revolution of 1789. The hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of
philosophic disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed
themselves, under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half of
his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the
_Positivist Calendar_ (1849), in which the names of those who had
advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Gutenberg and
Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen months in this
calendar. In the years 1849, 1850 and 1851 Comte gave three courses of
lectures at the Palais Royal. They were gratuitous and popular, and in
them he boldly advanced the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct
and immediate pretensions of himself and his system. The third course
ended in the following uncompromising terms--"In the name of the Past
and of the Future, the servants of Humanity--both its philosophical and
its practical servants--come forward to claim as their due the general
direction of this world. Their object is to constitute at length a real
Providence in all departments,--moral, intellectual and material.
Consequently they exclude once for all from political supremacy all the
different servants of God--Catholic, Protestant or Deist--as being at
once behindhand and a cause of disturbance." A few weeks after this
invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute
himself a real Providence.

In 1852 Comte published the _Catechism of Positivism_. In the preface to
it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis Napoleon's _coup
d'état_ of the 2nd of December,--"a fortunate crisis which has set aside
the parliamentary system and instituted a dictatorial republic."
Whatever we may think of the political sagacity of such a judgment, it
is due to Comte to say that he did not expect to see his dictatorial
republic transformed into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did
expect from the Man of December freedom of the press and of public
meeting. His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, "the only statesman in
Christendom,"--as unlucky a judgment as that which placed Dr Francia in
the Comtist Calendar.

  Death.

In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on the 5th of
September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated by ceremonial
gatherings of his French and English followers, who then commemorate the
name and the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he
appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms at 10 rue
Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new religion of Humanity.

  Comte's philosophic consistency.

  Early writing.

In proceeding to give an Outline of Comte's system, we shall consider
the _Positive Polity_ as the more or less legitimate sequel of the
_Positive Philosophy_, notwithstanding the deep gulf which so eminent a
critic as J. S. Mill insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the
later work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest difference
in their value, and the temper is not the same, nor the method. But the
two are quite capable of being regarded, and for the purposes of an
account of Comte's career ought to be regarded, as an integral whole.
His letters when he was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had
published a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his
mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific works, if
he did not perpetually think of their utility for the species. "I feel,"
he wrote, "that such scientific reputation as I might acquire would give
more value, more weight, more useful influence to my political sermons."
In 1822 he published a _Plan of the Scientific Works necessary to
reorganize Society_. In this he points out that modern society is
passing through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two opposing
movements,--the first, a disorganizing movement owing to the break-up of
old institutions and beliefs; the second, a movement towards a definite
social state, in which all means of human prosperity will receive their
most complete development and most direct application. How is this
crisis to be dealt with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to
pass successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer to
this is that there are two series of works. The first is theoretic or
spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of co-ordinating
social relations, and the formation of the system of general ideas which
are destined to guide society. The second work is practical or temporal;
it settles the distribution of power, and the institutions that are most
conformable to the spirit of the system which has previously been
thought out in the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work
depends on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously
come first in order of execution.

In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece called
_Considerations on the Spiritual Power_--the main object of which is to
demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual power, distinct
from the temporal power and independent of it. In examining the
conditions of a spiritual power proper for modern times, he indicates in
so many terms the presence in his mind of a direct analogy between his
proposed spiritual power and the functions of the Catholic clergy at the
time of its greatest vigour and most complete independence,--that is to
say, from about the middle of the 11th century until towards the end of
the 13th. He refers to de Maistre's memorable book, _Du Pape_, as the
most profound, accurate and methodical account of the old spiritual
organization, and starts from that as the model to be adapted to the
changed intellectual and social conditions of the modern time. In the
_Positive Philosophy_, again (vol. v. p. 344), he distinctly says that
Catholicism, reconstituted as a system on new intellectual foundations,
would finally preside over the spiritual reorganization of modern
society. Much else could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of
career, then, means that Comte, from the beginning designed the
institution of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of
life, it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be
worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even the
readaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine was plainly
in his mind thirty years before the final execution of the _Positive
Polity_, though it is difficult to believe that he foresaw the religious
mysticism in which the task was to land him. A great analysis was to
precede a great synthesis, but it was the synthesis on which Comte's
vision was centred from the first. Let us first sketch the nature of the
analysis. Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What is
the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question which
Comte's first master-work professes to answer.

  Law of the Three States.

The _Positive Philosophy_ opens with the statement of a certain law of
which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always been treated both
by disciples and dissidents as the key to his system. This is the Law of
the Three States. It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions,
each branch of our knowledge, passes successively through three
different phases; there are three different ways in which the human mind
explains phenomena, each way following the other in order. These three
stages are the Theological, the Metaphysical and the Positive.
Knowledge, or a branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when
it supposes the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate
volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In the
Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force residing
in the object, yet existing independently of the object; the phenomena
are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting them; and the
properties of each substance have attributed to them an existence
distinct from that substance. In the Positive state, inherent volition
or external volition and inherent force or abstraction personified have
both disappeared from men's minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon
means a reference of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some
other phenomenon,--means the establishment of a relation between the
given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological and
Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the Positive they
are content with a law. To borrow an illustration from an able English
disciple of Comte:--"Take the phenomenon of the sleep produced by opium.
The Arabs are content to attribute it to the 'will of God.' Molière's
medical student accounts for it by a _soporific principle_ contained in
the opium. The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it
at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon the phenomena
attending the action of the drug, and classify it with other agents
analogous in character."--(_Dr Bridges._)

