays down for reconciliation.

2730. The Two Kinds of Contrition.--(a) Perfect contrition is that
which is caused by charity, or the love of benevolence or of friendship
(1109, 1110) towards God. This love is had, whether the object of one’s
affection is the divine being or persons, the divine and infinite
perfections, or a single attribute; for all of these are really God
Himself. This contrition justifies the sinner at once, for it includes
charity and the will (at least implicit) to do what God wishes, and God
takes up His abode with those who love Him (John, xiv. 23). Perfect
contrition is necessary, both as a means and as a divine precept,
whenever the duty of repentance or of the Sacrament of Penance obliges
with a like necessity, and there is no opportunity of receiving the
Sacrament; for it is then the only way of recovering grace.

(b) Imperfect contrition, or attrition, is contrition caused by a
supernatural motive inferior to that of charity, i.e., by a less
perfect motive suggested by faith that leads one to grieve over sin
committed, for example, the heinousness of sin in itself, its eternal
punishment by God (i.e., the pain of loss or the pain of sense), or its
temporal punishment by God in this life or in Purgatory. This
contrition does not justify the sinner without the Sacrament, for it
does not rectify or retract the disorder introduced by sin as far as
lies within the sinner’s power (that is, _ex opere operantis_). By his
sin the sinner preferred the creature to God; by his attrition he does
not go so far as to prefer God positively to every created good, else
his contrition would be perfect. But attrition suffices for
justification of the sinner with the Sacrament of Penance, for it
includes the essentials of contrition in general, and thus removes the
impediments to the activity of the Sacrament (that is, the production
of grace _ex opere operato_). The same holds good also of the
sufficient disposition for Baptism, and more probably of that for the
Sacraments of the Living received in good faith by one who is not in
grace.

2731. Is Attrition Based Solely on Fear of Punishment Laudable?--(a)
Fear of the world is sinful, because it offends God to escape evil
(1044); slavish fear of God is sinful also, because it makes self the
last end, avoiding sin solely because of the harm it will bring on self
(1053). Sorrow for sin caused by slavish fear is not attrition, and is
not laudable.

(b) Servile fear of God in itself is good and supernatural (1050), and
the sorrow for sin or attrition based on such fear is also good; and if
it includes a resolution of amendment, it suffices for justification
with the Sacraments. The end (i.e., to escape punishment) is good
(Matt., x. 28); the means (i.e., sorrow for sin) is good; and the use
of the means for the end is good, for desertion of sin is the way to
escape unhappiness (Luke, iii. 7, 8). Nor is it wrong to make a nobler
good (such as avoidance of sin) a means to a lesser good (such as
escape from punishment) when the lesser good is not made the last end,
but only the immediate end, of the greater good. Thus, when we pray for
temporal goods, we make a spiritual thing a means to a material end,
but the Last End of the prayer is God Himself. Servile fear, unlike
slavish fear (_timor serviliter servilis_), does not make self the last
end (Denzinger, 818, 1146, 1525).

2732. Attrition in the Sacrament of Penance.--Must attrition based on
fear of punishment be joined with love of God to justify in the
Sacrament?

(a) Some form of love is required, for all contrition is detestation of
sin, and sin is not hated unless its opposite is loved. Hence, just as
attrition must be accompanied by faith and hope, so it must also be
accompanied by some form of love of God (2718).

(b) Disinterested love is not required. This is certain as regards love
of friendship, for even the smallest degree of that love is charity and
justifies even without the Sacrament (1112, 2730). This is commonly
held in reference to love of benevolence, which seems practically to be
always united with love of friendship or charity. A love that inclines
to God for His own sake but that does not predominate over other loves
is held by some to be necessary, but it is difficult to understand such
a love or to see its possibility.

(c) Interested love (the love of concupiscence or of hope) is therefore
necessary. The common opinion today seems to be that it also suffices,
and that it need be only virtual or implicit. In other words, the
prevalent view is that every attrition prompted by fear of punishment
contains an initial love of God which suffices to turn the sinner to
God and to remove any obstacle to the action of the Sacrament. For “the
fear of God is the beginning of His love” (Ecclus., xxv. 16), the hope
of pardon is a beginning of love of the Author of pardon and justice,
the resolve to amend is an inclination to keep the great command of
love of God (1556).

