Transcriber’s Notes

  Italic text displayed as: _italic_

                            THE

                   NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY.

  THE
  NORTHERN
  WHALE-FISHERY.

  BY
  CAPTAIN SCORESBY, F.R.S.E.

  LONDON:
  THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY:
  _Instituted 1799._

                           PREFACE.

The following pages are an abridgment, with some modifications
and additions, of the second volume of captain (now the rev. Dr.)
Scoresby’s work on the Arctic Regions and Whale-fishery, Edinburgh,
1820; the substance of the former volume having already appeared
in this Monthly Series. The second chapter of the work, on the
comparative view of the whale-fisheries of different European
nations, has been entirely omitted, as less interesting, it is
supposed, to the general reader, than the other chapters.

                            CONTENTS.

                            CHAPTER I.

                                                                  PAGE

  CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERIES              9

                            CHAPTER II.

  SITUATION OF THE EARLY WHALE-FISHERY—THE
  MANNER IN WHICH IT WAS CONDUCTED—AND THE
  ALTERATIONS WHICH HAVE TAKEN PLACE                                29

                           CHAPTER III.

  ACCOUNT OF THE MODERN WHALE-FISHERY, AS CONDUCTED
  AT SPITZBERGEN                                                    40

                           CHAPTER IV.

  ACCOUNT OF THE DAVIS’S STRAIT WHALE-FISHERY,
  WITH STATEMENTS OF EXPENSES AND PROFITS OF
  A FISHING-SHIP                                                   149

                           CHAPTER V.

  METHOD OF EXTRACTING OIL AND PREPARING WHALE-BONE,
  WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THESE ARTICLES,
  AND REMARKS ON THE USES TO WHICH THE SEVERAL
  PRODUCTS OF THE WHALE-FISHERY ARE APPLIED                        157

                           CHAPTER VI.

  NARRATIVE OF PROCEEDINGS ON BOARD THE SHIP
  ESK, DURING A WHALE-FISHING VOYAGE TO THE
  COAST OF SPITZBERGEN, IN THE YEAR 1816; PARTICULARLY
  RELATING TO THE PRESERVATION OF THE
  SHIP UNDER CIRCUMSTANCES OF PECULIAR DANGER                      175

                               THE

                    NORTHERN WHALE-FISHERY.

                           CHAPTER I.

        CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN WHALE FISHERIES.

In the early ages of the world, when beasts of prey began to multiply
and annoy the vocations of man, the personal dangers to which he must
have been occasionally exposed would oblige him to contrive some
means of defence. For this end, he would naturally be induced, both
to prepare weapons, and also to preconceive plans for resisting the
disturbers of his peace. His subsequent rencounters with beasts of
prey would, therefore, be more frequently successful, not only in
effectually repelling them when they should attack him, but also, in
some instances, in accomplishing their destruction. Hence, we can
readily and satisfactorily trace to the principles of necessity the
adroitness and courage evidenced by the unenlightened nations of
the world, in their successful attacks on the most formidable of the
brute creation; and hence we can conceive that necessity may impel
the indolent to activity, and the coward to actions which would not
disgrace the brave. For man to attempt to subdue an animal whose
powers and ferocity he regarded with superstitious dread, and the
motion of which he conceived would produce a vortex sufficient to
swallow up his boat, or any other vessel in which he might approach
it—an animal of at least six hundred times his own bulk, a stroke of
the tail of which might hurl his boat into the air, or dash it and
himself to pieces—an animal inhabiting at the same time an element in
which he himself could not subsist; for man to attempt to subdue such
an animal, under such circumstances, seems one of the most hazardous
enterprizes of which the intercourse with the irrational world could
possibly admit. And yet this animal is successfully attacked, and
seldom escapes when once he comes within reach of the darts of his
assailer.

It seems to be the opinion of most writers on the subject of the
whale-fishery, that the Biscayans were the first who succeeded in
the capture of the whale. This opinion, though perhaps not correct,
deserves to be mentioned in the outset of an investigation into the
probable origin of this employment. A species of whale, probably
the _Balæna rostrata_, was a frequent visitor to the shores of
France and Spain. In pursuit of herrings and other small fishes,
these whales would produce a serious destruction among the nets of
the fishermen of Biscay and Gascony. Concern for the preservation of
their nets, which probably constituted the whole of their property,
would naturally suggest the necessity of driving these intruding
monsters from their coasts. With this view, arrows and spears, and
subsequently gunpowder, would be resorted to. Finding the whales
timid and inoffensive, the fishers would be induced to approach
some individual of the species, and even to dart their spears
into its body. Afterwards they might conceive the possibility of
entangling some of the species, by means of a cord attached to a
barbed arrow or spear. One of these animals being captured, and its
value ascertained, the prospect of emolument would be sufficient
to establish a fishery of the cetaceous tribe, and lead to all the
beneficial effects which have resulted in modern times.

Those authorities, indeed, may be considered as unquestionable, which
inform us that the Basques and Biscayans, so early as the year 1575,
exposed themselves to the perils of a distant navigation, with a view
to measure their strength with the whales, in the midst of an element
constituting the natural habitation of these enormous animals;
that the English, in 1594, fitted an expedition for Cape Breton,
intended for the fishery of the whale and the walrus, (sea-horse,)
pursued the walrus-fishing in succeeding years in high northern
latitudes, and, in 1611, first attacked the whale near the shores of
Spitzbergen; and that the Hollanders, and subsequently other nations
of Europe, participated in the risk and advantages of these northern
expeditions. Some researches, however, on the origin of this fishery,
carried on in the northern seas, will be sufficient to rectify the
error of these conclusions, by proving that the whale-fishery by
Europeans may be traced as far back at least as the ninth century.

The earliest authenticated account of a fishery for whales is
probably that contained in Ohthere’s voyage, by Alfred the Great.
This voyage was undertaken about 890, by Ohthere, a native of
Halgoland, in the diocese of Dronthein, a person of considerable
wealth in his own country, from motives of mere curiosity, at his
own risk, and under his personal superintendence. On this occasion,
Ohthere sailed to the northward, along the coast of Norway, round
the North Cape, to the entrance of the White Sea. Three days after
leaving Dronthein, or Halgoland, “he was come as far towards the
north as commonly the whale-hunters used to travel.” Here Ohthere
evidently alludes to the hunters of the walrus, or sea-horse; but
subsequently, he speaks pointedly as to a fishery for some species
of cetaceous animals having been at that period practised by the
Norwegians. He told the king, that with regard to the common kind of
whales, the place of most and best hunting for them was in his own
country, “whereof some be forty-eight ells of length and some fifty,”
of which sort, he affirmed, that he himself was one of the six who,
in the space of three (two) days, killed threescore.

From this it would appear, that the whale-fishery was not only
prosecuted by the Norwegians so early as the ninth century, but
that Ohthere himself had personal knowledge of it. The voyage of
Ohthere is a document of much value in history, both in respect to
the matter of it, and the high character of the author by whom it
has been preserved. By a slight alteration in the reading of the
Saxon manuscript, as suggested by Turner, in his History of the
Anglo-Saxons, it is possible to suppose that the threescore animals
slain by Ohthere in two days were not whales but dolphins. This
supposition removes the improbability of the exploit recorded, and
does not contradict or explain away the fact of larger whales having
been likewise hunted and captured.

A Danish work, which there is reason to believe is of a date much
earlier than that which we assign to the first fishery of the
Basques, declares that the Icelanders were in the habit of pursuing
the whales, which they killed on the shore, and that these islanders
subsisted on the flesh of some one of the species. And Langebek does
not hesitate to assert, that the fishery of the whale (_hovlfangst_,
by which he probably means a species of _delphinus_,) was practised
in the most northern countries of Europe in the ninth century.

Under the date of 875, in a book entitled the “Translation and
Miracles of St. Vaast,” mention is made of the whale-fishery on the
French coast. In the “Life of St. Arnould, bishop of Soissons,” a
work of the eleventh century, particular mention is made of the
fishery by the harpoon, on the occasion of a miracle said to have
been performed by the saint. There are also different authorities
for supposing that a whale-fishery was carried on near the coast of
Normandy and Flanders, from the eleventh to the thirteenth century.

The English, it is to be expected, did not remain long behind their
continental neighbours in this lucrative pursuit. It is difficult to
determine whether the whales referred to in the few early documents
which we possess, were such as were run on the English shore by
accident, or subdued by the English on the high sea. By Acts of
Parliament, A.D. 1315 and 1324, the wrecks of whales, cast by chance
upon the shore, or whales or great sturgeons _taken_ in the sea, were
to belong to the king. Henry IV. gave, in 1415, to the church of
Rochester, the tithe of the whales taken along the shores of that
bishopric. In the sixteenth century, the inhabitants of the shores
of the Bay of Biscay were the most distinguished whale-fishers. At
first, they confined their attacks to those animals, probably the
_Balæna rostrata_ of Linnæus, which used to present themselves in
the Bay of Biscay at a certain season every year. Gradually becoming
bolder, the Biscayans advanced towards the coasts of Iceland,
Greenland, and Newfoundland, in the pursuit. The Icelanders united
their energies with the Biscayans, and conducted the whale-fishery on
so extensive a scale, that, towards the end of the sixteenth century,
the number of vessels annually employed by the united nations
amounted to a fleet of fifty or sixty sail.

The first attempt of the English to capture the whale, of which we
have any satisfactory account, was made in the year 1594. Different
ships were fitted out for Cape Breton at the entrance of the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, part of which were destined for the walrus-fishery,
and the remainder for the whale-fishery. The Grace, of Bristol, one
of these vessels, took on board 700 or 800 whale-fins, or laminæ of
whalebone, which they found in the Bay of St. George, where two large
Biscayan fishermen had been wrecked three years before. This is the
first notice I have met with of the importation of this article into
Great Britain.

However doubtful it might have appeared at one time whether the
English or the Dutch first visited Spitzbergen, the claim of the
English to the discovery and first practice of the whale-fishery on
the coasts of these islands stands undisputed, the Dutch themselves
allowing that the English preceded them four years. The merchants of
Hull, who were ever remarkable for their assiduous and enterprizing
spirit, fitted out ships for the whale-fishery so early as the year
1598, which they continued regularly to prosecute on the coasts of
Iceland and near the North Cape for several years; and after the
re-discovery of Spitzbergen by Hudson, in 1607, they were the first
to push forward to its coasts. Captain Jonas Poole was, in the
year 1610, sent out on a voyage of discovery by the “Company for
the Discovery of unknown Countries,” the “Muscovy Company,” or the
“Russia Company,” as it was subsequently denominated. On his return,
the company fitted out two ships for the fishery; the Marie Margaret,
of 160 tons, under the direction of Thomas Edge, factor; and the
Elizabeth, of 60 tons, Jonas Poole, master. In this voyage, both
ships were lost, but the cargo was brought home in a Hull ship.

Such a novel enterprize as the capture of whales, which was rendered
practical, and even easy, by the number in which they were found,
and the convenience of the situations in which they occurred—an
enterprize at the same time calculated to enrich the adventurers
far beyond any other branch of trade then practised—created a great
agitation, and drew towards it the attention of all the commercial
people of Europe. With that eagerness which men invariably display
in the advancement of their worldly interests, but which is seldom
directed with equal vigour to objects of higher and eternal
importance, the mercantile spirit was concentrated on this new
quarter, and vessels from various ports began to be fitted for the
fishery. In the next year, three foreign ships made their appearance
along with the two belonging to the Russia Company. The English,
jealous of the interference of the Dutch, would not allow them to
fish, and obliged them to return home. In the following year, the
English Russia Company obtained a royal charter, excluding all
others, both natives and foreigners, from the fishery, and they
equipped seven armed vessels for the purpose of maintaining their
prerogative. In the course of the season, the English attacked
the foreign vessels, and took from them the greater proportion
of the blubber, or oil, and whale-fins, which they had procured,
driving them, together with some English ships fitted out by
private individuals, out of the country. In 1614, a company was
established in Amsterdam, and a charter obtained for three years;
ships of war were sent out, and the Hollanders, in defiance of
the English, were able to fish without interruption. The English
got but half-laden, and the Dutch made but a poor fishing. After
various disagreements, and the arrival of the vessels of other
powers on the fishing-stations, which tended to divide the quarrel,
a conference for the purpose of adjusting their differences ensued
between the captains of the rival nations, and they agreed at length
to a division of those fine bays and commodious harbours with which
the whole coast of Spitzbergen abounded. The English obtained the
first choice, and a greater number of bays and harbours than any
of the rest. After the English, the Dutch, Danes, Hamburghers, and
Biscayans, and, finally, the Spaniards and French, took up their
positions. Thus we perceive the origin of the names of the different
places called English Bay, Hollanders’ Bay, Danes’ Bay, etc.

