canoes. It is true that they never suffered from cold (except in New
Zealand), and seldom from famine; for the sea provided bountifully
fish and edible seaweed, there were the sea birds' eggs on the
rocks, innumerable oysters, clams, sea slugs[21], crabs, langoustes,
and prawns; there were pigeons, parrots, rails, plovers, ducks, on
most of the smaller islands, and a bewildering abundance of bird
life in New Guinea and the big islands. There was the Bread-fruit
tree, there were bananas, yams, the invaluable coconut--giving
food and a wholesome drink; and in New Zealand, where tropical
products were mostly lacking (though the Maoris introduced sweet
potatoes and taro yams), there was the bracken fern, which from root
stems yielded a palatable substance like that sago which in west
Melanesia and Fiji, as in Malaysia, was an important article of diet.

  [21] Holothurians, a starfish-like creature, called in commerce
  _bêche de mer_.

Yet in spite of an abundant food supply and a genial climate,
these Oceanic peoples suffered a good deal from disease before the
Europeans came. There was leprosy, which was a terrible plague in
some islands; there were various forms of germ fevers introduced
into the blood by mosquitoes; smallpox had come from the west,
spread by the Malays. Mostly these primitive Oceanians led short
lives; and if they were mainly merry and irresponsible, these spells
of light-heartedness, of dancing, immoderate feasting and drinking,
song-singing, lovemaking, gambling, and living the life of mermen
and mermaids in the foaming breakers of a warm sea, alternated
with heart-breaking struggles against the forces of nature, panics
in regard to new diseases, terrors of unseen devils, torturing
sacrifices to malevolent gods, murders, cannibal feasts, poisonings,
and enslavement.

In this description of the condition of man in Oceania I have made
no allusion to Australia and Tasmania, for the reason that the
natives of the southern continent (of which Tasmania recently formed
an outlying peninsula) differed so remarkably from the peoples of
the Malay islands, New Guinea, Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia
(including New Zealand) as to require separate treatment.

The aboriginal Australoids are the most primitive, the least
improved of existing human races: although peculiarly developed
in some points, they are the lowliest form of real mankind known
to us. They were considered at one time to be the descendants of
a brutish but big-brained type, a veritable "ogre" which dwelt in
Europe some hundred thousand years ago: the Man of Neanderthal. But
this impression was wrong; the Australoids more nearly resemble
the less specialised, ancestral human race of Europe. Australia was
originally peopled by two distinct types of men: the Australoids
and the negroid Tasmanians. These last had the curly black hair
and depressed noses of Negroes, though they were also akin to the
Australoids; which last people, except that they are dark-skinned
and brutish-looking, are remarkably like savage white men! They
have head-hair which is neither lank like that of the Mongolian
nor frizzly or tightly curled like the "wool" of Negroes and
Papuans. Unlike the Papuans, moreover, and still more unlike the
smooth-skinned Mongolian and Amerindian, the Australoid has much
hair growing on the face and body, as is often the case among
European and Indian peoples. But they also exhibit a feature present
both in primitive man and in the modern European--an exaggerated
projection of the brows, of the bones of the forehead which shade
the eyes. The stature is not much below the European mean, but the
lower limbs are usually short and rather slender. The forehead
is retreating, the large jaws prominent, and the teeth bigger in
proportion than in other races of modern men.

Considering the great area of the island-continent on which the
Australoids must have lived for many thousand years, there is
considerable uniformity of physical appearance amongst them, and a
general resemblance in the structure and sounds of their languages,
though these last are divisible into two main groups: those of the
north and north-west, and the speech of the remainder of Australia.
In considering their language, to some extent, and still more in
examining their rudimentary arts and religious ideas, it is obvious
that the people of the north-east of Australia have been visited for
centuries by Malays, Papuans, and even Polynesians, yet that none
of these superior races succeeded in getting a permanent foothold.

So far as any sense of shame was concerned, the Australoids of both
sexes went quite naked, or merely wore a girdle round the hips, to
which strings or strips of fur were attached; but in cold weather or
at night they put round their shoulders cloaks made from the skins
of marsupials, skins sewn together after being scraped, softened,
and dressed. Their own bodies they decorated or mutilated in various
ways, such as knocking out two of the upper front teeth, passing a
bone nose pin 5 or 6 inches long through the septum of the nose,
cutting off the end joints of their fingers, and marking the skin of
the upper arm, chest, and belly by terrific scars of raised skin.
This was "cicatrization", so often referred to in describing the
skin decoration of savages, especially the negroes of the Congo
basin. The Australoids did not tatu their bodies (with pin-pricks
and paint) like the Polynesians and Malays. They painted their skins
for warfare or for ceremonial dances with red and yellow ochre,
white and grey clay, and black mineral substances or charcoal. Also
the men would gum to their bodies the white down or fluff of certain
birds and beasts.

[Illustration: A TYPICAL POLYNESIAN

(A man of Tongatabu, Tonga Archipelago)]

[Illustration: AN AUSTRALOID TYPE FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND

(From photographs)]

They had no agriculture, and no domestic animals but the Dingo.
This dog they kept as much for eating as for hunting. Although
each tribe occupied a definite area, they had scarcely any settled
homes or permanent villages. They roamed about looking for food,
and living for days, weeks, or months alongside their food supply,
which consisted of the produce of the chase--kangarus, phalangers,
wombats, koalas (tailless phalangers), emus, bustards, swans,
parrots, and pigeons; fish, snakes, lizards, turtles (on the
coast), and shellfish. They ate a good many insects--fat-bodied
moths, beetle grubs, termites (white ants), the pupæ of real ants,
and the larvæ of bees. Honey was, of course, much liked and much
sought after, and from it they made with water a sweet drink which
sometimes became slightly fermented like mead. Their women obtained
from the ground wild yams, truffles, and the roots and tubers of
various plants or the seeds of others. They cooked their food by
broiling, by baking in the ashes, and by the use of hot stones.
Although they did not know tobacco till the Europeans introduced
it, they already possessed the idea of inhaling the smoke of other
dried leaves through a bamboo pipe, and chewed some leaves for their
soothing qualities.

When hard up for food, they occasionally became cannibals, and after
an inter-tribal fight the slain were generally eaten. They had a
vague sense of religion, believed that there was a life after the
grave, that men's spirits mostly went to a land beyond the visible
sky, and sometimes returned again in the bodies of newborn children.
But some of these men--famous chiefs in their day--stopped in the
sky and became gods. There was one principal God, who was sometimes
identified with the creator of all things, and who might be seen
at night time in the form of a very bright star. Much of their
religion was associated with the discipline of the community, and
was manifested in elaborate dances. Nearly every clan or tribe had
"medicine" men--individuals who were learned in the customs and
laws of the tribe, and who had some rough knowledge of medicine and
surgery. Their tribal organization was based on the association
for common purposes of defence of a number of groups, which last
were either united by family ties or formed a brotherhood because
they all inherited or adopted the same "totem"[22] or crest. It
was usually forbidden for a man to marry a woman who belonged to
the same clan or totem group as himself; he must secure a wife from
another coterie. Marriage was actually or generally pretended to be
an affair of capture, though frequently based on a bargain; and the
unwilling young woman was sometimes dragged to her new home by the
hair of her head, or knocked senseless by a club and then hoisted
on to her husband's shoulders. The women, in fact, were very badly
treated, and did all the hard work of the community.

  [22] The "totem" system is explained in my work on the _Pioneers of
  Canada_. The totem was some animal, plant, or natural object chosen
  as the imaginary ancestor or symbol of the clan.

The Australoids when first discovered were a degree or two farther
advanced than the "Eolithic"[23] Tasmanians. They were, in effect,
in a "Palæolithic" stage of culture, similar to that of Europe some
fifty thousand years ago. Their weapons and utensils were made of
wood, stone, and bone. They did not know the bow and arrow, but
used a rather elaborate wooden rest for throwing their spears with
greater force than by the unaided arm. The spearhead was either
of finely pointed hard wood, carved with notched barbs, or it was
a separate piece from the haft and made of stone, bone, or shell,
tied strongly on to the haft, and further fastened by resinous gum.
This gum from the Eucalyptus trees was very useful for attaching the
blades of stone axes and knives to their handles.

  [23] "Neolithic" means the age or stage of highly finished stone
  weapons and implements, "Palæolithic" refers to an earlier period
  when the stones were very roughly shaped, and "Eolithic" means the
  very dawn of culture, when the stones were merely broken fragments,
  not artificially shaped at all.

But the Australoids were specially celebrated for two things: their
"bull-roarers" and their "boomerangs". The bull-roarer was a carved
and flattened piece of wood or stone something in the shape of an
axe blade. At the narrow end of this implement (which had a sacred
character, as it was usually inscribed or painted with the "crest"
or device of the clan's totem) were indentations, to which a piece
of fibre string or strip of hide could be tied. The "churinga" (as
it was called in south-east Australia) was then whirled round and
round in the air till it made a loud booming noise. This the women
were persuaded was the voice of a spirit, and only youths after
their initiation, or full-grown men, were in the secret. [All over
the world of savagery in ancient times, and in the few places where
savages now remain, women have been very easily "gammoned", and have
been made to believe much nonsense which the men invented to scare
them and keep them in submission.]

The boomerang was a wooden throwing stick, very thin and flat, and
curved or crooked in the middle. Although more or less fiat in
surface, it nevertheless had a slight twist, a little like the plane
of a bird's wing. Hurled flat-wise through the air it was a very
effective weapon; and some kinds, if they did not hit the object
aimed at, would return and fall near the place from which they
had been thrown. But both boomerang and bull-roarer, though they
seemed very novel and unusual to the early pioneers in Australian
discovery, were really not peculiar to this savage people. They have
existed in many parts of Negro Africa, and even anciently in Europe,
India, and in Egypt.

The houses of the Australoids were rough shelters of sticks, fronds,
and grass. In warm weather the natives did not bother to put up
huts, but slept with their feet towards the fire and their heads
against a low wind screen of boughs and grass. The aborigines of
Australia had some gift for painting and drawing objects, and had
even invented a rough alphabet of symbolic signs or primitive
writing, with which they marked their "message sticks" or churingas.
These message sticks, in fact, were the germ of letters.

Finally, it might be mentioned that, even when first discovered,
Australia--an island continent of 2,946,691 square miles--was very
sparsely inhabited, and the bulk of the population was confined
to the districts near the seacoast. If there are, as is sometimes
computed, one hundred thousand aborigines still living in Australia
at the present day, there were probably not more than double that
number a hundred years ago. They did much to limit their own
increase by killing or abandoning their children; they were often
engaged in civil wars; in times of scarcity they turned cannibal.
What, however, is so remarkable about this isolated people is their
having gone on living with very little change or improvement in
the life which was that of our ancestors fifty thousand years ago.
While the races of Europe and northern Asia have tried so many
experiments, have achieved so many conquests over nature, have had
such a marvellous insight into the workings of the universe--have,
in fact, for ten thousand years or so, been leading the lives of
demigods, the Tasmanians and the Australoids have been content
just with the day's provision of food, a fairly dry sleeping place
at night, a little fighting and dancing, lovemaking of a more or
less brutal kind, and a span of life which, owing to its excessive
hardships and the callous if not cruel treatment of the men and
women past their prime, was seldom more than fifty years. They have,
it is true, seen God in the stars, and they have felt like us the
tragedy of death and the hope of a resurrection; but, unlike us
(their far-off cousins, whose "Tasmanian" and "Australoid" ancestors
stayed in Europe), they achieved no conquest over nature, their
lives were scarcely better than the lives of beasts.

The Tasmanians shared some of the physical features of the
Australoids. Like them they were dark-skinned--a very dark
brown--and of brutish appearance, especially in the women. The
men were usually better looking than the females, but both alike
represented perhaps the lowest type of humanity which has been known
to scientific men in a living state--for they just lived long enough
to be photographed. The Tasmanians were distinctly more negroid than
the Australoids. They were of medium height. The nose was broader,
shorter, and more depressed than that of the Australoid, and the
hair inclined to be tightly curled. They looked, in fact, with their
long and large upper lips, their receding chins, projecting brows
and jaws, big teeth, woolly hair, small, deepset eyes, and hairy
faces and bodies (even the women had slight whiskers) like the most
primitive form of _Homo sapiens_, and the joint ancestor of the
Negro and the European.

Probably they entered north-eastern Australia at a very remote
period, and were pushed down by the succeeding Australoids into the
south-easternmost extremity of the continent--first the peninsula,
then later the island of Tasmania. They were then (and they
remained) in the lowest stage of human culture, like the Negritos
or pigmy Negroes of Malaysia and Africa. They had no dwelling good
enough to be called a hut: merely a circle of sticks stuck in the
ground with their points converging. On to the top of these bent
wands was thrown a mass of fern or grass, which made a rough thatch.
Or the savages contented themselves in fine weather with a mere wind
shelter of branches and bark strips. Whenever there was a cave or
a cranny in the rocks handy to their hunting ground, they lived in
that. They had no agriculture and no domestic animals, not even the
Dingo or semi-wild dog of Australia. They lived much on shellfish,
on the cray-fish of the streams, and the flesh of kangarus and other
marsupial beasts, and such birds as they could bring down with
their throwing sticks; though they also ate roots, fungi, fruits,
gum, and the sweet sap of certain trees. This even they sometimes
allowed to collect in hollows at the base of the trunk till it
became slightly fermented. Their method of cooking was by broiling
over a fire or placing the dead beast to cook in its skin in the hot
ashes. Their only weapons and implements were heavy stones used as
hammers; flaked stones--big chunks of sand-stone with sharp edges,
held in the hand as scrapers or choppers; long stakes, their points
sharpened and hardened by being charred in the fire, and their stems
straightened by heat and pressure; stems of small trees fashioned
into rough clubs; and short, straight, thin but heavy sticks used as
missile weapons for hurling at birds or small mammals.