2733. The Conditions for Valid Contrition and Attrition.--(a) It must
be internal, for contrition is an act of repentance and must be in the
heart. Merely pretended sorrow, and sorrow which one mistakenly thinks
one has, are insufficient.

(b) It must be supernatural, for contrition is a disposition for the
reception of the supernatural habit of grace. Sorrow for sin induced by
natural motives, such as the punishments inflicted by human agencies,
if these are not viewed in the light of faith, is not sufficient.

(c) It must be universal, that is, there must be sorrow for all mortal
sins not yet forgiven, for it is impossible to be really sorry for one
serious sin while retaining affection for another. But it is not
necessary to repent of all venial sins before one is forgiven (see
2724).

(d) It must be sovereign, that is, if the contrition is perfect, God
must be loved above every other good; if it is imperfect, sin must be
hated above every evil that could lead to sin. If the sinner does not
detest his dishonesty more than the privation he will suffer by being
honest, he is not really contrite. It is, however, not necessary that
contrition be sensibly felt, or be of supreme intensity, or that its
act be of long duration; and it is rash to call to mind the kinds of
evils or torments one would prefer to suffer rather than commit sin
(see 1556).

2734. Valid and Fruitful Reception of the Sacrament.--Some theologians,
distinguishing between contrition as matter of the Sacrament and
contrition as a disposition of the penitent, hold that it is possible
to have a valid but unfruitful reception of the Sacrament, and that
revival of its grace is possible. They explain thus:

(a) the contrition required for the matter and the validity of the
Sacrament must be such as can be known with moral certainty by the
confessor from external indications, and hence it suffices for validity
that the sorrow be true and sincere and supernatural;

(b) the contrition required for the disposition of the penitent and the
fruitfulness of the Sacrament must be such as excludes all affection
for every grave sin and includes the resolution to avoid all mortal sin
in the future, and hence it is required for fruitfulness that sorrow be
also universal and sovereign. (This opinion has very few, if any at
all, adherents among modern theologians. It is retained here solely as
a matter of record.)

2735. Properties of Contrition.--Since contrition belongs to the matter
of Penance, it must have the properties of sacramental matter (2655
sqq.).

(a) Thus, the matter must be sensible, and hence contrition must be
shown in some external way, as by a sorrowful confession, devout
request for absolution, or, in the case of those who are unconscious,
by a call for a priest or the practices or prayers of a Christian life.

(b) The matter must be united with the form, and hence contrition must
be elicited at the moment of absolution, or a short time before (not
more than a few hours before, according to some, or even a few days
before, according to others). But if a penitent recalls immediately
after absolution a forgotten mortal sin, and is then absolved from it
also, more probably he is not obliged to renew his act of contrition,
because the act just made virtually continues; in practice, however, he
might be told to make another act of contrition and a new penance or
the same penance may be imposed before the second absolution. Moreover,
for absolution when one is unconscious and in danger of death, since an
habitual intention suffices (2674), it seems that contrition made long
ago, but not retracted, is sufficient.

(c) The matter must have at least a moral unity of its own parts, and
hence the contrition must in some way be directed to the confession;
that is, either before or during or after the act of contrition there
must be an intention to confess with the sorrow for sin contained in
that act of contrition, or to apply that sorrow to the confession just
made. Otherwise it does not appear that one has the purpose to make a
sacramental confession. But there is no practical difficulty, as every
act of contrition contains implicitly the will to confess, or every
sincere confession includes the will to use the contrition one has
exercised or will exercise.

2736. Resolution of Amendment.--The resolution of amendment which true
contrition calls for is at least implicit in the hatred of sin, but it
is advisable that the penitent expressly resolve to avoid sin in the
future. This determination should have the following qualities:

(a) it should be firm, that is, the penitent should make up his mind
not to relapse into deliberate sin. Yet, it is not necessary that he
feel certain of his perseverance, and his resolve does not cease to be
firm, if he foresees that he will fall again, provided he is decided to
do the best he can;

(b) it should be efficacious, that is, the penitent must decide to use
suitable means to fulfill his good intentions as to reparation for
scandal, calumny, and injustice, as to the avoidance of sinful
occasions, etc.;

(c) it should be universal, that is, the penitent must resolve at least
generically to avoid each and every grave sin in the future. If only
free matter (2727) is confessed, the penitent may direct his resolution
of amendment to all past mortal sins confessed, or to one of the
present venial sins declared, or he may resolve to do better in
reference to a certain class of sins (e.g., deliberate sins, faults of
speech), or he may resolve to diminish the frequency of his venial sins.

