Atlantic white-sided dolphins reach about 9 feet (2.7 m) in maximum
length and are robust in form with a small but distinct beak (less than
2 inches [5.1 cm] long).

The dorsal fin is tall, distinctly back curved, and pointed on the tip.
The tail stock is extremely thick and does not narrow laterally until
very near the tail flukes.

The back is distinctly black, the belly white. The sides have zones of
gray, tan, and white.

The single most distinctive feature of Atlantic white-sided dolphins is
an elongated oval zone of white and yellowish white along the sides from
just below the dorsal fin to the area above the anus. These patches of
lighter coloration, clearly demarcated from each other and from the
surrounding coloration, are frequently visible simultaneously with the
dorsal fin as the animals roll at the surface to breathe. Even alone
this feature permits positive identification of the species. The dorsal
fin is often part gray, part black. The beak is all black.

Natural History Notes

Atlantic white-sided dolphins are known to congregate in herds of
perhaps a thousand animals, though smaller herds are far more common.
The species is often wary of ships and does not ordinarily ride the bow
wave. Like a number of other species, white-sided dolphins have been
reported in association with Atlantic pilot whales.

May Be Confused With

At sea, Atlantic white-sided dolphins are most likely to be confused
with the white-beaked dolphins, with which they overlap in distribution.
Though they are very similar in general appearance, the two can be
distinguished in the following ways:

     ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED
           DOLPHIN                     WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN

                             COLORATION

  Elongated band of yellowish        Two grayish areas--one in
  white and white along side,        front, the other below and
  visible behind and below           behind dorsal fin, visible as
  dorsal fin as animal rolls.        animal rolls.

                                BEAK

  All black.                         Sometimes white in parts of
                                     range though western Atlantic
                                     animals are usually dark.

                            MAXIMUM SIZE

  To 9 feet (2.7 m).                 To 10 feet (3.1 m).

                             DORSAL FIN

  Often part black, part lighter     Uniformly dark.
  gray.

Distribution

Atlantic white-sided dolphins are distributed, primarily offshore, in
the cool waters between the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current. They
have been observed from Hudson Canyon, off New York City, north to
southern Greenland and perhaps Davis Straits. Their normal range shares
a southern boundary with the white-beaked dolphin but does not extend as
far to the north.

Stranded Specimens

In addition to the features described above for living animals at sea,
stranded Atlantic white-sided dolphins can be distinguished from
white-beaked dolphins by the following:

     ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED
           DOLPHIN                     WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN

                           NUMBER OF TEETH

  30-40 per side per jaw,            22-28 per side per jaw; have
  sometimes more in upper.           larger individual teeth--to 6
                                     mm in diameter.

                              FLIPPERS

  Lower portion of forward           Lower portion of forward
  margin more curved.                margin less acutely curved.

                           VENTRAL COLOR

  White coloration of belly          White coloration of belly
  extends high onto sides of         extends to lower jaw but not
  body.                              above flippers on sides.

                           CAUDAL CRESTS

  Tail stock strongly compressed     Tail stock less laterally
  laterally; taller, narrows         compressed, tapers more
  rapidly just in front of flukes.   gently towards tail flukes.

[Illustration: Figure 138.--An Atlantic white-sided dolphin off the
eastern Canadian coast. These animals do not usually ride the bow wave,
but when they can be examined at close range, they can be readily
distinguished from their more northerly cousins, the white-beaked
dolphins, by their highly distinctive color pattern. (_Photo by P. B.
Beamish._)]

[Illustration: Figure 137.--Atlantic white-sided dolphins at sea between
Cape Cod, Mass. and Nova Scotia. This species can be positively
identified by the elongated zone of white and the adjacent region of tan
or yellowish tan below and behind the dorsal fin, visible even in the
fast-swimming animal in the bottom picture. The top photo illustrates
the origin of the Newfoundland common name "jumper." (_Photos by K. C.
Balcomb (top) and H. E. Winn (bottom)._)]

[Illustration: Figure 139.--The highly distinctive pattern of the
Atlantic white-sided dolphins is clearly visible in this animal stranded
in Scotland. Even if the color pattern has faded, however, this species
should be easy to identify. The 30-40 teeth in each of the upper and
lower jaws permit distinction from the white-beaked dolphins, which have
only about 22-28 per side in each jaw. (_Photos by B. Tullock, courtesy
of A. S. Clarke._)]

WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN (T)

_Lagenorhynchus albirostris_ Gray 1846

Other Common Names

White-beaked porpoise, squidhound (Newfoundland).

Description

White-beaked dolphins reach a maximum overall length of about 10 feet
(3.1 m). The body is robust in form with a tall, uniformly dark-gray
dorsal fin, and a short but distinct beak which, as the common name
implies, is often light gray to white above and below, at least in
European waters. The beak of animals in the western Atlantic populations
is less frequently white. The back and sides are basically dark gray to
black, and the belly is white to light gray.

Swimming white-beaked dolphins can be most readily identified by the two
areas of pale coloration on the sides, one in front of and another below
and behind the dorsal fin. These areas are clearly visible from a ship
or aircraft as the animals roll at the surface.

Natural History Notes

White-beaked dolphins may sometimes occur in herds of up to 1,500
individuals. Like their cousins, the Atlantic white-sided dolphins, they
do not commonly ride the bow waves of vessels.

White-beaked dolphins feed on squid, octopus, cod, herring, capelin, and
sometimes on benthic crustaceans.

May Be Confused With

In their northerly range white-beaked dolphins are likely to be confused
with only the Atlantic white-sided dolphins. The most distinctive
features of white-beaked dolphins are 1) the two areas of paleness
described above, 2) the prominent, dark gray dorsal fin, and sometimes
3) the white beak. Other features by which the two species may be
distinguished in the brief encounters typical at sea are tabularized on
p. 127.

Distribution

White-beaked dolphins are the more northerly of the two species of
_Lagenorhynchus_ in the western North Atlantic. They are found from Cape
Cod, Mass., north to western and southern Greenland and Davis Straits,
though they are apparently far more numerous to the north of this range.
They appear in Davis Straits in spring and summer and leave that area in
autumn, sometimes as late as November, to move southward. They winter as
far south as Cape Cod, where they are the common dolphin species in
April, May, and June (sometimes to July). Their migrations are poorly
known.

Stranded Specimens

Stranded white-beaked dolphins can be most readily distinguished from
white-sided dolphins by the substantial differences in coloration and
the differences in numbers of teeth.

                                       ATLANTIC WHITE-SIDED
     WHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN                    DOLPHIN

                                 TEETH

  22-28 per side per jaw.            30-40 per side per jaw,
                                     sometimes more in upper
                                     jaw.

                              COLORATION

  Beak sometimes gray or             Beak all black; side marked
  white above and below; two         with elongated areas of
  pale areas visible on living       white with streaking patterns
  animals not visible on stranded    of yellow and tan.
  specimens.

Additional characteristics by which the two species may be distinguished
are summarized on p. 123.

[Illustration: Figure 140.--Two views of white-beaked dolphins off
Newfoundland. This species is characterized by a prominent uniform dark
gray dorsal fin and two areas of paleness on the sides, one in front of
and one below and behind the dorsal fin. White-beaked dolphins are
distributed from Newfoundland north, extending to more northerly waters
than Atlantic white-sided dolphins. (_Photos by H. E. Winn (bottom) and
W. A. Watkins (top)._)]

[Illustration: Figure 141.--White-beaked dolphins reach nearly 10 feet
(3.1 m) in length. Stranded animals, such as this specimen from
Scotland, should be distinguishable from Atlantic white-sided dolphins
by their differences in coloration. This species sometimes has a white
beak and always lacks the elongated white patch and tan or yellow
streaking found on the side of Atlantic white-sided dolphins. (_Photos
by A. S. Clarke._)]

ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN (T)

_Tursiops truncatus_ (Montague 1821)

Other Common Names

Bottlenosed porpoise, gray porpoise, common porpoise.[12]

[Footnote 12: See also p. 150 for use of this common name for another
species, the harbor porpoise.]

Description

Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins reach a maximum overall length of about 12
feet (3.7 m) and weigh in excess of 1,430 pounds (650 kg). They have
relatively stubby snouts and dorsal fins, which are broad at the base,
tall, and falcate. Coloration varies slightly, but individuals are
usually dark gray on the back, lighter gray on the side, grading to
white or pink on the belly. Old females may have spots on the belly. The
dark coloration of the back often appears as a highly distinct cape,
particularly on the head.

Natural History Notes

Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins often occur in groups of up to several
hundred individuals which usually consist of aggregations of small
groups of no more than a dozen animals each. They frequently associate
with the Atlantic pilot whales and are frequently found accompanying the
right and humpback whales travelling along the Atlantic coast of
Florida.

Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins have catholic tastes, feeding on shrimp,
eels, catfish, menhadden mullet, and miscellaneous trash fish, to
mention only a few. They are frequently found near shrimp boats, feeding
on fish stirred up by the trawls or on discarded trash fish.

They sometimes move in to ride the bow wave of a vessel, turning on
their sides, sometimes spinning completely around on their longitudinal
axis when doing so. Individuals may also turn their heads downward or to
the side. They are often found close to shore, in bays and lagoons, and
sometimes venture up the larger rivers. Some individuals, especially the
larger animals, are found as far offshore as the edge of the continental
shelf. Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins sometimes ride the surf.
Individuals may jump clear of the water as high as 15-20 feet (4.6-6.1
m), a behavior on which aquarium shows have capitalized.

Members of this species are the dolphins most commonly maintained in
captivity at zoos, aquariums, marine parks, and research institutions.
For that reason, they are perhaps more familiar to the general public
than any other species of porpoise, dolphin, or whale.

May Be Confused With

From at least Cape Hatteras southward, the range of the Atlantic
bottlenosed dolphins distributed in inshore areas may overlap with that
of Atlantic spotted dolphins, particularly during the spring and summer,
when the Atlantic spotted dolphins move inshore. There the two species
may be confused. The Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins and the Atlantic
spotted dolphins can be distinguished, however, by the following
characteristics:

         ATLANTIC                          ATLANTIC
     BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN                SPOTTED DOLPHIN

                             MAXIMUM SIZE

  8 feet to as much as 12 feet       7.5-8 feet (2.3-2.4 m).
  (2.4 to 3.7 m).

                              COLORATION

  Not spotted (old females may       Dark purplish gray on back;
  have spots on belly); dark         lighter gray on sides and
  gray on back; light gray on        belly; body becomes increasingly
  sides; white or pink on belly.     spotted with age.

                             HEAD AND BEAK

  Head robust; beak relatively       Head more slender; beak
  short.                             longer.

Some Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are distributed well offshore as far
as the edge of the continental shelf. Those individuals may be confused
with either rough-toothed dolphins (p. 135) or with grampus (p. 96).
They may be distinguished from rough-toothed dolphins by the following:

     ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED
           DOLPHIN                      ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN

                               BODY COLOR

  Dark gray on back; light           Dark gray, almost purplish
  gray on side; white or pink on     with yellow spots; lighter on
  belly.                             belly.

                                  SNOUT

  Relatively short and stubby,       Long and slender; not
  and clearly demarcated from        clearly demarcated from
  forehead; usually all gray;        forehead; lower jaw and lips
  some older individuals have        speckled white.
  white-tipped snouts and/or
  white lips.

Distinguishing differences between the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins in
offshore areas and grampus are tabularized on p. 96.

In northeastern South America the range of the Atlantic bottlenosed
dolphin apparently overlaps with that of the Guiana dolphin, which,
except for size, it closely resembles (see p. 132).

Distribution

The Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are widely distributed in the
temperate and tropical waters of the western North Atlantic. They are
known from at least Nova Scotia but are best known from New England
southward to Florida, westward in the Gulf of Mexico, and thence
throughout the West Indies and Caribbean to Venezuela.

In the northern portion of that range, Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are
distributed offshore. In the southern portions of their range from at
least North Carolina southward, the majority are found nearshore and
often enter bays and lagoons, and sometimes venture up the larger
rivers. Daily migrations in these areas may follow tidal flow.

In these same southerly areas some Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are
distributed as far offshore as the edge of the continental shelf.

Stranded Specimens

Within their range, stranded Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins should be
readily identifiable by 1) the robust body, 2) relatively short beak,
and 3) the 20-26 teeth in each upper jaw and 18-24 in each lower jaw.

[Illustration: Figure 142.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins leaping on the
bow of a research vessel between Cape Cod, Mass. and Nova Scotia. Note
the robust body, the falcate dorsal fin, and the gradation of color in
three zones--dark gray on the back, to lighter gray on the sides, to
white or pink on the belly. (_Photo by A. Taruski._)]

[Illustration: Figure 143.--A side view of the Atlantic bottlenosed
dolphins off St. Augustine, Fla. Note the dark grayish coloration of the
back, the lighter coloration of the side, and the tall, sharply angled
dorsal fin, pointed on the tip. Though dorsal fin shapes are highly
variable, dorsal fins of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin are usually
more falcate and less pointed on the tip than on these animals. (_Photo
courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)]

[Illustration: Figure 144.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins frequently
ride the bow wave, often turning on their sides as they do so. Note the
distinctive color zones, the characteristic shape of the head and beak,
and the smooth lines of the flippers. (_Photo by L. Rigley._)]

[Illustration: Figure 145.--An Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin taken at
Isla La Blanquilla, off Venezuela. Because they inhabit shallow waters,
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins are infrequent victims of strandings.
(_Photo courtesy of F. Cervigon._)]

[Illustration: Figure 146.--Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins have from 20
to 26 teeth in each side of the upper jaw and from 18 to 24 in each side
of the lower jaw. These teeth, sharply pointed in younger animals, may
wear substantially as the animal ages. (_Photo courtesy of Wometco Miami
Seaquarium._)]

GUIANA DOLPHIN (T)

_Sotalia guianensis_ (P.-J. van Beneden 1864)

Other Common Names

None known.