These arrangements having been adopted, each nation prosecuted the
fishery in its own possession, or along the sea-coast, which was
free for all. It was understood, however, that the ships of any
nation might resort to any of the bays or harbours whatever, for
the convenience of awaiting a favourable wind, taking refuge from
a storm, or any other emergency. To prevent the prosecution of the
fishery in bays belonging to other nations, it was agreed that
whenever a boat was lowered in a strange harbour, or happened to row
into the same, the harpoon was always to be removed from its rest, so
as not to be in readiness for use.

All the early adventurers on the whale-fishery were indebted to
the Biscayans for their superintendence and help. They were the
harpooners, and the coopers “skilful in setting up the staved cask.”
At this period, each ship carried two principals; the commander,
who was a native, was properly the navigator, as his chief charge
consisted in conducting the ship to and from Greenland; the other,
who was called by the Dutch, specksynder, or cutter of the fat, as
his name implies, was a Biscayan, and had the unlimited control of
the people in the fishery, and, indeed, every operation belonging to
it was entirely confided to him. When, however, the fishery became
better known, the commander assumed the general superintendence, and
the specksynder, or specksioneer, is now the principal harpooner, and
has the “ordering of the fat,” and the extracting or boiling of the
oil of the whale, but serves under the direction of the commander.

The Dutch pursued the whale-fishery with more vigour than the
English, and with still better effect. It was no uncommon thing
for them to procure such vast quantities of oil that empty ships
were required to take home the superabundant produce. In 1622, the
charter of the Amsterdam Company was renewed for twelve years, and
the charter of the Zealand Society was extended about the same time,
whereby the latter were allowed to establish themselves in Jan Mayen
Island, and to erect boiling-houses and cooperages in common with
their associates. The privileges of these companies, occasioning the
exclusion of all other persons belonging to the United Provinces,
produced a considerable degree of discontent, when the fishery,
towards the expiration of these last charters, was in its most
flourishing state. The states-general of Friesland were induced to
grant a charter to a company formed in that province, which endowed
them with similar privileges to those of the other companies of
Holland. The Frieslanders, in the year 1634, perceived the advantage
of procuring the sanction of the Zealand and Amsterdam companies to
their right to participate in the fishery, and after negotiation, the
three companies, according to stipulated conditions, contracted a
triple union. The Dutch followed the whale-fishery with perseverance
and profit, and were successfully imitated by the Hamburghers and
other fishermen of the Elbe, but the English made only occasional
voyages.

It became apparent to the adventurers in the whale-fishery, that
considerable advantages might be realized could Spitzbergen be
resorted to as a permanent residence, and they were desirous of
ascertaining the possibility of the human species subsisting
throughout the winter in this inhospitable climate. The English
merchants offered considerable rewards, and the Russia Company
procured the reprieve of some culprits who were convicted of capital
offences, to whom they promised pardon and a pecuniary remuneration
if they would remain a single year in Spitzbergen. The fear of
immediate death induced them to comply; but when they were carried
out and showed the desolate, frozen, and frightful country they
were to inhabit, they shrank back with horror, and solicited to be
returned home to suffer death in preference to encountering such
appalling dangers. With this request the captain who had them in
charge humanely complied, and on their return to England the company
interceded on their behalf, and procured pardon.

Probably it was about the same time that nine men, who were by
accident separated from one of the London fishing-ships, were left
behind in Spitzbergen; all of them perished in the course of the
winter, and their bodies were found in the ensuing summer shockingly
mangled by beasts of prey. The same master who abandoned these poor
wretches to so miserable a fate was obliged, by the drifting of the
ice towards the shore, to leave eight of his crew, who were engaged
in hunting reindeer for provision for the passage home, in the year
1630. These men, like the former, were abandoned to their fate; for
on proceeding to the usual places of resort and rendezvous, they
perceived with horror that their own, together with all the other
fishing-ships, had departed. By means of the provisions procured by
hunting, the fritters of the whale left in boiling the blubber,
and the accidental supplies of bears, foxes, seals, and sea-horses,
together with the judicious application of the buildings which were
erected in Bell Sound, where they took up their abode, they were
enabled not only to support life, but even to maintain their health
little impaired, until the arrival of the fleet in the following
year. It is surely permitted us to hope, that amidst the retirement
and dreariness of these frozen regions, these hardy sailors found
opportunities for serious reflection and prayer to the God of
heaven, and that their minds, with eternity so near to them, were
sufficiently acquainted with the one way of salvation to yield
themselves to Him who is able to preserve his servants unto life
eternal.

The preservation of these men revived in the Dutch the desire of
establishing colonies, and in consequence of certain encouragements
proclaimed throughout the fleet, seven men volunteered their
services, were landed at Amsterdam Island, furnished with the needful
articles of provisions, etc., and were left by the fleet on the
30th of August, 1633. About the same time, another party, likewise
consisting of seven volunteers, were landed on Jan Mayen Island, and
left by their comrades to endure the like painful service with the
former. On the return of the fleet in the succeeding year, this last
party were all found dead from the effects of the scurvy; but the
other, which was left in Spitzbergen, nine degrees further towards
the north, all survived. Other seven volunteers proposed to repeat
the experiment in Spitzbergen during the ensuing winter, and were
quitted by their comrades on the 11th of September, 1634. They all
fell victims to the scurvy.

The Dutch, encouraged by the hope that the profitable nature of
the whale-fishery would continue unabated, incurred very great
expenses in making secure, ample, and permanent erections, which
they gradually extended in such a degree that at length they assumed
the form of a respectable village, to which, from the Dutch words
“smeer,” signifying fat, and “bergen,” to put up, they gave the name
of Smeerenberg. Their expectations of continued success were not,
however, justified, and the fishery began to decline so rapidly from
the year 1636-7, to the termination of the company’s charters, that
their losses are stated on some occasions to have exceeded their
former profits. On the expiration of the charters, in the year 1642,
their renewal was refused by the states-general, and the trade was
laid entirely open to all adventurers. It increased in consequence
almost tenfold; and on the dissolution of the monopoly, the shipping
in the whale-fishery commerce accumulated to between two and three
hundred sail. Prior to the time when the trade was laid open, the Jan
Mayen whale-fishery, like that of Spitzbergen, attained its maximum.
The prodigious destruction of whales occasioned their withdrawal,
and the island was at length abandoned as a whale-fishing station.

The whale-fishery of the Dutch was somewhat suspended by the war
with England in 1653; but between the years 1660 and 1670, four or
five hundred sail of Dutch and Hamburgh ships were yearly visitants
to the coasts of Spitzbergen, while the English sometimes did not
send a single ship. The British government saw with regret such
a profitable and valuable speculation entirely laid aside. To
encourage, therefore, its renewal, an Act of Parliament was passed
in 1672, whereby the rigours of the Navigation Act were dispensed
with, and its essential properties so modified for the ten following
years that a vessel for the whale-fishery, being British-built, and
having a master and one-half of the crew British subjects, might
carry natives of Holland, or other expert fishers, to the amount of
the other half. In the year 1693 was formed the “Company of Merchants
of London, trading to Greenland,” to whom was granted an extension
of the indulgences allowed by this Act of Parliament. From various
losses, combined, probably, with unskilful management, this company
was so unfortunate that, before the conclusion of their term, their
capital of £82,000 was entirely expended. These circumstances tended
much to discourage the subjects of Great Britain from making any
vigorous attempt to renew the fishery. The direct importation of
Greenland produce into England being inconsiderable, its importation
from Holland or other foreign states was permitted; whalebone,
however, was required to be brought into the country in fins only,
and not cut, or in any way manufactured; nor could it be landed
before the duty chargeable thereon was secured or paid, under penalty
of the forfeiture of the goods and double their value. Immense sums
were annually paid to foreigners for whalebone at this period.

It was not, it appears, until the whale-fishery was on the decline
at Spitzbergen, that the Davis’s Strait fishery was resorted to. The
Dutch sent their first ships in the year 1719. The shipping employed
in the Greenland and Davis’s Strait whale-fisheries, in 1721, by
foreign nations, amounted to three hundred and fifty-five sail. When,
by the lapse of some years, the unfavourable impression produced on
the minds of speculative persons by the immense losses suffered by
English adventurers in the whale-fishery had partly worn off, the
propriety of attempting this trade was suggested by Henry Elking, and
was proposed to the directors of the well-known South Sea Company.
The British legislature, by exempting the produce of the Greenland
Seas from existing duties on the condition of its being imported in
British ships, held out encouragements to the company similar to
those offered to former adventurers. The South Sea Company caused a
fleet of twelve new ships, about 306 tons’ burden each, to be built
in the river Thames, equipped each vessel with the necessary supplies
of cordage, casks, and fishing instruments, and engaged for their
use the duke of Bedford’s wet-dock at Deptford, where boiling-houses
and other conveniences were constructed. In the spring of 1725, the
fleet being all in readiness, put to sea, and returned safe with
twenty-five and a half whales. The proceeds of this voyage, though
scarcely sufficient to pay the expenses incurred by the fitments
and the hire of foreign harpooners, were yet superior to those of
any succeeding year during the period in which the company pursued
the trade. For eight successive years the company persevered in the
whale-fishery, with indifferent or bad success, and after the season
of 1732 were compelled to abandon it. In 1736, a London ship, which
visited the whale-fishery, procured a cargo of seven fish—a degree
of success which was fortunately different from that of most of the
antecedent English whalers. The English government offered a bounty
of twenty shillings per ton on the burden or tonnage of all British
whale-fishing ships of 200 tons or upwards; and this, in 1749, was
increased to forty shillings per ton.

Gradually the British whale-fishery began to assume a respectable
and hopeful appearance. The combined fleets of England and Scotland,
in the year 1752, amounted to forty sail; in 1753, to forty-nine;
in 1754, to sixty-seven, in 1755, to eighty-two; and in the year
following, to eighty-three sail—which was the greatest number of
ships employed in the trade for the twenty years following; while the
least number amounted to forty sail during the same period. On the
establishment of the British whale-fishery, the legislature directed
its attention to the means for securing the perpetuity of the trade,
and the economical application of the bounty. These enactments were
not carried in the House of Commons without considerable debate.
In 1768, the king of Prussia, interesting himself in the Greenland
fishery, caused some ships to be equipped from Emden; and in 1784,
the king of France attempted the revival of the whale-fishery, by
equipping, at his own expense, six ships in the port of Dunkirk. In
1785, the king of Denmark, in imitation of the English, granted a
bounty of about thirty shillings sterling per ton, to all vessels in
the Greenland and Iceland fisheries, on the condition of the ships
being fitted out and their cargoes sold in a Danish port.

The Act of the British Parliament of 1786, embodying several
additional regulations on the subject of the whale-fishery, and
rehearsing and revising former acts, has ever since been considered
the fundamental act on the subject of the Greenland and Davis’s
Strait whale-fishery. By accounts laid upon the table of the House of
Commons during this session, it appeared that the bounties granted
for the encouragement of the British whale-fisheries, carried on
in the Greenland Sea and Davis’s Strait, from the year 1733, when
bounties were first given, to the end of 1785, had amounted to
£1,064,272. 18_s._ 2_d._ for England, and £202,158. 16_s._ 11_d._ for
Scotland. By a subsequent act, the bounty was reduced to twenty-five
shillings per ton, from the 25th of December, 1792, to the 25th of
December, 1795; and from this period until the expiration of the
act in 1798, to twenty shillings per ton, at which latter rate it
has continued ever since. From a list, it appears, that in 1788,
255 British ships sailed for the whale-fishery, of which 129 were
of a burden under 300 tons; 97 of 300 to 350 tons; 16 of 350 to 400
tons; 11 of 400 to 500 tons; 1 of 565 tons; and 1 of 987 tons. They
were fitted out from the ports of London, Hull, Liverpool, Whitby,
Newcastle, Yarmouth, Sunderland, Lynn, Leith, Ipswich, Dunbar,
Aberdeen, Bo’ness, Glasgow, Montrose, Dundee, Exeter, Whitehaven,
Stockton, Greenock, Scarborough, Grangemouth, and Queensferry.

                        CHAPTER II.

 SITUATION OF THE EARLY WHALE-FISHERY—THE MANNER IN WHICH IT WAS
 CONDUCTED—AND THE ALTERATIONS WHICH HAVE TAKEN PLACE.

Immediately after the discovery of Spitzbergen by Hudson, in the year
1607, the walrus-fishers, who carried on an extensive and profitable
business at Cherie Island, finding the animals of their pursuit
become shy and less abundant, extended their voyage to the northward,
until they fell in with Spitzbergen, the newly discovered country,
about the time when the Russian Company equipped their first ships
for the Greenland whale-fishery. As the coast abounded with whales
and sea-horses, Cherie Island was deserted, and Spitzbergen became
the scene of future enterprize. At this time, the mysticetus was
found in immense numbers throughout the whole extent of the coast,
and in the different capacious bays with which it abounds. Never
having been disturbed, these animals were unconscious of danger;
they allowed themselves to be so closely approached that they fell
an easy prey to the courageous fishermen. It was not necessary that
the ships should cruise abroad, throughout the extended regions of
the Polar Seas, as they do at the present time, for the whales being
abundant in the bays, the ships were anchored in some convenient
situation, and generally remained at their moorings until their
cargoes were completed. Not only did the coast of Spitzbergen abound
with whales, but the shore of Jan Mayen Island, in proportion to its
extent, afforded them in like abundance.