The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to advance the
study of society into the third of the three stages,--to remove social
phenomena from the sphere of theological and metaphysical conceptions,
and to introduce among them the same scientific observation of their
laws which has given us physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics
will consist of the conditions and relations of the facts of society,
and will have two departments,--one, statical, containing the laws of
order; the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While
men's minds were in the theological state, political events, for
example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political authority
based on divine right. In the metaphysical state of mind, then, to
retain our instance, political authority was based on the sovereignty of
the people, and social facts were explained by the figment of a falling
away from a state of nature. When the positive method has been finally
extended to society, as it has been to chemistry and physiology, these
social facts will be resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into
relations with one another, and instead of seeking causes in the old
sense of the word, men will only examine the conditions of social
existence. When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater
part, but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one
character, the character, namely, of positivity or scientificalness; and
all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be thoroughly
homogeneous. The gains of such a change are enormous. The new
philosophical unity will now in its turn regenerate all the elements
that went to its own formation. The mind will pursue knowledge without
the wasteful jar and friction of conflicting methods and mutually
hostile conceptions; education will be regenerated; and society will
reorganize itself on the only possible solid base--a homogeneous
philosophy.

  Classification of sciences.

The _Positive Philosophy_ has another object besides the demonstration
of the necessity and propriety of a science of society. This object is
to show the sciences as branches from a single trunk,--is to give to
science the ensemble or spirit or generality hitherto confined to
philosophy, and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of
science. Comte's special object is a study of social physics, a science
that before his advent was still to be formed; his second object is a
review of the methods and leading generalities of all the positive
sciences already formed, so that we may know both what system of inquiry
to follow in our new science, and also where the new science will stand
in relation to other knowledge.

The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method and
positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another cardinal
element in the Comtist system, the classification of the sciences. In
the front of the inquiry lies one main division, that, namely, between
speculative and practical knowledge. With the latter we have no concern.
Speculative or theoretic knowledge is divided into abstract and
concrete. The former is concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena
in all conceivable cases: the latter is concerned with the application
of these laws. Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract
science to events. The former is particular or descriptive; the latter
is general. Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but zoology is
concrete. Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is concrete. It is the
method and knowledge of the abstract sciences that the Positive
Philosophy has to reorganize in a great whole.

Comte's principle of classification is that the dependence and order of
scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena. Thus, as has
been said, it represents both the objective dependence of the phenomena
and the subjective dependence of our means of knowing them. The more
particular and complex phenomena depend upon the simpler and more
general. The latter are the more easy to study. Therefore science will
begin with those attributes of objects which are most general, and pass
on gradually to other attributes that are combined in greater
complexity. Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences
that precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself
constituted. Comte's series or hierarchy is arranged as follows:--(1)
Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics), (2) Astronomy,
(3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6) Sociology. Each of the
members of this series is one degree more special than the member before
it, and depends upon the facts of all the members preceding it, and
cannot be fully understood without them. It follows that the crowning
science of the hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society,
will remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and
abstract figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage.
You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society without
reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot understand the
conditions of animal life without the laws of chemistry; and so with the
rest.

  The double key of positive philosophy.

This arrangement of the sciences, and the Law of the Three States, are
together explanatory of the course of human thought and knowledge. They
are thus the double key of Comte's systematization of the philosophy of
all the sciences from mathematics to physiology, and his analysis of
social evolution, which is the base of sociology. Each science
contributes its philosophy. The co-ordination of all these partial
philosophies produces the general Positive Philosophy. "Thousands had
cultivated science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived the
philosophy which the sciences when organized would naturally evolve. A
few had seen the necessity of extending the scientific method to all
inquiries, but no one had seen how this was to be effected.... The
Positive Philosophy is novel as a philosophy, not as a collection of
truths never before suspected. Its novelty is the organization of
existing elements. Its very principle implies the absorption of all that
great thinkers had achieved; while incorporating their results it
extended their methods.... What tradition brought was the results; what
Comte brought was the organization of these results. He always claimed
to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy. That he had every right to
such a title is demonstrable to all who distinguish between the positive
sciences and the philosophy which co-ordinated the truths and methods of
these sciences into a doctrine."--_G. H. Lewes._

  Criticism on Comte's classification.

Comte's classification of the sciences has been subjected to a vigorous
criticism by Herbert Spencer. Spencer's two chief points are these:--(1)
He denies that the principle of the development of the sciences is the
principle of decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as many
examples of the advent of a science being determined by increasing
generality as by increasing speciality. (2) He holds that any grouping
of the sciences in a succession gives a radically wrong idea of their
genesis and their interdependence; no true filiation exists; no science
develops itself in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or
historically. Littré, by far the most eminent of the scientific
followers of Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer's objections,
and makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in
consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the Comtist theory of
the sciences. J. S. Mill, while admitting the objections as good, if
Comte's arrangement pretended to be the only one possible, still holds
the arrangement as tenable for the purpose with which it was devised. G.
H. Lewes asserts against Spencer that the arrangement in a series is
necessary, on grounds similar to those which require that the various
truths constituting a science should be systematically co-ordinated
although in nature the phenomena are intermingled.