Their language was never properly written down by the Europeans.
It is described as being full of rough sounds and not possessing
a great number of words, but we really know very little on the
subject. They were without any sense of shame, and if they wore any
clothing it was for warmth or ornament. As a matter of fact, it was
limited in the men to strips of kangaru hide tied round the neck or
ankle, and other pieces of hide which were fastened round the legs
like gaiters when travelling through thorny bush country. The women
tied an undressed kangaru skin round the neck and waist, in which
they carried their babies. Both sexes wore necklaces of shells,
flowers, or seeds; and the men decorated their hair with kangaru
teeth. The bodies--especially of the men--were anointed with kangaru
fat and coloured with red ochre, and this red dust and fat were also
rubbed into the hair and beard.

They had no religion, other than a vague belief in a life after the
death of the body. Yet they were not cannibals, as was the case
with the Australoids and the Oceanians; and they treated their
women better than did the brutal Australoids. But their tribes or
clans were constantly at war with one another, and this fact rather
than any scarcity of food was the cause of their being in small
numbers after many thousands of years of settlement in this large
and fertile island. At the end of the eighteenth century--when
Tasmania was first explored by Europeans--it was estimated that
the aborigines numbered a total of between six and seven thousand.
Between 1800 and 1830 they were reduced to only two hundred by
warfare with the invading English settlers, by murder, by the
effects of alcohol, and the spread of European diseases. After 1830
the two hundred gradually died out, till in 1876 the last of the old
Tasmanian race expired.

Spanish and Portuguese Explorers lead the Way to the Pacific Ocean

It is remarkable what a bait to the European in discovery have
been both spices and strong perfumes, once so popular in cookery
and in the toilette. The Romans and Greeks were drawn through
Egypt to the Indian trade by the pepper and cinnamon of India and
Ceylon, by the sweet-smelling woods and gums of India and Further
India--sandalwood, eaglewood, benzoin, storax, dragon's blood
from the Calamus palm, rasamala--the resin from a liquid-amber
tree of Java. It was to reach pepper-and-spice-producing regions
that the Portuguese (and after them the English) were drawn into
the exploration of the Guinea coast; and that the Portuguese felt
impelled to circumnavigate Africa, so as to gain unfettered access
to the commerce of India. The search for an Atlantic route to India
and China impelled Spaniards and English, under Genoese and Venetian
leadership, to discover Tropical and North America. And having
reached India, Ceylon, Sumatra and Malacca, the Portuguese found
that the most precious of all spices (cloves and nutmeg) still lay
in undiscovered regions to the East--the Maluk or Muluk Islands,
as they were called by Arab seamen: a name afterwards corrupted to
Moluccas.

When Malacca on the Malay peninsula had been conquered by the
Portuguese, the great viceroy Albuquerque dispatched in the same
year, 1511, one of his boldest captains--ANTONIO DE ABREU--to
search for the Molucca and the Banda Islands, whence the Malay
ships brought cloves and nutmegs. De Abreu touched at Java and the
Sunda Islands and reached first Amboina, a small island off the
south-west coast of Ceram; then passed on northwards till he again
anchored off Ternate, one of the smallest of the five small Spice
Islands lying close to the west coast of the big island of Jilolo.
Here he found the clove trees growing, and probably met Chinese
junks trading in cloves: for the Chinese had for several previous
centuries been accustomed to travel as far afield as Papuasia in
their quest of spices and perfumes. In 1512 de Abreu discovered the
little Banda archipelago, lying in the open sea to the south of
Ceram, and consisting of twelve islets, all very small, and one of
them containing a terrific volcano, Gunong Api--which occasionally
becomes active and devastates the neighbourhood of its cone. Just as
the original "Moluccas"[24] were five very small islands (Ternate,
Tidore, Mare, Mutir, and Makian), off the coast of Jilolo, and were
the only places, in those days (besides the not-far-distant island
of Bachian), where the right kind of clove tree grew; so the Banda
Islands--only 17 square miles in area altogether--were the only home
of the proper nutmeg, though inferior nutmegs grew on some of the
other islets off the coast of Ceram and the west end of New Guinea.

  [24] The geographical term, Moluccas, now includes the very large
  island of Jilolo, Bachian, Buru, Ceram, &c.

Cloves nowadays are cultivated on other equatorial islands far away
from eastern Malaysia; but in the sixteenth century they were only
to be obtained from the Moluccas. The clove tree is a member of the
great Myrtle family, and belongs to the genus _Eugenia_. It grows
in favourable places to a height of 40 feet, bears a rich evergreen
foliage of large oval leaves, and clusters of long, slender crimson
flowers growing at the extremity of the twigs. These flowers have
their petals concealed in the centre of the calyx opening, but the
sepals (false petals or petal-like leaves which often precede the
real petals in flowers) stick out in four projections round the
mouth of the calyx. These tubular flowers, with their four short
sepals at the ends, are in fact the cloves of commerce. They are
gathered when ripe, and are a bright crimson in colour, afterwards
turning brown or black. The nutmeg (the name is a mixture of English
and old French and means musk nut) is the fruit of a tree with the
Latin name of Myristica, which has a natural order all to itself,
_Myristicaceæ_. It is evergreen, grows to about 50 feet in height
in the Banda Islands, and bears male and female flowers without
petals, that are green in colour and inconspicuous. The female
flowers produce a quince-like downy fruit, which when mature and dry
splits and reveals inside a walnut-like nut surrounded by a network
of crimson fibre. This fibre is as precious as the actual kernel or
nut, for it is the spice known as mace, quite distinct in flavour
and use from the actual nutmeg. This last is, of course, the kernel
of the hard-shelled nut which is surrounded by the crimson fibre of
the mace, and the outer husk of the pear-like fruit.

The Portuguese--to put it vulgarly--soon knew they had got hold
of a good thing in these small islands of clove and nutmeg trees.
They established themselves more or less as the rulers of the
Moluccas, with their headquarters at Ternate. But they treated the
Malay subjects badly, and these were soon on the lookout for the
arrival of other foreigners whom they could play off against the
Portuguese. Yet for some ten years the Portuguese had no rivals in
Malaysia. Their conquests and discoveries spread far and wide. They
entered into relations with Celebes, reached the Island of Mindanao
(the southernmost of the Philippines), and even passed out into
the open Pacific, and sighted the Caroline islands of Micronesia.
They seem also to have been the first to discover the western
promontories of New Guinea, the Island of Timor, and to have had
news of a continental territory to the south--Australia--all of
which information soon afterwards reached the Spaniards, who put it
to practical use.

Among the Portuguese, who thus became acquainted with the Spice
Islands of eastern Malaysia, was Fernão de Magalhaẽs--stupidly
miscalled, in English literature, MAGELLAN. His earlier story has
already been told in a previous volume of this series.[25] Having
been very badly treated by the King of Portugal, Magellan and
several of his friends and relations passed over into the service
of the united kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, which were about
to become the great kingdom of Spain. It will be remembered by
the reader that, in 1494, the King of Portugal and the King and
Queen of Aragon-Castile, to avoid quarrelling about the marvellous
discoveries their adventurers were making, had concluded the Treaty
of Tordesillas under the auspices of the Pope, a treaty which
practically divided between these kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula
all the non-Christian world outside Europe and the Turkish Empire.
Their boundaries were a meridian of longitude running from pole to
pole, and cutting the globe into two divisions. The meridian was
fixed at a distance of 1110 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands,
and more or less coincident with the fiftieth degree of longitude
west of Greenwich. Consequently, in the west it gave Portugal the
Brazilian part of the South American continent; while on the other
side of the globe the corresponding meridian (130° E. of Greenwich)
cut off the Portuguese from entering into possession of all
Australasia, and afforded Spain the pretext of attempting to reach
Malaysia from the east (across the Pacific), and thus of laying
claim to the Spice Islands which might be found to lie outside the
Portuguese sphere. [As a matter of fact, when the longitude was
correctly calculated, both Philippines and Moluccas lay in the
Portuguese domain.] The great Spanish adventurer, Nuñez de Balboa,
had in 1513, "from a peak in Darien" near the isthmus of Panama,
sighted the Pacific Ocean, which the Spaniards at first called the
Southern Sea. The Portuguese realization of the wide ocean which
lay to the east of Malaysia, combined with the news that Central
America had on the western side of it an ocean at least as vast as
the Atlantic, decided Magellan to propose to the new ruler of Spain,
the Emperor Charles V, the great project of finding a way round--or
a strait through--South America, and the complete fulfilment of the
original plan of Columbus--the reaching of the Indies by a western
route across the Atlantic. His proposals were accepted, and he was
given, in 1518, command over a little fleet of five ships,[26]
the largest of which (the _San Antonio_) was only 120 tons in
capacity and the smallest 75 tons. He left Spain on September 21,
1519, to search for this passage round or through South America
to the Southern Sea. His expedition included 190 Spaniards, and a
number of Portuguese, Genoese, and other Italians--including the
famous Lombard geographer of those days, ANTONIO PIGAFETTA--several
Frenchmen and Flemings, one Englishman (named Andres, a gunner from
Bristol), and one or two German gunners or artillerymen. The first
account given to the world of this first-recorded circumnavigation
of the globe was written by the accomplished Antonio Pigafetta, who
accompanied Magellan from mere love of knowledge, and was one of the
few who actually returned to Spain after voyaging right round the
world.

  [25] _Pioneers in India, &c._

  [26] The _San Antonio_ (which deserted the expedition in South
  America), the _Trinidad_ (after a fruitless voyage out into the
  Pacific and back to the Moluccas, seized and dismantled by the
  Portuguese), the _Santiago_ (lost on the coast of Patagonia), the
  _Conception_ (broken up in the Philippines), and the _Victoria_,
  which ultimately returned to Seville in 1522.

Magellan explored the east coast of South America for an opening
which should lead into the other sea. At first he thought he had
found it in the estuary of the Rio de la Plata, but as soon as he
noticed the water was fresh he continued southward along the coast
of Patagonia, spending five months in that region to rest ships
and men, and quelling a dangerous mutiny, till at last he found a
likely opening between the mountains of Patagonia and the snowclad
peaks of Tierra del Fuego. He had already lost the smallest of his
ships on the Patagonian coast, and in the Straits of Magellan the
_San Antonio_ deserted and sailed back to Spain; but the crews of
the others remained faithful to Magellan after their captains had
taken anxious counsel together. At length these three little vessels
rounded "Cape Deseado"--the desired Cape--and found themselves
within sight of a mighty ocean at the end of November, 1520; an
ocean which seemed so calm after the stormy Atlantic that Magellan
called it the "Pacific Sea".

After emerging into the Pacific Ocean, Magellan's three ships
voyaged for ninety-six days without stopping at any land, and the
crews went for no days (from the Straits of Magellan to the Ladrone
Islands) without getting any kind of fresh food. "We ate", wrote
Antonio Pigafetta, "biscuit which was no longer biscuit, but powder
of biscuits swarming with worms and stinking terribly because it
had been befouled by rats. We drank yellow water which had been
putrid for many days. We also ate ox hides that covered the top of
the mainyard to prevent the mast from chafing the shrouds, which
had become exceedingly hard because of its exposure to sun, rain,
and wind. These pieces of hide were soaked in sea water for four
or five days and then placed for a few minutes on top of glowing
charcoal and afterwards eaten." But in their hunger the men often
ate sawdust, and as to the rats that were caught, they were sold
at a high price. Scurvy soon broke out, and the gums of the men's
jaws swelled so that some could not eat at all, and therefore died
of starvation--nineteen in all, amongst them a giant Patagonian
captured in South America to be carried back to Spain. And thus they
sailed some 12,000 miles across the Pacific Ocean. "Truly it was
very pacific," wrote Pigafetta, "for during that time we suffered
no storm. We saw no land except two desert islands on which were
found nothing but birds and trees." The water round them swarmed
with sharks. But that they were favoured with such good weather,
and sailed a steady 180 to 210 miles a day, they "would all have
died of hunger in that exceeding vast sea". But Magellan held on
with a tenacity which leaves Columbus behind in resolution, for
Columbus reached land on his first voyage after only thirty-six days
of anxious expectancy, whereas it was the ninety-seventh day of
Magellan's long agony before a land was reached which was likely to
be of use as a place of refreshment.

They noted that the skies in this Southern Hemisphere were not so
full of stars as in the North, but they also observed the splendid
Southern Cross with five bright stars pointing straight towards the
west. They passed not far from the Marquezas Islands. Apparently
the only land they sighted on their way across the Pacific, except
the small islands frequented by birds, was St. Paul Island, of the
Paumotu group, and perhaps Malden Island. Magellan's voyage, amongst
other things, was remarkable for what he missed quite as much as for
what he attained. It is wonderful to think that he sailed across the
Pacific from the coast of Chili to Guam, which is well within the
Asiatic region, and only sighted land four times, and then only in
the form of small and desert islands. His chiefest desire, however,
was to get out of stormy latitudes into the peaceful equatorial
belt, and to reach as quickly as possible the comparative security
of the known, not liking to trust the fate of his crews to unknown
lands which might be without good supplies of fresh water and
food, and be peopled by savages incapable of understanding them.
For it must be remembered that his previous experience had given
him a great deal of insight into the islands of Malaysia, and he
had managed to obtain from Sumatra before he started on this great
voyage an interpreter named Henrique, who spoke Malay as his native
tongue.