Description

Guiana dolphins are the second smallest cetacean species in the western
North Atlantic, reaching a maximum length of only about 5.6 feet (1.7
m).

Their body shape is very similar to that of the Atlantic bottlenosed
dolphin, though the beak is less clearly demarcated from the forehead.

The rather prominent dorsal fin is nearly triangular, curving only
slightly backwards near the tip.

Guiana dolphins are steel blue to dark brown on the back and white on
the belly. There is sometimes a brownish band extending from the dark
color of the back in front of the dorsal fin back towards but not
reaching the anus.

Natural History Notes

Guiana dolphins are usually found in groups of fewer than 10
individuals.

May Be Confused With

Because of their limited range and specialized habitats, Guiana dolphins
are unlikely to be confused with any other cetacean species except
perhaps Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins (p. 128). These two species can be
distinguished by the following characteristics:

     GUIANA DOLPHINS                    ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED
                                              DOLPHINS

                                SIZE

  To only 5.6 feet (1.7 m).          8 to as much as 12 feet
                                     (2.4 to 3.7 m).

                              DORSAL FIN

  More nearly triangular; curved     Broad-based, tall, and
  only slightly backwards            falcate.
  near tip.

                             DISTRIBUTION

  Found in rivers and estuaries,     Sometimes found nearshore
  extend into only very              and in bays, river mouths,
  shallow nearshore waters on        and estuaries, but extend
  limited area of South American     farther offshore.
  coast.

Distribution

Guiana dolphins are found in Lake Maracaibo, in the rivers of Guyana,
and in the nearshore coastal waters of the northeastern portion of the
Guianas.

Stranded Specimens

In their very limited range, stranded Guiana dolphins can be readily
identified by their extremely small size (to 5.6 feet [1.7 m]) and
nearly triangular dorsal fin. Furthermore, in addition to the
characteristics listed above distinguishing living Guiana dolphins from
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins, the species can be distinguished by
differences in the numbers of teeth:

     ATLANTIC BOTTLENOSED               GUIANA DOLPHINS
            DOLPHINS

                            TEETH

  20-26 in each upper jaw;           26-35 in each jaw; often
  18-26 in each lower jaw.           ragged in arrangement.

[Illustration: Figure 147.--A Guiana dolphin from Kartabo, British
Guiana. In the coastal portion of its range along the northeastern South
American coast, this species is most likely to be confused with the
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. Guiana dolphins are much smaller, rarely
exceeding 5.6 feet (1.7 m), have a more triangular dorsal fin, and tend
to be found more frequently in estuaries and rivers. (_Photo by A. B.
Van Beneden from Zoologica VII(4), by permission of the New York
Zoological Society._)]

[Illustration: Figure 148.--Guiana dolphins harpooned in Kartabo,
British Guiana. Guiana dolphins have from 26 to 35 teeth in each jaw.
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins, which are larger but somewhat similar in
appearance, have from 20 to 26 teeth in each upper jaw and from 18 to 26
in each lower jaw. (_Photo by A. B. Van Beneden from Zoologica VII (4),
by permission of the New York Zoological Society._)]

ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN (T)

_Steno bredanensis_ (G. Cuvier in Lesson 1828)

Other Common Names

Rough-toothed porpoise, goggle-eyed porpoise.

Description

Rough-toothed dolphins reach a length of at least 8 feet (2.4 m). The
coloration of the rough-toothed dolphins is quite variable. Individuals
are often dark gray to dark purplish gray on the back with pinkish-white
blotches on the sides and belly. The flippers and flukes are dark and
the belly is white. Individuals are frequently scarred with numerous
white streaks.

The most distinctive characteristic of the rough-toothed dolphin is its
beak, which is quite long and slender, may be white or pinkish white
along both sides, including one or both lips and the tip of the snout,
and is not separated from the forehead by the transverse groove present
in other long-snouted dolphins. Because the forehead and the sides of
the head slope smoothly into the rostrum, when this animal is seen from
above or from the side, its entire head appears very long and nearly
conical.

Natural History Notes

Rough-toothed dolphins occur in small groups of 50 animals or fewer and
are usually found off the edge of the continental slope. They may ride
the bow waves.

May Be Confused With

In their offshore habitat, rough-toothed dolphins are most likely to be
confused with Atlantic spotted dolphins (p. 104) and with Atlantic
bottlenosed dolphins (p. 128). They may be distinguished from Atlantic
spotted dolphins by the following:

     ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN             ATLANTIC SPOTTED DOLPHIN

                               SNOUTS

  Long and slender; not clearly      Moderate in length and
  demarcated from forehead.          clearly demarcated from
                                     forehead.

They may be distinguished from Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins by the
characteristics tabularized on p. 128.

Even at a distance the blotched coloration of the side and the white
coloration of the rostrum of rough-toothed dolphins may be visible. If
closer examination is possible, the distinctive shape and coloration of
the beak make positive identification easy.

Distribution

Though records of rough-toothed dolphins from the western North Atlantic
are scant, the species is assumed to be widely distributed in deep
tropical to warm temperate waters. It has been reported from Virginia,
Georgia, Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, the West Indies, and off the
northeastern coast of South America.

Stranded Specimens

In addition to the characteristics listed above for distinguishing
living animals, stranded rough-toothed dolphins can be readily
identified by the fact that the 20-27 fairly large teeth per jaw per
side have a series of fine vertical wrinkles on the crown, a
characteristic from which the species derives its common name. (These
wrinkles are often difficult to detect.)

[Illustration: Figure 149.--Captive rough-toothed dolphins in Japan.
Note the distinctive, smoothly tapering head and the white coloration of
the sides and front of the snout. Rough-toothed dolphins are probably
widely distributed in the offshore waters of the tropics. The streamers
on the backs of the animals are marker tags (see Appendix A.) (_Photo
courtesy of Japanese Whales Research Institute._)]

[Illustration: Figure 150.--Closeups of the highly distinctive head of a
rough-toothed dolphin showing the white lips and the lack of a clear
demarcation between the snout and the forehead. This species has from 20
to 27 fairly large teeth in each side of both the upper and lower jaws.
(_Photos at Sea Life Park, Hawaii, by K. C. Balcomb (top) and S.
Leatherwood (bottom)._)]

[Illustration: Figure 151.--A rough-toothed dolphin stranded near New
Smyrna Beach, Fla. This species has from 20 to 27 fairly large teeth in
each side of both the upper and lower jaws. Those teeth are sometimes
marked by many fine vertical wrinkles along the crown, a characteristic
from which the species derives its common name. (_Photos by D. K.
Caldwell._)]

PYGMY KILLER WHALE (T)

_Feresa attenuata_ Gray 1874

Other Common Names

Slender blackfish, slender pilot whale.

Description

Pygmy killer whales reach a length of about 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7 m). They
are usually relatively slender-bodied with a rounded head, an underslung
jaw, and no beak.

The falcate dorsal fin, located about the center of the back, is usually
between 8 and 12 inches (20.3 and 30.1 cm) tall (though it may reach 15
inches [38 cm] in some individuals), is sometimes very distinctive, and
resembles that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. The flippers are
slightly rounded on the tips.

The color has been described as dark gray or black on the back, often
lighter on the sides, extending higher in front of the dorsal fin and
with a small zone of white on the underside, often a lighter gray area
on the sides, and distinctive white regions around the lips. The chin
may be completely white. This white zone on the chin, described as a
"goatee," is often clearly visible in swimming animals.

May Be Confused With

The pygmy killer whale resembles the false killer whale but is much
smaller and can be distinguished at close range by the zones of white
coloration. False killer whales are almost all black and reach a length
of up to at least 18 feet (5.5 m). Pygmy killer whales are dark gray on
the back, often lighter on the sides, and show a region of white on the
belly which may extend so high up onto the sides that it is visible on a
swimming animal. Further, they reach only 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7 m).

Pygmy killer whales may also be confused with the similarly sized and
colored many-toothed blackfish. So little is known of the two species'
appearance and behavior at sea that it is doubtful that they can be
successfully distinguished, though many-toothed blackfish apparently
lack the white region often seen on the sides of pygmy killer whales.
Further, pygmy killer whales have rounded flippers and smoothly tapered
heads, while those of the many-toothed blackfish are pointed on the tip
and more sharply pointed (often described as a parrot beak).

Distribution

Pygmy killer whales are probably distributed in the tropical and
subtropical waters of the western North Atlantic. They have been
reported from Texas, the Atlantic coast of Florida, and St. Vincent
Island, Lesser Antilles. Records of the species from the other oceans of
the world suggest that its distribution is limited to tropical and
subtropical waters.

Stranded Specimens

Stranded pygmy killer whales can be clearly distinguished from both the
false killer whale and the many-toothed blackfish. In addition to the
differences discussed above, the following are key differences between
the pygmy and false killer whales:

     PYGMY KILLER WHALE                 FALSE KILLER WHALE

                               TEETH

  10-13 in each side of upper        8-11 per jaw per side,
  and lower jaws; lower teeth        prominent.
  smaller.

                          VENTRAL COLORATION

  White from anus to under tail      Dark from anus to tail stock;
  stock, white may extend up         lighter pale gray area forward
  sides.                             between flippers.

                               FLIPPERS

  Smoothly rounded.                  Characteristic hump on forward
                                     margin.

Pygmy killer whales can be distinguished from many-toothed blackfish on
the basis of the second species' larger number of teeth. (Many-toothed
blackfish have from 22 to 25 teeth in the upper jaw and from 21 to 24 in
the lower jaw.)

[Illustration: Figure 152.--Pygmy killer whales at sea northwest of
Hawaii (top) off the island of Oahu, Hawaii (middle), and from
southeastern Florida in the tank at the Wometco Miami Seaquarium
(bottom). When swimming rapidly, pygmy killer whales may closely
resemble the much larger false killer whales. In addition to their much
smaller size, rarely exceeding 9 feet (2.7 m), however, pygmy killer
whales can be distinguished by their more rounded head, the white
coloration of the lips and chin, and the white zone on the belly,
sometimes extending up the sides. (_Photos by S. Ohsumi (top); J.
Naughton, National Marine Fisheries Service and courtesy of E.
Shallenberger, Sea Life Park (middle); and courtesy of Wometco Miami
Seaquarium (bottom)._)]

[Illustration: Figure 153.--Pygmy killer whales 5 miles off Kaena Point,
Oahu, Hawaii. These individuals were dark on the back with varying
degrees of lighter coloration on the sides, extending high onto the
sides in front of the dorsal fin. Many had a white "goatee" on the chin
and lower jaw. The prominent dorsal fin is characteristic. (_Photos by
E. Shallenberger, courtesy of Sea Life Park, Hawaii._)]

[Illustration: Figure 154.--Side and belly views of a pygmy killer whale
from South Africa. Note the slight white coloration of the lips, the
white region on the ventral surface (extending up onto the sides just
below the dorsal fin), and the falcate sharply pointed dorsal fin. Note
also the flippers, which lack the hump on the forward margin
characteristic of false killer whales. (_Photos courtesy of P. B.
Best._)]

[Illustration: Figure 155.--Pygmy killer whales have from 8 to 11 teeth
in each side of the upper jaw and from 11 to 13 in each side of the
lower jaw. Many specimens reportedly have one fewer on the right than on
the left side. The teeth are smaller than those of the false killer
whale and far less numerous than those of the more closely sized
many-toothed blackfish. Note also the white lips. (_Photo courtesy of P.
B. Best_)]

MANY-TOOTHED BLACKFISH (T)

_Peponocephala electra_ (Gray 1846)

Other Common Names

Hawaiian blackfish, melon-headed whale.

Description

Many-toothed blackfish reach lengths of at least 9 feet (2.7 m) and are
similar in body shape to the larger false killer whale and the
similar-sized pygmy killer whale. The body is elongated and slim with a
rather slim tail stock. In general, the head is shaped like that of the
false killer whale but has a sharper appearance to the snout, sometimes
described as a parrot-beak. The forehead is rounded, slightly
overhanging the lower jaw, and has no beak. The dorsal fin is up to 10
inches (25.4 cm). It is probably very distinctive as the animals surface
to breathe. Many-toothed blackfish are black on the back and slightly
lighter on the belly. The areas around the anus and genitals and the
lips are unpigmented. Many-toothed blackfish are presumably rare.

May Be Confused With

Many-toothed blackfish may be confused with either the false killer
whale or the pygmy killer whale. They are considerably smaller than the
false killer whale, have a slightly more pointed snout, and lack the
prominent humplike forward margin on the flippers which is
characteristic of the false killer whale.

They are approximately the same size as pygmy killer whales, but the
white area around the genitals which extends up onto the side in pygmy
killer whales may be lacking in many-toothed blackfish. This species has
pointed flippers, while those of pygmy killer whales are rounded on the
tips. Many-toothed blackfish also have a slightly more pointed snout.
Otherwise, the two species are virtually indistinguishable in encounters
at sea.

Distribution

Although many-toothed blackfish have not yet been reported in the
western North Atlantic, they are included in this guide because of a
record from the eastern tropical North Atlantic and the known tropical
distribution in other areas.

Stranded Specimens

Stranded many-toothed blackfish can be distinguished from false killer
and pygmy killer whales by the number of teeth alone. Many-toothed
blackfish have more than 15 per side per jaw (usually 21-25); both other
species have less than 15.