The first three volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_ contain an
exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that precede
sociology in the hierarchy. Their value has usually been placed very low
by the special followers of the sciences concerned; they say that the
knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and is too confidently taken
for final. The Comtist replies that the task is philosophic; and is not
to be judged by the minute accuracies of science. In these three volumes
Comte took the sciences roughly as he found them. His eminence as a man
of science must be measured by his only original work in that
department,--the construction, namely, of the new science of society.
This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of the _Positive
Philosophy_, and the second and third volumes of the _Positive Polity_.
The Comtist maintains that even if these five volumes together fail in
laying down correctly and finally the lines of the new science, still
they are the first solution of a great problem hitherto unattempted.
"Modern biology has got beyond Aristotle's conception; but in the
construction of the biological science, not even the most
unphilosophical biologist would fail to recognize the value of
Aristotle's attempt. So for sociology. Subsequent sociologists may have
conceivably to remodel the whole science, yet not the less will they
recognize the merit of the first work which has facilitated their
labours."--_Congreve._

  Sociological conceptions.

  Method.

We shall now briefly describe Comte's principal conceptions in
sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by
others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz. Of course
the first step was to approach the phenomena of human character and
social existence with the expectation of finding them as reducible to
general laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope
of exploring these laws by the same instruments of observation and
verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the latter.
Comte separates the collective facts of society and history from the
individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws these collective
facts from the region of external volition, and places them in the
region of law. The facts of history must be explained, not by
providential interventions, but by referring them to conditions inherent
in the successive stages of social existence. This conception makes a
science of society possible. What is the method? It comprises, besides
observation and experiment (which is, in fact, only the observation of
abnormal social states), a certain peculiarity of verification. We begin
by deducing every well-known historical situation from the series of its
antecedents. Thus we acquire a body of empirical generalizations as to
social phenomena, and then we connect the generalizations with the
positive theory of human nature. A sociological demonstration lies in
the establishment of an accordance between the conclusions of historical
analysis and the preparatory conceptions of biological theory. As Mill
puts it:--"If a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence,
contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to use M.
Comte's instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any very decided
natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction; if it supposes
that the reason, in average human beings, predominates over the desires,
or the disinterested desires over the personal,--we may know that
history has been misinterpreted, and that the theory is false. On the
other hand, if laws of social phenomena, empirically generalized from
history, can, when once suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of
human nature; if the direction actually taken by the developments and
changes of human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of
man and of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical
generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology becomes a
science." The result of this method, is an exhibition of the events of
human experience in co-ordinated series that manifest their own
graduated connexion.

Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known best to
that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social states, it
is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access to the observer
than its parts, therefore we must consider and pursue all the elements
of a given social state together and in common. The social organization
must be viewed and explored as a whole. There is a nexus between each
leading group of social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is
a change in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding
modification of all the rest. "Not only must political institutions and
social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on the other, be
always mutually connected; but further, this consolidated whole must be
always connected by its nature with the corresponding state of the
integral development of humanity, considered in all its aspects of
intellectual, moral and physical activity."--_Comte._

  Decisive Importance of Intellectual development.

Is there any one element which communicates the decisive impulse to all
the rest,--any predominating agency in the course of social evolution?
The answer is that all the other parts of social existence are
associated with, and drawn along by, the contemporary condition of
intellectual development. The Reason is the superior and preponderant
element which settles the direction in which all the other faculties
shall expand. "It is only through the more and more marked influence of
the reason over the general conduct of man and of society, that the
gradual march of our race has attained that regularity and persevering
continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and
barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share, and
with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even the
primary sentiments of man." The history of intellectual development,
therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key to the history of
intellectual development is the Law of the Three States.

Among other central thoughts in Comte's explanation of history are
these:--The displacement of theological by positive conceptions has been
accompanied by a gradual rise of an industrial régime out of the
military régime;--the great permanent contribution of Catholicism was
the separation which it set up between the temporal and the spiritual
powers;--the progress of the race consists in the increasing
preponderance of the distinctively human elements over the animal
elements;--the absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be
replaced by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and
from this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has
been as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity
and its environment would allow.

The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the
civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race occupies two
of the volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_, and has been accepted by
very different schools as a masterpiece of rich, luminous, and
far-reaching suggestion. Whatever additions it may receive, and whatever
corrections it may require, this analysis of social evolution will
continue to be regarded as one of the great achievements of human
intellect.

  Social dynamics in the Positive Polity.

The third volume of the _Positive Polity_ treats of social dynamics, and
takes us again over the ground of historic evolution. It abounds with
remarks of extraordinary fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is
often arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into coherence
with the statical views of the preceding volume. As it was composed in
rather less than six months, and as the author honestly warns us that he
has given all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, instead of
working out the special explanations more fully, as he had promised, we
need not be surprised if the result is disappointing to those who had
mastered the corresponding portion of the _Positive Philosophy_. Comte
explains the difference between his two works. In the first his "chief
object was to discover and demonstrate the laws of progress, and to
exhibit in one unbroken sequence the collective destinies of mankind,
till then invariably regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the
reach of explanation, and almost depending on arbitrary will. The
present work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already
sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and
desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive system."