On the 6th March, 1521, the Spaniards sighted three islands, of
which one was higher and larger than the other two. Off this the
next day they came to a stop. It was afterwards known as the Island
of Guam. The inhabitants, without any fear, boarded the ships and
stole whatever they could lay their hands on, even wrenching off
and carrying away the small boat that was fastened to the poop of
the flagship. Thereupon Magellan in great anger went ashore with
forty armed men, burnt many houses and canoes, and killed seven
of the natives. He recovered his small boat and the expedition
immediately sailed away. Yet so terrible was the craving for fresh
food on board that when the sick men, dying of scurvy, realized that
the armed party were going on shore, they begged them to bring back
the entrails of any man or woman they might kill, the eating of
which these poor mad sailors believed would restore them to health!

It is noteworthy that the Spaniards when they landed fought with
crossbows and arrows, which were in those days much more effective
weapons than the guns of the period. The Micronesian people they met
on the Island of Guam they described as going naked, many of the men
being bearded and having black hair that reached to the waist. They
wore small palm-leaf hats, were as tall as the Spaniards, well-built
and of tawny skin, with teeth turned red and black by the chewing
of betel. The women, who were good-looking, delicately formed, and
much lighter in complexion than the men, had black hair which was
worn loose and reached almost to the ground. The women did not work
in the fields but stayed at home, weaving mats and baskets from
palm leaves. The mats were beautifully made and used to decorate
the walls and the floors of their houses. They slept on palm straw,
which was soft and fine. Their houses were built of planks and
thatched with banana fronds. The food of the people was chiefly
coconuts, sweet potatoes, fowls, bananas (really long plantains 1
foot in length), sugar cane, and flying-fish. The chief amusement
of both men and women was to plough the seas with their small boats,
which were usually painted black, white, or red. Pigafetta describes
the outriggers, and says the sails were made of palm leaves.[27]
Having no fixed rudder, but only using a long paddle for such a
purpose, and the boats being sharp at both ends, they could be sent
backwards or forwards without turning round.[28]

  [27] Magellan first gave to the Ladrone Islands the name of Islands
  of Sails, on account of the many vessels with sails which he
  observed in that neighbourhood, showing how firmly established among
  the Polynesians and Micronesians was the use of the sail in their
  navigation, a fact which explains the success of their voyages over
  enormous sea distances.

  [28] They were similar to the prahus or praus of Malaysia, which
  did not turn round, but sailed backwards and forwards, the sharp
  stem being exactly like the sharp stern. Most of the prahus had
  outriggers, and in all the leeside of the vessel was flat and
  perpendicular while the weatherside was rounded. The mast carried a
  large triangular-shaped sail.

At dawn on 16 March, 1521, the expedition sighted high land. This
was the Island of Samar, on the eastern side of the Philippine
archipelago.

Magellan's first thought was for his sick men, and to give them
some chance of recovering he landed them on an uninhabited islet,
put up tents there, and had a pig killed to provide fresh meat. Two
days afterwards they saw a boat coming towards them and nine men
in it. These were very different from the wild-natured barbarians
of Guam. They were evidently familiar with the idea of white men
and white men's ships, being of course Malays. They were described
by Pigafetta as "reasonable men". Presents were exchanged, the
Spaniards giving red caps, mirrors, combs, bells, ivory, and cotton
cloths of Turkish manufacture. The Philippine Islanders offered
fish, a jar of palm wine, a few coconuts, and bunches of long
bananas. They promised further supplies of fresh food in a few days,
but in the meantime the coconuts seemed to the Spaniards perfectly
delicious, and Pigafetta wrote a long description of the tree and
its many useful products, and of the nuts with their rich pulp and
pleasant-tasting milk.

The name of St. Lazarus, because of the saint's day on which
they were first discovered, was given to the islands of this
archipelago.[29] The people encountered in the coast regions of
these western and southern Philippine Islands do not seem to have
been negritos or little negroes like those of the great Island of
Luzon, but all more or less of the Malayan-Mongolian stock. They had
very black straight hair which fell to the waist; went nearly naked
except for cloths round the waist--but some of these cloths were
beautifully embroidered; and in the waistbelt the men thrust large
daggers ornamented with gold.

  [29] They were not called the Philippines until 1543, or thereabouts.

The expedition passed on between the islands of Samar, Leyte, and
Mindanao, and came to anchor off a small island named Masawa, now
not easily identified, but apparently between Leyte and Bohol,
arriving there on 7 April. The ruler of this islet, whom they
referred to as "the king", received them with some wonderment but
great friendliness, and expressed a wish to enter into brotherhood
with Magellan. The king understood the Malay spoken by the
interpreter on board, for, says Pigafetta, the kings of these
districts knew more languages than the common people. He presented
Magellan with a basketful of ginger and a large bar of gold, which
for some reason or other the great Portuguese would not accept.
The next day, Good Friday, the king came on board Magellan's ship,
embraced him, and gave him three porcelain jars full of raw rice,
two very large fish, and other things. He received in exchange a
Turkish dress and a fine red cap, while to his courtiers were given
knives and mirrors. The king and Magellan made brotherhood together.
In order to impress him, Magellan had one of his men put into
complete armour, and then placed this man in a group of three men
armed with swords and daggers, who forthwith struck him in all parts
of his body, but of course did him no harm; "thereby the king was
rendered almost speechless". Magellan went on to impress the monarch
with the fact that one of these armed men was worth a hundred naked
savages, and as there were 200 men in the ships armed with this
steel armour from head to foot, the expedition was invincible.

Magellan, and amongst other people Pigafetta, went on shore to
return the visit. They were received by the king on the stern deck
of a very large prau or native vessel[30] (about 70 feet long).
Here pork was brought to them, together with jars filled with palm
wine. Although it was Good Friday, they were obliged to sink their
religious scruples and feast with the king. Pigafetta then applied
himself to writing down a vocabulary in their language, with which
feat the natives were greatly astonished. Later on, when it was time
for the evening meal, two large porcelain dishes were brought, one
containing rice and the other pork and gravy. After this meal was
consumed the party of Europeans went to the king's palace, which was
raised up high from the ground on huge posts of wood, so that it
was necessary to ascend to it by means of ladders. There more food
was brought, a roast fish cut in pieces and freshly gathered ginger
and palm wine. As it grew dark, lights were furnished, a kind of
candle made of resin wrapped in palm or banana leaves. All the party
went to sleep where they were, and when day dawned Pigafetta and the
Spaniards returned to the ship.

  [30] See p. 97.

He relates that pieces of gold of the size of walnuts and eggs were
found by sifting the earth in the island of Masawa. All the dishes
of the king were of gold, and also some part of his furniture. The
king is described as being a fine-looking man, with glossy black
hair hanging down to his shoulders, a covering of silk on his head,
two large golden ear-rings, and a cotton cloth embroidered with
silk covering him from the waist to the knees. At his side hung
a dagger, the haft of which was of gold. Moreover, this king had
anticipated American fashions, and had three plugs of gold let into
each front tooth, while gold seems also to have been rammed in
between the teeth. He was perfumed with storax and benzoin, and his
skin was tatued all over. A brother king was apparently chief of the
northern part of the great Island of Mindanao, lying to the south.
On Easter Sunday Magellan decided to land with his chaplain and
have Mass celebrated on shore. He came with fifty men unarmed and
dressed in their best clothes. The two kings of Masawa and Mindanao
embraced Magellan and were placed with him in the procession.
Before the commencement of Mass Magellan sprinkled their bodies
with musk water. Apparently at that time all these Malay people of
the eastern Philippines were pagans, and had not been converted to
Muhammadanism.[31] They were favourably impressed with their first
experience of Christianity, and eagerly took part in the service
of the mass. They exactly imitated all the Spaniards did, kissing
the cross and remaining on their knees with clasped hands at the
elevation of the Host.

  [31] They told Magellan that they worshipped nothing, but that they
  believed in a god called Abba, who lived in the sky, and to him they
  raised their faces and their clasped hands when anxious to appeal to
  him.

When Mass was over, Magellan arranged a fencing tournament, at which
the kings were greatly pleased.

Magellan, becoming very friendly with the King of Masawa, asked if
he had any enemies whom he wished to be destroyed. The king replied
that there was indeed one island hostile to his rule.

After a cruise round the islands in the centre of the
archipelago--in the course of which they killed a very large
fruit-bat, "as big as an eagle", and ate it, finding it to resemble
chicken in taste; and also observed the mound-building megapodes
(see p. 30)--they reached the important Island of Sebu or Zubu
(Cebu). Here the king of the island asked them to pay tribute,
and pointed out a ship which had just arrived from Siam to fetch
gold and slaves, but which had paid tribute or customs duties to
him. But Magellan, through his interpreter, caused the king to be
told that he was the captain of so great a monarch that he did not
pay tribute to any other prince in the world; that if he wished
peace he could have peace, but that otherwise the Spaniards were
quite ready for war. The interpreter went on to point out that the
employer of Magellan was the great Emperor of the Christians and
the King of Spain, a much more powerful monarch than the King of
Portugal, though this last had conquered all the coast of India.
After consideration, the king decided to make blood brotherhood with
Magellan, and even desired to know if he should pay tribute to the
Spaniards. Magellan replied, No; it was sufficient that he should
give them liberty to trade. Magellan, in his conversations with
the notabilities, impressed on them the importance of the Christian
religion, promising them if they became Christians they would have
perpetual peace with the King of Spain.

Pigafetta accompanied Magellan and his party on shore to visit
the King of Sebu. They found this prince in his palace surrounded
by many people. He was seated on a palm mat on the ground, an
embroidered scarf round his head, and nothing but a cotton cloth
about his waist, in order, no doubt, that his elaborately tatued
skin might be duly exhibited. He wore, however, a necklace of great
value and two large gold ear-rings set with precious stones. In
person he was fat and short. At the time the visit took place he was
eating turtles' eggs out of porcelain dishes, and had four jars full
of palm wine in front of him, covered with sweet-smelling herbs and
arranged each with a small reed in the jar, through which he sucked
up the palm wine. The Spaniards, whilst joining him in his feast
of turtles' eggs and palm wine, renewed their exhortations to him
to adopt the Christian religion. He put the question aside for the
time whilst he treated them to a concert at which four young girls
played on instruments like gongs, "so harmoniously that one would
believe they possessed a good musical sense". They were nearly as
white skinned as Europeans, and as beautiful, with long black hair.
The gongs were made of brass, and apparently came from China. They
were, in fact, very like the musical dinner gongs from Japan so much
in vogue at the present day.

The king decided to adopt Christianity as his religion, but he
complained that some of his chiefs did not wish to follow his
example. However, they yielded apparently to Magellan's arguments
and agreed to the setting up of a cross. On 14 April, at a
ceremonial arranged with great splendour by the Spaniards, the King
of Sebu was baptized and given the name of Don Carlos, after the
Emperor Charles V. The heir apparent was called Don Fernando, the
friendly King of Masawa was named Juan, and all the leading chiefs
and notabilities, to the number of 500, were similarly baptized and
given Christian names. In the evening the chaplain of the fleet went
ashore and baptized the queen[32] and forty of her women. In all,
the Spaniards baptized 800 Filipinos. One village on an islet, which
refused baptism for its people, was burnt to the ground.

  [32] The queen was young and beautiful, and entirely covered with a
  white and black cloth. Her mouth and nails were stained very red,
  while on her head she wore a large hat of palm leaves, like a tiara.

On the following day the queen came with great pomp to hear Mass.
Three girls preceded her, carrying other specimens of her tiara hats
in their hands. The women who accompanied her were nearly naked, the
queen herself being again dressed in black and white, with a large
silk scarf crossed with gold stripes. Having made due reverence to
the altar she seated herself on a silk embroidered cushion. Magellan
then arose, and before the commencement of the Mass sprayed her and
her women with rose-water.

In spite of the natives telling Magellan at first that they
worshipped nothing but a god in the sky, they seem to have had a
number of fetishes to which they paid reverence, especially when
pleading for recovery from sickness. These idols were mostly made
of wood, were hollow, and were probably representations of wild
boars. Magellan incited the people to the destruction of their
idols in order that their conversion to Christianity might be better
affirmed. This they did, crying out: "Castilla, Castilla!" as they
threw the idols and the meat consecrated to them into the flames.