2737. Confession.--The second act of the penitent is confession, that
is, the declaration of one’s sins made to a duly authorized priest with
the purpose of obtaining absolution. Confession is obligatory both from
divine and ecclesiastical law.

(a) According to divine law, the forgiveness of grave post-baptismal
sins is subject to the power of the keys, which is exercised in the
form of a judgment and requires confession (Matt., xviii, 18; John, xx.
23). This law obliges _per se_ in danger of death, and occasionally
during life; _per accidens_, when one in sin intends to receive
Communion, when one is unable without confession to recover the
necessary state of grace or overcome a serious temptation or bad habit.

(b) According to church law, the faithful must go to confession once a
year (2590), and confession is also prescribed at times for those who
wish to receive Communion (2705) or celebrate Mass (2701 c, 2711).

2738. The Qualities of Confession.--(a) Confession is an act of virtue
and should have the conditions of a virtue; that is, it should be
discreet (e.g., the penitent should not reveal the names or sins of
others), willing, and pure in motive (e.g., the penitent should not
confess for temporal ends, such as the good opinion of the confessor),
and courageous (i.e., the penitent should not be deterred by shame).

(b) Confession is an act of penitence, and, as penitence includes
hatred and regret for sin and abasement of self, confession should not
be boastful, jocular or proud, but shamefaced, sorrowful and humble.

(c) Confession is essentially a declaration of fact, and hence it
should avoid the defects that make a declaration valueless or
imperfect, namely, falsehood, obscurity, digression, or concealment.
Confession, then, should be truthful, clear, to the point, and entire.

(d) Confession belongs to the Sacrament of Penance, which is the forum
of conscience, and hence the penitent accuses himself, submits to the
judgment of the father confessor, and is heard in secret. Public
confession is valid but not obligatory. Hence, one who does not speak
the language of the confessor is not bound to use an interpreter.
Regularly confession should be vocal, but for grave reasons (e.g., if
the penitent is dumb, or the confessor is deaf, or there is danger of
being heard by those nearby) it may be made by signs or in writing. In
case of a written confession the penitent should declare orally, if
possible, that the writing contains his confession (see Canon 903).

2739. Is it a Grave Sin to Lie to the Confessor?--(a) There is a grave
sin when the lie deceives the confessor about necessary matter (e.g.,
when a circumstance changing the theological species of a sin is
denied), or about free matter which is the only sin confessed (e.g.,
when a penitent lyingly accuses himself of only one sin and that a
venial one), or about free matter which the confessor asks about and
needs to know (e.g., about habits or occasions of sin). He who falsely
accuses himself of a grave sin, or who exaggerates the number of his
grave sins, _per se_ sins mortally; but he is excused if he is ignorant
or is under a momentary excitement or delusion. Not only is there grave
sin in the cited cases, but the confession is made invalid by the
defect in essential matter which the lie produces; for the confessor
does not understand the true state of the penitent’s soul.

(b) There is mortal sin when the lie deceives the confessor about
matter that is impertinent to the confession, but is grave in itself,
as when the penitent seriously calumniates a neighbor to the priest. In
this case the confession is made invalid by the want of disposition on
the part of the penitent.

(c) There is light sin when the lie deceives the confessor about free
matter which is not the only sin confessed, or which the confessor does
not need to know in order substantially to pass judgment and give
direction; also when the lie is not serious and is impertinent to the
confession. In these cases the Sacrament is not made invalid, for the
insincerity does not change the confessor’s decision.

2740. Integral Confession.--The completeness or integrity of confession
is twofold.

(a) Material completeness consists in the declaration of all mortal
sins committed and not yet confessed and absolved. This kind of
completeness is sometimes impossible, and therefore unnecessary. For
completeness is obligatory in virtue of a positive law of Christ, and
positive laws do not bind in case of impossibility (361).

(b) Formal completeness consists in the declaration of all the mortal
sins which here and now, all things considered, one can and should
mention. This kind of completeness is necessary for a valid and
fruitful confession, because the law of Christ calls for a complete
confession, as far as possible, and formal completeness is possible.
Since he who is obliged by a law is also obliged to use the means to
keep the law, those who are going to confession should examine their
consciences beforehand, unless this is impossible or unnecessary. The
time and diligence to be given this examination depends on the person
and his circumstances; but all should be careful about it, while
avoiding scrupulosity, and should also remember that contrition is even
more important than confession.