  The Positivist system.

  The Religion of humanity.

The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from the _Positive
Polity_ and from two other works,--the _Positivist Catechism: a Summary
Exposition of the Universal Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a
Woman and a Priest of Humanity_; and, second, _The Subjective Synthesis_
(1856), which is the first and only volume of a work upon mathematics
announced at the end of the _Positive Philosophy_. The system for which
the _Positive Philosophy_ is alleged to have been the scientific
preparation contains a Polity and a Religion; a complete arrangement of
life in all its aspects, giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and
Feeling than could be found in any of the previous organic
types,--Greek, Roman or Catholic-feudal. Comte's immense superiority
over such prae-Revolutionary utopians as the Abbé Saint Pierre, no less
than over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially
visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improvement of
the social organism can only be effected by a moral development, and
never by any changes in mere political mechanism, or any violences in
the way of an artificial redistribution of wealth. A moral
transformation must precede any real advance. The aim, both in public
and private life, is to secure to the utmost possible extent the
victory of the social feeling over self-love, or Altruism over
Egoism.[1] This is the key to the regeneration of social existence, as
it is the key to that unity of individual life which makes all our
energies converge freely and without wasteful friction towards a common
end. What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of
Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element in human
nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under the Catholic
system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the Intellect was made
its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect against Sentiment. The
business of the new system will be to bring back the Intellect into a
condition, not of slavery, but of willing ministry to the Feelings. The
subordination never was, and never will be, effected except by means of
a religion, and a religion, to be final, must include a harmonious
synthesis of all our conceptions of the external order of the universe.
The characteristic basis of a religion is the existence of a Power
without us, so superior to ourselves as to command the complete
submission of our whole life. This basis is to be found in the Positive
stage, in Humanity, past, present and to come, conceived as the Great
Being.

  "A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at length
  the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose destiny it
  is to bring that order continually to perfection by constantly
  conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to us that
  system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the supreme dispenser
  of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common centre of
  our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. Although this Great
  Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even of any
  collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its peculiar
  function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its servants.
  The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire to maintain
  and even to improve this Being. This natural object of all our
  activity, both public and private, determines the true general
  character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling or in
  thought; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order rightly
  to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which it
  furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued service, whilst
  strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and
  better."

  Remarks on the religion.

The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the Supreme Being
under monotheistic systems made all the rest of Comte's construction
easy enough. Utility remains the test of every institution, impulse,
act; his fabric becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian
propositions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top to keep
them in their place. The Comtist system is utilitarianism crowned by a
fantastic decoration. Translated into the plainest English, the position
is as follows: "Society can only be regenerated by the greater
subordination of politics to morals, by the moralization of capital, by
the renovation of the family, by a higher conception of marriage and so
on. These ends can only be reached by a heartier development of the
sympathetic instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed
by the Religion of Humanity." Looking at the problem in this way, even a
moralist who does not expect theology to be the instrument of social
revival, might still ask whether the sympathetic instincts will not
necessarily be already developed to their highest point, before people
will be persuaded to accept the religion, which is at the bottom hardly
more than sympathy under a more imposing name. However that may be, the
whole battle--into which we shall not enter--as to the legitimateness of
Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity into a Being.
The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to the family, to capital,
&c., are merely propositions measurable by considerations of utility and
a balance of expediencies. Many of these proposals are of the highest
interest, and many of them are actually available; but there does not
seem to be one of them of an available kind, which could not equally
well be approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some
radically antagonistic system. Adoption, for example, as a practice for
improving the happiness of families and the welfare of society, is
capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be weighed, by
utilitarian considerations, and has been commended by men to whom the
Comtist religion is naught. The singularity of Comte's construction, and
the test by which it must be tried, is the transfer of the worship and
discipline of Catholicism to a system in which "the conception of God is
superseded" by the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of
Personality.

And when all is said, the invention does not help us. We have still to
settle what _is_ for the good of Humanity, and we can only do that in
the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the conception. No
effective unity can follow from it, because you can only find out the
right and wrong of a given course by summing up the advantages and
disadvantages, and striking a balance, and there is nothing in the
Religion of Humanity to force two men to find the balance on the same
side. The Comtists are no better off than other utilitarians in judging
policy, events, conduct.

  The worship and discipline.

The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly ingenious
re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs, down even to the
invocation of a New Trinity, need not detain us. They are said, though
it is not easy to believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. If
so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style so little
calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings, to soothe the
insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to present a great body of
hypotheses--if Comte meant them for hypotheses--in the most dogmatic and
peremptory form to which language can lend itself. And there is no more
extraordinary thing in the history of opinion than the perversity with
which Comte has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so
intrinsically conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little
sympathy and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism as
Catholicism _minus_ Christianity, to which an able champion retorted by
calling it Catholicism _plus_ Science. Comte's Utopia has pleased the
followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of the scientific,
spirit.

  The priesthood.