The islet on which a village had been burnt as punishment for
its refusing Christianity was called Maktan, and towards the end
of April the chief of Maktan sent messengers to Magellan with a
present of two goats, and a request that he would send soldiers to
assist him in fighting another chief on the islet who had refused
allegiance to the King of Spain. Magellan decided to go himself with
three boatloads of soldiers. Many of his officers entreated him not
to take such a risk, but he persisted, and reached Maktan three
hours before dawn with sixty armed men. He then sent messengers to
the refractory chief, calling on him to recognize the King of Sebu
as his immediate sovereign, and to give in his allegiance to the
Crown of Spain and pay the Spaniards tribute. The natives sent back
a warlike message. The Spaniards advanced, but found the people had
dug pit-holes before their houses in order that they might fall
into them. In the village the Spaniards were attacked by about
1500 people, who charged down on them with shouts and cries. The
musketeers and the crossbowmen discharged their pieces with little
effect on natives who leapt hither and thither incessantly, and
covered themselves nimbly with their shields, while at the same
time they shot so many arrows and iron-tipped bamboo spears at the
Spaniards (besides pointed stakes hardened with fire, stones, and
mud) that Magellan and his sixty soldiers despite their armour were
overwhelmed. Eight of the soldiers were killed, and Magellan was
shot in the leg with a poisoned arrow. [The steel armour of which
Magellan boasted seems to have been of little avail.] The order to
retreat was given, and as the small party waded back through the
water to the boats Magellan was killed by the impetuous assault of
the natives, who hurled themselves upon him and practically cut
him to pieces. He fought long for his life, and ever and again
turned his face seaward, to assure himself that his men were safely
retreating to their boats. Some of the Spaniards, it is true, stayed
to see what was happening to their captain, but their defence of him
seems to have been half-hearted, and as soon as he was down they
made the best of their way to the boats.

The King of Sebu is said to have wept on hearing of the death of
Magellan (on 27 April, 1521). Nevertheless, this death changed very
considerably the attitude of the king and his chiefs towards the
Spaniards. It was now realized that the armoured Europeans were
mortal like the Filipinos, and could be killed in battle. Therefore
a plot was laid to get rid of them altogether, a plot apparently
instigated by the Sumatra interpreter already referred to, who was
a slave and wished to regain his liberty. By means of fair words,
invitations to a banquet, and promises of a present of jewels for
the King of Spain, the King of Sebu lured on shore twenty-four
Spaniards, including "an astrologer" and the commanders of three
of the ships.[33] Pigafetta, fortunately for our records of this
voyage, could not go, as he was suffering from the wound of a
poisoned arrow in his face. The Spaniards, soon after they landed,
were set upon by the natives, and all of them killed except the
Malay interpreter. One commander, Juan Serrano, was seen running
down to the beach nearly naked and wounded, and crying out to the
Spaniards not to fire any more, as he too would be killed. He then
told them how the others had been massacred, and begged that he
might be redeemed with merchandise. He made a special appeal to his
boon companion, the pilot Joam Carvalho, but the latter would not
run the risk of sending any boat on shore, and poor Serrano was
left weeping on the strand and probably soon shared the fate of his
companions.

  [33] One of these was the celebrated Duarte Barbosa, commander of
  the _Trinidad_, whose book on his travels in India and Further India
  is much quoted by me in _Pioneers in India_, &c.

Off one of the islands near Sebu the survivors of Magellan's
expedition decided to burn the ship _Concepcion_, as too few men
were left to work it. There then remained 115 men for the working
of the two remaining ships of the squadron, the _Trinidad_ and
the _Victoria_. These two vessels forthwith sailed to the Island
of Panglao (off Bohol) where they noticed that the natives were
black-skinned and like negroes. Thence they passed to the large
southern island of Mindanao, whose principal chief at once made
friends with them. The abundance of gold in the possession of the
natives of Mindanao was duly noted. From Mindanao the expedition
sailed to the little Kagayan islands in the Sulu Sea, where the
people had blowpipes with tiny poisoned arrows, daggers with their
hafts adorned with gold and precious stones, and wore armour made
of buffalo hide. They were more or less Muhammadans, but called
the Spaniards "holy beings". The two ships next visited the long
island of Palawan, which seemed to their crews the Land of Promise,
because they had suffered great hunger before they found it, and
were even on the point of abandoning their ships and going on shore
that they might not be consumed with famine. Fortunately the king of
this country made peace with them quickly. After slashing himself
slightly in the breast with a Spanish knife, and touching the tip
of his tongue with it in token of truest peace, he invited them
to do the same. His people went naked, but they cultivated the
fields carefully. They were well armed with blowpipes and thick
wooden arrows tipped with fish bones and bamboo, and poisoned. They
possessed very remarkable poultry, large and very tame, which were
regarded with such veneration that they were seldom eaten, the cocks
being kept for fighting with one another. These Palawan people
distilled a wine or spirit from rice, which was very strong. They
possessed goats and pigs as well as fowls, and grew quantities of
rice, ginger, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, bananas, and different
kinds of edible roots. Passing from Palawan to the coast of North
Borneo, and stopping off the town of Brunei, the expedition was
greeted at one place by a chief who sent to meet the Spanish ships
a very beautiful prau, the bow and stern of which were illuminated
with gold, while it hoisted a white and blue banner surmounted
with peacocks' feathers. This prau contained a band of musicians
and eight old men who were chiefs. These came on board the Spanish
ships and took seats on a carpet, presenting the Spaniards with
a painted wooden jar full of betel paste, jasmine, and orange
blossoms, a covering of yellow silk cloth, two cages full of fowls,
a couple of goats, three jars of arrack (rice spirit), and bundles
of sugar cane. They gave some presents to the other ships, and,
after embracing the Spaniards, took their leave. Six days later the
king of this district sent three more praus with great pomp, which
encircled the ships whilst bands of music were played and drums
beaten. Amongst the food given to the Spaniards were "tarts made of
eggs and honey". The king and queen of this region--the sultanate
of Brunei--were sent green velvet robes, violet velvet chairs, a
good many yards of red cloth, writing-books of paper and a gilded
writing-case, needlecases, drinking-glasses, and caps.

The Spaniards, being invited to land, dispatched a party on shore,
who found elephants awaiting them, on which they rode to the house
of the governor of the port, where they slept on beds with cotton
mattresses and cotton sheets, and had an excellent supper. The next
day elephants were supplied to bring them to the king's palace,
where they found 300 foot soldiers with naked swords guarding the
king. A brocade curtain was drawn aside from a large window, and
through it they could see the Sultan of Brunei seated at a table
chewing betel. They were told they could not speak to the king, but
they could send their message through his courtiers. One of these
would communicate it to the brother of the governor, and this man
would send it by means of a speaking-tube through a hole in the wall
to another official who was in the king's chamber. They were taught
to make three obeisances to the king with their hands clasped above
their heads, raising first one foot and then the other, and then
kissing their hands towards him.

The king was graciously pleased from a distance to reply to their
greetings, that since the King of Spain desired to be his friend
he was willing that they should have food and water and permission
to trade. After they had returned to the governor's house nine
men arrived from the king carrying a splendid repast on large
wooden trays. Each tray contained ten or twelve porcelain dishes
full of veal, chickens, peacocks, and fish, in all thirty-two
different kinds of meat, besides fish and vegetables. After each
mouthful of food the visitors drank a small cupful of rice spirit
and ate sweetmeats with gold spoons. During the night their
sleeping quarters were lit with torches of white wax in tall silver
candlesticks, and also with oil lamps, each containing four wicks.
Two men sat by each lamp to snuff it continually during the night.
They were sent back the next morning on elephants to the seashore,
while native vessels conveyed them back to the ship.

The town of Brunei (now a miserable place) was a water city like
Venice, the houses being raised on poles rammed into the mud. The
king was a Muhammadan, and, as can be seen, his state enjoyed a very
large measure of Eastern civilization, derived from traffic with the
Arabs, from ancient Indian influence, and from direct trade with
China.

A few days later, however, the Spaniards took fright at the approach
of a fleet of a hundred praus, cut their cables and hoisted their
sails. They were pursued by one or two of the native boats, but they
soon beat these off with their guns. In attacking these vessels
they captured a number of prisoners, some of whom they released;
retaining, however, nineteen Malays (three of them women) for the
purpose of taking them to Spain.[34]

  [34] Some of these (including the women) were set free in the
  Moluccas, others died on the voyage, but a few actually did reach
  Seville, and with one exception, after being carefully instructed
  in Christianity and the Spanish language, were sent back to the
  Philippines in 1527. The exception was a Malay who showed himself
  so extraordinarily clever about money matters and trade that the
  Spaniards feared if he returned to the Far East he might be a little
  too knowing in appraising the value of European trade goods. So he
  apparently ended his days in Spain.

As to the Malay junks or ships with which they had now come into
contact, Pigafetta writes an interesting description. The hull of
the vessel was built of planks fastened together with wooden pegs,
the carpentry being very clever and neat; but at a height of about
15 inches above the water level the construction was continued with
large bamboos. The masts were of bamboo and the sails were of bark
cloth, or palm-leaf matting.

North Borneo, like the Philippines, had long been semi-civilized by
intercourse with China. All well-to-do people possessed porcelain
dishes and cups, and the Muhammadan Malays used bronze money
impressed with Chinese characters. The Bornean Malays had a curious
habit of taking small doses of mercury (quicksilver), not only
to cure illnesses, but in the belief that it prevented sickness
by purging the body. Pigafetta also relates that the Sultan of
Brunei possessed two pearls as large as hens' eggs, so round,
however, that they would not stand still on a table. These pearls
came from the south-western islands of the Philippine archipelago.
They had belonged to the king of the principal island of the Sulu
archipelago, whose daughter had married the Sultan of Brunei, and
had unwisely boasted of her father's pearls as big as hens' eggs.
Her husband determined to get possession of them, by force if
necessary, so had assembled a fleet of 500 praus (or, as another
variant of the story puts it, 50), and sailing by night he surprised
the King of Zolo, or Sulu, and two of his sons, and carried them
off to Brunei, where he held them as captives until the pearls were
delivered to him.

Pigafetta realized the immense size of the Island of Borneo--the
second largest island in the world, only New Guinea being of greater
area if Australia be considered a continent--he was informed that
it took three months to sail round it in a Malay prau. It was a
region that produced camphor,[35] cinnamon, ginger, myrobalans,[35]
oranges, lemons, water-melons, cucumbers, gourds, and many other
vegetables and fruits; buffaloes, oxen, swine, goats, fowls, geese
(derived from China), deer, elephants, and horses.

  [35] The camphor of Malaysia is a crystalline secretion found in
  the crevices of the bark of a magnificent tree, the _Dryobalanops
  aromatica_. The camphor more commonly met with in commerce is
  derived from the bark of a kind of laurel growing in Japan and
  Formosa. Myrobalans are the fruit of a tall _Terminalia_ tree of
  the _Combretaceæ_ family. They are plum-like in appearance and very
  astringent. The kernels are eaten, but the rind is used for making
  ink and very dark dyes.

After leaving Brunei the two ships directed their course towards
the Sulu archipelago, which lies between North Borneo and Mindanao.
They seem to have made little scruple of behaving like pirates
towards any Malay prau which could not offer much resistance. In
this way they captured a vessel full of coconuts, which was a great
resource to them in the way of food. They found a perfect port
for repairing ships in Bungei, one of the Sulu Islands. Here they
stayed for forty-two days, everyone labouring hard, their greatest
fatigue, however, being the journey backwards and forwards to the
forest barefoot (probably because their shoes were worn out) to hew
timber for the ship's needs. On the island of Bungei they found
many wild boars (of the species _Sus longirostris_), with very long
heads 2½ feet in length, and with big tusks. There were also huge
crocodiles, and on the seashore immense Tridacna clam shells, the
actual flesh of one of these clams (a clam is something like an
oyster) weighing as much as 44 pounds. Here also they observed the
marvellous leaf-insects, which Pigafetta not unnaturally imagined to
be a miracle of nature, leaves which became alive and walked about
when they fell to the ground. He kept one of these in a box for nine
days, and at the end of that time the leaf-insect was still active,
though no doubt it soon died, since he believed it fed on nothing
but air.[36]

  [36] These were no doubt examples of the genus _Phyllum_, insects
  of the _Phasmidæ_ family (allied to Mantises). The resemblance to
  leaves in the _Phylli_ is extraordinary, especially in the female
  insect, even the egg capsules are just like seeds.

Stopping off the coast of the large island of Mindanao, the
southernmost part of the Philippines, they again captured a Malay
vessel (killing several of its seamen) apparently only for the
purpose of getting information about the right course to pursue in
order to reach the Spice Islands. From these captives they obtained,
besides other information, the story that in the southern parts of
Mindanao existed a race of _hairy_ men who were fierce fighters and
used bows and arrows with great effect. They also possessed swords
or daggers, and when they were successful in battle they cut out the
hearts of their slain enemies and ate them raw, seasoned with the
juice of oranges or lemons. These hairy people were called Benaian.

Sailing away from Mindanao the two Spanish ships encountered a
furious storm, and in their terror the crews lowered all the sails
and offered up fervent prayers to God for their safety. "Immediately
our three patron saints of San Nicolau, San Elmo, and Sta. Clara
appeared to us like torches of light on the maintop, mizentop, and
foretop.[37] We promised a slave each to St. Elmo, San Nicolau, and
Sta. Clara, and offered alms to each saint." After this the storm
abated and the ship found a welcome refuge in a harbour, where again
they captured forcibly Malay seamen to show them the way to the
Molucca Islands.

  [37] The appearances, of course, were nothing but the displays of
  electricity which in violent storms show themselves like white
  globes of flame or torches in the upper parts of the masts and
  rigging, and are known generally as "corposants" or St. Elmo's Fires.