[Illustration: Figure 156.--A live many-toothed blackfish in a holding
pen in the Philippines. At sea these animals will be virtually
impossible to distinguish from pygmy killer whales. (_Photos by T.
Hammond._)]

[Illustration: Figure 157.--A many-toothed blackfish stranded in Hawaii.
This species is smaller than the false killer whale and can be
positively identified by the number of teeth, larger than any other
blackfish. Many-toothed blackfish have from 21 to 25 teeth per side in
both the upper and lower jaws. Other blackfish species have fewer than
15; otherwise, with the exception of differences in flipper shape (those
of this species are pointed while those of pygmy killer whales are
rounded on the tip), coloration and body shape of the two species are
similar. (_Photo courtesy of T. Dohl._)]

PYGMY SPERM WHALE (T)

_Kogia breviceps_ (Blainville 1838)

Other Common Names

None known.

Description

Pygmy sperm whales reach a length of at least 11 feet (3.4 m). They are
characterized by 1) an extremely robust body that rapidly tapers near
the tail, 2) a squarish head, and 3) a narrow, underslung lower jaw
which is located well behind the tip of the snout. Along the side of the
head, in approximately the same position where gill slits would be
located on a fish of comparable size, there is a crescent-shaped bracket
mark, often called a false gill.

The flippers, which are smoothly curved on the forward margin and may
reach a length of 18 inches (45.7 cm) or more on an adult specimen, are
located well forward on the body, just below and behind the bracket
mark.

The dorsal fin is very small, falcate, and located in the latter half of
the back.

Though coloration can be described only from stranded specimens and a
few encounters with living animals, pygmy sperm whales appear to be dark
steel gray on the back, shading to a lighter gray on the sides, and
gradually fading to a dull white on the belly. The outer surface of the
flippers and the upper surface of the tail flukes are also steel gray.

Natural History Notes

From the few accounts, the following may be summarized about the
behavior of pygmy sperm whales at sea: They reportedly usually rise
slowly to the surface to breathe, produce a blow that is inconspicuous,
and do not normally roll aggressively at the surface like most other
species of small whales. They reportedly fold their flippers flat
against their bodies when swimming. They have been reported to lie
motionless in the water with the back of the head on the surface and the
tail hanging loosely down in the water. (A similar behavior in sperm
whales has made them a minor hazard to shipping, since it has resulted
in some collisions with ships.) When they are startled in this posture,
they may defecate, issuing a cloud of reddish brown to rust-colored
fece. Beached pygmy sperm whales have also been observed to defecate a
fine chocolate feces.

Pygmy sperm whales apparently feed primarily on squid, but do take fish
as well.

May Be Confused With

In general, when they can be examined at close range, pygmy sperm whales
are so distinctive that they are unlikely to be confused with any other
species except perhaps the dwarf sperm whales. At a distance, they might
be confused with small individuals of any of the beaked-whale species
(p. 78) that also have a relatively small, falcate dorsal fin located in
the latter third of the back. Closer examination should permit easy
separation, however, since the pygmy sperm whale has a blunted head,
while the beaked whales, as the name implies, have elongated
"dolphinlike" beaks and are considerably larger. At sea, pygmy sperm
whales are most likely to be confused with their cousins the dwarf sperm
whales (p. 148 and Fig. 160). The two species can be distinguished as
follows:

     PYGMY SPERM WHALE                  DWARF SPERM WHALE

                              MAXIMUM SIZE

  To 11 feet (3.4 m).                To 9 feet (2.7 m).

                               DORSAL FIN

  Small to 8 inches (20.3 cm),       Taller, more like that of
  falcate; located in latter third   bottlenosed dolphins; located
  of back.                           near the midpoint of the
                                     back.

                               COLORATION

  Both species are dark steel gray on the back, grading to
  lighter on the belly.

Distribution

Because they have been rarely observed at sea, normal ranges for this
species are not known. Based on stranding records, however, the
following can be stated. In the western North Atlantic, pygmy sperm
whales have been found as far north as Sable Island, Halifax, Nova
Scotia, as far south as Cuba, and as far west as Texas in the Gulf of
Mexico. They are frequently found stranded along the Atlantic coast of
Florida and throughout the eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico.

Stranded Specimens

Because of the distinctive characters of the genus, stranded pygmy and
dwarf sperm whales are unlikely to be confused with any other species of
cetacean, though the rather narrow underslung jaw and the blunted head
may result in their casual dismissal by some beach walkers as stranded
sharks. The two species of Kogia may be distinguished by the following:

     PYGMY SPERM WHALE                  DWARF SPERM WHALE

                                  TEETH

  12-16 (rarely 10-11) in lower      8-11 (rarely 13) small and
  jaw are larger; no teeth in        extremely sharp teeth in
  upper.                             lower jaw; sometimes have
                                     up to 3 teeth in each upper
                                     jaw.

                                 THROAT

  No creases or grooves on           Several short irregular creases
  throat.                            or grooves on throat.

[Illustration: Figure 158.--In this rare photograph of a pygmy sperm
whale at sea in the Pacific, the animal was startled by the approaching
vessel, circled quickly, and then dived out of sight. The trail of
material visible in the water in front of and to the right of the animal
is feces, reddish brown to rust in color. Startled whales and porpoises
often defecate in this manner. (_Photo by S. Ohsumi._)]

[Illustration: Figure 159.--A young pygmy sperm whale swimming in a tank
at the New York Aquarium. Note the shape and position of the dorsal fin
and the shape of the head. (_Photo by H. E. Winn._)]

[Illustration: Figure 160.--On the beach the two species of Kogia can be
readily distinguished. The pygmy sperm whale, _K. breviceps_, (top)
reaches a length of about 11 feet (3.4 m); its dorsal fin is a small
nubbin located in the latter half of the back. The dwarf sperm whale,
_K. simus_, (bottom) reaches only about 9 feet (2.7 m); its dorsal fin,
much taller and more "dolphinlike" in appearance, is located near the
middle of the back. Coloration of fresh specimens is probably similar
for both species--the lightened areas in the lower photograph are the
result of decomposition. (_Photos from Jekyll Island, Ga. (top) and
Atlantic Beach, Fla. (bottom) by D. K. Caldwell._)]

[Illustration: Figure 161.--Ventral view of a female pygmy sperm whale
from Jekyll Island, Ga. Note the position and shape of the flippers and
mouth, and the abrupt tapering of the body at the tail stock. (_Photo by
D. K. Caldwell._)]

[Illustration: Figure 162.--Head of a pygmy sperm whale from
northeastern Florida showing gill-like, lightly pigmented "bracket
marks." (_Photo by F. G. Wood._)]

[Illustration: Figure 163.--A detailed view of the mouth of a pygmy
sperm whale from the east coast of Florida. In both species of Kogia
these long, curved, needle-sharp teeth, found in only the lower jaw,
lock into sockets in the upper jaw. Pygmy sperm whales have from 12 to
16 (rarely 10 or 11) pairs of teeth; dwarf sperm whales have from 8 to
11 (rarely 13) pairs. (_Photo by D. K. Caldwell._)]

DWARF SPERM WHALE (T)

_Kogia simus_ (Owen 1866)

Other Common Names

Rat porpoise (West Indies).

Description

Dwarf sperm whales reach an overall length of approximately 9 feet (2.7
m). Like the other species of _Kogia_, the pygmy sperm whale (p. 144),
the dwarf sperm whales are characterized by 1) a squarish head, 2) an
extremely robust body which tapers rapidly near the tail stock, 3) a
narrow, underslung lower jaw, and 4) a bracket mark or false gill on the
side of the head.

The dorsal fin of this species is tall and falcate, closely resembling
that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, and is located near the
midpoint of the back. There are several short, irregular creases or
grooves on the throat similar to those found on the sperm whale (see
Figs. 60, 165).

Dwarf sperm whales are dark steel gray on the back, grading to lighter
gray on the sides, and fading to dull white on the belly.

May Be Confused With

Because of their tall, falcate dorsal fin, dwarf sperm whales may be
confused at a distance with any of the small dolphin species. Their
all-black or dark steel-gray coloration and the blunted head increase
the likelihood that they can be confused with pygmy killer whales or
many-toothed blackfish. They will have to be examined at close range
before they can be distinguished.

Dwarf sperm whales may also be confused with pygmy sperm whales (p. 144
and Fig. 160). The two species can be differentiated by the
characteristics tabularized on p. 144.

Distribution

Since it has only recently been recognized as a species distinct from
the pygmy sperm whale and even more recently given a common name,
records of dwarf sperm whales may have been confused with those of its
close relatives. The dwarf sperm whale has been reported from at least
Georgia south to St. Vincent, Lesser Antilles, and throughout the
eastern and northern Gulf of Mexico. It is highly likely that this
species, like the pygmy sperm whale, extends further to the north.

Stranded Specimens

Because of the distinctive characteristics of the genus, neither species
of stranded _Kogia_ is likely to be confused with any other species.
They can be distinguished from one another by the characteristics
tabularized on p. 144.

[Illustration: Figure 164.--A dwarf sperm whale stranded near St.
Augustine, Fla., shown swimming in the tank at Marineland of Florida. In
this species the dorsal fin is taller than that of the pygmy sperm whale
and is located near the midpoint of the back (see Figs. 159 and 160).
(_Photo courtesy of Marineland of Florida._)]

[Illustration: Figure 165.--Dwarf sperm whales have several short
creases on the throat, similar to those found on the sperm whale (see
Fig. 60); pygmy sperm whales lack these creases. To compare other
features of the two species, refer back to Figure 160. (_Photo by D. K.
Caldwell._)]

[Illustration: Figure 166.--Closeup of the tail flukes of a dwarf sperm
whale from the Florida east coast. Note that the dorsal ridge extends
almost to the notch in the flukes. (_Photo by W. A. Huck, courtesy of
Marineland of Florida._)]

HARBOR PORPOISE (T)

_Phocoena phocoena_ (Linnaeus 1758)

Other Common Names

Common porpoise, herring hog, puffing pig (Newfoundland and New
England), Pourcils (Quebec), harbour porpoise.

Description

The harbor porpoise is the smallest cetacean species in the western
North Atlantic Ocean, reaching a maximum overall length of about 5 feet
(1.5 m). Its most distinctive identifying features in encounters at sea
are 1) the small, chunky body; 2) the coloration, dark brown or gray on
the back, fading to lighter grayish brown on the sides, often with
speckling in the transition zone, and white on the belly extending
farther up on the sides in front of the dorsal fin; 3) the small rounded
head, lacking a distinctive beak; 4) the small, triangular dorsal fin;
and 5) the shallow, inshore northerly distribution.

Natural History Notes

As the name implies, the harbor porpoise inhabits bays, harbors, river
mouths, and all the relatively shallow inshore water between. Though it
may travel in schools of nearly a hundred individuals, it is more often
seen in pairs or in small groups of from 5 to 10 individuals. It often
swims quietly at the surface. It will not ride the bow wave and is very
difficult to approach closely by boat.

May Be Confused With

The harbor porpoise is not known to associate with dolphins but is
sometimes seen in close proximity to fin whales and humpback whales off
the Canadian coast in spring and summer. Because of its northern inshore
habitat, the harbor porpoise is not likely to be confused with any other
cetacean.

Distribution

Harbor porpoises are restricted to the colder waters of the western
North Atlantic Ocean. They have been reported from North Carolina north
to the Davis Straits and the waters of southwestern Greenland. Within
this range they are probably most common in the Bay of Fundy and off
southwest Greenland.

Stranded Specimens

In addition to the characteristics described above for living animals,
stranded harbor porpoises can be readily identified by the small
spade-shaped teeth, 22-28 per jaw.

[Illustration: Figure 167.--Two views of a harbor porpoise just offshore
from Rio del Mar, Seaside, Calif. Note the small size (usually less than
5 feet [1.5 m]), the small triangular dorsal fin, the dark brownish
color of the back, and the lighter color of the sides and belly
intruding higher up in front of the dorsal fin. Harbor porpoises
frequent inshore areas, shallow bays, estuaries and harbors, and
reportedly do not approach moving vessels nor ride bow waves. (_Photos
by J. D. Hall._)]

[Illustration: Figure 168.--A harbor porpoise harpooned in Passamaquoddy
Bay, New Brunswick. Harbor porpoises have from 23 to 28 small,
spade-shaped teeth in each upper jaw and from 22 to 26 in each lower
jaw. Note the rounded head, the absence of a beak, and the triangular
dorsal fin. (_Photo by D. E. Gaskin._)]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Obviously this guide could not have been produced without the
cooperation of many people. Of over 450 individuals and scientific
organizations contacted in 14 countries, 255 responded to our letters
and well over 100 provided photographs for review and selection. We were
particularly pleased that for the majority of the species found in the
western North Atlantic our most difficult problem was narrowing the
choices and ultimately selecting illustrations from the many good
materials made available to us. Although there are far too many
contributors to mention all by name, their prompt and enthusiastic
responses to requests for help are gratefully acknowledged, whether or
not their materials were used.

Although photo credits follow each figure, we would particularly like to
cite the generosity of Marineland of Florida, Hideo Omura of the
Japanese Whales Research Institute, J.G. Mead of the U.S. National
Museum, K.C. Balcomb of Moclips Cetological Society, Seiji Ohsumi of the
Far Seas Fisheries Research Laboratory, Jack Lentfer of the Alaskan
Department of Fish and Game, the U.S. Naval Undersea Center (NUC), The
University of Rhode Island, and William F. Perrin of the National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS). Photographs by Taruski, McCann, Hain, Wheeler,
and Rigley are in Winn's files. All others are in the files of
Leatherwood and Caldwell. The illustrations for Figures B1 and D1 were
prepared by George Galich of NUC. All other illustrations were prepared
by Lois Winn.