The method used for capturing whales, at this period, was usually
by means of the harpoon and lance, though the Dutch inform us that
the English made use of nets made with strong ropes for the purpose.
The harpoon, which was the instrument used in general practice for
effecting their entanglement, consisted, as at present, of a barbed
or arrow-shaped iron dart, two or three feet in length, to which was
attached a wooden handle, for convenience in striking or throwing
it into the whale. Fastened to the harpoon was a line or rope three
hundred fathoms in length; more than sufficient to reach the bottom
in the bays, where the depth of the water seldom exceeds eighty
or one hundred fathoms; so that on a fish descending after being
struck, the end of the line could always be detained in the boat.
The movements of this boat, of course, corresponded with those of
the whale; and so closely pointed out its position, that, on its
reappearance at the surface, the other assisting boats were usually
very near the place. It was then vigorously pursued, secured by a
sufficient number of harpoons, and lastly attacked repeatedly with
lances until it was killed.

The lance in use was an iron spear with a wooden handle, altogether
ten or twelve feet in length. The capture of the fish, in which,
owing to the particular excellence of the situation, they seldom
failed, being accomplished, it was towed by the boats, rowing one
before another “like a team of horses,” to the ship’s stern, where
it lay untouched from one to two or three days. The fat being then
removed was carried to the shore, where ample conveniences being
erected, it was afterwards subjected to heat in a boiler, and the
greater part of the oil extracted.

As the usual process of the early fishers for extracting the oil
may be interesting to some readers, I shall attempt to describe it,
following the accounts by captains Anderson and Gray, whose papers
are preserved among the manuscripts in the British Museum.

The blubber being made fast to the shore, a “waterside man,”
standing in a pair of boots, mid-leg in the sea, flayed off the
fleshy parts, and cut the blubber into pieces, of about two hundred
weight each. Two men, with a barrow, then carried it, piece by
piece, to a stage or platform, erected by the side of the works,
where a man, denominated a “stage-cutter,” armed with a long knife,
sliced it into pieces, one and a half inches thick, and about a
foot long, and then pushed it into an adjoining receptacle, called
a “slicing cooler.” Immediately beyond this cooler, five or six
choppers were arranged in a line, with blocks of whales’ tails
before them; and adjoining these blocks was another vessel, called a
“chopping cooler,” of two or three tons’ capacity. These men, being
situated between the two coolers, took the sliced blubber from the
slicing cooler, and, after reducing it into little bits, scarcely
one-fourth of an inch thick, and an inch or two long, pushed it into
the chopping cooler. These operations were carried on as near as
convenient to the place where the copper was erected.

The copper held only half a ton. It was furnished with a furnace,
and the requisite appendages. A man, designated “tub-filler,” with
a ladle of copper, was employed in filling a hogshead with chopped
blubber, dragging it to the copper, and emptying it in, until the
copper was full. A fire of wood was, in the first instance, applied,
but after a copper or two had been boiled, the finks or fritters
were always sufficient to boil the remainder without any other fuel.
When the blubber was sufficiently boiled, two men, called “copper
men,” with two long-handled copper ladles, took the oil and finks
out of the copper, and put it into a “fritter barrow,” which, being
furnished with a grating of wood in place of a bottom, drained the
oil from the fritters, from whence it ran into a wooden tank or
cooler, of about five tons’ capacity. Three coolers were usually
provided, and placed some feet asunder, a little below each other;
a quantity of water was put into each before the oil, and the oil,
whenever it came to a certain height in the first cooler, escaped
through a hole, by a spout, into the second, the same way into the
third, and from thence, by a plug-hole, into the casks or butts
in readiness for its reception. When the oil in these butts was
thoroughly cold, whatever it had contracted was filled up, and the
casks then rolled into the water, and, in rafts of twenty together,
were conveyed into the ship.

The whalebone was separated from the gum, or substance in which it is
imbedded, rubbed clean, packed in bundles, of sixty laminæ or blades
each, and taken to the ship in the longboat. Thus prepared, the cargo
was conveyed home, either when a sufficiency was procured, or the
close of the season put an end to the fishing occupations. While some
of the people belonging to the whale-ships were engaged in boiling
the blubber, the rest of the crew, it is probable, were occasionally
employed in the capture of other whales. Besides the buildings made
use of in boiling the blubber, the whale-fishers had other buildings
on shore for lodging the blubber-men in, and for the use of the
coopers employed in preparing the casks.

So long as the whales remained in the immediate vicinity of the
fishing establishments, the boats were sent out of the bay, the fish
captured at sea, towed into the harbour, stripped of the fat, and the
blubber boiled in the manner described; but as the whales increased
their distance, this plan of procedure became inconvenient, so that
the ships began to cruise about the sea, to kill the whales wherever
they found them, to take on board the blubber, and only occasionally
to enter a port. So far now from having occasion for empty ships
for carrying away the superabundant produce, it was a matter of
difficulty and uncertainty to procure a cargo at all; and, with the
most prosperous issue, there was not sufficient time for landing
the cargo and extracting the oil; the blubber was therefore merely
packed in casks and conveyed home, where the remaining operations of
extracting the oil, and cleaning and preparing the whalebone, were
completed. Hence, the various buildings, which had been erected at
a great expense, became perfectly useless; the coppers, and other
apparatus that were worth the removal, were taken away, and the
buildings of all the different nations, both at Spitzbergen and
at Jan Mayen Island, were either wantonly razed to the ground, or
suffered to fall into a state of decay.

When the whales first approached the borders of the ice, the fishers
held the ice in such dread, that whenever an entangled fish ran
towards it, they immediately cut the line. Experience, through time,
inured them to it; occasionally they ventured among the loose ice,
and the capture of small whales at fields was at length attempted,
and succeeded. Some adventurous persons sailed to the east side of
Spitzbergen, where the current, it is believed, has a tendency to
turn the ice against the shore; yet here, finding the sea, on some
occasions, open, they attempted to prosecute the fishery, and, it
seems, with some success, a great whale-fishery having been made
near Stansforeland, in the year 1700. The retreat of the whales
from the bays to the sea-coast, thence to the banks at a distance
from land, thence to the borders of the ice, and finally to the
sheltered situations afforded by the ice, appears to have been fully
accomplished about the year 1700, or from that to 1720. The plan of
prosecuting the fishery now underwent a material change, especially
in reference to the construction of the ships, and the quality and
quantity of the fishing apparatus.

When the fishery could be effected entirely in the bay, or even
along the sea-coast, any vessels which were sea-worthy, however old
or tender, were deemed sufficient to proceed to Spitzbergen, and
were generally found adequate to the purpose, especially as they
did not set out till the spring was far advanced, thereby avoiding
obstructions from the ice and from sudden and destructive storms.
When, however, the fishing had to be pursued in the open sea, new,
or at least very substantial ships, became requisite, and even these
it was found necessary to strengthen on the bows and stern, and on
the sides, by additional planks. A greater quantity of fishing-stores
also became needful. When fishing among the ice, the whales, after
having been struck, frequently penetrated to a great distance out
of the reach of their assailants, dragging the line away, until
at length they found it necessary to cut it to prevent further
loss. Hence, by the frequency of disasters among their ships, the
increased expense of their equipment, and the liability of losing
their fishing-materials, such an additional expense was occasioned as
required the practice of the most rigid economy to counterbalance it.
The destruction of the shipping by the ice, in the Dutch fleet alone,
was frequently near twenty sail in one year, and on some occasions
above that number. The Greenland men of the present day being mostly
ice-fishers, an account of the improved mode of fishing now practised
will be sufficient for the illustration of the method followed by the
Dutch and other nations at a more early period, particularly as the
way in which the whale is pursued and killed is pretty nearly the
same at this time as it was a hundred years ago.

Davis’s Strait, or the sea lying between the west side of Old
Greenland and the east side of North America, and its most northern
islands, has generally, since the close of the seventeenth century,
been the scene of an advantageous whale-fishery. This fishery was
first attempted by the Dutch, in 1719; after which period it was
usually resorted to by about three-tenths of their whalers, while
seven-tenths proceeded to Spitzbergen. This fishery differs only
from that of Spitzbergen or Greenland, in the sea being, in many
districts, less incommoded with ice, and in the climate being
somewhat more mild. The alterations which have taken place in it are,
in some measure, similar to those which have occurred at Spitzbergen.
The fish which, half a century ago, appear to have resorted to all
parts of the western coast of Old Greenland, in a few years retired
to the northward, but they still remained about the coast. Of late,
however, they have deserted some of the bays which they formerly
frequented, and have been principally caught in icy situations in
a high latitude, or in the opening of Hudson’s Strait, or at the
borders of the western ice, near the coast of Labrador.

Baffin’s Bay was suggested as an excellent fishing-station, by the
voyager whose name it bears, so early as the year 1616, when his
memorable navigation was performed. Baffin, in a letter addressed to
J. Wostenholm, esq., observes, that great numbers of whales occur
in the bay, and that they are easy to be struck; and, though ships
cannot reach the proper places until toward the middle of July, “yet
they may well tarry till the last of August, in which space much
business may be done, and good store of oil made.” To this situation,
where the whales have never been molested until recently, it appears
they still resort in the same manner, and in similar numbers, as
in the time of Baffin. In 1817, two or three of the Davis’s Strait
whalers proceeded through the strait into Baffin’s Bay, to a much
greater length than they were in the habit of adventuring, where,
in the months of July and August, they found the sea clear of ice,
and in some parts abounding with whales. A Leith ship, which, it
appears, advanced the furthest, made a successful fishery in lat.
76°-77°, after the season when it was usual for ships to depart. This
fact having become generally known, several other ships followed the
example, in the season of 1818, and persevered through the barrier
of ice lying in 74°-75° towards the north. After they had succeeded
in passing this barrier, they found, as in the preceding year, a
navigable sea, where several ships met with considerable success in
the fishery, at a very advanced period of the season. This discovery
is likely to prove of great importance to the fishery of Davis’s
Strait. Ships, which fail of success in the old stations, will still,
in the new fishery, have a reserve of the most promising character.
Hence, instead of this fishery being necessarily closed in July, the
period when the whales have usually made their final retreat from
the old fishing-stations, it will in future be extended to the end
of August at least; and it may ultimately appear that there will be
little danger of ships being permanently frozen up, unless previously
beset in the ice during any part of the month of September.

                     CHAPTER III.

  ACCOUNT OF THE MODERN WHALE-FISHERY, AS CONDUCTED AT SPITZBERGEN.

We commence this chapter with a description of a well-adapted
Greenland ship, and of the manner in which it should be strengthened
to resist the concussions of the ice. A ship intended for the
Greenland or Davis’s Strait trade, should be of three or four
hundred tons’ admeasurement, very substantially built, doubled, and
fortified; should have six or seven feet perpendicular space between
decks; should be furnished with a description of sails which are
easily worked; and should possess the property of fast sailing. The
most appropriate dimensions of a ship intended for the northern
whale-fisheries, seems to be that which is so large as to be capable
of deriving the greatest advantage from the best opportunity, and no
larger. A vessel of 250 tons requires nearly the same number of men,
the same quantity of provisions and stores, and the same expense of
outfit, as a ship of 350 tons’ burden; while the difference in the
cargoes of the two vessels when filled, is in one voyage more than
a compensation for the difference in the first expense. Besides, for
want of similar room and convenience, the smaller ship has not always
an equal chance of succeeding in the fishery with the larger. And,
as ships of about 350 tons’ burden have been occasionally filled,
vessels of 250 tons are too small for the fishery. Ships of 350 tons’
burden have, we observe, been occasionally filled, but we know of no
instance in which a ship of 400 tons, of the usual capacious build,
has been deficient in capacity for taking in as large a cargo as of
late years there has been any opportunity of procuring. We therefore
conclude, that an increase of dimensions above 400 tons is an actual
disadvantage, and that a ship of intermediate size, between 300 and
400 tons, is best adapted for the fishery.

Greenland ships, in the early ages of the fishery, were very
indifferent structures, and even of late shipping of inferior quality
were generally deemed sufficient for the trade. At present, however,
when a good fishery is rarely made without frequent exposure to
the ice, and sometimes in very critical situations, the vessels
require to be substantially built, for the purpose of resisting the
occasional pressure of, and frequent blows from, the ice, to which
the ships of persevering fishermen must always be more or less
exposed. The requisites peculiar to a Greenland ship, the intention
of which is to afford additional strength, consist of doubling,
and sometimes trebling, and fortifying. The terms “doubling” and
“trebling,” are expressive of the number of layers of planks, which
are applied to the exterior of a frame of timbers; hence, a ship
which has one additional series of planks, is said to be doubled,
and such ships as are furnished with two, or part of two, additional
layers of planks, are said to be trebled. Doubling generally consists
of the application of two or two half inches oak plank, near the bow,
diminishing towards the stern to perhaps half that thickness, and
extending in one direction from the lower part of the main-wales,
to within six feet perpendicular of the keel forward, and to within
eight or nine feet abaft; and, in the other direction, that is, fore
and aft-wise, from the stem to the stern-post. Doubling is used
for producing an increase of strength, and at the same time for
preserving the outside or main planks of the ship from being injured
by the friction of passing ice. Trebling, which commonly consists of
one and a half to two inches oak plank, is generally confined to the
bows of the ship, and rarely extends farther aft than the fore-chains
or chesstree. It is seldom applied but to second-rate ships. Its
principal use is to increase the strength of the ship about the bows,
but it also, serves to preserve that part of the doubling which it
covers from being destroyed by the ice.