At last, on 8 November, 1521, they reached the five islands known
as Maluk or Molucca, and on that date came to an anchor in a
harbour of Tidore, where they fired a tremendous salute with their
artillery. The next day the king of the island--evidently well used
to Europeans and their ways--came off in a prau, and a deputation of
Spaniards went in a small boat to meet him. They found him seated
under a silk awning which sheltered him on all sides, and in front
of him squatted one of his sons holding the royal sceptre, and on
either side were persons with jars ready to pour water over his
hands, while two others held gilded caskets filled with betel paste.
The king bade the white men welcome, and said that he had dreamt
some time ago that ships were coming to the Molucca Islands from
remote parts, and from that assurance he determined to consult the
moon, whereupon he had seen the ships coming. He then came on board;
all kissed his hand and led him to the stern, where he was honoured
with a red velvet chair and given a yellow velvet robe made after
the Turkish fashion. The king professed his desire to become the
most loyal friend and vassal of the King of Spain, and declared that
henceforth his island would no more be called "Tadore" (or Tidore),
but Castilla, because of the great love which he bore to the mighty
sovereign of Spain.

This Malay chief of Tidore was a Muhammadan, about forty-five years
old, well built, of royal presence, and much skilled in astrology.
He was clad in a shirt of delicate white muslin, the ends of the
sleeves embroidered in gold. Round his waist, and reaching to the
ground, was a coloured cloth, while a silk scarf was wrapped round
his head, and above it was placed a garland of flowers. He asked
for a royal banner and a signature of Charles V, and he would then
place his dominions, which included the Island of Ternate, under the
direction of Spain. He would also load up the ships with cloves, so
that they might return to Spain with good commerce.

Eight months previously a notable personage had died in the Island
of Ternate, poisoned by the orders of this same King of Tidore.
He was a Portuguese, Francesco Serr[~ao], who had been, curiously
enough, a most intimate friend of Magellan, and who was apparently
the brother of the Jo[~ao] Serr[~ao], or Juan Serrano, the commander
of the _Concepcion_, who had been left behind and perhaps killed at
Sebu. Francesco Serr[~ao] had been sent as captain of a Portuguese
ship to the Moluccas in 1511, and had remained in those islands
partly on account of disasters having happened to his ship. In
course of time he became a very great man, and the Prime Minister,
so to speak, of the King of Ternate. He had married a woman from
the Island of Java. It was he who had strongly incited Magellan
to attempt to reach the Moluccas by way of South America and the
Pacific. But Serrano, having excited great jealousy by his powerful
influence over the King of Ternate, was poisoned by this same
King of Tidore, now so friendly towards the _Trinidad_ and the
_Victoria_; and soon afterwards the King of Ternate was likewise
got rid of by means of poison, and so the monarch of Tidore was the
chief person then in the archipelago of the Moluccas.

Whilst remaining at Tidore to load up with cloves, Pigafetta
collected some information about the large island of Jilolo lying to
the east.[38] He describes it as being inhabited both by Muhammadan
Malays (on the coast) and by Papuan heathens (in the interior), and
says it was very rich in gold, and that it grew enormous bamboos
as thick round as a man's thigh, the segments of which were often
filled with water that was very good to drink.

  [38] He pronounced the name Jailolo. This large island, which in
  shape is an extraordinary repetition on a smaller scale of the still
  larger Celebes, is also known as Halmahera.

When the King of Tidore heard of their piracies, and of the number
of Malay seamen they had captured, he dealt with the question
humanely and diplomatically, suggesting that all these prisoners
should be returned by him to their island homes, where they could
make known the greatness and splendour of the kingdom of Spain.
This the Spaniards consented to do, reserving only the people from
Brunei, who, as already related, were brought to Seville. As the
king was a very zealous Muhammadan, they also killed all the swine
on board to please him, and he in return gave them a large number
of goats and fowls, besides quantities of vegetable food, including
sago derived from the sago palm, which was the principal nourishment
of these Molucca Malays.

In the Island of Ternate there arrived presently a Portuguese in a
Malay prau, who gave them very interesting information derived from
the visit a year previously of a Portuguese ship. The survivors
of Magellan's expedition learnt then that the main facts of their
voyage had become known to the King of Portugal some time after
their departure, and that ships had been sent to the Cape of Good
Hope and to other places to prevent their passage. When it was
learnt that they had rounded South America and made their way across
the Pacific, an attempt was made to dispatch a Portuguese fleet of
six ships to the Molucca Islands to capture Magellan's expedition.
But this fleet was prevented from accomplishing its purpose through
its being detained in the Red Sea by the necessity of fighting a
Turkish fleet.

Whilst the two ships stayed at Tidore many festivities took place
in connection with the visits of chiefs or kings of the other
Molucca Islands. These Malay princes came in their praus, some of
which had three tiers of rowers on each side, in all 120 rowers,
and they hoisted great banners made of white, yellow, and red
parrot feathers. Gongs of bronze and brass were sounded and timed
to the rowers' actions. Sometimes the praus would be filled with
young girls, female slaves (though not feeling any of the misery
of slavery), who were to be presented as household servants to
the daughters of chiefs betrothed to this and that heir apparent.
The kings of the islands sat on rich carpets, no doubt received
by indirect trade from Persia. They wore cloths of gold and silk
manufactured in China, and the women were clad in beautiful silk
garments from the waist to the knees. They brought with them,
amongst other presents for the King of Spain, "two extremely
beautiful dead birds". These were as large as thrushes, with a
small head and a long beak. They were of a tawny colour, but with
beautiful long plumes of a different tint.[39] The natives who
brought them called them the Birds of God, and said that they came
from the terrestrial Paradise. This was probably the first mention
in our European literature of Birds of Paradise.

  [39] They may have been the Standard-bearer Paradise Bird
  (_Semioptera_), from the Island of Jilolo, which is fawn colour,
  with blue and emerald gorget, and large waving plume feathers rising
  up from the quills of the wings.

At last the ships were ready to go, in December, 1521. JUAN DEL CANO
(or de Elcano, as it is sometimes written), an officer hitherto
scarcely mentioned, had been elected captain of the _Victoria_, and
the command of the _Trinidad_ had been given to Espinosa, replacing
Carvalho, the pilot, who had behaved very badly in regard to the
captured natives as well as towards the members of the expedition.
[It was Carvalho who refused to stay and ransom poor Juan Serrano.]
The _Victoria_ set sail on her way towards Timor and the Indian
Ocean, when her cruise was suddenly stopped by the news that her
consort the _Trinidad_ had suddenly developed a dangerous leak.
They found the water rushing in as through a pipe, and pumping was
useless. The kindly King of Tidore sent down divers, who remained
more than half an hour under water, endeavouring to find the leak.
Some of these even remained an hour under water (this no doubt
was a great exaggeration), and, by wearing their long hair loose,
attempted to find the leak by letting it be drawn by the suction
of the water towards the place. But it was decided at last that
the _Victoria_ should start for Spain and the _Trinidad_ remain
behind for repairs.[40] The _Victoria_ therefore left with a crew of
forty-seven Europeans and thirteen Malays, chiefly from Borneo.

  [40] Fifty-three Spaniards remained behind in Tidore with the
  _Trinidad_, but of these only five returned to Europe. These
  five included the captain, Gomez Espinosa, already mentioned,
  and a German gunner, Hans Warge. Many of the Spaniards died in
  Tidore from various diseases or were killed in quarrels with the
  natives. The _Trinidad_ attempted to sail for Spain back across the
  Pacific Ocean, but pursued a northern route which took her to the
  forty-second degree of north latitude, whence she was driven back
  by storms to some island near New Guinea. Here she was found by the
  Portuguese, who stripped and abandoned her, conveying the survivors
  of her crew as prisoners to the Moluccas, where they were treated
  with considerable harshness.

The _Victoria_ on her way to Timor passed the Shulla Islands
(Xulla), and heard from their Malay pilots that the inhabitants were
naked cannibals. In other islands there were pigmies (negritos);
others, again, were more civilized, producing rice, pigs, goats,
fowls, sugar cane, and a delicious food made of bananas, almonds,
and honey, wrapped in leaves and smoke-dried, then cut into long
pieces. Buru Island was noted (though they did not land there) as
inhabited by Muhammadan Malays on the coast and cannibal savages in
the interior; also the Banda Islands, producing mace and nutmeg.
After leaving the vicinity of Buru the _Victoria_ encountered a
fierce storm, which drove them to seek refuge in a harbour of a
lofty island[41] which was inhabited by savage, bestial people,
eating human flesh and going naked, except that their warriors wore
armour made of buffalo hide and goatskins. They dressed their hair
(like the New Zealanders) high up on the head, held in position by
long reed pins, which they passed from one side to the other. Their
beards were wrapped in leaves and thrust into small bamboo tubes.
They were the ugliest people Pigafetta had seen, and were armed with
bows and arrows of bamboo. Nevertheless they behaved in a friendly
way to these Spaniards and sold them quantities of provisions,
beeswax, and pepper.

  [41] Called, by Pigafetta, Malina, probably the Island of Ombay.

On 26 January, 1522, the _Victoria_ reached the Island of Timor,
where it laid in a great supply of buffaloes, pigs, and goats. The
people, though going almost naked, wore many gold and brass armlets
and ear-rings, and bamboo combs in their hair adorned with gold
rings.

On 11 February, 1522, the _Victoria_ sailed away from Timor into
the great Indian Ocean. She was only a little vessel of 85 tons,
and she had to buffet her way amidst various storms and high waves
across the southern Indian Ocean, as far as the forty-second degree
of south latitude before she could beat up north and round the Cape
of Good Hope. The sufferings on board were terrible, the ship leaked
badly and the pumps were always going, the provision of buffalo meat
had putrefied, as they had had no salt to preserve it. There was
little other food than rice. After rounding the Cape of Good Hope
it took them a further two months before they could land anywhere
to obtain fresh provisions, and twenty-one men died of scurvy and
starvation during this terrible period. At last, constrained by
their despairing condition, they stopped off the Island of Sant
Iago, in the Cape Verde archipelago, which for some time had been a
settlement of the Portuguese. Here they sent a boat ashore for food,
with a concocted story to deceive the Portuguese into believing that
the _Victoria_ was a ship coming from Spanish America and driven
out of her course by storms. But on its second voyage to the shore
the boat, containing thirteen men, was detained, because, having no
money, they offered cloves in payment of the things they purchased.
Seeing from a distance that the men had been arrested, the captain
of the _Victoria_ felt obliged to abandon them to their fate and
hastily sailed away.

At last, on 8 September, 1522, the _Victoria_, having sailed into
Spain up the Guadalquivir River, dropped anchor at the quay of
Seville and discharged all her artillery in crazy joy at this
return to the Motherland. On the following day all the survivors of
this wonderful expedition--eighteen in number--went in shirts and
barefooted, each man holding a candle, to visit the shrines of Santa
Maria de la Victoria and of St. Mary of Antiquity in two different
churches. As to the thirteen men left behind, they were not so ill
treated after all by the Portuguese, but were ultimately dispatched
to Seville, so that it may be said of the five ships which started
with Magellan in 1519 to reach the Moluccas by way of the Pacific
Ocean only one returned to Spain--the _Victoria_, the _Trinidad_
having been lost near the Spice Islands; while of the original
265 men (more or less) who left Spain in 1519 only 36 returned to
Spain after circumnavigating the globe--18 in the _Victoria_, 13 in
Portuguese ships from the Cape Verde Islands, and 5 survivors from
the _Trinidad_ sent back by the Portuguese from Malaysia.

In spite of all these disasters, however, the cargo of cloves and
spices brought back by the _Victoria_ sufficed, not only to pay
the whole cost of the equipment of the original expedition of five
ships, but left a profit of about £200 in value over and above.

This fact, as well as the information (no doubt much exaggerated)
about the Philippines and Borneo and the gold to be met with in
these islands, made a deep impression on the Court of Spain, and
not many years elapsed before further attempts were made to reach
Malaysia across the Pacific from Spanish America, the Spaniards
being precluded by their agreement with Portugal from adopting the
more convenient route round the Cape of Good Hope.

As already related, the Spaniards and Portuguese were out of their
reckoning in regard to longitude when they supposed that any part
of the Philippines or the Moluccas lay to the east of 130° of
E. longitude, and consequently within the domain of Spain. They
believed that the Moluccas did come within the Spanish sphere,
while the Philippines were, by the same reckoning, Portuguese.
After a good deal of wrangling the matter was settled in 1529. A
considerable sum of money was paid by Portugal to Spain, the Spanish
claim to the Spice Islands was withdrawn, and nothing was said about
the Philippines. This archipelago, a few years afterwards, was
tacitly recognized as within the Spanish sphere, which also included
the lands afterwards to be styled New Guinea.

Borneo thus became part of the Portuguese "sphere of influence" (as
it would now be called), though this large island had first been
visited by Magellan in Spanish ships. The Portuguese attempted to
enter into relations with the then powerful Muhammadan sultanate of
North Borneo (Brunei), but (according to the Portuguese chronicler,
Barros) their efforts came to nothing through a very curious
mischance. Realizing that the Sultan of Brunei was a very powerful
prince, a Muhammadan, and therefore much in touch, through Arab
and Persian traders, with the civilized world, it was resolved to
send him, by the embassy dispatched from Ternate to Brunei in 1528,
a selection of really superior and costly presents. Amongst these
was a large piece of tapestry illustrating in a most lifelike manner
the marriage of Catherine of Aragon (afterwards the unhappy wife of
Henry VIII) to Arthur, Prince of Wales--the first link, possibly,
in the long history of the relations between the British and North
Borneo. But the figures thus portrayed by the needles and wool of
industrious Spanish women seemed to the superstitious Malay sultan
a work of subtle magic. He believed them to be real persons sent to
sleep by the spell of a magician, and that some night they would be
released from their enchantment, come to life, and slay him as he
slept. So the Portuguese envoy was dismissed, the presents declined,
and no political relations entered into between North Borneo and
the Portuguese. This was one reason, probably, why the Dutch, not
having been preceded by the Portuguese, got no foothold in North
Borneo, and therefore left this side of the island open to British
administrative enterprise in the first half of the nineteenth
century.