The extensive and often tedious job of preparing black and white
photographs of suitable format from the vast array of black and white
and color negatives and prints and from color transparencies was
accomplished at the NUC Photographic Laboratory by the able team of
Domingo Sanchez, Ray Krenik, Jeanne Lucas, and Alan McPhee.

George E. Lingle and John C. Moore assisted with gathering and reviewing
the literature and with cataloging and screening photo materials.

The various drafts of the manuscript were typed by Linda Thomson,
Margaret Alvarez, and Sandra Nolan. Sandra Peterson assisted with
proofreading the later drafts.

In preparing this guide we drew freely from the literature on cetaceans
of this region and supplemented it with our own observations and with
unpublished notes provided by our colleagues. A partial list of
materials used, each a good source of reference material on cetaceans in
general or on cetaceans of the western North Atlantic in particular, is
provided in the following section, "Selected Bibliography."

All of the following colleagues read all or part of the manuscript and
made useful suggestions for its improvement: K.C. Balcomb, W.C.
Cummings, J.G. Mead, Hideo Omura, W.F. Perrin, F.K. Rodgers, Allen N.
Saltzman, D.E. Sergeant, W.A. Watkins, A.A. Wolman, and F.G. Wood.

All of the information and photographs contributed by Lois Winn were
obtained under grants from the Office of Naval Research. Funds and
assistance for the preparation of intermediated drafts and logistics
support for all stages of preparation of this guide were provided by
Biological Systems, Inc., St. Augustine, Fla.

In addition to securing funds for the preparation and publication of
this guide, Paul Sund, Platforms of Opportunity Program, NMFS, Tiburon,
Calif., provided continuing help and criticism.

To these and to all who use this guide to further help knowledge about
the cetaceans of the western North Atlantic, we are grateful.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANDERSEN, H. T. (editor).

    1969. The biology of marine mammals. Academic Press, N.Y., 511 p.

BURT, W. H.

    1952. A field guide to the mammals. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston,
      200 p.

CALDWELL, D. K., and M. C. CALDWELL.

    1973. Marine mammals of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. _In_ J. I. Jones,
      R. E. Ring, M. O. Rinkel, and R. E. Smith (editors), A summary of
      knowledge of the eastern Gulf of Mexico, p. III-I-1--III-I-23.
      State Univ. Syst. Fla. Inst. Oceanogr., St. Petersburg, Fla.

CALDWELL, D. K., and F. B. GOLLEY.

    1965. Marine mammals from the coast of Georgia to Cape Hatteras. J.
      Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 81:24-32.

CALDWELL, D. K., H. NEUHAUSER, M. C. CALDWELL, and H. W. COOLIDGE.

    1971. Recent records of marine mammals from the coasts of Georgia
      and South Carolina. Cetology 5:1-12.

FRASER, F. C.
    1937. Whales and dolphins. _In_ J. R. Norman and F. C. Fraser, Giant
      fishes, whales and dolphins, p. 201-349. Putnam and Sons, Lond.
      [There are several editions of this work, all with the same
      information.]

1966. Guide for the identification and reporting of stranded whales,
dolphins and porpoises on the British coasts. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Lond., 34 p.

GOLLEY, F. B.

    1966. South Carolina mammals. The Charleston Museum, Charleston,
      S.C., xiv + 181 p.

GUNTER, G.

    1954. Mammals of the Gulf of Mexico. _In_ P. S. Galtsoff
      (coordinator), Gulf of Mexico, its origin, waters, and marine
      life, p. 543-567. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. Vol. 55.

HALL, E. R., and K. R. KELSON.

    1959. Order cetacea--cetaceans. _In_ The mammals of North America,
      2:806-840. Ronald Press, N.Y.

HERSHKOVITZ, P.

    1966. Catalog of living whales. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 246, 259 p.

KELLOGG, R.

    1940. Whales, giants of the sea. Natl. Geogr. Mag. 77:35-90.

LAYNE, J. N.

    1965. Observations on marine mammals in Florida waters. Bull. Fla.
      State Mus., Biol. Sci. 9:131-181.

LEATHERWOOD, S., W. E. EVANS, and D. W. RICE.

    1972. The whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern north
      Pacific. A guide to their identification in the water. Nav.
      Underseas Cent., Tech. Publ. 282, 175 p.

LOWERY, G. H., JR.

    1974. The mammals of Louisiana and its adjacent waters. Louisiana
      State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 565 p.

MITCHELL, E. D.

    1973. The status of the world's whales. Nat. Can. 2(4):9-25.

MOORE, J. C.

    1953. Distribution of marine mammals to Florida waters. Am. Midl.
      Nat. 49:117-158.

NORRIS, K. S. (editor).

    1966. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. California Press,
      Berkeley, 789 p.

PALMER, R. S.

    1954. The mammal guide. Doubleday and Co., N.Y., 384 p.

RICE, D. W.

    1967. Cetaceans. _In_ S. Anderson and J. K. Jones (editors), Recent
      mammals of the world; a synopsis of families, p. 291-324. The
      Ronald Press, N.Y.

RICE, D. W., and V. B. SCHEFFER.

    1968. A list of the marine mammals of the world. U.S. Fish Wildl.
      Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 579, 16 p.

RIDGEWAY, S. H. (editor).

    1972. Mammals of the sea; biology and medicine. Charles C. Thomas,
      Springfield, Ill., xiii + 812 p.

SCHEVILL, W. E.

    1974. The whale problem. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 297
      p.

SERGEANT, D. E., and H. D. FISHER.

    1957. The smaller Cetacea of eastern Canadian waters. J. Fish. Res.
      Board Can. 14:83-115.

SERGEANT, D. E., A. W. MANSFIELD, and B. BECK.

    1970. Inshore records of Cetacea of eastern Canada, 1949-68. J.
      Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:1903-1915.

SLIJPER, E. J.

    1962. Whales. Hutchinson and Co., Ltd., Lond., 475 p. [There is also
      an American edition.]

TOMILIN, A. G.

    1967. Cetacea. Mammals of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries. Isr.
      Program Sci. Transl., Jerusalem, Vol. IX, 717 p. [A compilation of
      worldwide data, originally published in Russian.]

TOWNSEND, C. H.

    1935. The distribution of certain whales as shown by logbook records
      of American whaleships. Zoologica (N.Y.) 19:1-50.

TRUE, F. W.

    1889. Contributions to the natural history of the cetaceans, a
      review of the family Delphinidae. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 36:1-192.

WALKER, E. P.

    1964. Mammals of the world. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, p.
      1083-1145. [Cetaceans. There is also a second, revised edition of
      this work, and a third, revised edition is planned.]

APPENDIX A

TAGS ON WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES

Field studies of cetaceans are very difficult. First, it is extremely
hard to be positive that an individual or a group of animals is the same
from one encounter to the next. This means that it is nearly impossible
to determine, for example, whether herds of animals are resident in an
area or only seasonal visitors. Without information of this kind,
determinations vital to population management, such as sizes of
populations and natural ranges, are impossible to make.

Secondly, as we frequently point out in this guide, individual cetaceans
are usually visible to a surface observer only during the brief moments
when they break the air-water interface to breathe. The majority of
their vital activities (e.g., feeding, reproduction, communication,
establishing and maintaining position within the herd, and defending
against natural enemies) take place primarily below the surface, well
out of view to a surface observer.

In recent years, in an attempt to overcome some of these problems,
scientists have been placing markers on various species of cetaceans and
monitoring their movements. The following brief summary of major methods
of tagging cetaceans is provided to acquaint the reader with markers he
may expect to see in the western North Atlantic.

Static Tags

Since their development in the mid-1920's, numerous Discovery marks
(small stainless steel projectiles with identifying information stamped
on them) have been shot into commercially valuable species by means of a
shotgun. The recovery of these marks from whales subsequently killed in
the whaling industry has provided valuable information on the movement
patterns and on basic aspects of the growth and development of harvested
species of whales. Discovery marks are limited, however, because they
are not visible in a living animal. Reduction in whaling activities will
bring about a significant reduction in their use.

More recent tagging developments relate to marks which will be visible
on a free-swimming animal. Large whales, for instance, may be tagged
with color-coded streamers, such as that shown in Appendix Figure A2.
The tags, which are modified versions of the spaghetti tags first
constructed for use on fishes, consist of a small stainless steel head
for attachment to the blubber and a colorful streamer (sometimes stamped
with information on agencies to which tags should be returned) which is
visible above the surface of the animal. These tags may be applied by
using either a pole applicator or a crossbow and crossbow bolts. Both
applicators are equipped with a stop to limit the depth of penetration
into the animal's blubber. Extensive experimentation indicates that the
tags do not harm the animals and that their application is not
traumatic. With the continued reduction in whaling activity, it is hoped
that the use of such markers in the study of movements of big whales
will be increased.

Because they often ride the bow wave of a moving vessel, thereby making
themselves accessible for tagging and capture, small porpoises and
dolphins have been tagged with a greater variety of marks than large
whales. In recent years, at least three kinds of static tags, including
spaghetti streamers, have been placed on small and medium-sized
cetaceans.

Spaghetti tags, placed in the animal's blubber near the base of the
dorsal fin as it rides the bow wave, stream to conform to the contour of
the animal's body as it swims (App. Fig. A3). It is not possible to
identify the numbers on the spaghetti tag of a moving animal, although
color codes may be used to indicate different species, populations, or
tagging areas.

Button tags and freeze brands are placed on captured animals prior to
their release. The button tags (App. Figs. A4, A5) are placed in the
dorsal fin and should be visible as the animal surfaces to breathe or as
it rides the bow wave. At close range, the number, letter, or design may
also be visible. Freeze brands (App. Fig. A6) are placed on the back or
dorsal fin with a supercooled branding iron, apparently without pain or
discomfort to the animal, and provide a permanent mark which leaves the
tagged animal free of encumbrances. The use of freeze brands shows
promise and should come into more extensive use.

Other static tagging techniques currently under investigation include
the use of laser beams to apply small brands and the use of gas
branding devices. Neither technique, however, has yet reached the field
biologist.

The success of any tagging program using static tags depends on the
resighting of tagged animals and the recovery of tags. For that reason,
we appeal to readers to be on the lookout for tagged animals and to
report sightings to one of the authors.

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A1.--Some of the basic kinds of tags used
to mark porpoises, dolphins, and small whales. A, B, and C are nylon
button tags, which are placed in the dorsal fin of animals and may be
clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe. D is a vinyl
spaghetti tag. (_Photo by R. Krenic, courtesy of Naval Undersea
Center._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A2.--A spaghetti tag in the back of a
blue whale off San Clemente Island, Calif. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A3.--A spaghetti tag in the flank of a
bottlenosed dolphin off Loreto, Baja California, Mexico. This particular
tag was placed unusually low. The streamer and spaghetti tags are
usually placed high on the back, just in front of the dorsal fin, and
are clearly visible as the animal surfaces to breathe. (_Photo by W. E.
Evans._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A4.--A button tag placed on the dorsal
fin of a newly captured saddleback dolphin off Catalina Island, Calif.
(_Photo by W. E. Evans._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A5.--This is the way the button tag
appears on an animal swimming free in the open sea off Palos Verdes,
Calif. (_Photo by B. Noble, courtesy of Marineland of the Pacific._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A6.--Freeze-branding is an apparently
painless method of applying a permanent identifying mark to the body of
a porpoise or whale. (_Photo of a bottlenosed dolphin off Sarasota,
Fla., by A. B. Irvine._)]

Radio Transmitter Tags

In recent years, radio transmitter tags have been developed for use on
marine mammals. As they continue to become more reliable, these tags are
expected to come into more and more widespread use.

Early radio tags (Fig. A7) were simple locator beacons which permitted
the animal to be tracked by sending a signal to a tracking vessel or
aircraft every time the animal surfaced and the antenna tip was exposed.
Even these basic packages provide important information on movement,
activity patterns, and respiration rates.

Subsequent developments have involved the addition of sensors to monitor
the maximum depth of each dive and environmental parameters such as the
water temperature at that depth (Fig. A8).

Logical extensions of these developments include the addition of
numerous other sensors to permit simultaneous monitoring of multiple
aspects of the animal's environment and the transmission of these data
first to aircraft and subsequently to satellites for relay to
shore-based laboratories.

In addition to permitting scientists to define movement patterns and
daily diving patterns of cetaceans, the use of such devices offers an
exciting means of determining the environmental parameters that trigger
changes in their behavior.

Radio transmitter tags, in a variety of configurations, may be
constructed and attached for short-term studies or for long-term
monitoring of migrating animals. In either case, depending on their size
and methods of attachment, radio transmitter tags may be visible on a
free-swimming animal even at a considerable distance.

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A7.--A saddleback dolphin wearing a radio
tag transmitter surfaces to breathe off southern California. (_Photo
courtesy of W. E. Evans._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A8.--A radio transmitter package attached
to the dorsal ridge of a California gray whale. This yearling animal,
captive for most of the first year of its life, was released into the
ocean off San Diego, Calif., in March 1972 and subsequently tracked from
shipboard and aircraft for over 30 days. The sensor transmitter package,
shown in detail in the inset, was designed to measure the maximum depth
of the animal's dive and the water temperature at that depth. (_Photo by
S. Leatherwood._)]

Natural Markings

In addition to these man-made and applied tags, variations in natural
markings and unusual appearances may be used to identify individuals and
herds on repeated encounters. Although many species of cetaceans are
characterized by changes in color pattern with age, individuals
occasionally differ radically in their coloration from their fellows
(App. Figs. A9, A10). In addition, individuals are sometimes seen with
unusually shaped dorsal fins or scarring patterns (App. Fig. A11). These
unusually marked animals should stand out in repeated encounters and can
be a help in identifying a herd from one encounter to another.