2741. Manner of Confession.--Completeness of confession as regards
mortal sins extends to the following points:

(a) the theological and the lowest moral species of a sin (197 sqq.)
must be given, for otherwise the confessor does not understand the case
before him. He who has committed a mortal theft does not satisfy by
confessing a venial theft; he who is guilty of the specific sin of
calumny does not satisfy by the generic accusation of sins of the
tongue. But impossibility excuses, as when the penitent has only a
general recollection about a sin;

(b) the number of the sins must be given exactly or, if this is
impossible, approximately. He who unintentionally exaggerates the
number or tells a sin of which he is not guilty, is not bound to
correct this, but he who unintentionally lowers the number to a notable
extent should tell in his next confession what was omitted (see 202
sqq.);

(c) the circumstances that change the species of a sin must be
declared, for example, the fact that the person who was scandalized was
one’s subject, that the person who was treated disrespectfully was
one’s superior, that the amount stolen was large (see 72);

(d) the external act that completed an internal sin must be declared,
and hence he who committed impurity does not confess properly by saying
that he gave consent to impure desires (see 89-93).

2742. Disputed Cases.--(a) Circumstances that Notably Aggravate a Sin
without Changing Its Species.--For the obligation of confessing these
circumstances, it is argued that, if the confessor does not know them,
he is unable to guide the penitent properly. Against obligation, it is
argued that the species of the sin gives the confessor sufficient
knowledge, and that the obligation of confessing aggravating
circumstances would make the burden too heavy for the penitent. But all
admit that _per accidens_ there may be a duty of confessing a
circumstance of this kind, as when it makes a sin reserved, or consists
in an occasion of sin or evil habit, or when it produces a great change
in reference to satisfaction (e.g., the theft of $10,000 is quite
different from the theft of $1000).

(b) As to the Imputable External Effects of a Sin.--One opinion is that
these must be confessed, since they are willed in their cause (96,
102); another opinion is that they need not be confessed since they are
not sins, but results that followed on a sin; a third opinion answers
that they must be confessed if the evil will was not retracted before
they happened, but otherwise not. All agree, however, that the sinner
in this case should confess that he sinned with foresight of the
consequence, and that he should confess the consequence itself if there
is attached to it something that should be known to the confessor
(e.g., censure, irregularity, etc.).

(c) Sins Whose Commission, or Gravity, or Remission is Uncertain.--If
the uncertainty is about the fact or gravity of the sin, there is no
obligation to confess the sin, even though its commission or its
gravity be probable; for the obligation cannot be proved. But if it is
certain that grave sin has been committed and uncertain whether the sin
has been confessed, a mere doubt or suspicion in favor of confession
does not exempt from obligation; a probable opinion in favor of
confession excuses according to Probabilism, but it does not excuse
according to Equiprobabilism, unless the doubt is about a confession
made long ago by one who was careful in making his confessions, or
unless there is question of a scrupulous person (655 sqq., 708, 709).

2743. When Material Integrity Is Not Necessary.--Material integrity is
not due because of real impossibility in the following cases:

(a) when there is physical impossibility, as when one is at the point
of death and too weak to make confession, or is deaf and dumb, or
cannot speak the confessor’s language correctly, or cannot finish
confession on account of shipwreck or other great peril;

(b) when there is moral impossibility, as when material integrity
cannot be had except at the expense of a great temporal or spiritual
evil distinct from the inconvenience intrinsic to the confession
itself, and there is some serious reason that makes it necessary to go
to confession here and now (e.g., the desire of not remaining long in
the state of sin). Examples are: great spiritual harm, as when a
penitent is scrupulous; great temporal harm, as when the penitent has
to flee to escape assassination. Some affirm, while others deny, the
duty of mentioning a sin that will defame an accomplice with the
confessor, and in practice it seems the duty cannot be insisted on
(cfr. 2065).

2744. Completion or Repetition of Past Incomplete Confessions.--(a)
Completion of past confessions must be made when they lacked material
integrity, if the impossibility has ceased.