Fortifying is the operation of strengthening a ship’s stern and
bows by the application of timber and iron plates to the exterior,
and a vast number of timbers and stanchions to the interior. Four
straight substantial oak timbers, called ice-beams, about twelve
inches square and twenty-five feet in length, are placed beneath the
hold-beams, butting with their foremost extremity against a strong
fore-hook, and extending nearly at right angles across three or four
of the hold-beams, into each of which they are notched and secured,
at the point of intersection, by strong iron bolts, with the addition
of “cleats” on the aftermost-beams. The fore-part of the ice-beams,
which butt against the hook, are placed at a small distance from
each other, from whence they diverge in such a way that their other
extremities divide the aftermost beams under which they pass into
five equal parts. The next important part of the fortification is the
_pointers_, which consist of four or more crooked timbers, fitting
the curve of the ship’s bow on each side; these are placed below the
hold-beams, against the inside of the ceiling, nearly parallel with
the direction of the planks, some butting against the fore-hooks,
and others passing between them. Across these pointers, four or five
smaller timbers, called “riders,” disposed at regular distances, are
placed at right angles, that is, in the same direction as the ribs of
the ship. Now, from each of the points of intersection of the riders
and pointers, consisting of eighteen or twenty on each side of the
ship, a stanchion, or shore, proceeds to the edge of one of the two
ice-beams, placed on the same side, where it is secured in a rabbet.
The ice-beams are supported and connected by several strong pieces of
wood, placed between each two, in different parts, called “carlings,”
whereby they are made to bear as one. It is evident that a blow
received on the starboard-bow will be impressed on the adjoining
pointers, and the impression communicated, through the medium of the
lateral timbers, or shores, to the two ice-beams on the same side,
thence by the carlings to the other ice-beams, and then, by the
shores on the opposite side to the larboard-bow and annexed pointers.
A blow cannot be received on any part of one bow, without being
communicated by the fortification to every part of the opposite bow,
while every part to and through which the impression is communicated
must tend to support that place on which the blow is impressed.

To preserve the stem from being shattered or bruised by direct blows
from the ice, it is strengthened by an extra piece called the false,
or ice-stem. On the side of this are placed the ice-knees, which are
angular chocks, or blocks of wood, filling the concavity formed by
the stem and bow planks, and extending from about the eight feet mark
to the loading mark. In the best style, the ice-knees are twelve to
fifteen inches in thickness at the stem, diminishing to, perhaps,
six or eight inches thick at the distance of about eight feet from
the stem, from thence gradually becoming thinner, until they fall
into and incorporate with the common doubling, below the fore-part
of the fore-chains. This makes a neat bow, and in point of strength
is much preferable to the angular chocks or knees, which usually
extend about five or six feet from the stem, and then terminate
somewhat abruptly upon the doubling. Ice-knees not only strengthen
the front of the bows, and prevent the main planks from being bruised
or shattered, as far as they extend, but likewise protect the stem
from the twisting effect of a side blow. The stem and the small part
of the ice-knees adjoining, are still farther defended by plates of
half-inch iron, called ice-plates, which are nailed upon the face of
the ice-stem, and partly on the ice-knees, to prevent them being cut
by the ice.

For additional strength, as well as convenience, the hold-beams of
a Greenland ship should be placed low, or at a greater distance
from the deck-beams than is usual in other merchantmen, leaving a
clear space of six or seven feet between decks. The strength thus
derived is principally serviceable when the ship is squeezed between
two sheets of ice; because the nearer the pressure acts on the
extremities of the beams, the greater is the resistance they are
calculated to offer. A large space between decks is found also, for
many reasons, to be most convenient.

Hammocks, as receptacles for sailors’ beds, being incommodious, the
crew are lodged in cabins or berths, erected in the half-deck; these
consist of twelve to twenty in number, each of which is calculated
to contain two or three persons. When a ship is on fishing-stations,
the boats are required to be always ready for use; as such they
are suspended from cranes, fixed on the sides of the ship, and are
usually so contrived that a boat can be lowered down into the water,
manned, and pushed off from the ship, in the short space of a minute
of time. Prior to the year 1813, a ship having seven boats carried
one at each waist, that is, between the main-mast and fore-mast, two
at each quarter, one above the other and one across the stern. An
improvement on this plan, adopted in 1813, is to have the boats fixed
in a line of three lengths of boats on each side.

The masts and sails of a Greenland vessel are not without their
peculiarities. As it is an object of importance that a fishing-ship
should be easily navigated, under common circumstances, by a boat’s
crew of six or seven men, it is usual to take down royal masts, and
even top-gallant masts, and sometimes to substitute a long light pole
in place of a mizen top-mast; also, to adopt such sails as require
the least management. Courses set in the usual way require a number
of men to work them when the ship is tacked; a course, therefore,
made to diminish as it descends, that is, narrowest at the foot
or lower part, and extended by a boom, or yard below as well as
above, and this boom fastened by a tackle fixed at its centre to
the deck, swings with the yards, with little or no alteration, and
is found particularly convenient. Fore-sails, on this principle,
have been in use about six or seven years. In 1816, I fitted a
main-sail or cross-jack, in the same way, the former of which we
found of admirable utility. Boom-courses are not only convenient in
tacking, but are likewise a valuable acquisition when sailing among
crowded dangerous ice. As the safety of the ship depends, next to the
skilfulness of the piloting officer, on a prompt management of the
yards and sails, boom-courses are strikingly useful on account of the
little attention they require when any alteration in the position
of the sails becomes necessary; and when the ship’s head-way is
required to be suddenly stopped in a situation where she cannot be
luffed into the wind, boom-courses swinging simultaneously with the
top-tails are backed without any annoyance from tacks or sheets, and
of course assist materially in effecting the intention. Such is the
advantage of this description of sails, that on one occasion, when
all the rest of my crew were engaged in the capture of a whale, with
the assistance of only two men, neither of them sailors, I repeatedly
tacked a ship of 350 tons’ burden under three courses, top-sails and
top-gallant sails, together with jib and mizen, in a strong breeze
of wind. Gaf-sails between the masts, in the place of stay-sails,
are likewise deservedly in much repute. To the mizen and try-sail,
or gaf main-sail, that have been long in use, I have added a gaf
fore-sail of similar form, besides which, my father has also adopted
gaf top-sails between each mast. These sails produce an admirable
effect when a ship is “on a wind,” which is the kind of sailing most
required among the ice.

Having now described a Greenland ship, it is time to detail the
proceedings on board of her, from putting to sea to her arrival
on the coast of Spitzbergen. When all necessary conditions have
been fulfilled, and the ship cleared out at the custom-house, the
first opportunity is embraced for putting to sea. This is generally
accomplished in the course of the month of March, or at least before
the tenth of April. The crew of a whale-ship usually consists of
forty to fifty men, comprising several classes of officers, such as
harpooners, boat-steerers, line-managers, carpenters, coopers, etc.,
together with fore-mast men, landmen, and apprentices. As a stimulus
to the crew in the fishery, every individual, from the master down
to the boys, besides his monthly pay, receives a gratuity for every
size fish caught during the voyage, or a certain sum for every tun
of oil which the cargo produces. Masters and harpooners, in place of
monthly wages, receive a small sum in advance before sailing, and if
they procure no cargo whatever, they receive nothing more for their
voyage; but in the event of a successful fishing, their advantages
are considerable. The master usually receives three guineas for each
size fish, and as much for striking a size whale or discovering a
dead one, together with ten shillings to twenty shillings per tun
on oil, and commonly a thirtieth, a twenty-fifth, or a twentieth of
the value of the cargo besides. He also has about £5 per month for
his attendance on the ship while he remains on shore. Each harpooner
has usually 6_s._ per tun on oil, together with half a guinea for
every size fish he may strike during the voyage. In addition to
which the chief-mate, who is generally also harpooner, has commonly
two guineas per month when at sea, and a guinea for each size fish.
The specksioneer, or chief-harpooner, has also half a guinea per
fish, and sometimes a trifle per tun of oil additional; and the
second-mate, and other officers who serve in a compound capacity,
have some additional monthly wages. Boat-steerers, line-managers,
and fore-mast-men, commonly receive about 1_s._ 6_d._ per tun each,
besides their monthly pay, and landmen either a trifle per tun on
oil, or a few shillings for each size fish.

From the difference in the wages paid in different ports, it is not
easy to say what is the amount received by each class of officers
belonging to the whale-ships. In the general, however, it may be
understood that, on a ship with 200 tuns of oil, which is esteemed an
excellent cargo, the chief-mate receives about £95 for his voyage,
a harpooner about £70, and a common sailor, or foremast-man, about
£25. including advance money and monthly pay. As the master’s wages
depend as much on the value of the cargo as upon its quantity, it is
difficult to give an opinion as to the amount; generally speaking,
however, with a cargo of 200 tuns of oil, he will receive about £250
or £300, when his pay is according to the lowest scale; and perhaps
£500 or £600, or upwards, when he is paid after the highest rate.

In time of war, the _manning_ of the whale-ships at the ports where
they were respectively fitted out being sometimes impracticable,
and always a matter of difficulty, it was usual for the owners
and masters of such ships to avail themselves of the privileges
allowed by act of parliament of completing their crews in Shetland
and Orkney. These islands were, therefore, the frequent resort of
most of the fishermen; those bound for Spitzbergen commonly put
into Shetland, and those for Davis’s Strait into Orkney. But in the
present time of peace, also, several ships, in consequence of the
higher wages demanded by the English seamen, have availed themselves
of a late extension of the act for permitting a certain amount of
extra men to be taken on board in Shetland or Orkney, during the
continuance of the bounty system.

In Shetland, it is usual for the fishermen to _trim_ their ships,
and complete their ballast, by filling most of their empty casks with
water, where it has not previously been done, to replenish their
fresh water, to lay in stocks of eggs, fish, fowls, sea-sand, etc.,
to divest the ships of all elevated lumber and gaudy appendages to
the masts and rigging, by way of preparing them for enduring the
Polar storms with greater safety and convenience, and lastly, to fix
a “crow’s nest” or “hurricane house,” on the mast of each ship, and
prepare a passage to it as safe and convenient as possible.

The “crow’s nest” is an apparatus placed on the main top-mast, or
top-gallant mast-head, as a kind of watch-tower for the use of the
master or officer of the watch in the fishing-seas, for sheltering
him from the wind, when engaged in piloting the ship through crowded
ice, or for obtaining a more extensive view of the sea around when
looking out for whales. When sailing among much drift-ice, as seen
from the deck, it seems at a small distance impervious, although
it may happen that scarcely any two pieces are connected; but from
the mast-head, the relative position of almost every piece may be
distinctly seen, and an opinion may be formed by the experienced
observer of the probable and actual movements of such pieces as
the ship is required to pass. This is an object of the greatest
importance, because the varied movements of the different pieces
occasion such an alteration in the channel pursued, that, were it not
for a constant, attentive, and judicious watch by the master or an
able officer, a ship would not pass through any crowded collection of
drift-ice without the imminent risk of being stove.

In difficult situations, a master’s presence at the mast-head is
sometimes required for many hours in succession, when the temperature
of the air is from 10° to 20° below the freezing point, or more.
It is therefore necessary for the preservation of his health, as
well as for his comfort, that he should be sheltered from the
piercing gale. A piece of canvas tied round the head of the main
top-mast, and heel of the top-gallant mast, extending only from
the cap to the cross-trees, or at best, a canvas stretched round
the base of the top-gallant rigging, but open on the after-part,
was the most complete contrivance of a crow’s nest, until a few
years ago my father invented an apparatus, having the appearance of
a rostrum, which afforded an admirable defence against the wind.
This contrivance, from the comfortable shelter it affords to the
navigator, having come into very general use, it may not be improper
to describe it more particularly.

The one most approved by the inventor is about four and a half feet
in length, and two and a half in diameter. The form is cylindrical,
open above and close below. It is composed of laths of wood, placed
in a perpendicular position, round the exterior edge of a strong
wooden hoop, forming the top, and round a plane of mahogany or
other wood which forms the bottom, and the whole circumference of
the cylinder is covered with canvas or leather. The entrance is
by a trap-hatch at the bottom. It is fixed on the very summit of
the main top-gallant mast, from whence the prospect on every side
is unimpeded. On the after-side is a seat, with a place beneath
for a flag. In other parts are receptacles for a speaking-trumpet,
telescope, and occasionally for a rifle-piece, with utensils for
loading. For the more effectual shelter of the observer, when in
an erect posture, a movable screen is applied to the top on the
windward side, which increases the height so much as effectually to
shield his head. When the ship is tacked, nothing more is necessary
for retaining the complete shelter than shifting the screen to the
opposite side, which is done in an instant.