Obviously, this list of tags and anomalous markings is not exhaustive.
New marks may be developed at any time. The discussion is intended to
make the reader aware of the value of information on natural or man-made
marks in studies of cetacean natural history. Your cooperation will
perhaps help us to unravel some of the mystery surrounding the
distribution and movements of porpoises, dolphins, and whales.

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A9.--A piebald saddleback dolphin on the
bow of a research vessel off San Clemente Island, Calif. (_Photo by B.
C. Parks._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A10.--A nearly all-white pilot whale seen
off Catalina Island, Calif., in April 1971. The observation of this same
animal at least once each quarter of the year is evidence that it is
resident in that area. (_Photo by S. Leatherwood._)]

[Illustration: Appendix Figure A11.--A herd of pilot whales off Catalina
Island, Calif., including an animal with a partially chopped-off dorsal
fin, which has made him recognizable in repeated encounters with pilot
whales around the various channel islands. (_Photo by G. E. Lingle._)]

APPENDIX B

RECORDING AND REPORTING OBSERVATIONS OF CETACEANS AT SEA

To increase reliability of identifications, observers should train
themselves to ask the following kinds of questions each time cetaceans
are encountered:

1. How large was the animal?

2. Did it have a dorsal fin? If so, what was its size, shape, and
position on the animal's back?

3. Was the animal's blow visible? If so, how tall did it appear? What
was its shape? How frequently did the animal blow?

4. What was the animal's color and color pattern?

5. Did it have any highly distinctive markings?

6. If it was a large or medium-sized animal, did it show its tail flukes
when it began its dive?

7. If it was a medium-sized or small animal, did it approach, avoid, or
ignore the vessel? Did it ride the bow wave?

8. What was its behavior? Did it jump from the water? If so, did it make
a smooth graceful arching jump, or did it spin, somersault, or reenter
with a splash?

One characteristic is rarely sufficient by itself, and the greater
amount of relevant evidence the observer can obtain, the greater the
likelihood he can make a reliable identification. But it is important to
remember that even the most experienced cetologists are often unable to
make an identification. Therefore, even if you cannot positively
identify an animal or even make a good guess as to its identity, do not
hesitate to fill out the rest of the sighting record form and submit it
to an appropriate office. Listing the characters you observe and filling
in as much of the form as possible may enable a cetologist to make an
identification based on those characters and his knowledge of the
distribution, movements, and behavior of cetaceans. In this regard, a
sketch made as soon as possible after the encounter and photographs
taken from as many angles as possible will aid in the identification.

Two sample sighting reports are provided to demonstrate a method of
recording observations. The first report, "Sighting Information," is
completed as an example and is footnoted for explanation. The second
report, "Cetacean Data Record." located at the end of the guide, is
blank and may be photocopied in bulk for use in the field. Copies of
this or similar forms are available from any of the authors or from
National Marine Fisheries Service, Tiburon, Calif. Even if no form is
available, however, observations should be recorded in rough form, in as
much detail as possible.

Reliable intermittent reports of cetaceans are of interest to
cetologists. Their locations indicate seasonality of distribution, and
their frequencies help indicate relative abundances of the various
species. Because scientists are attempting to determine areas in which
cetaceans are often, occasionally, seldom, or never found, and are
ultimately describing why animals are found in one area and not another,
persons who want to go a step further in their participation in observer
programs may want to keep and report records of their entire cruise
tracks and zones in which vigilance was maintained but no cetaceans were
observed. Data obtained in this manner may be used as the foundation of
estimates of cetacean populations, estimates which are extremely
difficult to obtain by any other method.

To be of maximum use in such calculations, however, records of this kind
_must_ include the following minimum information: time and location of
beginning and ending of each continuous watch, weather conditions as
they affect visibility, sea state, ship's speed, height of the
observer(s) above the water, number of persons on watch, and details of
each sighting, particularly the estimated distance of the animal(s) from
the ship's track.

For a sample of a fictional continuous watch report might look like the
following. If sighting forms are available, these observations may be
recorded directly onto them. Additional information can be recorded on
the opposite side of the forms.

[Illustration: Appendix Figure B1.--A sample cruise track with cetacean
sightings. See text for detailed data recording.]

GENERAL INFORMATION

  RV Melville (34-foot converted fishing boat)
  U.S. Department of Commerce
  NMFS

  Hydrographic Cruise Miami, Florida to Flamingo, Florida

  28-31 January 1973

  2 observers (G.E. Lingle and G.M. Mohr)

  EYE LEVEL OF OBSERVERS: 16 feet above water

  AVERAGE SHIP SPEED: 8.0 knots during continuous watch

  CONTINUOUS WATCH INFORMATION (REFER TO FIG. B1):

             START END   START          END
  LEG  DATE  TIME  TIME POSITION       POSITION  WEATHER--VISIBILITY

  1-2  2/28  1200  1730 U. Miami Dock  25-42N    Beaufort II Visibility
                        Va. Key        80-02W    3 miles

  3-4  2/29  0800  1500 24-26N         25-00N    Beaufort I Visibility
                        80-04E         81-04W    3.5 miles

  5-6  2/30  0700  1680 25-12N         25-12N    3.5 miles
                        80-46W         81-10W

  7-8  2/31  0700  0900 25-00          Flamingo  3.5 miles
                        80-45W

CETACEAN OBSERVATIONS (REFER TO FIG. B1):

  A-2/28 1048   16 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_. 6 miles
                outside our course, headed west--rode bow briefly. Large
                concentrations of sea birds in area. One porpoise freeze
                branded N-1 on dorsal fin.

  B-2/29 1100   2 right whales directly ahead of vessel headed
                NE--40-foot female? with calf. 2 bottlenosed dolphins
                accompanying the whales were riding pressure wave off
                whale's head.

  C-2/29 1400   25-30 spotted porpoises, _Stenella plagiodon_, 1.25 miles
                outside our course, heading 240° mag. Did not ride bow
                wave.

  D-2/30 1300   8 bottlenosed dolphins, _Tursiops truncatus_, 200-300
                yards inshore of our course, milling in area of
                concentrations of mullet and other small schooling fishes,
                dolphins (porpoises) and birds feeding on fish.

SIGHTING INFORMATION

DATE AND LOCAL TIME [Handwriting: 27 January 1977 0845] LOCATION[13]
[Handwriting: Ca. 25°00'N, 80°30'W]

WEATHER CONDITIONS [Handwriting: Scattered rain squalls, visibility
1-1.5 mi, Temp 42°F]

OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS[14] [Handwriting: Swells 1-2 feet, scattered
white caps Winds from S.E. @ 3-8 knots, gusting in squalls to 15 knots.]

SPECIES[15] [Handwriting: Right Whales, Eubalaena glacialis (45 ft/15
ft)] NUMBER OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 2]

HEADING OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: 015°] SPEED OF ANIMAL(S)
[Handwriting: 1-2] (MAGNETIC) (KNOTS)

ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS[16] [Handwriting: Bottlenosed dolphins, Tursiops
truncatus (3) and unidentified gulls (10-20)]

TAGS OR UNUSUAL MARKINGS [Handwriting: One whale had deep slash across
back about 3 ft. behind blowholes-area of slash was white.]

CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVED WHICH RESULTED IN SPECIES IDENTIFICATION
[Handwriting: 45 ft, No dorsal fin, smooth black back, high arching
jaws, yellowish-orange growths on head, coastal habitat]

BEHAVIOR OF ANIMAL(S) [Handwriting: Adult whale swam steadily north,
calf close beside, Bottlenosed dolphins riding in front of adults head.]

SKETCHES [Hand-drawn illustration of whales, dolphins and distinguishing
features.]

PHOTOS AVAILABLE YES NO

[Handwriting: Photos (GEL, Roll 16, frames 8-30)]

ADDITIONAL REMARKS [Handwriting: Dolphins remained with whales entire
1/2 hour of observation, appently riding on pressure wave.]

NAME AND ADDRESS OF OBSERVER (SHIP OR A/C) [Handwriting: G. E. Lingle,
Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, California 92132 and G. A. Antonelis,
NMFS, Seattle, Washington 98105 aboard the RV Cape]

[Footnote 13: If latitude and longitude are not readily available,
record best available position, for example 5 hours at 10 knots, SE of
Miami.]

[Footnote 14: Any oceanographic or bathymetric information obtainable at
the time of sighting may be significant. Such measurements as water
depth, presence of large fish schools, or deep scattering
layer/organisms (DSL) characteristics of the bottom (e.g., flat sand
plain, sea mount, submarine cliff), surface temperature, depth of
thermocline, and salinity should be included if available. In the
Pacific, similar data have been used to demonstrate reliable
associations there between saddleback dolphins and significant features
of bottom relief and relationships between the onset of their nighttime
deep diving (feeding) patterns and the upward migration of the
scattering layers.]

[Footnote 15: Sometimes two or more species of cetacean are found
together. If more than one species is sighted, try to identify each.
Give both common and scientific names of each, and even if you cannot
identify the animal(s) describe, sketch, and, if possible, photograph
them and fill out the rest of the sighting report.]

[Footnote 16: Describe any tags seen (see Appendix A) and state their
size, shape, color, and position on the animal's body and any symbols or
numbers they contain.]

APPENDIX C

STRANDED WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND PORPOISES

With a Key to the Identification of Stranded Cetaceans of the Western
North Atlantic

Stranded Animals

As we discussed briefly in the introduction to this guide, whales,
dolphins, and porpoises sometimes "strand" or "beach" themselves,
individually or in entire herds, for a complex of still incompletely
understood reasons. Though the reasons suggested for these strandings
appear almost as numerous as the strandings themselves, two tenable
generalizations have recently been proposed.

Strandings of lone individuals usually involve an animal which is sick
or injured. Mass strandings, involving from several to several hundred
individuals, appear to be far more complex and may result from fear
reactions, from extremely bad weather conditions, from herd-wide disease
conditions, or from failure of the echolocation system due to
physiological problems or environmental conditions which combine to
reduce its effectiveness, to mention only a few.

Whatever their causes, however, cetacean strandings usually attract
crowds and elicit much public interest and sympathy. There are
frequently attempts to save the lives of the animals involved.

Individually stranded cetaceans rarely survive, even if they are found
soon after stranding and transported to adequate holding facilities.
This does not mean that every attempt should not be made to save them.

In mass strandings, some individuals may be entirely healthy, and if
they are found soon enough after stranding, properly protected and
transported, and correctly cared for in the initial few days after
collection, they may survive in captivity. Attempts to rescue all the
animals in a mass stranding by towing them out to sea have almost always
been frustrating because the animals usually swim repeatedly back onto
the beach.

If you discover a stranding and before you become involved in an attempt
to save a live stranded animal or to collect data from a dead one, you
should be aware of the following:

MARINE MAMMALS ARE CURRENTLY PROTECTED BY LAW. Under provisions of the
Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, it is unlawful for persons without
a permit to handle, harass, or possess any marine mammal. It is within
the authority of State officials and employees of the National Marine
Fisheries Service to arrange for the care of live animals through
certified institutions, such as many of those listed in Appendix E.
(Even if the animals were not protected by law, any impulse to take them
to backyard swimming pools, for instance, should be tempered by the
knowledge that their chances of survival are far greater in an
institution with the facilities and expertise to properly care for
them.) The best general rule is to notify the nearest State or National
Marine Fisheries Service office. If you prefer, however, you may
contact one of the institutions listed in the appendix and ask them to
handle the situation. Some will already have permits to investigate
strandings. Most will be anxious to help.

Although _you cannot remove the animal from the beach without a permit_,
you can help keep it alive until it can be removed. Here are a few
hints. WHILE WAITING FOR HELP TO ARRIVE, ENDEAVOR TO KEEP THE ANIMAL AS
COMFORTABLE AS POSSIBLE. IF IT IS NOT TOO LARGE AND SURF CONDITIONS
PERMIT, IT SHOULD BE REMOVED TO SHALLOW WATER WHERE IT IS BARELY AFLOAT.
The buoyancy of the water will reduce the stress to the animal and will
help to keep it cool and prevent overheating--a real danger to stranded
cetaceans.

Whether or not the animal can be floated, CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO
PROTECT IT FROM SUNBURN, DRYING OUT, AND OVERHEATING. IF IT IS AFLOAT,
EXPOSED PARTS SHOULD BE FREQUENTLY SPLASHED DOWN. IF IT IS HIGH AND DRY,
IT SHOULD BE COVERED WITH DAMP CLOTH, PARTICULARLY ON THE DORSAL FIN,
FLIPPERS, AND FLUKES, AND THE BODY AND THE TERRAIN SHOULD BE FREQUENTLY
WATERED TO PREVENT THE ANIMAL FROM OVERHEATING IN THE AREAS IN CONTACT
WITH THE SAND OR ROCK.

IN ANY CASE, BE CAREFUL TO LEAVE THE BLOWHOLE FREE SO THAT THE ANIMAL
CAN BREATHE. NOTE ALSO THAT THE EYES ARE PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE AND
SUSCEPTIBLE TO INJURY; THEY SHOULD BE COVERED WITH A WET CLOTH AND
TREATED WITH SPECIAL CARE.