(b) Particular repetition is necessary when a confession lacked formal
integrity or other essential; that is, if a sin was unlawfully
concealed or unrepented of in confession, the sacrilege must be
confessed and the previous confession made over, since it was invalid.
But if the new confession is made to the same confessor and he has a
general remembrance of it, the new confession may be made summarily.

(c) General repetition is necessary when several past confessions were
certainly invalid on account of lack of formal integrity or other
defect. Thus, he who has made bad confessions for three months must
make a general confession of that period of time. General confession is
advisable when there is a prudent doubt about the worth of past
confessions; it is permissible when it will help a penitent to be more
contrite and lead a better life; it is not lawful when it will do harm,
as when a scrupulous penitent will be harrowed and maddened by the
thought of his past sins.

2745. Satisfaction.--The third act of the penitent is satisfaction,
which is defined as “a compensation for the injury done to God by sin,
appointed by God’s minister in the Sacrament of Penance and accepted
and performed by the penitent.”

(a) This act is a compensation or payment made to God as an act of
reparation and justice.

(b) The compensation is appointed by the confessor, for its chief
purpose is restoration of friendship between God and the sinner, and
hence equality is not sought, but the good will to do what God’s
minister imposes.

(c) The compensation is accepted and performed. This is required for
the completeness, not for the essence, of the Sacrament. He who is
really contrite desires to satisfy, he who confesses offers to satisfy;
and hence, if for any reason he does not actually satisfy, his
satisfaction of desire suffices for the validity of the Sacrament, but
his omission to perform the satisfaction makes the Sacrament incomplete.

2746. The Effects of Actual Satisfaction.--(a) There is a remissive
effect, consisting in the _ex opere operato_ release of a portion or of
all the temporal punishment due to sin forgiven.

(b) There is a medicinal effect, consisting in the appreciation of the
evil of sin, the caution and vigilance against future relapse, and the
removal of evil tendencies, which the penitential works inculcate and
promote.

2747. The Conditions for Effective Satisfaction.--(a) For validity
(that is, for discharge of the obligation) the penitent must perform
the penance as to essentials in the way prescribed by the confessor,
and he must perform it personally, unless the confessor permits or
enjoins fulfillment by proxy (Canon 887). A penance performed during
the actual commission of or with actual affection for sin, is not a
satisfaction, but a new offense.

(b) For fruitfulness it is necessary that the penitent be in the state
of grace when he fulfills the penance, for the works of His enemies are
not supernaturally pleasing to God. Or, more exactly, a penance done in
the state of sin, but without affection for sin and under the influence
of actual grace, has no strict right either of justice or of friendship
to divine acceptance; but it seems fitting that such penance be
accepted by the divine liberality in part satisfaction for sins
forgiven.

2748. The Obligation of Accepting and Performing a Penance.--(a) _Per
se_, the obligation is grave, since the penance belongs to the
integrity of the Sacrament, and hence its refusal or neglect is an
injury to a sacred thing. (b) _Per accidens_, the obligation may be
light, and this is held to be the case when the penance was imposed for
free matter, or when the satisfaction prescribed is a light work (such
as one or two Hail Marys). A penitent is not bound to accept an
unreasonable penance, and he may seek a commutation if such a penance
is imposed. As a rule, negligence about the circumstances of a penance
(e.g., the time, or posture) is not a grave sin, but exceptionally it
may be serious (e.g., if one delays a gravely obligatory penance six
months, or so long as to be in danger of forgetting it; if one omits to
say a prayer on bended knees when this was chiefly intended by the
confessor).

2749. Causes That Excuse from a Penance Imposed.--(a) Commutation.--If
there is a just reason (e.g., the over-severity of the penance), the
penitent may have his penance changed to something lighter. The
confessor who imposed the penance may be asked to change it, even
probably after and outside of confession, and after a long time, and
though he does not remember the confession. Another confessor may
lessen the penance, but only in confession and after he has heard at
least a summary repetition of the sins for which the penance was given.

(b) Cessation.--There is no obligation to fulfill a penance in case of
impossibility, whether physical (e.g., if the penitent is dying and can
neither say the prayers ordered nor ask for a commutation), or moral
(e.g., if the penitent has forgotten the penance and cannot
conveniently ask the confessor about it).

2750. Requirements in the Minister for Valid Absolution.--(a) The
divine law requires the power of Orders, for only priests were
appointed by Christ as the ministers of Penance, (b) The natural law
requires the power of jurisdiction, since the Sacrament of Penance is