The Greenland ships usually leave Shetland towards the end of March,
or the beginning of April. From thence, if their view be to avail
themselves of the benefit of the seal-fishery, they steer to the
northward, on the meridian, or a little to the westward, and commonly
make the ice in the latitude of 70° to 72° north. But if the month
of April be much advanced before they leave Shetland, they generally
steer for the whaling-stations on a course to the east of north, with
the view of falling into that remarkable indentation of the Polar
ice, lying in 5° or 10° east longitude, which I have denominated
the “Whale-Fishers’ Bight.” It used to be the practice to remain on
sealing-stations until the beginning of May, and not to enter the ice
until about the middle of the month; but of late it has become usual
to push into the ice at a much earlier period, though the practice
is neither without its dangers nor disadvantages. If a barrier of
ice prevents the fisher from reaching the usual fishing-station, he
sometimes perseveres in search of whales on the southward margin of
the ice, but more generally endeavours to push through it into an
opening, which is usually formed on the west side of Spitzbergen, in
the month of May, where he seldom fails of meeting with the objects
of his search. It is a common remark, that the more difficulty there
is attending the passage through the ice, the better is the fishery
when that passage is accomplished. In close seasons, very few ships
pass the barrier before the middle or end of May. Those which first
succeed immediately proceed along the edge of the western ice to
the latitude of 78° or 79°, until they meet with whales. But in
open seasons, the most recommendable plan is to sail direct to the
latitude of 80°, when it can be accomplished at a very early period,
where large whales are generally at this season to be found.

It is not yet ascertained what is the earliest period of the year in
which it is possible to fish for whales. The danger attending the
navigation amidst massive drift-ice, in the obscurity of night, is
the most formidable objection against attempting the fishery before
the middle of the month of April, when the sun, having entered the
northern tropic, begins to enlighten the Polar regions throughout the
twenty-four hours. Some ships have sailed to the northward of the
78th degree of latitude, before the close of the month of March; but
I am not acquainted with a single instance where the hardy fishers
have, at this season, derived any compensation for the extraordinary
dangers to which they were exposed. In the course of the month of
April, on certain occasions, considerable progress has been made in
the fishery, notwithstanding the frequency of storms. At the first
stage of the business, in open seas, the whales are usually found in
most abundance on the borders of the ice, near Hackluyt’s Headland,
in the latitude of 80°. A degree or two further south they are
sometimes seen, though not in much plenty; but in the 76th degree
they sometimes occur in such numbers, as to present a tolerable
prospect of success in assailing them.

Some rare instances have occurred wherein they have been seen on the
edge of the ice, extending from Cherie Island to Point Look-out, in
the early part of the season. Grown fish are frequently found at the
edge, or a little within the edge, of the loose ice, in the 79th
degree of north latitude, in the month of May; and small whales,
of different ages, at fields, and sometimes in bays of the ice, in
the 80th degree. Usually the fish are most plentiful in June, and,
on some occasions, they are met with in every degree of latitude
from 75° to 80°. In this month, the large whales are found in every
variety of situation; sometimes in open water, at others in the loose
ice, or at the edges of fields and floes, near the main impervious
body of ice, extending towards the coast of West Greenland. The
smaller animals of the species are, at the same time, found further
to the south than in the spring, at floes, fields, or even among
loose ice, but most plentifully about fields or floes, at the border
of the main western ice, in the latitude of 78° or 78½°. In July,
the fishery generally terminates, sometimes at the beginning of the
month, at others, though more rarely, it continues throughout the
greater part of it. Few small fish are seen at this season.

The parallel of 78° to 78½° is, on the whole, the most productive
fishing-station. The interval between this parallel and 80°, or any
other situation more remote, is called the “northward,” and any
situation in a lower latitude than 78° is called the “southward.”
Though the 79th degree affords whales in the greatest abundance,
yet the 76th degree affords them, perhaps, more generally. In this
latter situation a very large kind of the mysticetus is commonly
to be found, throughout the season, from April to July inclusive.
Their number, however, is not often great; and as the situation in
which they occur is unsheltered, and, consequently, exposed to heavy
swells, the southern fishery is not much frequented. The parallel
of 77° to 77½° is considered a “dead latitude” by the fishers, but
occasionally it affords whales also.

From an attentive observation of facts, it would appear that
various tribes of the mysticetus inhabit different regions, and
pursue various routes on their removal from the places where first
seen. These tribes seem to be distinguished by a difference of age
or manners, and, in some instances, apparently by one of species
or subspecies. The systematical movements of the whales receive
illustration from many well-known facts. Sometimes a large tribe,
passing from one place to another, which, under such circumstances,
is denominated a “run of fish,” has been traced in its movements, in
a direct line from the south towards the north, along the seaward
edge of the western ice, through a space of two or three degrees
of latitude; then it has been ascertained to have entered the ice,
and penetrated to the northward beyond the reach of the fishers. In
certain years, it is curious to observe, that the whales commence a
simultaneous retreat throughout the whole fishing limits, and all
disappear within the space of a very few days.

Having now mentioned, generally, the principal places resorted to by
the whales in the Spitzbergen seas, it will, possibly, be interesting
to such as are in any way concerned in the fishery, to notice more
distinctly their favourite haunts under particular circumstances.

Experience proves that the whale has its favourite places of resort,
depending on a sufficiency of food, particular circumstances of
weather, and particular portions and qualities of the ice. Thus,
though many whales may have been seen in open water when the weather
was fine, after the occurrence of a storm perhaps not one is to be
seen; and, though fields are sometimes the resort of hundreds of
whales, yet, whenever the loose ice around separates entirely away,
the whales quit them also. Hence, fields seldom afford whales in much
abundance, excepting at the time when they first “break out,” and
become accessible; that is, immediately after a vacancy is made on
some side by the separation of adjoining fields, floes, or drift-ice.
Whales are rarely seen in abundance in the large open spaces of
water which sometimes occur amidst fields and floes, nor are they
commonly seen in a very open pack, unless it be in the immediate
neighbourhood of the main western ice. They seem to have a preference
for close packs and patches of ice, and for fields under certain
circumstances; for deep bays, or _bights_, and sometimes for clear
water situations; occasionally for detached streams of drift-ice,
and most generally for extensive sheets of bay-ice. Bay-ice is a
favourite retreat of the whales, so long as it continues sufficiently
tender to be conveniently broken for the purpose of respiration. In
such situations, whales may frequently be seen in amazing numbers,
elevating and breaking the ice with their crowns, the eminences on
their heads in which their blow-holes are situated.

The most favourable opportunity for prosecuting the fishery commonly
occurs with north, north-west, or west winds. At such times, the
sea near the ice is almost always smooth, and the atmosphere,
though cloudy and dark, is generally free from fog or thick snow.
The fishers prefer a cloudy to a clear sky, because, in very bright
weather, the sea becomes illuminated, and the shadows of the
whale-boats are so deeply impressed in the water by the beams of the
sun, that the whales are very apt to take the alarm, and evade the
utmost care and skill of their pursuers. South-east or east winds,
though disagreeable, cause a violent agitation of the pieces of ice,
and so annoy the whales as to induce them to leave their retreat
and appear in the open sea. Although the fishery requires a cloudy
atmosphere, yet it must be free from fog or continued snow; smooth
water, with a breeze of wind, and navigably open, or perfectly solid
ice.

The boats and principal instruments employed in the capture of
the whale next claim a description. Whale-boats are, of course,
peculiarly adapted for the occupation they are intended to be
employed in. A well-constructed Greenland boat possesses the
following properties:—It floats lightly and safely on the water, is
capable of being rowed with great speed, and readily turned round;
it is of such capacity, that it carries six or seven men, seven or
eight hundred weight of whale-line, and various other materials,
and yet retains the necessary properties of safety, buoyancy,
and speed, either in smooth water, or where it is exposed to a
considerable sea. Whale-boats, being very liable to receive damage,
both from whales and ice, are always carver-built—a structure which
is easily repaired. They are usually of the following dimensions.
Those called six-oared boats, adapted for carrying seven men, six of
whom, including the harpooner, are rowers, are generally twenty-six
to twenty-eight feet in length, and about five feet nine inches in
breadth. Six-men boats, that is, with five rowers and a steersman,
are usually twenty-five to twenty-six feet in length, and about
five feet three inches in breadth; and four-oared boats are usually
twenty-three to twenty-four feet in length, and about five feet,
three inches in breadth. The main breadth of the two first classes of
boats is at about three-sevenths of the length of the boat, reckoned
from the stern; but in the last class it is necessary to have the
main breadth within one-third of the length of the boat from the
stern. The object of this is to enable the smaller boat to support,
without being dragged under water, as great a strain on the lines
as those of a larger class; otherwise, if such a boat were sent out
by itself, its lines would be always liable to be lost before any
assistance could reach it.

The five-oared or six-men boat is that which is in general use;
though each fishing-ship generally carries one or two of the largest
class. These boats are now commonly built of fir boards, one-half or
three-fourths of an inch thick, with timbers, keel, gunwales, stern,
and stern-post of oak. An improvement in the timbering of whale-boats
has lately been made, by sawing the timber out of very straight
grained oak, and bending them to the required form after being made
supple by the application of steam, or immersion in boiling water.
This improvement, which renders the timbers more elastic than when
they are sawn out of crooked oak, and at the same time makes the
boat stronger and lighter, was suggested by Thomas Brodrick, esq.,
of Whitby, ship-builder. Though the principle has long been acted
upon in clincher-built boats, with ash timbers, the application to
carver-built whale-boats is, I believe, new. The bow and stern of
Greenland boats are both sharp, and in appearance very similar,
but the stern forms a more acute angle than the bow. The keel has
some depression in the middle from which the facility of turning is
acquired.

The instruments of general use in the capture of the whale are the
harpoon and the lance. The harpoon is an instrument of iron, of about
three feet in length. It consists of three conjoined parts, called
the “socket,” “shank,” and “mouth,” the latter of which includes the
barbs or “withers.” This instrument, if we except a small addition
to the barbs and some enlargement of dimensions, maintains the same
form in which it was originally used in the fishery two centuries
ago. At that time, the mouth or barbed extremity was of a triangular
shape, united at the shank in the middle of one of the sides, and
this being scooped out on each side of the shank formed two simple
flat barbs. In the course of last century, an improvement was made by
adding another small barb, resembling the beard of a fishhook, within
each of the former withers in a reverse position. The two principal
withers in the present improved harpoon measure about eight inches in
length and six in breadth, the shank is eighteen inches to two feet
in length, and four-tenths of an inch in diameter, and the socket,
which is hollow, swells from the size of the shank to near two inches
diameter, and is about six inches in length. Now, when the harpoon
is forced by a blow into the fat of the whale, and the line is held
tight, the principal withers seize the strong ligamentous fibres of
the blubber, and prevent it from being withdrawn; and, in the event
of its being pulled out so far as to remain entangled by one wither
only, which is frequently the case, then the little reversed barb,
or “stop-wither,” as it is called, collecting a number of the same
reticulated sinewy fibres, which are very numerous near the skin,
prevents the harpoon from being shaken out by the ordinary motions of
the whale. The point and exterior edges of the barbs of the harpoon
are sharpened to a rough edge by means of a file. This part of the
harpoon is not formed of steel, as it is frequently represented, but
of common soft iron, so that when blunted it can be readily sharpened
by a file, or even by scraping it with a knife.

The most important part in the construction of this instrument is the
shank. As this part is liable to be forcibly and suddenly extended,
twisted, and bent, it requires to be made of the softest and most
pliable iron. That kind which is of the most approved tenacity is
made of old horse-shoe nails or _stubs_, which are formed into small
rods, and two or three of these welded together, so that should a
flaw happen to occur in any one of the rods, the strength of the
whole might still be depended on. Some manufacturers inclose a
quantity of stub-iron in a cylinder of best foreign iron, and form
the shank of the harpoon out of a single rod. A test, sometimes used
for trying the sufficiency of a harpoon, is to wind its shank round a
bolt of inch-iron, in the form of a close spiral, then to unwind it
again, and put it into a straight form. It bears this without injury
in the cold state, it is considered as excellent. The breaking of a
harpoon is of no less importance than the value of a whale, which is
sometimes estimated at more than £1000 sterling. This consideration
has induced many ingenious persons to turn their attention towards
improving the construction and security of this instrument, but
though various alterations have been suggested, such as forming the
shank of wire, adding one or two lateral barbs, etc., etc., they have
all given place to the simplicity of the ancient harpoon.