With luck, this careful handling will be rewarded with the animal's
being picked up and transported to an aquarium, where it can receive
proper attention. But even IF THE ANIMAL CANNOT BE SAVED, COLLECTION AND
EXAMINATION OF THE CARCASS CAN PROVIDE VALUABLE INFORMATION TO
SCIENTISTS WORKING ON THE BIOLOGY OF CETACEANS, OR ON SUCH PROBLEMS AS
THEIR DISEASE CONDITIONS AND THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS ON
THEM. DEAD STRANDED CETACEANS EVEN IN ADVANCED STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION
ARE ALSO AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF MATERIALS FOR MUSEUM STUDY AND DISPLAY.
THEREFORE, EVERY ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO GET THE CARCASS INTO THE BEST
HANDS. DEAD CETACEANS, LIKE THE LIVE ONES, ARE PROTECTED BY LAW AND MAY
NOT BE REMOVED WITHOUT A PERMIT. The procedure for obtaining permission
to collect them is the same as that outlined for live strandings. The
majority of the institutions along the western North Atlantic coast will
respond to calls about live or dead strandings. Even if you are unable
to contact an appropriate official, you can still collect some valuable
information by identifying the specimen, using the following key, and by
collecting measurements (see Appendix D).

[Illustration: Appendix Figure C1.--Whales and dolphins, like this mixed
school of false killer whales and bottlenosed dolphins, sometimes strand
themselves individually or as entire herds for a complex of still
incompletely understood reasons. (_Photo from Japan by S. Ohsumi._)]

Identifying the Animal

Cetaceans may be found during or shortly after the stranding or many
months later, when the carcass is bloated or rotted nearly beyond
recognition. If the stranded animal is alive or freshly dead, it can be
identified by any of the characteristics itemized in the text. But even
if it is in an advanced stage of decomposition it can be identified
using the key below. In general numbers and descriptions of teeth (Table
1) and numbers and descriptions of baleen plates (Table 2) persist
longest as reliable identifying characteristics. If they are still
detectable on the carcass, numbers and lengths of ventral grooves may
also be used to separate the balaenopterine whales.[17]

[Footnote 17: The tables were prepared primarily from Tomilin (1967) and
supplemented by miscellaneous published papers and our own observations.
The sections on toothed whales in the key were developed following the
general outline of Moore (1953).]

In order to use the key below, begin with the first pair of opposing
characteristics--one of the two will apply to the specimen you are
examining. On the line following that statement there will be a
paragraph number, go to that paragraph. There you will find two more
paired, opposing characteristics. Again, one of the two will apply to
the specimen you are examining. Select that one and go to the paragraph
indicated on the line following it. Continue this procedure until the
statement which is true for your specimen is followed by a species name
instead of a reference to another paragraph. This name identifies the
specimen. To verify your identification go to the discussion of that
species in the text. With a little practice and careful attention to
details, identification of whales, dolphins, and porpoises will become
easier.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF STRANDED CETACEANS OF THE WESTERN NORTH
ATLANTIC

   1. a. Double blowhole; no teeth present in either jaw; baleen plates
      in upper jaws.                 (Baleen whale)                 Go to 2

      b. Single blowhole; teeth present (sometimes concealed beneath
      the gums); no baleen plates in upper jaw.
                                     (Toothed whale)                Go to 9

   2. a. Ventral grooves present; dorsal fin present; viewed in profile,
      upper jaw relatively flat and broad.
                                     (Balaenopterine whale)         Go to 3

      b. Ventral grooves absent; dorsal fin absent; viewed in profile,
      upper jaw and lower lips strongly arched; upper jaw very narrow.
                                     (Right whale)                  Go to 8

   3. a. Ventral grooves end before navel.[18]                      Go to 4

      b. Ventral grooves extend to or beyond navel                  Go to 5

   4. a. 50-70 ventral grooves, longest often ending between flippers;
      baleen less than 8 inches (20.3 cm), mostly white or yellowish
      white (some posterior plates may be dark) with 15-25 white
      bristles per centimeter; 300-325 plates per side.
                                     Minke whale, p. 63

      b. 38-56 ventral grooves, longest ending well short of navel;
      baleen less than 31 inches (78.7 cm), black (some anteriormost
      plates may be white) and with 35-60 fine silky white bristles per
      centimeter; 318 340 plates per side.
                                     Sei whale, p. 32

   5. a. Flippers one-fourth to one-third length of the body length and
      knobbed on leading edge; less than 22 broad and conspicuous
      ventral grooves, longest extending at least to navel; head
      covered with numerous knobs; baleen less than 24 inches (61 cm),
      ash black to olive brown (sometimes whitish) with 10-35 grayish
      white bristles per centimeter; 270-400 plates per side.
                                     Humpback whale, p. 40

      b. Flippers less than one-fifth body length; no knobs; from 40 to
      100 fine ventral grooves, longest extending at least to navel;
      head lacks knobs                                              Go to 6

   6. a. Three ridges on head, one from blowholes, forward towards tip
      of snout, one auxiliary groove along each side of main ridge;
      40-50 ventral grooves; 250-300 slate-gray baleen plates with
      15-35 dirty gray bristles per centimeter.
                                     Bryde's whale, p. 37

      b. Only one prominent ridge on head,[19] from just in front of
      blowholes forward towards tip of snout; 55-100 ventral grooves
                                                                    Go to 7

   7. a. Head broad and U-shaped; dorsal fin less than 13 inches (33 cm)
      and very far back on tail stock; baleen all black with 10-30
      black bristles per centimeter; plates extremely broad relative to
      length.
                                     Blue whale, p. 19

      b. Head broad at gape but sharply pointed on tip; dorsal fin to
      24 inches (61 cm) and slightly more than one-third forward from
      tail; right front one-fifth to one-third of baleen ivory white to
      yellowish white, remainder dark gray to bluish gray streaked with
      yellowish white; plates have 10-35 gray or white bristles per
      centimeter and are narrow relative to length.
                                     Fin whale, p. 26

   8. a. Top of snout not covered with callosities; 325-360 baleen
      plates per side, longest reaching 14 feet (4.3 m); plates black
      with black bristles (anterior portion of some plates may be
      whitish).
                                     Bowhead whale, p. 49

      b. Top of snout covered with callosities, often including lice
      and/or barnacles; 250-390 baleen plates per side, longest
      reaching 7.2 feet (2.2 m); plates dirty or yellowish gray (some
      anterior plates all or part white and some posterior plates brown
      or black) with 35-70 bristles per centimeter.
                                     Right whale, p. 52

   9. a. Upper part of head extending appreciably past tip of lower jaw;
      lower jaw markedly undershot and considerably narrower than upper
      jaw                                                          Go to 10

      b. Upper part of head not extending appreciably past tip of lower
      jaw; lower jaw approximately same width as upper jaw         Go to 12

  10. a. Body more than 13 feet (4.0 m); head massive, to one-third of
      body length; blowhole located far forward of eyes and to left
      front of head; dorsal fin low, triangular or rounded followed by
      series of knuckles or crenulations; 18-25 teeth in each lower jaw
      fit into sockets in upper jaw (10-16 upper teeth rarely emerge).
                                     Sperm whale, p. 57

      b. Body less than 13 feet (4.0 m); head considerably less than
      one-third body length; blowhole located approximately even with
      eyes on top of head, slightly displaced to left but not on left
      front of head; conspicuous dorsal fin present; 8-16 teeth in each
      lower jaw fitting into sockets in upper jaw                  Go to 11

  11. a. No creases on throat; dorsal fin small and located in latter
      third of back; 12-16 teeth (rarely 10-11) in each lower jaw.
                                     Pygmy sperm whale, p. 144

      b. Inconspicuous creases on throat; dorsal fin tall and falcate,
      resembling that of the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, and located
      near middle of back; 8-11 (rarely 13) extremely sharp teeth in
      each lower jaw; rarely 1-3 teeth in each upper jaw.
                                     Dwarf sperm whale, p. 148

  12. a. Two conspicuous grooves on outer surface of throat forming
      V-shape pointed forward; notch absent or inconspicuous in flukes.
                                     (Beaked whale)                Go to 13

      b. No conspicuous grooves on outer surface of throat; deep median
      notch on rear margin of tail flukes                          Go to 18

  13. a. A pair of teeth located at the tip of the lower jaw (erupted
      only in adult males, concealed in females and immature
      animals)                                                     Go to 14

      b. No teeth at the tip of the lower jaw                      Go to 16

NOTE: Immature individuals of the species covered in paragraphs 14 and
15 may not be readily identifiable without museum preparation and
examination.

  14. a. Two well-developed teeth, erupted or hidden beneath the gum,
      are compressed so they appear elliptical in cross section; body
      to 16 feet (4.9 m); united portion of the lower jaws[20] more than
      one-fourth the length of the entire lower jaw.
                                     True's beaked whale, p. 77

      b. Two well-developed teeth substantially less flattened so that
      they appear more nearly rounded in cross section             Go to 15

  15. a. Distinct elongated beak; pronounced bulge to forehead;
      blowhole located in lateral crease behind bulge; body to 32 feet
      (9.8 m); sometimes second pair of teeth behind first in lower
      jaw.
                                     Northern bottlenosed whale, p. 67

      b. No distinct beak; forehead slightly concave in front of
      blowhole, increasing in concavity with increasing size; body to
      23 feet (7.0 m); united portion of lower jaw less than one-fourth
      the length of the entire lower jaw; head of adult males all
      white.
                                     Goosebeaked whale, p. 70

  16. a. A single pair of teeth in the united portion of the lower jaw,
      at the suture of the mandible (about one-third of the way from
      the tip of the snout to the gape); length to 22 feet (6.7 m);
      flukes less than one-fifth the body length.
                                     Antillean beaked whale, p. 78

      b. A single pair of teeth back of united portion of lower jaw;
      body less than 17 feet (5.2 m)                               Go to 17

  17. a. Teeth not exceptionally large and located immediately back of
      united portion of lower jaw, about half way from the tip of the
      snout to the gape.
                                     North Sea beaked whale, p. 82

      b. Teeth exceptionally large, located on bony prominences near
      the corner of the mouth, and oriented backwards; corners of
      mouth, particularly in adult males, have high-arching contour;
      flukes to one-sixth or one-fifth of the body length.
                                     Dense-beaked whale, p. 80

  18. a. Rostrum, if present, not sharply demarcated from forehead Go to 19

      b. Head has a distinct, though sometimes short rostrum separated
      from the forehead by a distinct crease angle                 Go to 30

  19. a. Teeth spade-shaped, laterally compressed and relatively small;
      body to only about 5 feet (1.5 m); 22-28 teeth in each upper and
      lower jaw.
                                     Harbor porpoise, p. 150

      b. Teeth conical and sharply pointed (in cross section circular,
      or slightly flattened anteroposteriorly)                     Go to 20

  20. a. No distinct dorsal fin; back marked instead with small dorsal
      ridge near midpoint of back.                                 Go to 21

      b. Distinct dorsal fin, in middle or forward third of the back
                                                                   Go to 22

  21. a. 8-11 teeth in each upper jaw, 8-9 in each lower jaw; body of
      young slate gray or brownish, adults white; short broad rostrum.
                                     Beluga, p. 99

      b. No visible teeth (or two teeth) in upper jaw of adults only;
      in males and sometimes females one or both of these may grow up
      to 9-foot (2.7 m) tusk in left-hand (sinestral) spiral; no
      rostrum.
                                     Narwhal, p. 102

  22. a. Head long and conical                                     Go to 23

      b. Head blunt                                                Go to 24

  23. a. 20-27 teeth in each upper and lower jaw; crowns of teeth often
      marked with many fine vertical wrinkles; body to about 8 feet
      (2.4 m).
                                     Rough-toothed dolphin, p. 135

      b. 26-35 teeth in each upper and lower jaw; teeth smooth; body to
      about 5.6 feet (1.7 m); distribution restricted to northern coast
      of South America, in the Guianas, and adjacent eastward territory
      of Venezuela.
                                     Guiana dolphin, p. 132

  24. a. Teeth usually at front end of lower jaw only, 2-7 pairs
      (rarely teeth in upper jaw); all teeth may have fallen out of the
      lower jaw of older specimens or may be extensively worn; forehead
      with median crease; dorsal fin tall and distinct to 15 inches
      (38.1 cm); body to 13 feet (4.0 m).
                                     Grampus, p. 96

      b. Teeth in both upper and lower jaws, 7 or more pairs, forehead
      with no median crease                                        Go to 25

  25. a. Flippers large and paddle-shaped, ovate, and rounded on the
      distal end; dorsal fin tall and erect to 6 feet (1.8 m) in males
      and 3 feet (0.9 m) in females; 10-12 teeth in each jaw; teeth to
      1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter.
                                     Killer whale, p. 84

      b. Flippers long and pointed                                 Go to 26

  26. a. Dorsal fin located in forward one-third of body, very broad at
      the base; head bulbous.
                                     (Pilot whale)                 Go to 27

      b. Dorsal fin located near midpoint of back; head long       Go to 28

  27. a. Flippers one-fifth of body length, or more.
                                     Atlantic pilot whale, p. 91

      b. Flippers one-sixth of body length, or less.
                                     Short-finned pilot whale, p. 94

  28. a. Flipper has distinctive hump on forward margin; 8-11 prominent
      teeth curved backwards and inwards, in each upper and lower jaw.
                                     False killer whale, p. 88

      b. Flipper lacks distinctive hump on forward margin; 10-25 teeth
      in each upper and lower jaw                                  Go to 29

  29. a. 8-13 teeth in each jaw.
                                     Pygmy killer whale, p. 138

      b. 20-25 teeth in each upper jaw, 21-24 teeth in each lower jaw.
                                     Many-toothed blackfish, p. 142

  30. a. Beak short, usually less than about 1 inch (2.5 cm)       Go to 31

      b. Beak more than 1 inch (2.5 cm)                            Go to 33

  31. a. Flippers very short; dorsal fin small and triangular; 38-44
      teeth in each jaw; body to at least 8 feet (2.4 m); distinct
      black stripe from beak to area of anus; in profile beak shows
      very little separation from forehead.
                                     Fraser's dolphin, p. 120

      b. Flippers long relative to body length; dorsal fin tall and
      distinctly falcate; 22-40 teeth in each jaw; in profile, beak
      shows distinct separation from forehead.
                                     (_Lagenorhynchus_ sp.)        Go to 32

  32. a. 22-28 teeth in each jaw; dorsal fin all black; body to about
      10 feet (3.1 m).
                                     White-beaked dolphin, p. 126

      b. 30-40 teeth in each jaw (some animals have greater number in
      upper than in lower jaw); dorsal fin part gray, part black; body
      to about 9 feet (2.7 m).
                                     Atlantic white-sided dolphin, p. 123

  33. a. 20-26 teeth in the upper jaws; 18-24 in the lower jaws; body
      to 12 feet (3.7 m); teeth may be extensively worn.
                                     Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, p. 128

      b. 26 or more teeth in both upper and lower jaws             Go to 34

  34. a. 29-36 teeth in each upper jaw; 28-36 in each lower jaw.
                                     (Spotted dolphins)            Go to 35

      b. More than 40 teeth in each upper and lower jaw            Go to 36

NOTE: Characters in paragraph 35 are usable only on fresh specimens.
Spotted dolphins in advanced stages of decomposition can be
distinguished only with museum preparation and examination.