Spanish research in the Pacific was resumed five years after the
return of Sebastian de Elcano in the _Victoria_ in the autumn of
1522. In 1528 two Spanish ships, intending to sail from Mexico to
the Philippines, were blown out of their course in a storm and
accidentally discovered the Hawaii Islands. They were wrecked there,
and such of the crews as were saved from drowning--amongst them were
several Spanish women--could not get away from Hawaii, and settled
down there for the rest of their lives, marrying the people of the
country, and no doubt leaving a strain of Castilian blood in the
ruling classes of these cannibal islands.

Hawaii was, however, again visited by Spanish ships in the middle of
the sixteenth century; and when, long afterwards, the archipelago
was rediscovered by Captain Cook, the people were found to be
practising several Spanish customs. The real fact is that Spain knew
a good deal about the Oceanic islands in the sixteenth century, but
out of jealous dread that her monopoly of the Pacific Ocean might
be invaded by other European nations she kept this geographical
knowledge, set forth in her charts and logbooks, hidden in her State
archives, only to be revealed in the latter part of the eighteenth
century, when there was no longer anything to conceal from the
adventurous French and English.

In 1542 the Philippines were again visited by Spanish ships under
the command of LOPEZ DE VILLALOBOS, who penetrated to the large
northern island of Luzon. On his return to Mexico he named this
archipelago after Philip, the heir to the Spanish throne. In 1564 an
expedition under LOPEZ DE LEGASPI was dispatched from the west coast
of Mexico to the Philippines for their conquest and their conversion
to Christianity. Four ships conveyed 400 Spanish soldiers and a few
friars or missionaries. Between 1565 and his death in 1572 Legaspi
had actually achieved the wonderful feat of founding the city of
Manila in the large island of Luzon, and making the Spanish power
predominant over all this large archipelago. A number of the natives
became converted to Christianity, and only the Sulu Islands and
Palawan remained Muhammadan.

In 1579 a new portent appeared in the Far East. In the month of
November there arrived at the Island of Ternate, from nowhere,
as it seemed, an English ship, the _Golden Hinde_, commanded by
FRANCIS DRAKE. This most remarkable English adventurer--then
only thirty-four years old--had been purser to a ship trading to
the north of Spain when he was only eighteen, and by the age of
twenty-two had not only made a voyage to Guinea, but was commanding
a ship as captain in an attack on the Spaniards off the coast of
Mexico. In 1577 he had navigated the Straits of Magellan in the
_Golden Hinde_ (originally the _Pelican_, which he renamed thus as a
remembrance of the heraldic device of Sir Christopher Hatton and a
mark of joy at having safely reached the Pacific Ocean), had sailed
up the west coast of South America, attacking and plundering Spanish
ships and towns "till his men were satiated with plunder"; and,
failing to find another Magellan's Straits in North-west America to
take him back to the Atlantic, had boldly sailed from the coast of
New Albion (the modern State of Washington) aslant the Pacific Ocean
and steered a straight course for the Moluccas.

The Portuguese, of course, were then predominant in the Spice
Islands and elsewhere in Malaysia, and with them Drake had no
quarrel. He therefore sailed on to Java (after nearly coming to
grief by striking a rock off the coast of Celebes), and from Java
made his way round the Cape of Good Hope to the Guinea coast,
and thence to the Azores and England. He was knighted by Queen
Elizabeth on board the _Golden Hinde_ at Deptford, after the queen
had partaken of a banquet on board the famous ship which had sailed
round the world in two years and ten months.

His voyage was a splendid answer to the Spaniards, who believed
themselves perfectly safe from interference in the waters of the
"great Southern Ocean", and who forbade the rest of the world to
trade with America and Australasia. Within eighteen years it was to
be followed up by Dutch and British attacks, by way of the Cape of
Good Hope, on the Portuguese and Spanish monopoly of intercourse
with the East Indies and Malaysia. It is, however, only fair to
mention that in the matter of commercial morality the British,
French, and Dutch were no more enlightened than the Spaniards. Each
sought in turn to make their oversea dependencies regions closed to
the trade of other nations than themselves, and even to restrict
the commerce of their Asiatic, African, and American colonies to
privileged persons or companies.

The Spaniards who sailed to the Moluccas in the two remaining ships
of Magellan's squadron had practically got into touch with Papuasia,
with the lands of New Guinea and its surrounding islands; and had
realized that in this direction there lay a new Negroland, a "New
Guinea", in fact. Exactly when the New Guinea coast was reached
from the west--whether by ALVARO DE SAAVEDRA the Spaniard in 1528,
or in 1511 and 1526 by the Portuguese who had taken possession of
the Moluccas--is not known; nor by whom this very appropriate name
was first given. Probably it was named "Nueva Guinéa" in 1546 by
a Spanish captain--ORTIZ DE RETEZ--who mapped a portion of its
northern coast. The impression that this vast island--the biggest in
the world--was first called "New Guinea" by Torres when he reached
its southern shores in 1607 is incorrect; he, seemingly, was only
recognizing a land already named thus for its great superficial
resemblance to West Africa. But the Spaniards had heard rumours from
the Malay sea captains of a vast land eastward of the Moluccas
where there was gold in abundance, besides beautiful birds and
curly-haired black people. They jumped to the fantastic conclusion
that here lay, not only the Earthly Paradise, but also the Ophir
from which Solomon had derived his gold. Mingled with these beliefs
was the ever-growing conviction that in this direction must lie a
great Southern Continent; and to search for this an expedition was
dispatched in 1567 from Callao, the principal port of Peru, under
the command of ALVARO DE MENDAÑA DE NEYRA, with the express purpose
of discovering the great Antarctic continent and the "Islas de
Salomon". Mendaña voyaged for eighty days across the Pacific, more
or less through the equatorial belt, and thus discovered and named
the Solomon Islands[42] to the east of New Guinea, believing that
they might prove to be the Ophir from which Solomon had derived
gold. His expedition surveyed the southern portion of the group,
giving to three of the large islands the Spanish names, which they
still bear, of San Cristoval, Guadalcanal, and Ysabel.

  [42] The Solomon Islands are now divided politically between Germany
  and Britain, Germany having annexed the large island of Bougainville
  and the smaller Buka on the north, and Great Britain the remainder.
  The islands are very mountainous and volcanic, and on the largest,
  Bougainville, one mountain rises to an altitude of over 10,000
  feet. In the British Island of Guadalcanal there is an altitude of
  8000 feet. The climate is very wet and unhealthy, and vegetation is
  luxurious, including magnificent forests of sandalwood, ebony, and
  "lignum vitæ" (a kind of Myrtle--_Metrosideron_). The inhabitants
  belong mainly to the Melanesian or Negroid stock, and are no doubt
  closely related to the Papuans of New Guinea. In some of the
  northern islands, such as Buka, the people often present a striking
  resemblance in their features, skin colour, and close-growing,
  woolly hair, to African Negroes. Some tribes in the islands,
  however, are akin to the Polynesians, and have long, straight
  hair. They were until quite recently the most ferocious cannibals
  of any part of the globe. In more remote periods this archipelago
  was connected with New Guinea, and thence derived the ancestors
  of its present wild animals, which include numerous Bats of very
  interesting types, some very large Rats the size of big rabbits, a
  Cuscus or marsupial Phalanger, and a large Frog about 8 inches long,
  besides some remarkable Parrots.

JUAN FERNANDEZ was a Spanish pilot who appears to have given some
study to the Straits of Magellan. About 1572 he was venturing
out some distance into the Pacific Ocean from the coast of South
America, and thus discovered the two little islands which have ever
since borne his name, and which proved for a time such an important
harbourage and resting place for the Dutch and English navigators
who flouted the prohibition of Spain to enter the great Southern
Ocean. Fernandez conceived the idea that there must be some large
extent of land in the southern half of the Pacific Ocean, and he may
have sighted Easter Island, or some other Pacific archipelago, and
have believed that it was an indication of the coast line of this
Terra Australis.

Mendaña de Neyra, who had returned to the coast of Peru in 1570, was
very anxious to organize at once another expedition to extend his
discoveries. He was not enabled to do so until the year 1595, when
he again started from the coast of Peru with a fleet and a number
of Spaniards who were to colonize the Solomon Islands. On his way
thither he discovered the Marquezas archipelago (which now belongs
to France). Sailing along a course which was more or less that of
the tenth degree of south latitude, his ship at last reached the
little island of Santa Cruz, the northernmost of an archipelago
which is now associated with the group of the New Hebrides. Here,
for some reason, his expedition came to a stop, and he landed and
attempted to establish a portion of his crew as settlers. But the
climate, or some other cause of ill health, brought about the death
of Mendaña and many of his companions. He had been accompanied on
this cruise by his young wife, who played a heroic part in rescuing
the remainder of the expedition. After Mendaña's death, one of
his pilots, PEDRO FERNANDEZ DE QUIROS (a Portuguese), brought the
remains of the Spanish fleet to Manila in the Philippines. Then in
one vessel he boldly sailed back across the Pacific to Peru, and
thence made his way to Madrid, where he revealed to the Spanish
Government the stories gathered from Malays regarding the existence
of a great Southern Continent. He obtained permission from the Court
to search for this Terra Australis, and for this purpose returned
to South America and started on his quest from Callao (Peru) in
1605. The Viceroy of Peru associated with him, practically as
admiral in command of the expedition, LUIS VAEZ DE TORRES, as well
as a second ship. Directing his voyage across the southern Tropics
instead of the northern, de Quiros discovered a small island, which
long afterwards was renamed Osnaburg by Cook. A few days afterwards
he passed one or more islands of the Tahiti archipelago, which he
named "Sagittaria", probably from the month (February, under the
zodiacal sign of Sagittarius) in which they were discovered. Sailing
on westwards he next reached the group of the New Hebrides. This he
believed to be a portion of the coast of the Southern Continent,
and he named its largest island[43] Australia del Espiritu Santo,
or Australia of the Holy Ghost, this being the first time that the
word Australia came into being. He did not pursue his investigations
any farther, because his ship's crew mutinied and forced him to sail
back again to Mexico.

  [43] Sometimes known as Marina. The name as given by de Quiros seems
  to have been spelt "Austrialia".

But his admiral, Luis Vaez de Torres, suddenly abandoned by the ship
which had de Quiros on board, was less certain about the actual
discovery of this continent, so in 1606-7 he pursued a westward
course and thus passed through that strait which separates northern
Australia from New Guinea, and thence sailed to the Philippines. He
was consequently the discoverer of what is now the British province
of Papua, and of the important Torres Straits.

For a long time the Spaniards kept these explorations as State
secrets, for they were becoming very much alarmed at the progress
in oversea exploration of the Dutch and English. The existence,
therefore, of Torres Straits, separating the Australian Continent
from the huge Island of New Guinea, remained practically unknown to
the world of Europe until the voyages of Captain Cook, more than
150 years later. In fact, Cook, when he rediscovered and mapped the
strait between North Australia and New Guinea, was not aware that he
had been preceded in that direction by Torres. When, however, this
fact was made clearly known through the archives of Spain, the name
of the bold Spanish seaman was very appropriately (in 1796) given to
a strait of water which is one of the most noteworthy passages from
the Pacific to the Indian Oceans, and which may some day become of
great importance in the world's history.

CHAPTER IV

Dutch Discoveries

In the Malay Archipelago and the Spice Islands both Portuguese and
Spanish were attacked by the Dutch, and gradually dispossessed from
the end of the sixteenth century onwards. The Dutch had established
themselves in the Moluccas in place of the Portuguese between 1604
and 1609, in which year the Portuguese were driven from the Nutmeg
Islands of Banda. The Hollanders were followed almost immediately
by the English. The merchant adventurers of both nations (who were
seamen, soldiers, and pirates at will) soon penetrated to the
western peninsulas of New Guinea and ousted the Portuguese from
Java, Celebes, and southern Timor, but at first made little or no
attempt to pass beyond Malaysia in search of the southern continent.
By the conquest of Malacca in 1641 the Dutch had become practically
masters of the Malay Archipelago, the Spaniards being confined to
the possession of the Philippines (which they administered from the
west coast of America across the Pacific),[44] and the Portuguese
only lingering on in the islands of Timor and Flores, while the
English had been expelled from the Spice Islands and Java, and
merely retained a precarious foothold in Sumatra. Encouraged by
these successes to seek for further lands that might be conquered,
settled, or traded with, the Dutch began to take up the quest for
the Terra Australis as soon as they were established as the masters
of the Moluccas and Banda.

  [44] As a matter of fact, the Spanish really only acquired something
  like mastery over the Philippine Islands at the beginning of the
  eighteenth century. Up till that time the islands were mostly
  governed by native chiefs, who paid tribute to Spain, and submitted
  very willingly to the direction of the Spanish friars or missionary
  brethren, who acquired considerable influence over the northern part
  of the Philippine archipelago, where Muhammadanism was not in any
  way established. The Spaniards never succeeded in finally conquering
  the whole of the Philippines. This task has only been achieved by
  their successors, the people of the United States.