The elaborate and minute systematization of life, proper to the religion
of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood. The priests are to
possess neither wealth nor material power; they are not to command, but
to counsel; their authority is to rest on persuasion, not on force. When
religion has become positive, and society industrial, then the influence
of the church upon the state becomes really free and independent, which
was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood rests
upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this intellectual
eminence must also be added moral power and a certain greatness of
character, without which force of intellect and completeness of
attainment will not receive the confidence they ought to inspire. The
functions of the priesthood are of this kind:--To exercise a systematic
direction over education; to hold a consultative influence over all the
important acts of actual life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases
of practical conflict; to preach sermons recalling those principles of
generality and universal harmony which our special activities dispose us
to ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform the
various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion. The
authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary adhesion, and
there is to be perfect freedom of speech and discussion. This provision
hardly consists with Comte's congratulations to the tsar Nicholas on the
"wise vigilance" with which he kept watch over the importation of
Western books.

  Women.

From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully impressed by the
necessity of elevating the condition of women. (See remarkable passage
in his letters to M. Valat, pp. 84-87.) His friendship with Madame de
Vaux had deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society women
are to play a highly important part. They are to be carefully excluded
from public action, but they are to do many more important things than
things political. To fit them for their functions, they are to be raised
above material cares, and they are to be thoroughly educated. The
family, which is so important an element of the Comtist scheme of
things, exists to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest
point of cultivation. Through affection she purifies the activity of
man. "Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both the
intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination to
feeling, women are formed as the natural intermediaries between Humanity
and man. The Great Being confides specially to them its moral
Providence, maintaining through them the direct and constant cultivation
of universal affection, in the midst of all the distractions of thought
or action, which are for ever withdrawing men from its influence....
Beside the uniform influence of every woman on every man, to attach him
to Humanity, such is the importance and the difficulty of this ministry
that each of us should be placed under the special guidance of one of
these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to the Great Being. This
moral guardianship may assume three types,--the mother, the wife and the
daughter; each having several modifications, as shown in the concluding
volume. Together they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or
unity with contemporaries,--obedience, union and protection--as well as
the three degrees of continuity between ages, by uniting us with the
past, the present and the future. In accordance with my theory of the
brain, each corresponds with one of our three altruistic
instincts--veneration, attachment and benevolence."

  Conclusion.

How the positive method of observation and verification of real facts
has landed us in this, and much else of the same kind, is extremely hard
to guess. Seriously to examine an encyclopaedic system, that touches
life, society and knowledge at every point, is evidently beyond the
compass of such an article as this. There is in every chapter a whole
group of speculative suggestions, each of which would need a long
chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is at least one
biological speculation of astounding audacity, that could be examined in
nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps we have said enough to show that
after performing a great and real service to thought Comte almost
sacrificed his claims to gratitude by the invention of a system that, as
such, and independently of detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde.
But the world will take what is available in Comte, while forgetting
that in his work which is as irrational in one way as Hegel is in
another.

  See also the article POSITIVISM.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works, Editions and Translations: Cours de philosophie
  positive_ (6 vols., Paris, 1830-1842; 2nd ed. with preface by E.
  Littré, Paris, 1864; 5th ed., 1893-1894; Eng. trans. Harriet
  Martineau, 2 vols., London, 1853; 3 vols. London and New York, 1896);
  _Discours sur l'esprit positif_ (Paris, 1844; Eng. trans. with
  explanation E. S. Beesley, 1905); _Ordre et progrès_ (ib. 1848);
  _Discours sur l'ensemble de positivisme_ (1848, Eng. trans. J. H.
  Bridges, London, 1852); _Système de politique positive, ou Traité de
  sociologie_ (4 vols., Paris, 1852-1854; ed. 1898; Eng. trans. with
  analysis and explanatory summary by Bridges, F. Harrison, E. S.
  Beesley and others, 1875-1879); _Catéchisme positiviste_ (Paris, 1852;
  3rd ed., 1890; Eng. trans. R. Congreve, Lond. 1858, 3rd ed., 1891);
  _Appel aux Conservateurs_ (Paris, 1855 and 1898); _Synthèse
  subjective_ (1856 and 1878); _Essai de philos. mathématique_ (Paris,
  1878); P. Descours and H. Gordon Jones, _Fundamental Principles of
  Positive Philos._ (trans. 1905), with biog. preface by E. S. Beesley.
  The Letters of Comte have been published as follows:--the letters to
  M. Valat and J. S. Mill, in _La Critique philosophique_ (1877);
  correspondence with Mde. de Vaux (ib., 1884); _Correspondance inédite
  d'Aug. Comte_ (1903 foll.); _Lettres inédites de J. S. Mill à Aug.
  Comte publ. avec les résponses de Comte_ (1899).