  35. a. Bridle present (dark lines from eye to rostrum and from
      flippers to corner of mouth); cape on head distinct; no spinal
      blaze.
                                     Bridled dolphin, p. 108

      b. Bridle absent though there is a light line from the flipper to
      the eye; cape indistinct; spinal blaze.
                                     Atlantic spotted dolphin, p. 104

  36. a. From 46-65 small, sharply pointed teeth; body dark gray on
      back, tan to light gray on sides, white on belly; beak dark gray
      or black above, white below, and often black-tipped; body to
      about 7 feet (2.1 m).
                                     Spinner dolphin, p. 110

      b. From 40 to 50 teeth in each upper and lower jaw           Go to 37

  37. a. Body to 9 feet (2.7 m); black to dark gray on back, gray on
      sides, white on belly; distinctive black stripes from eye to
      anus, eye to flipper, and dark dorsal coloration to side above
      flipper.
                                     Striped dolphin, p. 113

      b. Body to 8.5 feet (2.6 m) but usually less than 7.5 feet (2.3
      m); body dark on back with light thoracic patch and crisscross or
      hourglass pattern on side; black stripe from middle of lower jaw
      to origin of flipper.
                                     Saddleback dolphin, p. 116

[Footnote 18: Counts of ventral grooves are made between the flippers
and do not include shorter grooves often found on the side of the head
and on the side above the flippers.]

[Footnote 19: Blue whale has faint lateral ridges.]

[Footnote 20: By feeling between the lower jaws on the ventral surface
and moving the finger forward towards the tip of the snout, one can feel
the point at which the two lower jaws become united (called the
symphysis). This location is an important reference point in
distinguishing among the species separated in paragraphs 14, 15, and
16.]

APPENDIX D

RECORDING AND REPORTING DATA ON STRANDED CETACEANS

So that measurements of cetaceans taken at different times and at widely
divergent locations can be compared, the measurements and the methods of
taking them have been standardized, although there is still some
disagreement about which of the measurements are most important. The
data form located at the end of this guide, usable on both baleen and
toothed whales, includes all the measurements routinely taken by
cetologists plus a few new ones the authors consider important. The form
and the directions for taking measurements are synthesized from those
currently in use by the Naval Undersea Center, San Diego; the Fisheries
Research Board of Canada; the University of Rhode Island; the University
of Florida; the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.; and the National
Marine Fisheries Service, La Jolla, Calif.

Data on stranded cetaceans should be collected by someone experienced in
handling and measuring cetaceans. The legal problems associated with
collection of a specimen are discussed in Appendix C. In addition to
having a permit or knowing how to obtain permission to collect the
specimen, persons active in cetacean research will usually have access
to laboratory facilities where in-depth studies, including postmortem
examinations and collection of tissues for specialized laboratory
examinations, can be conducted. Furthermore, specialized equipment, and
the number of steps required to do a complete job with the specimen,
make the procedure prohibitive for most noncetologists. Diligent
attempts should be made to contact one of the institutions listed in
Appendix E. If no one is available and no permit or approval is
obtainable, you are limited to photographing, sketching, and measuring
the specimen without removing the carcass or any part of the carcass
from the beach.

Any person taking data on stranded cetaceans should follow the
instructions itemized below, being careful to take measurements in the
manner prescribed and to record data in as much detail as possible.

1. Specimens should be preserved in 10% neutral Formalin, except for the
stomach contents, which should be kept in 70% ethyl or 40% isopropyl
alcohol, or be frozen. Commercial rubbing alcohol will suffice. As a
minimum, the head, flippers, and reproductive tract should be preserved.
If no other method of handling the specimen is available, and only as a
last resort, it may be buried in the sand well above the high tide line
and carefully marked so it can later be recovered. Burying usually
results in the loss of some vital parts.

2. The carcass should be examined for external parasites particularly in
such areas as the blowhole(s), the eyes, any wounds on the trailing
edges of the dorsal fin, flippers, and flukes. Occasionally barnacles
will be found on teeth or baleen plates. Like the stomach contents,
parasites should be preserved in alcohol.

3. Photographs and sketches are a valuable part of data
collection--views of the animal(s) from as many angles as possible, and
detailed shots of such features as baleen plates, mouth and teeth,
ventral grooves, flippers, flukes, and unusual scars or coloration
should be included. Including a ruler for size reference may be helpful.

4. Although scientific data are usually expressed in metric units,
measurements should be taken in whatever units are readily available.
All measurements should be taken in a straight line, as shown in the
diagram, unless otherwise noted. Measurements which refer to the rostrum
are taken from the tip of the upper jaw. The external auditory meatus
(ear) is a small inconspicuous opening located just below and behind the
eye. To locate the ear the observer must sometimes scrape away some of
the skin to expose the unpigmented ear canal beneath it.

5. Throat grooves are short grooves found on the throat of beaked
whales, sperm whales, and dwarf sperm whales. Ventral grooves are long
grooves found only on balaenopterine whales. Ventral grooves should be
counted between the flippers.

It is difficult to overstress the importance of data from stranded
cetaceans. For some species, the only data available have come from
stranded individuals. By carefully gleaning from each specimen all the
data that can be collected, you will make a valuable addition to the
body of knowledge on these elusive animals.

[Illustration: Appendix Figure D1.--Locations and details of important
measurements.]

APPENDIX E

LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO CONTACT REGARDING STRANDED CETACEANS

The following list includes many of the institutions in the area covered
by this guide, which are likely to respond to calls about stranded
cetaceans. The institutions on the mainland are listed roughly in order
from north to south, following the contour of the coast. Several island
institutions and organizations are also listed.

These institutions are the ones that come to mind as having taken an
active interest in cetacean strandings in the recent past. In addition
to these, almost any university biology or zoology department, State or
Federal conservation agency or marine laboratory, or local natural
history museum or society can recommend an interested biologist if no
staff member is interested. Such organizations are widely distributed on
or near the coasts and are usually adequately listed in local telephone
directories.

It should be obvious that organizations such as oceanaria are the most
likely ones to be interested in live animals on an emergency basis. Even
so, these organizations often cooperate with biologists with whom they
are familiar and so will pick up dead animals for them as well.
Conversely, museums and the like are most interested in the dead animals
as they have no facilities for handling live ones. Nevertheless, they
often cooperate with institutions equipped to handle live animals and
will usually help in making arrangements for picking up the live ones.
Therefore, rather than the finder's making a decision as to whether or
not an institution should be called because the animal is alive or dead,
we would urge that the nearest organization in the following list be
contacted under any circumstances.

Space is provided at the end of the list for additions of contacts
inadvertently overlooked in compiling this list, or of institutions
which come into being after its publication.

CANADA

Newfoundland

  Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's.

Nova Scotia

  Bedford Institute, Dartmouth.

  Departments of Biology, Psychology and/or Physiology, Dalhousie
    University, Halifax.

  Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax.

Quebec

  Arctic Unit, Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ste. Anne de Bellevue.

Ontario

  Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, Guelph.

UNITED STATES

Maine

  see Massachusetts.

New Hampshire

  see Massachusetts.

Massachusetts

  Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole.

  New England Aquarium, Central Wharf, Boston.

  Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge.

Rhode Island

  Narragansett Marine Laboratory, University of Rhode Island, Kingston.

Connecticut

  Mystic Marine Life Aquarium, Mystic.

New York

  New York Aquarium, Coney Island, Brooklyn.

  American Museum of Natural History, Department of Mammals, New York City.

New Jersey

  Department of Biochemistry, Rutgers University, New Brunswick,

  also see New York.

Delaware

  see New York,

  see New Jersey.

Maryland

  Department of Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

  also see District of Columbia.

District of Columbia

  Division of Mammals, United States National Museum.

Virginia

  Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point.

  also see District of Columbia.

North Carolina

  Duke Marine Laboratory, Beaufort.

  Institute of Fisheries Research, University of North Carolina,
    Morehead City.

South Carolina

  Charleston Museum, Charleston.

  Grice Marine Biological Laboratory, College of Charleston, Charleston.

Georgia

  The Georgia Conservancy, The Clusky Building, 127 Abercorn Street,
    Savannah.

  University of Georgia Marine Institute, Sapelo Island (Darien).

Florida

  Marineland of Florida, St. Augustine

  University of Florida Biocommunication and Marine Mammal Research
    Facility, St. Augustine.

  Ocean World, Ft. Lauderdale.

  Wometco Miami Seaquarium, Miami.

  University of Miami School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Miami.

  Sea World, Orlando.

  Mote Marine Laboratory, Placida.

  Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota.

  Aquatarium, St. Petersburg Beach.

  Florida's Gulfarium, Ft. Walton Beach.

Alabama

  see Florida (Florida's Gulfarium).

  see Mississippi.

Mississippi

  Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs.

Louisiana

  Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.

  Marine Life Park, Gulfport.

Texas

  Sea-Arama Marineworld, Galveston.

  Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University,
    College Station.

  Department of Zoology, University of Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi.

  University of Texas, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas.

Puerto Rico

  Commercial Fisheries Laboratory, Department of Agriculture,
    Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez.

  Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Santurce (San
    Juan).

Virgin Islands

  Caribbean Research Institute, Red Hook, St. Thomas.

OTHERS

Mexico

  Instituto Nacionale de Investigaciones Biologia Pesquera, Division de
    Vertebrados Marinos, Mexico 7, D.F.

  also see Texas.

Venezuela

  Universidad de Oriente, Nucleo de Nueva Esparta, Isla Margarita.

Jamaica

  Department of Zoology, University of the West Indies, Mona (Kingston).

  Science Museum, Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.

Bahamas

  Lerner Marine Laboratory, Bimini.

  Nassau Aquarium, Nassau, New Providence.

Bermuda

  Bermuda Biological Station, St. George's.

  Government Aquarium and Museum, Flatts.

Cuba

  Laboratorio de Vertebrados, Instituto de Biologia, Academie de
    Ciencias de Cuba, Havana.