In 1615 a bold Dutch navigator, JACOB LE MAIRE (of French
extraction), determined, in spite of the prohibition of the Dutch
East India Company, to find his way independently to the seas and
lands of southern Asia by way of the extremity of South America. He
sailed in company with another sea captain, SCHOUTEN, and together
they discovered and named Staten Island and the celebrated Cape
Horn, the southernmost extremity (a little island) of South America,
and since famous as the stormiest cape in the world's seas. From
this point they followed closely the coast of South America till
they got into equatorial latitudes, and then steered boldly across
the Pacific Ocean, either not noticing or actually not seeing the
many islands or islets that must have been near their course.
Apparently the first land they sighted was the north-east coast of
New Guinea, after which they got among the Spice Islands and thus
eventually reached Batavia, where they were so severely punished by
their fellow countrymen for their splendid adventure that Le Maire
ultimately died before he could reach Holland. Previous to this
date, however, the Dutch had evidently known something about the
Australian Continent[45] (of which it was generally believed that
New Guinea was a portion), and they no doubt derived this knowledge
from information given to them by Malay pilots, and picked up
from the Portuguese; for in a work published in 1598 by the Dutch
historian, Cornelius Wytfliet, the following passage occurs: "The
Terra Australis is the most southern of all lands, and is separated
from New Guinea by a narrow strait.... It is ascertained by some
to be of so great an extent that if it were thoroughly explored
it would be regarded as a fifth part of the world." There is a
tradition also that in 1606 a Dutch ship, the _Duyfken_ or _Little
Dove_, which was on its way from Java to the western part of New
Guinea, was driven out of her course by a typhoon and sighted the
north-east coast of Australia (Cape York Peninsula) as far south
as Cape Turnagain. Some of the crew landed, but were repulsed by
the savage natives. In the year following the arrival of le Maire
at Batavia, a Dutch ship, the _Eendracht_, under the command of a
navigator called Hertoge, or Hartog, by a similar cause was blown
out of his course and touched the north-west coast of Australia
at points now known as Shark Bay and Hartog Island. In 1622-3 the
_Leeuwin_ (Lioness), another Dutch vessel, penetrated along the
west coast of Australia about as far south as Cape Leeuwin. In
1623 an expedition, under a captain named CARTENZ, set out for the
Southern Continent and explored and named the Gulf of Carpentaria,
in north Australia, the name being derived from Carpentar, who was
then the Governor of the Dutch East Indies (the authority says
"West" Indies). Between 1622 and 1628 other Dutch expeditions, one
of them under PIETER NUYTS, explored the South Australian coast
("Nuytsland") as far as the Eyre Peninsula. But from here to Cape
York the east coast of Australia remained absolutely unknown till
the coming of Captain Cook.

  [45] New Guinea (Nova Guinea) appears duly named on Mercator's first
  maps of the world, published in 1569. On the other side of a narrow
  strait (Torres Straits) is a jagged coastline obviously representing
  North Australia.

ABEL JANSZOON TASMAN, the greatest Dutch explorer of Australasia
(his middle name was equivalent in English to Johnson), was born
about 1603 at Lutjegast, near Groningen, in Friesland, not far from
the modern German boundary. He was married twice, first when a young
man (the second time when he was twenty-nine years old), and about
the age of twenty-one joined the service of the Dutch East India
Company and started for Java. He revisited Holland in 1637 and
returned to the Malay Archipelago in 1638. Although he had started
in life as a common sailor he must have acquired a good education
by some means or other, for his journals show him to have been
possessed of a singularly beautiful and even handwriting, he was a
clever draughtsman (assuming the many sketches in the logbook to be
by him), and he had thoroughly mastered the science of navigation,
so much so, that soon after his arrival in the East Indies in 1634
he was singled out for work of importance and responsibility. In
1638 he made, in company with another commander, a remarkable voyage
of exploration to Japan along the coasts of China, and in 1642
he was selected to command the expedition which was to make such
important discoveries in Australasia.

His principal vessel, the _Heemskerk_[46], described as a yacht, was
probably of only 150 tons capacity; the second of the two ships, the
_Zeehaen_ (Seahen) was a third smaller than the _Heemskerk_. With
these two small ships he left Batavia (Java) on 14 August, 1642, and
sailed right across the Indian Ocean to the Island of Mauritius (the
home of the Dodo), then occupied by the Dutch, wishing, no doubt,
to take as wide a scope as possible for the discovery of the great
Southern Continent. From Mauritius he sailed east and south, and
did not sight the West Australian coast at all, his course trending
so much to the south that instead he crossed the great Australian
Bight[47] and first saw land off the west coast of Tasmania, in
the vicinity of what is now known as Macquarie Harbour. He at
once conferred on this land the name of Anthonij Van Diemen, the
Governor-General of the Dutch Indies, and the principal promoter of
this exploring expedition. He overlooked the passage to the north
(Bass's Strait), and directed his course southwards. On 25 November,
1642, the two ships came to an anchor off the west coast of Tasmania
for consultations between the commanders. On the succeeding days
they sailed round the south coast of Tasmania, and on 2 December
stopped again and sent a pilot in a pinnace with four musketeers
and six rowers (all of them well armed) together with another boat
commanded by an officer, and containing six more musketeers, to the
shore of a large bay (probably Storm Bay) to see if fresh water,
vegetables, and timber could be obtained. On the return of these
boats the officers reported that they found the land covered with
vegetation, but with no signs of cultivation. They brought back with
them various wild vegetable products which seemed suited for use
as pot-herbs, besides a good supply of fresh water. They reported
that they had heard certain human sounds, and noises resembling the
music of a trumpet or small gong, but they saw no human beings,
though there were notched trees, the notches having been made
with implements of sharpened stone, to form steps enabling persons
to climb the trees and take the birds' nests. These notched steps
(very wide apart) were so fresh and new that they could only have
been cut a few days before. On the ground they saw the footprints
of clawed animals and other traces showing that there were beasts
in the forest. In the interior numerous trees were observed which
had deep holes burnt into them, as if to make of them fireplaces and
shelters. They also saw smoke rising in clouds from natives' fires.
On 3 December a flagstaff was set up on the shore of Frederick Henry
Bay, and possession of this new land was solemnly taken on behalf of
the Dutch East India Company.

  [46] The master of the _Heemskerk_ was Captain Yde Tjercxzoon
  Holman, a Frisian from the Grand duchy of Oldenburg; and the
  pilot-major, or principal steersman, was a very noteworthy person
  in the expedition--Frans Jacobszoon Visscher, a native of Flushing,
  who had made some very remarkable voyages round about Japan, and had
  resided a good deal in that country.

  [47] In crossing this bight Tasman was clever enough to surmise that
  they must be passing to the south of the land discovered by Pieter
  Nuyts in 1627 (the south coast of Australia); and owing to the
  tremendous swell setting in from the south he felt sure that there
  was no continent near him in that direction.

Then they sailed away from what they believed to be the southernmost
extremity of Australia, and on 13 December, 1642, they saw "a large
high-lying land bearing south-east ... at about 16 miles distance".
This was the great southern island of New Zealand,[48] but it was
encountered by Tasman at its northernmost extremity and close to
the North Island. He sailed, in fact, right into the gulf (then
named the _Zeehaen's_ Bight) between two islands, which finds its
outlet to the south in Cook's Strait. He overlooked this outlet
and believed the gulf to be only a great indentation. Ultimately
he sailed northwards past the west coast of the North Island to
its northernmost extremity, which he named Cape Maria Van Diemen.
At some distance from this were three tiny islets, the size of
which he exaggerated. He named them the Three Kings' Islands. On
18 December the two ships came to an anchor about a mile from the
shore, off the coast of what is now called Massacre or Golden Bay,
not far from the modern settlement of Waitapu. It was sunset, and
calm, and as the twilight faded they saw lights on shore and two
native boats coming towards them, the men in which began to call to
them in rough, "hollow" voices. This people also blew several times
on an instrument (probably a conch shell), the sound from which was
like that of a Moorish trumpet. The seamen from the ships trumpeted
back to them in reply, but when it was dark the native canoes
paddled back to the shore. Early the next morning a canoe manned by
fifteen natives approached to within a short distance of the ships
and called out several times. But the Dutchmen could not understand
their language, as it bore no resemblance to the vocabulary of words
used in the Solomon Islands, which had been collected through the
industry of Anthonij Van Diemen and supplied to Tasman with his
other instructions.[49] As far as they could observe, these New
Zealanders were of ordinary height, with rough voices and strong
bones, the colour of their skin being between brown and yellow.
They wore tufts of black hair right on the tops of their heads,
tied fast in the manner of the Japanese, but somewhat longer and
thicker, each topknot of hair being surmounted by a large white
feather. Each of their boats consisted of two long, narrow canoes
fastened side by side. Over these twin canoes were placed planks on
which the paddlers sat. The New Zealanders, though naked from the
shoulders to the waist, wore some kind of clothing (in contrast to
the nearly always naked Melanesians). This seemed to be made of a
stuff something like woven cotton, or else matting.

  [48] Any sensible person looking at the map of New Zealand would
  say that this Dominion was divided into two great islands, the
  North Island and the South Island. But, ridiculously enough, the
  great South Island is constantly referred to by writers on New
  Zealand as the Middle Island, the term South Island being applied
  to a (relatively) very small island just off the extremity of the
  southern half of the Dominion, while the South Island is called the
  Middle Island. It should really be known as the South Island and the
  small island beyond it as Stewart Island.

  [49] In noting this difference of speech Tasman unconsciously laid
  stress on the great distinction between the Melanesian tongues of
  the Oceanic Negroids and the Polynesian speech of New Zealand and
  nearly all the other Pacific islands and archipelagoes south of Fiji
  and New Caledonia and east of the Ladrones.

In spite of offered presents and friendly greetings these two boats
would not come alongside the ship. Later on, seven more canoes came
off from the shore, one of which was high and pointed in front. With
these nine canoes paddling round and round the two ships, and manned
by a number of able-bodied armed men, the Dutchmen became a little
uneasy, and the skipper of the _Zeehaen_ sent out his quartermaster
in a small boat with six seamen to advise the officers of the
_Heemskerk_ not to allow too many natives to come on board, if they
wished to do so. But suddenly the little boat of the _Zeehaen_ was
violently attacked by one of the New Zealand canoes, with the result
that one Dutch seamen was knocked overboard, four were killed,
while the remainder, thrown into the sea, swam back to their ship.
The natives then started for the shore, taking one of the dead
bodies with them (which they no doubt afterwards ate in a cannibal
feast). None of the shots fired from the _Zeehaen_ or _Heemskerk_
took effect. The small boat of the _Zeehaen_ was recovered, and
the two Dutch ships then set sail, despairing of entering into any
friendly relations with these people, or getting fresh water at this
place. As they sailed out of the bay they saw twenty-two canoes near
the shore, of which eleven, swarming with people, were making for
the ships. They kept quiet until some of the foremost canoes were
within reach of the guns, and then fired one or two shots without
doing much damage, though the natives at once turned their canoes
back, hoisted a kind of sail, and made with all speed for the
shore. "To this murderous spot we have accordingly given the name of
Moordenaers Bay."[50]

  [50] Murderer's Bay, a name subsequently changed to Massacre Bay, or
  Golden Bay--from the later discovery of gold in this region.

[Illustration: TASMAN'S MEN ATTACKED BY NATIVES OFF THE COAST OF NEW
ZEALAND]

On this same day, 19 December, 1642, Tasman bestowed on this
new country the name of Staten Landt, "in honour of their high
mightinesses the States-General of Holland". This name seems
really to have been bestowed on account of the much earlier
discovery by the Dutch navigator, le Maire, of an island off the
south-easternmost extremity of South America (Tierra del Fuego),
which Tasman seems to have thought to be the beginning of an
Antarctic continent, of which New Zealand was the north-westernmost
extremity. But after Tasman's return to Java the Governor-General
considered that the two regions were too far separated and distinct
to be parts of the same land surface; so he changed the named to
Nieuw Zeeland (New Zealand), in honour of the Zeeland (Sealand)
province of south-west Holland.

On 5 January, 1643, they attempted to land on one of the Three
Kings' Islands to fill their water casks before directing their
course once more across a wide stretch of unknown ocean, but the
heavy surf and the rocks made such an attempt too dangerous. The
natives, moreover, were very threatening, standing about on the
high land armed with long sticks shaped like pikes, and shouting
every now and again what seemed to be hostile utterances. So it
was decided to do without the fresh water, in the hope that they
might reach other islands farther north where it could be obtained.
Accordingly, on 6 January the two ships once more set sail across
the Pacific Ocean, directing their course as nearly as possible for
the Solomon Islands. On 19 and 20 January they sighted Tropic Bird
Island, and two other small islands, which they named Amsterdam and
Middelburgh. These were the southernmost islands of the Tonga or
Friendly group, probably those which are now known by the names of
Tongatabu (Amsterdam, "because of the abundance of refreshments we
got there"), Eua (Middelburgh), and Cattow.