  _Criticism._--J. S. Mill, _Auguste Comte and Positivism_; J. H.
  Bridges' reply to Mill, _The Unity of Comte's Life and Doctrines_
  (1866); Herbert Spencer's essay on the _Genesis of Science_ and
  pamphlet on _The Classification of the Sciences_; Huxley's "Scientific
  Aspects of Positivism," in his _Lay Sermons_; R. Congreve, _Essays
  Political, Social and Religious_ (1874); J. Fiske, _Outlines of Cosmic
  Philosophy_ (1874); G. H. Lewes, _History of Philosophy_, vol. ii.;
  Edward Caird, _The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_ (Glasgow,
  1885); Hermann Gruber, _Aug. Comte der Begründer des Positivismus.
  Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (Freiburg, 1889) and _Der Positivismus vom
  Tode Aug. Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, 1857-1891_ (Freib. 1891); L.
  Lévy-Bruhl, _La Philosophie d'Aug. Comte_ (Paris, 1900); H. D. Hutton,
  _Comte's Theory of Man's Future_ (1877), _Comte, the Man and the
  Founder_ (1891), _Comte's Life and Work_ (1892); E. de Roberty, _Aug.
  Comte et Herbert Spencer_ (Paris, 1894); J. Watson, _Comte, Mill and
  Spencer. An outline of Philos._ (1895 and 1899); Millet, _La
  Souveraineté d'après Aug. Comte_ (1905); L. de Montesquieu Fezensac,
  _Le Système politique d'Aug. Comte_ (1907); G. Dumas, _Psychologie de
  deux Messies positivistes_ (1905).     (J. Mo.; X.)

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] For Comte's place in the history of ethical theory see ETHICS.

COMUS (from [Greek: kômos], revel, or a company of revellers), in the
later mythology of the Greeks, the god of festive mirth. In classic
mythology the personification does not exist; but Comus appears in the
[Greek: Eikónes], or _Descriptions of Pictures_, of Philostratus, a
writer of the 3rd century A.D. as a winged youth, slumbering in a
standing attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with wine,
his head--which is sunk upon his breast--crowned with dewy flowers, his
left hand feebly grasping a hunting spear, his right an inverted torch.
Ben Jonson introduces Comus, in his masque entitled _Pleasure reconciled
to Virtue_ (1619), as the portly jovial patron of good cheer, "First
father of sauce and deviser of jelly." In the _Comus, sive Phagesiposia
Cimmeria; Somnium_ (1608, and at Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a
Dutch author, Hendrik van der Putten, or Erycius Puteanus, the
conception is more nearly akin to Milton's, and Comus is a being whose
enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of Jonson's
deity. But Milton's Comus is a creation of his own. His story is one

  "Which never yet was heard in tale or song
   From old or modern bard, in hall or bower."

Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is "much like his father,
but his mother more"--a sorcerer, like her, who gives to travellers a
magic draught that changes their human face into the "brutal form of
some wild beast," and, hiding from them their own foul disfigurement,
makes them forget all the pure ties of life, "to roll with pleasure in a
sensual sty."

COMYN, JOHN (d. c. 1300), Scottish baron, was a son of John Comyn (d.
1274), justiciar of Galloway, who was a nephew of the constable of
Scotland, Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1289), and of the powerful
and wealthy Walter Comyn, earl of Mentieth (d. 1258). With his uncle the
earl of Buchan, the elder Comyn took a prominent part in the affairs of
Scotland during the latter part of the 13th century, and he had
interests and estates in England as well as in his native land. He
fought for Henry III. at Northampton and at Lewes, and was afterwards
imprisoned for a short time in London. The younger Comyn, who had
inherited the lordship of Badenoch from his great-uncle the earl of
Mentieth, was appointed one of the guardians of Scotland in 1286, and
shared in the negotiations between Edward I. and the Scots in 1289 and
1290. When Margaret, the Maid of Norway, died in 1290, Comyn was one of
the claimants for the Scottish throne, but he did not press his
candidature, and like the other Comyns urged the claim of John de
Baliol. After supporting Baliol in his rising against Edward I., Comyn
submitted to the English king in 1296; he was sent to reside in England,
but returned to Scotland shortly before his death.

Comyn's son, JOHN COMYN (d. 1306), called the "red Comyn," is more
famous. Like his father he assisted Baliol in his rising against Edward
I., and he was for some time a hostage in England. Having been made
guardian of Scotland after the battle of Falkirk in 1298 he led the
resistance to the English king for about five years, and then early in
1304 made an honourable surrender. Comyn is chiefly known for his
memorable quarrel with Robert the Bruce. The origin of the dispute is
uncertain. Doubtless the two regarded each other as rivals; Comyn may
have refused to join in the insurrection planned by Bruce. At all events
the pair met at Dumfries in January 1306; during a heated altercation
charges of treachery were made, and Comyn was stabbed to death either by
Bruce or by his followers.

Another member of the Comyn family who took an active part in Scottish
affairs during these troubled times is JOHN COMYN, earl of Buchan (d. c.
1313). This earl, a son of Earl Alexander, was constable of Scotland,
and was first an ally and then an enemy of Robert the Bruce.

CONACRE (a corruption of corn-acre), in Ireland, a system of letting
land, mostly in small patches, and usually for the growth of potatoes as
a kind of return instead of wages. It is now practically obsolete.

CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1802-1891), American Biblical scholar, was
born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 13th of December 1802. Graduating at
Middlebury College in 1823, he became tutor in the Columbian University
(now George Washington University) from 1825 to 1827, professor of
Greek, Latin and German at Waterville College (now Colby College) from
1827 to 1833, professor of biblical literature and criticism in Hamilton
(New York) Theological Institute from 1835 to 1851, and professor of
Hebrew and of Biblical exegesis in Rochester Theological Seminary from
1851 to 1857. From 1857 to 1875 he was employed by the American Bible
Union on the revision of the New Testament (1871). He married in 1830
Hannah O'Brien Chaplin (1809-1865), who was herself the author of _The
Earnest Man_, a biography of Adoniram Judson (1855), and of _The History
of the English Bible_ (1859), besides being her husband's able assistant
in his Hebrew studies. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the 30th of
April 1891. Conant was the foremost Hebrew scholar of his time in
America. His treatise, _The Meaning and Use of "Baptizein"
Philologically and Historically Investigated_ (1860), an "appendix to
the revised version of the Gospel by Matthew," is a valuable summary of
the evidence for Baptist doctrine. He translated and edited Gesenius's
_Hebrew Grammar_ (1839; 1877), and published revised versions with notes
of _Job_ (1856), _Genesis_ (1868), _Psalms_ (1871), _Proverbs_ (1872),
_Isaiah_ i.-xiii. 22 (1874), and _Historical Books of the Old Testament,
Joshua to II. Kings_ (1884).

CONATION (from Lat. _conari_, to attempt, strive), a psychological term,
originally chosen by Sir William Hamilton (_Lectures on Metaphysics_,
pp. 127 foll.), used generally of an attitude of mind involving a
tendency to take _action_, e.g. when one decides to remove an object
which is causing a painful sensation, or to try to interrupt an
unpleasant train of thought. This use of the word tends to lay emphasis
on the mind as self-determined in relation to external objects. Another
less common use of the word is to describe the pleasant or painful
sensations which accompany muscular activity; the _conative_ phenomena,
thus regarded, are psychic changes brought about by external causes.

The chief difficulty in connexion with Conation is that of
distinguishing it from Feeling, a term of very vague significance both
in technical and in common usage. Thus the German psychologist F.
Brentano holds that no real distinction can be made. He argues that the
mental process from sorrow or dissatisfaction, through hope for a change
and courage to act, up to the voluntary determination which issues in
action, is a single homogeneous whole (_Psychologie_, pp. 308-309). The
mere fact, however, that the series is continuous is no ground for not
distinguishing its parts; if it were so, it would be impossible to
distinguish by separate names the various colours in the solar spectrum,
or indeed perception from conception. A more material objection,
moreover, is that, in point of fact, the feeling of pleasure or pain
roused by a given stimulus is specifically different from, and indeed
may not be followed by, the determination to modify or remove it.
Pleasure and pain, i.e. hedonic sensation _per se_, are essentially
distinct from appetition and aversion; the pleasures of hearing music or
enjoying sunshine are not in general accompanied by any volitional
activity. It is true that painful sensations are generally accompanied
by definite aversion or a tendency to take action, but the cases of
positive pleasure are amply sufficient to support a distinction.
Therefore, though in ordinary language such phrases as "feeling
aversion" are quite legitimate, accurate psychology compels us to
confine "feeling" to states of consciousness in which no conative
activity is present, i.e. to the psychic phenomena of pleasure or pain
considered in and by themselves. The study of such phenomena is
specifically described as Hedonics (Gr. [Greek: hêdonê], pleasure) or
Algedonics (Gr. [Greek: algêdôn], pain); the latter term was coined by
H. R. Marshall (in _Pain, Pleasure and Aesthetics_, 1894), but has not
been generally used.

The problem of conation is closely related to that of Attention (q.v.),
which indeed, regarded as active consciousness, implies conation (G. T.
Ladd, _Psychology_, 1894, p. 213). Thus, whenever the mind deliberately
focusses itself upon a particular object, there is implied a psychic
effort (for the relation between Attention and Conation, see G. F.
Stout, _Analytic Psychology_, book i. chap. vi.). All conscious action,
and in a less degree even unconscious or reflex action, implies
attention; when the mind "attends" to any given external object, the
organ through the medium of which information regarding that object is
conveyed to the mind is set in motion. (See PSYCHOLOGY.)

CONCA, SEBASTIANO (1679-1764), Italian painter of the Florentine school,
was born at Gaeta, and studied at Naples under Francesco Solimena. In
1706, along with his brother Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he
settled at Rome, where for several years he worked in chalk only, to
improve his drawing. He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who
introduced him to Clement XI.; and a Jeremiah painted in the church of
St John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with knighthood and by the
cardinal with a diamond cross. His fame grew quickly, and he received
the patronage of most of the crowned heads of Europe. He painted till
near the day of his death, and left behind him an immense number of
pictures, mostly of a brilliant and showy kind, which are distributed
among the churches of Italy. Of these the Probatica, or Pool of Siloam,
in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered the
finest.

CONCARNEAU, a fishing port of western France in the department of
Finistère, 14 m. by road S.E. of Quimper. Pop. (1906) 7887. The town
occupies a picturesque situation on an inlet opening into the Bay of La
Forêt. The old portion stands on an island, and is surrounded by
ramparts, parts of which are believed to date from the 14th century. It
is an important centre of the sardine, mackerel and lobster fisheries.
Sardine-preserving, boat-building and the manufacture of sardine-boxes
are carried on.