Next in importance to the harpoon is the lance, which is a spear
of iron of the length of six feet. It consists of a hollow socket,
six inches long, swelling from half an inch, the size of the shank,
to near two inches in diameter, into which is fitted a four feet
stock or handle of fir; a shank, five feet long and half an inch
in diameter; and a mouth of steel, which is made very thin, and
exceedingly sharp, seven or eight inches in length, and two or two
and a half in breadth. Besides these instruments, there is also the
harpoon gun. It was invented in the year 1731, and used by some
individuals with success. Being however difficult, and somewhat
dangerous in its application, it was laid aside for many years.
In 1771 or 1772, a new one was produced to the Society of Arts,
and received as an original invention. Between 1772 and 1792, the
Society expended large sums in premiums to whale-fishers and to
artisans for improvements in the gun and harpoon. Since 1792, they
have generally been in the habit of offering a premium of ten guineas
to the harpooner who should shoot the greatest number of whales
in one season, not being less than three. This premium, however,
though it has been frequently offered, has been seldom claimed. In
its present improved form, as made by Mr. Wallis, gunsmith, Hull,
the harpoon-gun consists of a kind of swivel, having a barrel
of wrought-iron 24 or 26 inches in length, of 3 inches exterior
diameter, and 1⅞ inches bore. It is furnished with two locks, which
act simultaneously, for the purpose of diminishing the liability of
the gun missing fire. The shank of the harpoon is double, terminating
in a cylindrical knob, fitting the bore of the gun. Between the two
parts of the shank is a wire ring, to which is attached the line.
Now, when the harpoon is introduced into the barrel of the gun, the
ring with the attached line remains on the outside near the mouth
of the harpoon, but the instant that it is fired, the ring flies
back against the cylindrical knob. The harpoon-gun has been rendered
capable of throwing a harpoon near forty yards with effect, yet, on
account of the difficulty in the management of it, it has not been
very generally adopted.

In the course of the outward passage, the different utensils are
fitted for immediate use. One preparation is that which is known
by the name of “spanning harpoons.” A piece of rope, of the best
hemp, called a “fore-ganger,” about two and a quarter inches in
circumference, and eight or nine yards in length, is spliced closely
round the shank of the harpoon, the swelled socket of which prevents
the eye of the _splice_ from being drawn off. A stock, or handle, six
or seven feet in length, is then fitted into the socket, and fastened
in its place through the medium of the fore-ganger. The fastening of
the stock is sufficient only for retaining it firm in its situation
during the discharge of the weapon, but is liable to be disengaged
soon afterwards; on which the harpoon, relieved from the shake and
twist of this no longer necessary appendage, maintains its hold with
better effect. After the stock drops out, it is seldom lost, but
still hangs on the line by means of a loop of cord, fixed openly
round it, for the purpose of preventing the stock from floating
away. Every harpoon is stamped with the name of the ship to which it
belongs; and when prepared for use, a private mark, containing the
name of the ship and master, with the date of the year written upon
leather, is concealed beneath some rope-yarns, wound round the socket
of the instrument, and the same is sometimes introduced also into the
fore-ganger. These marks serve to identify the harpoons, when any
dispute happens to arise relative to the claims of different ships
to the same fish and have sometimes proved of essential service
in deciding cases which might otherwise have extended to vexatious
litigations.

A harpoon thus prepared, with fore-ganger and stock, is said to be
“spanned in.” In this state, the point or mouth, being very clean
and sharp, is preserved in the same condition by a shield of oiled
paper or canvas; and the instrument, with its appendages, laid up in
a convenient place, ready for being attached to the whale-line in a
boat when wanted.

The principal preparations for commencing the fishery are included
in the “fitting of the boats.” In this work all the people belonging
to the ship are employed. The boats are first cleared of all lumber,
and then the whale-lines, each consisting of 120 fathoms of rope,
about two and a quarter inches in circumference, are spliced to each
other, to the amount of about six to each boat, the united length of
which is about 720 fathoms, or 4,320 feet; and the whole carefully
and beautifully coiled in compartments in the boat prepared for the
purpose. A portion of five or six fathoms of the line first put into
the boat, called the “stray-line,” is left uncovered by that which
follows, and coiled by itself in a small compartment at the stern of
the boat: it is furnished with a loop or “eye,” for the facility of
connecting the lines of one boat with those of another. To the upper
end of the line is spliced the fore-ganger of a spanned harpoon, thus
connecting the harpoon with all the lines in the boat.

Every boat completely fitted is furnished with two harpoons (one
spare,) six or eight lances, and five to seven oars, together with
the following instruments and apparatus:—A “jack,” or flag, fastened
to a pole, intended to be displayed as a signal, whenever a whale
is harpooned; a “tail-knife,” used for perforating the fins or tail
of a dead whale; a “mik,” or rest, made of wood, for supporting the
stock of the harpoon when ready for instant service; an “axe,” for
cutting the line when necessary; a “pigging,” or small bucket, for
bailing the boat or wetting the running lines; a “snatch-block;”
a “grapnel;” two “boat-hooks;” a “fid;” a wooden “mallet,” and
“snow-shovel;” also, a small broom and a “swab,” together with spare
tholes, grommets, etc. In addition to these, the two six-oared or
other swiftest boats are likewise furnished with an apparatus,
called a “winch,” for heaving the lines into the boat after the
fish is either killed or has made his escape; and in some ships
they also carry a harpoon-gun, and apparatus for loading. The whole
of the articles above enumerated are disposed in convenient places
throughout the boat. The axe is always placed within the reach of
the harpooner, who, in case of an accident, can cut the line in an
instant; the harpoon-gun is fixed by its swivel to the boat’s stern;
the lances are laid in the sides of the boat, upon the thwarts; the
hand-harpoon is placed upon the mik, or rest, with its stock, and on
the bow of the boat with its point, and the fore-ganger is clearly
coiled beneath it, so that the harpoon can be taken up and discharged
in a moment. An oar is used for steering, in preference to a rudder,
in consequence of its possessing many advantages: an oar does not
retard the velocity of the boat so much as a rudder; it is capable
of turning the boat when in a state of rest, and more readily than a
rudder when in motion; and it can be used for propelling the boat in
narrow places of the ice, where the rowers cannot ply their oars, by
the process of sculling, and in calms for approaching a whale without
noise, by the same operation.

The crew of a whale-ship are separated into divisions, equal in
number to the number of the boats. Each division, consisting of a
harpooner, a boat-steerer, and a line-manager, together with three
or four rowers, constitutes a boat’s crew. The harpooner’s principal
office is, as his name implies, to strike the whale, also to guide
the line, or to kill an entangled whale with his lances. When in
pursuit he rows the bow-oar. He has the command of the boat. The
boat-steerer ranks next to the harpooner; he guides the course of
the boat, watches the motions of the whale pursued, intimates its
movements to the harpooner, and stimulates the crew to exertion by
encouraging exclamations. The line-manager rows the “after-oar” in
the boat, and, conjointly with the boat-steerer, attends to the lines
when in the act of running out or coiling in. The remainder of the
crew pull the oars. Besides these divisions of the seamen of a whaler
into boats’ crews, they are classed on the passages, and when no
whale-fishing is going on, as in other vessels, into watches.

On fishing-stations, when the weather is such as to render the
fishery practicable, the boats are always ready for instant service,
suspended from davits, or cranes, by the sides of the ship, and
furnished with stores, as before enumerated; two boats at least,
the crews of which are always in readiness, can in general be
manned and lowered into the water within the space of one minute
of time. “Wherever there is a probability of seeing whales, when
the weather and situation are such as to present a possibility of
capturing them, the “crow’s nest” is generally occupied by the
master, or some one of the officers, who, commanding from thence
an extensive prospect of the surrounding sea, keeps an anxious watch
for the appearance of a whale. Assisted by a telescope, he views
the operations of any ship which may be in sight at a distance; and
occasionally sweeps the horizon with his glass, to extend the limited
sphere of vision in which he is able to discriminate a whale with the
naked eye to an area vastly greater. The moment that a fish is seen,
he gives notice to the “watch upon deck,” part of whom leap into a
boat, are lowered down, and push off towards the place. If the fish
be large, a second boat is immediately dispatched to the support of
the other. When the whale again appears, two boats row towards it
with their utmost speed, and though they may be disappointed in all
their attempts, they generally continue the pursuit until the fish
either takes the alarm and escapes, or they are recalled by a signal
to the ship. When two or more fishes appear at the same time in
different situations, the number of boats sent in pursuit is commonly
increased. When the whole of the boats are sent out, the ship is said
to have “a loose fall.” During fine weather, when there is great
probability of finding whales, a boat is generally kept in readiness,
manned and afloat, sometimes towed by a rope astern, or, if the ship
be still, at a little distance. There are several rules observed
in approaching a whale, as precautions, to prevent the animal from
taking the alarm. As the whale is dull of hearing, but quick of
sight, the boat-steerer always endeavours to get behind it, and, in
accomplishing this, he sometimes takes a circuitous route. In calm
weather, when guns are not used, the greatest caution is necessary
before a whale can be reached; smooth careful rowing is always
requisite, and sometimes sculling.

When it is known that a whale seldom abides longer on the surface
of the water than two minutes, that it generally remains from five
to ten or fifteen minutes under water, that in this interval it
sometimes moves through the space of half a mile or more, and that
the fisher has very rarely any certain intimation of the place in
which it will reappear—the difficulty and address requisite to
approach sufficiently near, during its short stay on the surface, to
harpoon it, will be readily appreciated. It is, therefore, a primary
consideration with the harpooner always to place his boat as near
as possible to the spot where he expects the fish to rise; and he
considers himself successful in the attempt when the fish “comes up
within a start,” that is, within the distance of about two hundred
yards. A whale moving forward, at a small distance beneath the
surface of the sea, leaves a sure indication of its situation in what
is called “an eddy,” having somewhat the resemblance of “the wake,”
or track of a ship; and in fine calm weather, its change of position
is sometimes pointed out by the birds, many of which closely follow
it when at the surface, and hover over it when below, whose keener
vision can discern it when it is totally concealed from human eye. By
these indications many whales have been taken.

The providence of God is manifested in the tameness and timidity of
many of the largest inhabitants of the earth and sea, whereby they
fall victims to the prowess of man, and are rendered subservient to
his convenience in life. And this was the design of the lower animals
in their creation, for God, when he made man, gave him “dominion over
the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the
cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that
creepeth upon the earth.” The holy psalmist, when considering the
power and goodness of God in the creation, exclaimed, “What is man,
that thou art mindful of him; and the son of man, that thou visitest
him?” And, in contemplation of the glory and honour put upon man by
the Almighty, in the power given him over created nature, he adds,
“Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou
hast put all things under his feet: ... the fowl of the air, and the
fish of the sea, and whatsoever passeth through the paths of the
seas. O Lord our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth!”
Hence, while we admire the cool and determined intrepidity of those
who successfully encounter the huge mysticetus, if we are led to
reflect on the source of the power by which the strength of men is
rendered effectual for the mighty undertaking, our reflections must
lead us to the great First Cause as the only source from whence such
power could be derived. If there be peril in the encounter between
man and God’s most powerful creatures, how much more dangerous must
be the struggle between man and the Lord his Maker; and how certain,
if it be prolonged, the terrible issue of such a contest! The power
of the mighty monster of the deep, or even of the most glorious
archangel, is as nothing in comparison with Him to whom power
belongeth, and who will overwhelm his adversaries with a fearful
and final perdition. Now, however, there is no fury in him, and he
is as condescending as he is powerful, entreating his rebellious
subjects to receive the peace of his reconciliation, and to draw near
to him with a penitent and contrite heart, through the merit and
intercession of his Son, in whom he assures us of a free and complete
forgiveness.

Whenever a whale lies on the surface of the water, unconscious of
the approach of its enemies, the hardy fisher rows directly upon it;
and, an instant before the boat touches it, buries his harpoon in
its back; but if, while the boat is at a little distance, the whale
should indicate its intention of diving, by lifting its head above
its common level, and then plunging it under water, and raising its
body till it appears like a large segment of a sphere, the harpoon
is thrown from the hand, or fired from a gun, the former of which
methods, when skilfully practised, is efficient at the distance of
eight or ten yards, and the latter at the distance of thirty yards,
or upward. The wounded whale, in the surprise and agony of the
moment, makes a convulsive effort to escape. Then is the moment of
danger. The boat is subjected to the most violent blows from its
head or its fins, but particularly from its ponderous tail, which
sometimes sweeps the air with such tremendous fury, that both boat
and men are exposed to one common destruction.