"About noon", wrote Tasman on 21 January, "a small canoe with three
men in it put off from land and came near our ship. These men were
naked, of a brown colour, and slightly above the ordinary stature;
two of them had long, thick hair on their heads." The Dutchmen
showed white linen to these Polynesians, throwing overboard a piece
of 2½ yards. Seeing this, the natives paddled towards it; but as it
had sunk to a considerable depth under the water the foremost man in
the canoe jumped out and dived for it. He remained under water for
a very long time, but at last reappeared with the linen, and when
back in the canoe put this several times on the top of his head in
sign of gratitude. The natives then came nearer and received from
the ships' crews a few more presents, amongst which was a small
looking-glass. The Dutchmen then showed them an old coconut and a
fowl, and attempted to make enquiries about water, pigs, &c. At last
they understood, to a certain extent, and after returning on shore
a canoe came back with a white flag, the occupants of which were
painted black from the waist to the thighs, and wore necklaces of
large leaves. A white flag was fastened to the stern of one of the
Dutch boats. The Dutchmen filled a rummer with wine, of which they
first drank a little themselves, to show that it was not poison. The
Polynesians, however, drank the wine without hesitation, and took
the cask back with them on shore. Soon afterwards a great number of
canoes came alongside with coconuts, which they bartered for old
nails. Other natives swam the whole way from the land to the ships
with coconuts for trade. At last an old man came on board one of
the Dutch ships who was thought to be a chief. He paid reverence
to the Dutchmen by bowing his head down to their feet. They showed
him a cup containing fresh water; the native chief implied by signs
that plenty of water could be obtained on shore. Meantime other
natives had come on board the ship, and exhibited the same shameless
thievishness as had angered Magellan. Among other things they stole
a pistol and a pair of slippers. The Dutchmen wisely took these
articles away from their dishonest visitors without any display of
anger. Towards evening twenty canoes came up to the ship, making a
great deal of noise and crying out repeatedly: "Wu, wu, wu!" They
had brought a present from the king consisting of a pig, a number
of coconuts, and some yams. The Dutchmen gave as a return present a
common dish and a piece of copper wire.

The next day a quantity of canoes came off with coconuts, yams,
bananas, plantains, pigs, and fowls. There also came on board a
leper and a bearded woman. The natives were at first frightened by
the discharge of the big guns, but soon reassured when they saw
that no harm came from this noise. They were entertained with Dutch
and German music, at which they were greatly astonished. At last
the Dutchmen decided to send a party on shore to get fresh water,
and, although the natives seemed to be so friendly, they took the
precaution of adding a number of musketeers to defend the watering
party. Nothing disagreeable happened, however. Wells were pointed
out to them, and they were most hospitably entertained in what
seemed to be pleasure houses, where they were invited to sit down on
handsome mats. However, the amount of water supplied was perfectly
trivial. The next day the chiefs set their men to work to dig larger
wells, and the Dutchmen got all the water they wanted. Tasman noted
in his journal that the natives here had no knowledge of tobacco or
smoking of any kind. Neither men nor women went completely naked
(a characteristic feature of the Melanesians), but wore clothing
round the waist, which in the case of the women extended to the
knees, and was made of the leaves of trees. The women wore their
hair shorter than the men, and the latter, as a rule, grew beards
about 4 inches long, with very short moustaches, the hair of which
was kept clipped. No arms were worn by these people, and all seemed
peace and amity in their lives (the "Friendly Isles"). Starting
away again on 24 January the two ships passed through the rest of
the Tonga Islands, one of which, Nanuka, was named by Tasman the
Island of Rotterdam. On one of the islands of the Haapai group the
Dutchmen again landed to get fresh water. The party sent to the
beach reported on landing that they had seen about seventy persons,
apparently the entire male population of the island; they had no
arms, and seemed kind and peaceable, and there were many women and
children. Nevertheless, these people were very thievish, for they
stole everything they could lay hands on--men and women alike. This
was a characteristic of nearly all the Pacific islanders when these
lands were first discovered, and was a trait which gave rise to many
troubles between them and the European explorers, who did not view
this practice--not regarded by the natives as being very wrong--with
sufficient patience.

At the watering place they saw numbers of wild duck swimming, not
at all shy or afraid of men. On this island were noticed many
enclosures or gardens, with plots elegantly squared and planted with
all sorts of fruits and vegetables. There were groves of bananas
and other fruit trees, most of them growing so straight that they
were a pleasure to look on (to a Dutch eye enamoured of tidiness),
while they gave forth a most agreeable odour and fragrance. Though
the natives of these Friendly Islands did not seem to have any
well-defined religion, they were very superstitious. Tasman noticed
one of them take up a water snake which came floating alongside his
canoe, lay it on his head with reverence, and put it back on the
water. Above all, they had a great dislike to killing flies, though
they were so abundant here as to cause considerable trouble. Whilst
the Dutchmen were at anchor one of them had the misfortune to kill
a fly in the presence of a native chief, who showed himself greatly
angered and upset.

On 2 February the voyage was continued, the ships being now
well supplied with fresh water and fresh provisions. A period
of rough winds followed, and although the outlying islands of
the north-eastern part of the Fiji group (which Tasman named
after Prince Willem of Orange) were sighted, the weather was too
dangerous for any attempt at landing or investigation. Desirous
of reaching New Guinea, the course of the vessels was directed to
the north-west. It was not until 15 March that they sailed into
smooth water and sunshine, after many days of rain, fog, and rough,
south-westerly wind. On 22 March they saw land straight ahead of
them at four miles distance--about thirty small islands surrounded
by reefs. These, and others farther west, were little archipelagos
of minute islands to the north of the Solomon group and near the
great island of Bougainville. Probably owing to the very stormy,
thick, rainy, and misty weather, Tasman's expedition saw nothing of
the islands or islets of the Santa Cruz and New Hebrides groups, or
the Solomon Islands, very near to which he must have passed.

On 25 March, 1643, the two vessels anchored off one of these islands
of Oceanic Negroes. A canoe came alongside with a number of men
whose skins were nearly black and who went quite naked. Some of
them had their hair cut short, or wore feathers arranged like horns
on the top of their heads. One had a ring through his nose. They
carried bows and arrows. From another island on the following day
came off more of these black people, "with curly hair like that of
the Kafirs", but not so woolly, nor were their noses quite so flat
as those of true Negroes. They wore white bracelets, probably of
pigs' tusks. Their faces were daubed with lime, and a small piece of
tree bark was worn on the forehead. For arms they had bows, arrows,
and javelins or stabbing spears. At last Tasman got one of the words
of his Melanesian vocabularies recognized; it was the word for
coconut (_lamas_).

By 1 April the Dutchmen were sailing along the coast of New
Mecklenburg (then thought to be part of New Guinea). Already Tasman
had recognized islands and capes seen and named by his predecessor,
le Maire. Every now and again they anchored to buy coconuts. The
people who came off from the shore were black skinned and naked.
They seemed already somewhat acquainted with Europeans and their
ways and to be afraid of guns. They had little or nothing to sell
except the pith of the sago palm. Some of these people at a later
date (from the island which we now know as New Hanover) came on
board and were rendered very dizzy--"intoxicated"--by the motion of
the ships, though they never suffered from seasickness in their own
canoes. They brought with them a shark and some small fish.

Turning southwards after rounding New Hanover the expedition sighted
the real north coast of New Guinea, ignorant, of course, of the
fact that hitherto they had only been following large and small
islands now known as the Bismarck Archipelago. Off the north coast
of what is now German New Guinea they noted a volcanic island with
an active volcano, round which there were clouds of smoke. As they
coasted along New Guinea, touching at the islands for fresh water
and provisions, they observed that the black Papuan natives could
imitate whatever words they heard the Dutchmen pronounce, and were
remarkable themselves for the number of "r's" which their own speech
contained.

Tasman overlooked the deep indentation of Geelvink Bay, which makes
a jagged peninsula of nearly half Dutch New Guinea; and rounding the
Island of Waigiu his ships passed through the Spice Islands to the
Island of Buru, where he found himself once more within the limits
of Dutch influence. The two vessels safely regained Batavia, where
their crews were received with much honour and rejoicing. "God be
praised and thanked for this happy voyage. Amen", wrote Tasman at
the end of his journal on 15 June, 1643.

In the opinion of the Dutch East India Company Tasman's wonderful
voyage was too imperfect in its results to merit their complete
approbation, though he and his companions received a reward in
money for their achievements as "Southland Navigators". But it
was realized by the Council of the Dutch East Indies that the
actual configuration and extent of the Southland was very little
known on the eastern side, though there remained above all things
the important fact that a passage well within the South Temperate
Zone existed between the Indian and the Pacific Oceans. In 1644
Tasman and Visscher started on another great voyage of discovery
for the special purpose of surveying the regions between what was
known of New Guinea and what was already placed on the map as Nieuw
Holland, or Nieuw Nederland. This region (New Holland) was only
what we now call Western Australia, and was thought perhaps to
be an independent island. Eastern Australia, which terminated in
Tasmania, was called Zuidland or Southland. If there was a still
more easterly Australia it was thought to be united with New Zealand
under the name of Nieuw Zeeland, and it was conjectured there might
also be a separate island to the south, which in that case would be
called Nuytsland. Tasman's first expedition had thrown no light on
the products of the countries behind these strips of coast line.
All these lands in the south might be of great value, or they
might be valueless, consequently much more detailed exploration
was necessary. The vessels told off for this expedition "for the
true and complete discovery of the Southland" consisted of two
large schooners or yachts, the _Limmen_ and the _Zeemeeuw_ (Mew
or Seagull), and a much smaller boat, _Bracq_, called a galliot.
On 29 January, 1644, these vessels started, "in the name of God"
and under the command of Tasman, assisted by Visscher and other
officers, including a draughtsman to make maps of the coast and
drawings of any remarkable objects or peoples. Directing his course
to the little Banda Islands south of the big island of Ceram,
so as to commence his new venture from the westernmost limits of
New Guinea, Tasman skirted pretty closely the southern coast of
that enormous island, sailing eastwards with the express purpose of
finding if it was separated from the mainland of New Holland by a
strait of water. In fact--knowing nothing of the previous voyage of
Torres--he was in search of the celebrated Torres' Straits, and yet,
amazing to relate, though he pushed his ships into the beginning of
Torres' Straits he allowed himself to be deceived, by the somewhat
numerous islands and islets which dot the waters of this not
particularly narrow passage, into believing that the gulf before him
was land-locked and not worth further investigations. The strait
is in reality about 140 miles wide at its narrowest. Nor is it so
thickly covered with islands as to be devoid here and there of far
sea horizons, suggesting the existence of wider waters beyond. It is
therefore very difficult to understand how Tasman can have allowed
himself to be so easly misled. It recalls the similar blunder which
so long impeded access to Canada, when Jacques Cartier and others
overlooked the Cabot Straits between Cape Breton and Newfoundland,
and laboriously sailed all the way north of the last-named territory
in order to get into the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

[Illustration: Double Canoe of the Polynesians Simple Outrigger Canoe

THE TWO DUTCH SHIPS UNDER TASMAN'S COMMAND (THE _HEEMSKERK_ AND THE
_ZEEHAEN_) AT ANCHOR IN THE TONGA ISLANDS, PACIFIC NATIVES BRINGING
OFF SUPPLIES OF BANANAS

(From a drawing by Tasman)]

The rest of Tasman's voyage, consequently, is not of very great
interest to us as regards his pioneering work in Australasia. He
made a fairly accurate survey of the Gulf of Carpentaria and of the
northern coast of Australia (Arnhem Land), and passing to the west
connected this up with the West Australian coast, whence he sailed
due north to Java.

The rest of his active life was spent in voyages to the Philippine
Islands and Indo-China. He got into disgrace on one of these
expeditions by losing his temper and trying to hang several of
the seamen who had disobeyed orders. For this he was punished
in various ways, amongst others by being obliged to resign his
position as one of the elders of the Church. Eventually, however,
his affairs righted themselves, and he retained the respect of his
fellow countrymen in Java till the time of his death, which occurred
probably in the year 1659, at Batavia. In his will he remembered the
poor people of his native village, Lutjegast, in Friesland, and left
them out of his property a sum equivalent to about £10 each.

Why the Dutch should have discontinued their explorations of
Australasia after the return of Tasman in 1644 is not easily
understood, since their appetite for a colonial empire was
enormous. But, so far as records go, no further ships were sent for
a considerable time in that direction, and the Dutch interested
themselves a good deal more either in the settlement of South Africa
or attempts to secure a monopoly of the trade with China and Japan.
It should be mentioned, however, that in 1696 an expedition was sent
to search for a missing East India Company's ship which had sailed
twelve years previously from the Cape of Good Hope for Java, and
this expedition, under Commander WILLEM DE VLAMINGH, in examining
the West Australian coast for traces of the ship, made a far more
thorough survey of that region than had been effected by the chance
visits of Dutchmen in the early part of the seventeenth century.
It penetrated as far south as the Swan River (on which the West
Australian capital of Perth now stands); and de Vlamingh thus named
the river because on it he saw wonderful black swans, thought until
then to be such an impossibility that amongst Latin writers a black
swan was regarded as a symbol of improbability.

Previous to de Vlamingh's voyage, however, the West Australian coast
had been visited by an English ship in 1688, the _Cygnet_, a vessel
practically manned by pirates, though they bore the more polite
designation of buccaneers, and hailed from the coasts of Tropical
America, where they had been plundering the Spaniards. On board this
ship was a remarkable pioneer, WILLIAM DAMPIER, who held the post
of supercargo, and who spent all his spare time in examining the
natural history and native races of the regions he visited as an
associate of the pirates.

CHAPTER V

Dampier's Voyages

William Dampier--the surname, like so many in England, is of
French origin--was born, the son of a farmer, at East Coker, near
Yeovil, in the south of Somersetshire. His attention no doubt was
directed to a seafaring life by the constant intercourse which at
that time went on between Yeovil and Weymouth; and when Dampier was
about seventeen years old, at his own desire he was apprenticed to
the master of a ship at Weymouth, with whom he made a voyage to