                         SIGHTING INFORMATION

  DATE AND LOCAL TIME__________________________LOCATION_________________

  WEATHER CONDITIONS____________________________________________________

  OCEANOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS______________________________________________

  SPECIES_______________________________________NUMBER OF ANIMAL(S)_____

  HEADING OF ANIMAL(S)__________________________SPEED OF ANIMAL(S)______
      (MAGNETIC)                                    (KNOTS)

  ASSOCIATED ORGANISMS__________________________________________________

  TAGS OR UNUSUAL MARKINGS______________________________________________

  CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVED WHICH RESULTED IN SPECIES IDENTIFICATION_____
  ______________________________________________________________________

  BEHAVIOR OF ANIMAL(S)_________________________________________________

  SKETCHES

                                           PHOTOS AVAILABLE YES___NO____

  ADDITIONAL REMARKS____________________________________________________

  NAME AND ADDRESS OF OBSERVER (SHIP OR A/C)____________________________

                           CETACEAN DATA RECORD

  SPECIES___________________________________SEX___LENGTH_____WEIGHT_____

  DATE/TIME STRANDED__________________DATE/TIME DATA COLLECTED__________

  LOCATION OF COLLECTION________________________________________________

  OBSERVER NAME/ADDRESS_________________________________________________

  SPECIMEN SENT TO______________________________________________________

                                  Straight line parallel
                                     to the body axis     Point to point

  MEASUREMENTS:

  1. Tip of upper jaw to deepest
     part of fluke notch          ______________________  ______________

  2. Tip of upper jaw to center
     of anus                      ______________________  ______________

  3. Tip of upper jaw to center
     of genital slit              ______________________  ______________

  4. Tip of lower jaw to end of
     ventral grooves              ______________________  ______________

  5. Tip of upper jaw to center
     of umbilicus                 ______________________  ______________

  6. Tip of upper jaw to top of
     dorsal fin                   ______________________  ______________

  7. Tip of upper jaw to leading
     edge of dorsal fin           ______________________  ______________

  8a. Tip of upper jaw to anterior
      insertion of flipper (right)______________________  ______________

   b. Tip of upper jaw to anterior
      insertion of flipper (left) ______________________  ______________

  9. Tip of upper jaw to center
     of blowhole(s)               ______________________  ______________

  10. Tip of upper jaw to anterior
      edge of blowhole(s)         ______________________  ______________

  11a. Tip of upper jaw to
       auditory meatus (right)     ______________________  _____________

    b. Tip of upper jaw to auditory
       meatus (left)               ______________________  _____________

  12a. Tip of upper jaw to center
       of eye (right)              ______________________  _____________

    b. Tip of upper jaw to center
       of eye (left)               ______________________  _____________

  13. Tip of upper jaw to angle of
      gape                         ______________________  _____________

  14. Tip of upper jaw to apex of
      melon                        ______________________  _____________

  15. Rostrum--maximum width       ______________________  _____________

  16. Throat grooves--length       ______________________  _____________

                                  Straight line parallel
                                     to the body axis     Point to point

  17. Projection of lower jaw
      beyond upper (if reverse,
      so state)                   _____________________

  18. Center of eye to center of eye                      ______________

  19a.  Height of eye (right)     ______________________

    b.  Height of eye (left)      ______________________

  20a.  Length of eye (right)     ______________________

    b.  Length of eye (left)      ______________________

  21a.  Center of eye to angle of
        gape (right)              ______________________  ______________

    b.  Center of eye to angle of
        gape (left)               ______________________  ______________

  22a.  Center of eye to external
        auditory meatus (right)   ______________________  ______________

    b.  Center of eye to external
        auditory meatus (left)    ______________________  ______________

  23a.  Center of eye to center
        of blowhole (right)       ______________________  ______________

    b.  Center of eye to center
        of blowhole (left)        ______________________  ______________

  24. Blowhole length             ______________________

  25. Blowhole width              ______________________

  26. Flipper width (right)                               ______________

  27. Flipper width (left)                                ______________

  28a.  Flipper length--tip to
        anterior insertion (right)______________________

    b.  Flipper length--tip to
        anterior insertion (left)_______________________

  29a.  Flipper length--tip to
        axilla (right)           _______________________

    b.  Flipper length--tip to
        axilla (left)            _______________________

  30. Dorsal fin height          _______________________

  31. Dorsal fin base            _______________________

  32. Fluke span                 _______________________

  33. Fluke width                _______________________

  34. Fluke depth of notch       _______________________

                                 Straight line parallel
                                     to the body axis     Point to point

  35. Notch of flukes to center
      of anus                     ______________________

  36. Notch of flukes to center
      of genital aperture         ______________________  ______________

  37. Notch of flukes to umbilicus______________________

  38. Notch of flukes to nearest
      point on leading edge of flukes___________________

  39. Girth at anus               ______________________

  40. Girth at axilla             ______________________

  41. Girth at eye                ______________________

  42. Girth ___ cm in front of notch of flukes            ______________

  43a.  Blubber thickness (middorsal)                     ______________

    b.  Blubber thickness (lateral)                       ______________

    c.  Blubber thickness (midventral)                    ______________

  44. Width of head at post-orbital
      process of frontals         _______________________

  45. Tooth counts:
         right upper   _______
         right lower   _______
         left upper    _______
         left lower    _______

  46. Baleen counts:
         right upper   _______
         left upper    _______

  47. Baleen plates, length longest                        ______________

  48. Baleen plates, no.
      bristles/cm over 5 cm       _______________________

  49a. Mammary slit length (right)

    b. Mammary slit length (left) _______________________

  50. Genital slit length         _______________________

  51. Anal slit length            _______________________

NOAA TECHNICAL REPORTS

National Marine Fisheries Service, Circulars

The major responsibilities of the National Marine Fisheries Service
(NMFS) are to monitor and assess the abundance and geographic
distribution of fishery resources, to understand and predict
fluctuations in the quantity and distribution of these resources, and to
establish levels for optimum use of the resources. NMFS is also charged
with the development and implementation of policies for managing
national fishing grounds, development and enforcement of domestic
fisheries regulations, surveillance of foreign fishing off United States
coastal waters, and the development and enforcement of international
fishery agreements and policies. NMFS also assists the fishing industry
through marketing service and economic analysis programs, and mortgage
insurance and vessel construction subsidies. It collects, analyzes, and
publishes statistics on various phases of the industry.

The NOAA Technical Report NMFS CIRC series continues a series that has
been in existence since 1941. The Circulars are technical publications
of general interest intended to aid conservation and management.
Publications that review in considerable detail and at a high technical
level certain broad areas of research appear in this series. Technical
papers originating in economics studies and from management
investigations appear in the Circular series.

NOAA Technical Reports NMFS CIRC are available free in limited numbers
to governmental agencies, both Federal and State. They are also
available in exchange for other scientific and technical publications in
the marine sciences. Individual copies may be obtained (unless otherwise
noted) from D83, Technical Information Division, Environmental Science
Information Center, NOAA. Washington, D.C. 20235. Recent Circulars are:

315. Synopsis of biological data on the chum salmon, _Oncorhynchus keta_
(Walbaum) 1792. By Richard G. Bakkala. March 1970. iii + 89 p., 15
figs., 51 tables.

319. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory, Ann
Arbor, Michigan. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. March 1970, 8 p., 7
figs.

330. EASTROPAC Atlas: Vols. 1-7. Catalog No. I 49.4:330/(vol.) 11 vols.
Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

331. Guidelines for the processing of hot-smoked chub. By H. L. Seagran,
J. T. Graikoski, and J. A. Emerson. January 1970, iv + 23 p., 8 figs., 2
tables.

332. Pacific hake. (12 articles by 20 authors.) March 1970, iii + 152
p., 72 figs., 47 tables.

333. Recommended practices for vessel sanitation and fish handling. By
Edgar W. Bowman and Alfred Larsen. March 1970, iv + 27 p., 6 figs.

335. Progress report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Center for
Estuarine and Menhaden Research, Pesticide Field Station, Gulf Breeze,
Fla., fiscal year 1969. By the Laboratory staff. August 1970, iii + 33
p., 29 figs., 12 tables.

336. The northern fur seal. By Ralph C. Baker, Ford Wilke, and C. Howard
Baltzo. April 1970, iii + 19 p., 13 figs.

337. Program of Division of Economic Research, Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries, fiscal year 1969. By Division of Economic Research, April
1970, iii + 29 p., 12 figs., 7 tables.

338. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Auke Bay,
Alaska. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, June 1970, 8 p., 6 figs.

339. Salmon research at Ice Harbor Dam. By Wesley J. Ebel. April 1970, 6
p., 4 figs.

340. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Technological Laboratory,
Gloucester, Massachusetts. By Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, June 1970,
8 p., 8 figs.

341. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory,
Beaufort, N.C., for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1968. By the
Laboratory staff. August 1970, iii + 24 p., 11 figs., 16 tables.

342. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory,
St. Petersburg Beach, Florida, fiscal year 1969. By the Laboratory
staff. August 1970, iii + 22 p., 20 figs., 8 tables.

343. Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory,
Galveston, Texas, fiscal year 1969. By the Laboratory staff. August
1970, iii + 39 p., 28 figs., 9 tables.

344. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Tropical Atlantic Biological
Laboratory progress in research 1965-69, Miami, Florida. By Ann Weeks.
October 1970, iv + 65 p., 53 figs.

346. Sportsman's guide to handling, smoking, and preserving Great Lakes
coho salmon. By Shearon Dudley, J. T. Graikoski, H. L. Seagran, and Paul
M. Earl. September 1970, iii + 28 p., 15 figs.

347. Synopsis of biological data on Pacific ocean perch, _Sebastodes
alutus_. By Richard L. Major and Herbert H. Shippen. December 1970, iii
+ 38 p., 31 figs., 11 tables.

349. Use of abstracts and summaries as communication devices in
technical articles. By F. Bruce Sanford. February 1971, iii + 11 p., 1
fig.

350. Research in fiscal year 1969 at the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C. By the Laboratory staff. November
1970, ii + 49 p., 21 figs., 17 tables.

351. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Exploratory Fishing and Gear
Research Base, Pascagoula, Mississippi, July 1, 1967 to June 30, 1969.
By Harvey R. Bullis, Jr. and John R. Thompson. November 1970, iv + 29
p., 29 figs., 1 table.

352. Upstream passage of anadromous fish through navigation locks and
use of the stream for spawning and nursery habitat, Cape Fear River,
N.C., 1962-66. By Paul R. Nichols and Darrell E. Louder. October 1970,
iv + 12 p., 9 figs., 4 tables.

356. Floating laboratory for study of aquatic organisms and their
environment. By George R. Snyder, Theodore H. Blahm, and Robert J.
McConnell. May 1971, iii + 16 p., 11 figs.

361. Regional and other related aspects of shellfish consumption--some
preliminary findings from the 1969 Consumer Panel Survey. By Morton M.
Miller and Darrel A. Nash. June 1971, iv + 18 p., 19 figs., 3 tables, 10
apps.

362. Research vessels of the National Marine Fisheries Service. By
Robert S. Wolf. August 1971, iii + 46 p., 25 figs., 3 tables. For sale
by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.

364. History and development of surf clam harvesting gear. By Phillip S.
Parker. October 1971, iv + 15 p., 16 figs. For sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.

365. Processing EASTROPAC STD data and the construction of vertical
temperature and salinity sections by computer. By Forrest R. Miller and
Kenneth A. Bliss. February 1972, iv + 17 p., 8 figs., 3 appendix figs.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

366. Key to field identification of andromous juvenile salmonids in the
Pacific Northwest. By Robert J. McConnell and George R. Snyder. January
1972, iv + 6 p., 4 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

367. Engineering economic model for fish protein concentration
processes. By K. K. Almenas, L. C. Durilla, R. C. Ernst, J. W. Gentry,
M. B. Hale, and J. M. Marchello. October 1972, iii + 175 p., 6 figs., 6
tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

368. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico estuarine inventory and study, Florida:
Phase I, area description. By J. Kneeland McNulty, William N. Lindall,
Jr., and James E. Sykes. November 1972, vii + 126 p., 46 figs., 62
tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

369. Field guide to the anglefishes (Pomacanthidae) in the western
Atlantic. By Henry A. Feddern. November 1972, iii + 10 p., 17 figs., For
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Continued on inside back cover.

370. Collecting and processing data on fish eggs and larvae in the
California Current region. By David Kramer, Mary J. Kalin, Elizabeth G.
Stevens, James R. Thrailkill, and James R. Zweifel. November 1972, iv +
38 p., 38 figs., 2 tables. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

371. Ocean fishery management: Discussions and research. By Adam A.
Sokoloski (editor). (17 papers, 24 authors.) April 1973, vi + 173 p., 38
figs., 32 tables, 7 appendix tables.

372. Fishery publications, calendar year 1971: Lists and indexes. By
Thomas A. Manar. October 1972, iv + 24 p., 1 fig. For sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.

374. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Annelida:
Oligochaeta. By David G. Cook and Ralph O. Brinkhurst. May 1973, iii +
23 p., 82 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

375. New Polychaeta from Beaufort, with a key to all species recorded
from North Carolina. By John H. Day. July 1973, xiii + 140 p., 18 figs.,
1 table. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 20402.

376. Bottom-water temperatures on the continental shelf. Nova Scotia to
New Jersey. By John B. Colton, Jr. and Ruth R. Stoddard. June 1973, iii
+ 55 p., 15 figs., 12 appendix tables. For sale by the Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

377. Fishery publications, calendar year 1970: Lists and indexes. By
Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson. December 1972, iv + 34 p., 1 fig.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

378. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Protozoa:
Ciliophora. By Arthur C. Borror. September 1973, iii + 62 p., 5 figs.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

379. Fishery publications, calendar year 1969: Lists and indexes. By Lee
C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. April 1973, iv + 31 p., 1 fig. For
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

380. Fishery publications, calendar year 1968: Lists and indexes. By
Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson. May 1973, iv + 24 p., 1 fig. For
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

381. Fishery publications, calendar year 1967: Lists and indexes. By Lee
C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. July 1973, iv + 22 p., 1 fig. For sale
by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.

382. Fishery publications, calendar year 1966: Lists and indexes. By
Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson, July 1973, iv + 19 p., 1 fig. For
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

383. Fishery publications, calendar year 1965: Lists and indexes. By Lee
C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. July 1973, iv + 12 p., 1 fig. For sale
by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.

384. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States. Higher
plants of the marine fringe. By Edwin T. Moul. September 1973, iii + 60
p., 109 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 20402.

385. Fishery publications, calendar year 1972: Lists and indexes. By Lee
C. Thorson and Mary Ellen Engett. November 1973, iv + 23 p., 1 fig. For
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

386. Marine Flora and fauna of the northeastern United States.
Pyenogonida. By Lawrence R. McCloskey. September 1973, iii + 12 p., 1
fig. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

387. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States.
Crustacea: Stomatopoda. By Raymond B. Manning. February 1974, iii + 6
p., 10 figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

388. Proceedings of the first U.S.-Japan meeting on aquaculture at
Tokyo, Japan. October 18-19, 1971. William N. Shaw (editor). (18 papers,
14 authors.) February 1974, iii + 133 p. For sale by the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

389. Marine flora and fauna of the northeastern United States.
Crustacea: Decapoda. By Austin B. Williams. April 1974, iii + 50 p., 111
figs. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

390. Fishery publications, calendar year 1973: Lists and indexes. By
Mary Ellen Engett and Lee C. Thorson. September 1974, iv + 14 p., 1 fig.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

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