The head of the whale is avoided, because it cannot be penetrated
with the harpoon; but any part of the body between the head and the
tail will admit of the full length of the instrument, without danger
of obstruction. The moment that the wounded whale disappears, or
leaves the boat, a jack or flag, elevated on a staff, is displayed,
on sight of which those on watch in the ship give the alarm, by
stamping on the deck, accompanied by a simultaneous and continuous
shout of “a fall.” This word, derived from the Dutch language, is
expressive of the conduct of the sailors in jumping, dropping,
falling to man the boats on an occasion requiring extreme dispatch.
At this sound, the sleeping crew arouse, jump from their beds, rush
upon deck, with their clothes tied by a string in their hands, and
crowd into the boats. With a temperature of zero, should a “fall”
occur, the crew would appear on deck, shielded only by their drawers,
stockings, and shirts, or other habiliments in which they sleep. They
generally contrive to dress themselves in part, at least, as the
boats are lowered down, but sometimes they push off in the state in
which they rise from their beds, row away towards the “fast-boat,”
and have no opportunity of clothing themselves for a length of time
afterwards. The alarm of “a fall” has a singular effect on the
feelings of a sleeping person unaccustomed to the whale-fishing
business. It has often been mistaken as a cry of distress. A landsman
in a Hull ship, seeing the crew on an occasion of a fall rush upon
deck, with their clothes in their hands, and leap into the boats,
when there was no appearance of danger, thought the men were all mad;
but with another individual the effect was totally different. Alarmed
with the extraordinary noise, and still more so when he reached the
deck with the appearance of all the crew seated in the boats in their
shirts, he imagined the ship was sinking. He therefore endeavoured to
get into a boat himself; but every one of them being fully manned,
he was always repulsed. After several fruitless endeavours to gain
a place among his comrades, he cried out, with feelings of evident
distress, “What shall I do?—will none of you take me in?”

The first effort of a “fast-fish,” or whale that has been struck,
is to escape from the boat by sinking under water. After this, it
pursues its course directly downward, or reappears at a little
distance, and swims with great celerity near the surface of the water
towards any neighbouring ice among which it may obtain an imaginary
shelter; or it returns instantly to the surface, and gives evidence
of its agony by the most convulsive throes, in which its fins and
tail are alternately displayed in the air and dashed into the water
with tremendous violence. The former behaviour, however, that is, to
dive towards the bottom of the sea, is so frequent in comparison
of any other, that it may be considered as the general conduct of
a “fast-fish.” A whale, struck near the edge of any large sheet of
ice, and passing underneath it, will sometimes run the whole of the
line out of one boat in the space of eight or ten minutes of time. To
retard, therefore, as much as possible, the flight of the whale, and
to secure the lines, it is usual for the harpooner to cast one, two,
or more turns of the line round a kind of post, called a _bollard_,
which is fixed within ten or twelve inches of the stern of the boat
for the purpose. Such is the friction of the line, when running round
the bollard, that it frequently envelopes the harpooner in smoke; and
if the wood were not repeatedly wetted, would probably set fire to
the boat.

During the capture of one whale, a groove is sometimes cut in the
bollard, near an inch in depth, and were it not for a plate of
brass, iron, or a block of lignum vitæ, which covers the top of
the stern, where the line passes over, it is apprehended that the
action of the line on the material of the boat would cut it down to
the water’s edge in the course of one season of successful fishing.
The approaching distress of a boat for want of line is indicated
by the elevation of an oar in the way of a mast, to which is added
a second, a third, or even a fourth, in proportion to the nature
of the exigence. The utmost care and attention are requisite on
the part of every person in the boat when the lines are running
out, fatal consequences having been sometimes produced by the most
trifling neglect. On my first voyage to the whale-fishery, such an
accident occurred. A thousand fathoms of line were already out, and
the fast-boat was forcibly pressed against the side of a piece of
ice. The harpooner, in his anxiety to retard the flight of the whale,
applied too many turns of the line round the bollard, which, getting
entangled, drew the boat beneath the ice. Another boat providentially
was at hand, into which the crew, including myself, who happened to
be present, had just time to escape. The whale, with near two miles
length of line, was, in consequence of the accident, lost.

When fish have been struck by myself, I have, on different occasions,
estimated their rate of descent. For the first 300 fathoms, the
average velocity was usually after the rate of eight to ten miles per
hour. In one instance, the third line of 120 fathoms was run out in
sixty-one seconds, that is, at the rate of 8·16 miles, or 7·18 nautical
miles, per hour. The average stay under water of a wounded whale,
which steadily descends after being struck, according to the most
usual conduct of the animal, is about thirty minutes. The longest
stay I ever observed was fifty-six minutes; but in shallow water I
have been informed it has sometimes been known to remain an hour and
a half at the bottom after being struck, and yet has returned to
the surface alive. The greater the velocity, the more considerable
the distance to which it descends, and the longer the time it
remains under water, so much greater in proportion is the extent of
exhaustion, and the consequent facility of accomplishing its capture.
Immediately that it reappears, the assisting boats make for the
place with their utmost speed, and as they reach it, each harpooner
plunges his harpoon into its back, to the amount of three, four,
or more, according to the size of the whale and the nature of the
situation. Most frequently, however, it descends for a few minutes
after receiving the second harpoon, and obliges the other boats to
await its return to the surface before any attack can be made. It
is afterwards actively plied with lances, which are thrust into its
body, aiming at its vitals. At length, when exhausted by numerous
wounds and the loss of blood, which flows from the huge animal in
copious streams, it indicates the approach of its dissolution by
discharging from its “blow-holes” a mixture of blood along with the
air and mucus which it usually expires, and finally jets of blood.
The sea to a great extent around is dyed with its blood, and the
ice-boats and men are sometimes drenched with the same. Its track is
likewise marked by a broad pellicle of oil, which exudes from his
wounds, and appears on the surface of the sea. Its final capture is
sometimes preceded by a convulsive and energetic struggle, in which
its tail, reared, whirled, and violently jerked in the air, resounds
to the distance of miles. In dying, it turns on its back, or on its
side, which joyful circumstance is announced by the capturers with
the striking of their flags, accompanied with three lively huzzas.

The remarkable exhaustion observed on the first appearance of a
wounded whale at the surface, after a descent of 700 or 800 fathoms
perpendicular, does not depend on the nature of the wound it has
received, for a hundred superficial wounds received from harpoons
could not have the effect of a single lance penetrating the vitals,
but is the effect of the almost incredible pressure to which the
animal must have been exposed. The surface of the body of a large
whale may be considered as comprising an area of 1,540 square feet.
This, under the common weight of the atmosphere alone, must sustain
a pressure of 3,104,640 lbs., or 1,386 tons. But at the depth of 800
fathoms, where there is a column of water equal in weight to about
154 atmospheres, the pressure on the animal must be equal to 211,200
tons. This is a degree of pressure of which we can have but an
imperfect conception. It may assist our comprehension, however, to be
informed, that it exceeds in weight sixty of the largest ships of the
British navy, when manned, provisioned, and fitted for a six months’
cruise.

By the motions of the fast-boat, the movements of the whale are
estimated. Every fast-boat carries a flag, and the ship to which
such boats belong also wears a flag, until the whale is either killed
or makes its escape. These signals serve to indicate to surrounding
ships the exclusive title of the fast-ship to the entangled whale,
and to prevent their interference, excepting in the way of assistance
in the capture.

With respect to the length of time requisite for capturing a whale,
it may be remarked that this greatly depends on the activity of
the harpooners, the favourableness of situation and weather, and
on the peculiar conduct of the whale attacked. I have myself
witnessed the capture of a large whale in twenty-eight minutes, and
have also been engaged with another fish, which was lost, after it
had been entangled about sixteen hours. Under the most favourable
circumstances, the average length of time occupied in the capture
of a whale may be stated as not exceeding an hour, and the general
average, including all sizes of fish and all circumstances of
capture, may probably be two or three hours. The mode described
in the preceding pages of conducting the fishery for whales under
favourable circumstances, may be considered as the general plan
pursued by the fishers of all ports of Britain, as well as of those
of other nations who resort to Spitzbergen.

The ease with which some whales are subdued, and the slightness of
the entanglement by which they are taken, are truly surprising;
but, with others, it is equally astonishing, that neither line nor
harpoon, nor any number of each, is sufficiently strong to effect
their capture. Whales have even been taken in consequence of the
entanglement of a line, without any harpoon at all; though, when
such a case has occurred, it has evidently been the result of
accident. A harpooner belonging to the Prince of Brazils, of Hull,
had struck a small fish. It descended, and remained for some time
quiet, and at length appeared to be drowned. The strain on the line
being then considerable, it was taken to the ship’s capstern, with
a view of heaving the fish up. The force requisite for performing
this operation was extremely various; sometimes the line came in
with ease, at others, a quantity was withdrawn with great force and
rapidity. As such, it appeared evident that the fish was yet alive.
The heaving, however, was persisted in, and after the greater part
of the lines had been drawn on board, a dead fish appeared at the
surface, secured by several turns of the line round its body. It was
disentangled with difficulty, and was confidently believed to be the
whale that had been struck. But when the line was cleared from the
fish, it proved to be merely the “bight,” for the end still hung
perpendicularly downward. What was then the surprise to find that
it was still pulled away with considerable force! The capstern was
again resorted to, and shortly afterwards they hove up, also dead,
the fish originally struck, with the harpoon still fast. Hence, it
appeared that the fish first drawn up had got accidentally entangled
with the line, and, in its struggles to escape, had still further
involved itself, by winding the line repeatedly round its body. The
fish first entangled, as was suspected, had long been dead, but it
was this interloper that occasioned the jerks and other singular
effects observed on the line.

The method already described is that which is adopted for the capture
of whales under the most favourable circumstances, and is subject to
many alterations when the situation or circumstances are peculiar.
Hence arise various modes of capturing the whale, which furnish
abundant opportunities for the exercise of ingenuity and skill, and
are attended by their peculiar dangers. To an enumeration of these
various methods, according to local circumstances, we now proceed to
direct the reader’s attention.

1. _Pack-fishing._—The borders of close packs of drift-ice are
frequently a favourite resort of large whales. To attack them in
such a situation subjects the fisher to great risks in his lines and
boats, as well as uncertainty in effecting their capture. When a
considerable swell prevails on the borders of the ice, the whales,
on being struck, will sometimes recede from the pack, and become
the prize of their assailers; but most generally they flee to it
for shelter, and frequently make their escape. To guard against the
loss of lines as much as possible, it is usual either to strike two
harpoons from different boats at the same moment, or to bridle the
lines of a second boat upon those of the boat from which the fish is
struck. This operation consists in fixing other lines to those of the
fast-boat, at some distance from the harpoon, so that there is only
one harpoon and one line immediately attached to the fish, but the
double strength of a line from the place of their junction to the
boats. Hence, should the fish flee directly into the ice, and proceed
to an inaccessible distance, the two boats bearing an equal strain on
each of their lines can at pleasure draw the harpoon, or break the
single part of the line immediately connected with it, and in either
case secure themselves against any considerable loss.

When a pack, from its closeness, prevents boats from penetrating,
the men travel over the ice, leaping from piece to piece, in pursuit
of the entangled whale. In this pursuit they carry lances with them,
and sometimes harpoons, with which, whenever they can approach the
fish, they attack it; and if they succeed in killing it, they drag it
towards the exterior margin of the ice, by means of the line fastened
to the harpoon with which it was originally struck. In such cases,
it is generally an object of importance to sink it beneath the ice;
for effecting which purpose, each lobe of the tail is divided from
the body, excepting a small portion of the edge, from which it hangs
pendulous in the water. If it still floats, bags of sand, kedges,
or small cannon, are suspended by a block on the bight of the line,
wherewith the buoyancy of the dead whale is usually overcome. It then
sinks, and is easily hauled out by the line into the open sea.

To particularize all the variety of pack-fishing, arising from wind
and weather, size of the fish, state and peculiarities of the ice,
etc., would require more space than the interest of the subject to
general readers would justify. I shall therefore only remark, that
pack-fishing is, on the whole, the most troublesome and dangerous
of all others; that instances have occurred of fish having been
entangled during forty or fifty hours, and escaped after all; and
that other instances are remembered, of ships having lost the greater
part of their stock of lines, several of their boats, and sometimes,
though happily less commonly, some individuals of their crews.

2. _Field-fishing._—The fishery for whales, when conducted at the
margin of those wonderful sheets of solid ice, called fields, is,
when the weather is fine, and the refuge for ships secure, the most
agreeable, and sometimes the most productive of all situations which
the fishery of Greenland presents. A fish struck at the margin of a
large field of ice generally descends obliquely beneath it, takes
four or eight lines from the fast-boat, and then returns exhausted
to the edge. It is then attacked in the usual way with harpoons
and lances, and is easily killed. There is one evident advantage
in field-fishing, which is this: when the fast-boat lies at the
edge of a firm unbroken field, and the line proceeds in an angle
beneath the ice, the fish must necessarily arise somewhere in a
semicircle described from the fast-boat as a centre, with a sweep
not exceeding the length of the lines out; but most generally it
appears in a line extending along the margin of the ice, so that
the boats, when dispersed along the edge of the field, are as
effectual and as ready for promoting the capture as twice the number
of boats or more when fishing in open situations; because, in open
situations, the whale may arise anywhere within a circle, instead of
a semicircle, described by the length of the lines withdrawn from
the fast-boat, whence it frequently happens that all the attendant
boats are disposed in a wrong direction, and the fish recovers its
breath, breaks loose, and escapes before any of them can secure it
with a second harpoon. Hence, when a ship fishes at a field with an
ordinary crew and six or seven boats, two of the largest fish may
be struck at the same time with every prospect of success; while
the same force attempting the capture of two at once in an open
situation, will not unfrequently occasion the loss of both. There
have, indeed, been many instances of a ship’s crew, with seven
boats, striking at a field six fish at the same time, and succeeding
in killing the whole; generally speaking, six boats at a field are
capable of performing the same execution as near twice that number
in open situations. Besides, fields sometimes afford an opportunity
of fishing, when in any other situation there can be little or no
probability of success, or, indeed, when to fish elsewhere is utterly
impracticable. Thus, calms, storms, and fogs, are great annoyances in
the fishery in general, and frequently prevent it altogether, but at
fields the fishery goes on under any of these disadvantages. As there
are several important advantages attending the fishery at fields,
so likewise there are some serious disadvantages, chiefly relating
to the safety of the ships engaged in the occupation. The motions
of fields are rapid, various, and unaccountable, and the power with
which they approach each other, and squeeze every resisting object,
immense; hence occasionally vast mischief is produced, which it is
not always in the power of the most skilful and attentive master to
foresee or prevent.

Such are the principal advantages and disadvantages of fields of ice
to the whale-fishery. The advantages, however, as above enumerated,
though they extend to large floes, do not extend to small floes,
or to such fields, how large soever they may be, as contain cracks
or holes, or are filled up with thin ice in the interior. Large
and firm fields are the most convenient, and likewise the most
advantageous for the fishery; the most convenient, because the
whales, unable to breathe beneath a close extensive field of ice,
are obliged to make their appearance again above water among the
boats on the look out; and they are the most advantageous, because
not only the most fish commonly resort to them, but a greater number
can be killed with less force, and in a shorter space of time, than
in any other situation. Thin fields, or fields full of holes, being
by no means advantageous to fish by, are usually avoided, because a
“fast fish” retreating under such a field, can respire through the
holes in the centre as conveniently as on the exterior; and a large
fish usually proceeds from one hole to another, and if determined
to advance, cannot possibly be stopped. In this case, all that can
be done is, to break the line or draw the harpoon out. But when the
fish can be observed blowing in any of the holes in a field, the men
travel over the ice, and attack it with lances, pricking it over the
nose to endeavour to turn it back. This scheme, however, does not
always answer the expectations of the fishers, as frequently the fear
of his enemies acts so powerfully on the whale that he pushes forward
towards the interior to his dying moment. When killed, the same
means are used as in pack-fishing to sink it, but they do not always
succeed; for the harpoon is frequently drawn out, or the line broken
in the effort. If, therefore, no attempt to sink the fish avails,
there is scarcely any other practicable method of making a prize of
it, (unless when the ice happens to be so thin that it can be broken
with a boat, or a channel readily cut in it with an ice-saw,) than
cutting the blubber away, and dragging it piece by piece across the
ice to the vessel, which requires immense labour, and is attended
with vast loss of time. Hence we have a sufficient reason for
avoiding such situations, whenever fish can be found elsewhere.

As connected with this subject, I cannot pass over a circumstance
which occurred within my own observation, and which excited my
highest admiration. On the 8th July, 1813, the ship Esk lay by the
edge of a thin sheet of ice, in which were several thin parts and
some holes. Here a fish being heard blowing, a harpoon, having a
line connected with it, was conveyed across the ice by a boat on
guard, and the harpooner succeeded in striking the whale, at the
distance of 350 yards from the verge. It dragged out ten lines,
(2,400 yards,) and was supposed to be seen blowing in different holes
in the ice. After some time, it happened to make its appearance on
the exterior, when a harpoon was struck at the moment it was on the
point of proceeding again beneath. About a hundred yards from the
edge, it broke the ice where it was a foot in thickness with its
crown, and respired through the opening. It then determinately
pushed forward, breaking the ice as it advanced, in spite of the
lances continually directed against it. It reached at length a kind
of basin in the field, where it floated on the surface of the water
without any encumbrance from ice. Its back being fairly exposed, the
harpoon struck from the boat was observed to be so slightly entangled
that it was ready to drop out. Some of the officers lamented this
circumstance, and expressed a wish that the harpoon were better fast,
observing at the same time that if it should slip out, the fish would
either be lost, or they would be under the necessity of flensing it
where it lay, and of dragging the pieces of blubber over the ice to
the ship, a kind and degree of labour every one was anxious to avoid.
No sooner was the wish expressed, and its importance made known, than
one of the sailors, a smart and enterprising fellow, stepped forward
and volunteered his services to strike it better in. Not at all
intimidated by the surprise which was manifested in every countenance
by such a bold proposal, he pulled out his pocket-knife, leapt
upon the back of the living whale, and immediately cut the harpoon
out. Stimulated by this courageous example, two of his companions
proceeded to his assistance. While one of them hauled upon the line,
and held it in his hands, the other set his shoulder against the
extremity of the harpoon, and, though it was without a stock, he
contrived to strike it again into the fish more effectually than it
was at first. The fish was in motion before this was finished. After
they got off its back, it advanced a considerable distance, breaking
the ice all the way, and survived this uncommon treatment ten or
fifteen minutes. This admirable act was an essential benefit. The
fish sunk spontaneously after being killed, on which it was hauled
out to the edge of the ice by the line, and secured without further
trouble. It proved a stout whale, and a very acceptable prize.

When a ship approaches a considerable field of ice, and finds
whales, it is usual to moor to the leeward side of it, from which
the adjoining ice generally first separates. Boats are then placed
on watch on each side of the ship, and stationed at intervals of
one hundred or one hundred and fifty yards along the edge of the
ice. Hence, if a fish arises anywhere between the extreme boats,
it seldom escapes unhurt. It is not uncommon for a great number of
ships to moor to the same sheet of ice. When the whale-fishery of
the Hollanders was in a flourishing state, above one hundred sail of
ships might sometimes be seen moored to the same field of ice, each
having two or more boats on watch. The field would in consequence, be
so nearly surrounded with boats, that it was almost impossible for
a fish to rise near the verge of the ice without being within the
limits of a start of some of them.

3. _Fishing in crowded ice or in open packs._—In navigable open
drift-ice, or amongst small detached streams and patches, either
of which serve in a degree to break the force of the sea, and to
prevent any considerable swell from arising, we have a situation
which is considered as one of the best possible for conducting the
fishery in; consequently, it comes under the same denomination as
those favourable situations in which I have first attempted to
describe the proceedings of the fishers in killing the whale. But
the situation I now mean to refer to is when the ice is crowded
and nearly close, so close, indeed, that it scarcely affords room
for boats to pass through it, and by no means sufficient space for
a ship to be navigated among it. This kind of situation occurs
in somewhat open packs, or in large patches of crowded ice, and
affords a fair probability of capturing a whale, though it is seldom
accomplished without a considerable deal of trouble. When the ice
is very crowded, and the ship cannot sail into it with propriety,
it is usual, especially with foreigners, to seek out for a mooring
to some mass of ice, if such can be found, extending two or three
fathoms or more under water. A piece of ice of this kind is capable
not only of holding the ship “head to wind,” but also to windward
of the smaller ice. The boats then set out in chase of any fish
which may be seen, and when one happens to be struck, they proceed
in the capture in a similar manner as when under more favourable
circumstances, excepting so far as the obstruction which the quality
and arrangement of the ice may offer to the regular system of
proceeding. Among crowded ice, for instance, the precise direction
pursued by the fish is not easily ascertained, nor can the fish
itself be readily discovered on its first arrival at the surface
after being struck, on account of the elevation of the intervening
masses of ice, and the great quantity of line it frequently takes
from the fast-boat. Success in such a situation depends on the boats
being spread widely abroad, and on a judicious arrangement of each
boat; on a keen look out on the part of the harpooners in the boats,
and on their occasionally taking the benefit of a hummock of ice,
from the elevation of which the fish may sometimes be seen blowing
in the interstices of the ice; on pushing or rowing the boats with
the greatest imaginable celerity towards the place where the fish may
have been seen; and lastly, on the exercise of the highest degree of
activity and dispatch in every proceeding.

If these be neglected, the fish will generally have taken breath,
recovered its strength, and removed to some other quarter, before
the arrival of the boats; and it is often remarked, that if there be
one part of the ice more crowded or more difficult of access than
another, it commonly retreats thither for refuge. In such cases, the
sailors find much difficulty in getting to it with their boats,
having to separate many pieces of ice before they can pass through
between them. But when it is not practicable to move the pieces, and
when they cannot travel over them, they must either drag the boats
across the intermediate ice, or perform an extensive circuit before
they can reach the opposite side of the close ice, into which the
whale has retreated.

A second harpoon in this case, as indeed in all others, is a material
point. They proceed to lance whenever the second harpoon is struck,
and strike more harpoons as the auxiliary boats progressively arrive
at the place. When the fish is killed, it is often at a distance from
the ship, and so circumstanced that the ship cannot get near it.
In such cases, the fish must be towed by the boats to the ship; an
operation which, among crowded ice, is most troublesome and laborious.

4. _Bay-ice fishing._—Bay-ice constitutes a situation which, though
not particularly dangerous, is yet, on the whole, one of the most
troublesome in which whales are killed. In sheets of bay-ice, the
whales find a very effectual shelter; for so long as the ice will
not carry a man, they cannot be approached with a boat without
producing such a noise as must certainly warn them of the intended
assault; and if a whale, by some favourable accident, were struck,
the difficulties of completing the capture are always numerous, and
sometimes prove insurmountable. The whale having free locomotion
beneath the ice, the fishers pursue it under great disadvantage.
The fishers cannot push their boats toward it but with extreme
difficulty, while the whale, invariably warned by the noise of their
approach, possesses every facility for avoiding its enemies.

In the year 1813, I adopted a new plan of fishing in bay-ice, which
was attended with the most successful result. The ship under my
command, the Esk, of Whitby, was frozen into a sheet of bay-ice,
included in a triangular space, formed by several massive fields and
floes. Here a number of small whales were seen sporting around us in
every little hole or space in the bay-ice, and occasionally they were
observed to break through it for the purpose of breathing. In various
little openings free of ice near the ship, few of which were twenty
yards in diameter, we placed boats, each equipped with a harpoon and
lines, and directed by two or three men. They had orders to place
themselves in such a situation that if a fish appeared in the same
opening they could scarcely fail of striking it. Previous to this, I
supplied myself with a pair of ice-shoes, consisting of two pieces of
thin deal, six feet in length, and seven inches in breadth. They were
made very thin at both ends, and in the centre of each was a hollow
place, exactly adapted for the reception of the sole of my boot, with
a loop of leather for confining the toes. I was thus enabled to
retain the ice-shoes pretty firmly to my feet when required, or, when
I wished it, to disengage them in a moment. Where the ice was smooth,
it was easy to move in a straight line, but in turning I found a
considerable difficulty, and required some practice before I could
effect it without falling. I advanced with tolerable speed, where
the ice was level on the surface, by sliding the shoes alternately
forward, but when I met with rough hilly places I experienced great
inconvenience. When, however, the rough places happened to consist of
strong ice, which generally was the case, I stept out of my ice-shoes
until I reached a weaker part. Equipped with this apparatus, I
travelled safely over ice which had not been frozen above twenty-four
hours, and which was incapable of supporting the weight of the
smallest boy in the ship.

Whenever a fish was struck, I gave orders to the harpooner, in
running the line, to use every means of drowning it; the trouble of
hauling it up, under the circumstances in which the ship was placed,
being a matter of no consideration. This was attempted by holding
a steady tight strain on the line, without slacking it or jerking
it unnecessarily, and by forbearing to haul the line when the fish
stopped. By this measure, one fish, the stoutest of the three which
we got, was drowned. When others were struck, and the attempt to
drown them failed, I provided myself with a harpoon, and observing
the direction of the line, travelled towards the place where I
expected the fish to rise. A small boat was launched, more leisurely,
in the same direction for my support; and whenever the ice in my
track was capable of supporting a man, assistance was afforded me
in dragging the line. When the wounded fish appeared, I struck my
harpoon through the ice, and then, with some occasional assistance,
proceeded to lance it, until it was killed. At different times, the
fish rose beneath my feet, and broke the ice on which I stood; on
one occasion, where the ice was happily more than usually strong,
I was obliged to leave my ice shoes, and skip off. In this way we
captured three fish, and took their produce on board, while several
ships near us made not the least progress in the fishery. After they
were killed, we had much trouble in getting them to the ship, but
as we could not employ ourselves to advantage in any other way, we
were well satisfied with the issue. This part of the business I could
not effect alone, and all hands, who were occasionally employed in
it, broke through the ice. Some individuals broke in two or three
times, but no serious accident ensued. As a precaution, we extended
a rope from man to man, which was held in the hands of each in their
progress across the ice, and which served for drawing those out of
the water who happened to break through. Sometimes ten or a dozen of