CONCEPCIÓN, a province of southern Chile, lying between the provinces of
Maule and Ñuble on the N. and Bio-Bio on the S., and extending from the
Pacific to the Argentine boundary. Its outline is very irregular, the
Itata river forming its northern boundary, and the Bio-Bio and one of
its tributaries a part of its southern boundary. Area (estimated) 3252
sq. m.; pop. (1895) 188,190. Concepción is the most important province
of southern Chile because of its advantageous commercial position,
fertility and productive industries. Its coast is indented by two large
well-sheltered bays, Talcahuano and Arauco, the former having the ports
of Talcahuano, Penco and El Tomé, and the latter Coronel and Lota. Its
railway communications are good, and the Bio-Bio, which crosses its S.W.
corner, has 100 m. of navigable channel. The province produces wheat and
manufactures flour for export; its wines are reputed the best in Chile,
cattle are bred in large numbers, wool is produced, and considerable
timber is shipped. Near the coast are extensive deposits of coal, which
is shipped from Lota and Coronel, the former being the site of the most
productive coal-mine in South America. The climate is mild and the
rainfall is abundant. Large copper-smelting and glass works have been
established at Lota because of its coal resources. The valley of the
Itata is largely devoted to vine cultivation, and the port of this
district, El Tomé, is noted for its wine vaults and trade. It also
possesses a small woollen factory. The principal towns are on the coast
and had in 1895 the following populations: Talcahuano, 10,431; Lota,
9797 (largely operatives in the mines and smelting works); Coronel,
4575; and El Tomé, 3977.

CONCEPCIÓN, a city of southern Chile, capital of a province and
department of the same name, on the right bank of the Bio-Bio river, 7
m. above its mouth, and 355 m. S.S.W. of Santiago by rail. Pop. (1895)
39,837; (1902, estimated) 49,351. It is the commercial centre of a rich
agricultural region, but because of obstructions at the mouth of the
Bio-Bio its trade passes in great part through the port of Talcahuano, 8
m. distant by rail. The small port of Penco, situated on the same bay
and 10 m. distant by rail, also receives a part of the trade because of
official restrictions at Talcahuano. Concepción is one of the southern
termini of the Chilean central railway, by which it is connected with
Santiago to the N., with Valdivia and Puerto Montt to the S., and with
the port of Talcahuano. Another line extends southward through the
Chilean coal-producing districts to Curanilhué, crossing the Bio-Bio by
a steel viaduct 6000 ft. long on 62 skeleton piers; and a short line of
10 m. runs northward to Penco. The Bio-Bio is navigable above the city
for 100 m. and considerable traffic comes through this channel. The
districts tributary to Concepción produce wheat, wine, wool, cattle,
coal and timber, and among the industrial establishments of the city are
flour mills, furniture and carriage factories, distilleries and
breweries. The city is built on a level plain but little above the
sea-level, and is laid out in regular squares with broad streets. It is
an episcopal see with a cathedral and several fine churches, and is the
seat of a court of appeal. The city was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in
1550, and received the singular title of "La Concepción del Nuevo
Extremo." It was located on the bay of Talcahuano where the town of
Penco now stands, about 9 m. from its present site, but was destroyed by
earthquakes in 1570, 1730 and 1751, and was then (1755) removed to the
margin of the Bio-Bio. In 1835 it was again laid in ruins, a graphic
description of which is given by Charles Darwin in _The Voyage of H.M.S.
Beagle_. The city was twice burned by the Araucanians during their long
struggle against the Spanish colonists.

CONCEPCIÓN, or VILLA CONCEPCIÓN, the principal town and a river port of
northern Paraguay, on the Paraguay river, 138 m. (234 m. by river) N. of
Asunción, and about 345 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1895, estimate)
10,000, largely Indians and mestizos. It is an important commercial
centre, and a port of call for the river steamers trading with the
Brazilian town of Corumbá, Matto Grosso. It is the principal point for
the exportation of Paraguay tea, or "yerba maté" (_Ilex paraguayensis_).
The town has a street railway and telephone service, a national college,
a public school, a market, and some important commercial establishments.
The neighbouring country is sparsely settled and produces little except
forest products. Across the river, in the Paraguayan Chaco, is an
English missionary station, whose territory extends inland among the
Indians for many miles.

CONCEPT[1] (Lat. _conceptus_, a thought, from _concipere_, to take
together, combine in thought; Ger. _Begriff_), in philosophy, a term
applied to a general idea derived from and considered apart from the
particulars observed by the senses. The mental process by which this
idea is obtained is called abstraction (q.v.). By the comparison, for
instance, of a number of boats, the mind abstracts a certain common
quality or qualities in virtue of which the mind affirms the general
idea of "boat." Thus the connotation of the term "boat," being the sum
of those qualities in respect of which all boats are regarded as alike,
whatever their individual peculiarities may be, is described as a
"concept." The psychic process by which a concept is affirmed is called
"Conception," a term which is often loosely used in a concrete sense for
"Concept" itself. It is also used even more loosely as synonymous in the
widest sense with "idea," "notion." Strictly, however, it is contrasted
with "perception," and implies the mental reconstruction and combination
of sense-given data. Thus when one carries one's thoughts back to a
series of events, one constructs a psychic whole made up of parts which
take definite shape and character by their mutual interrelations. This
process is called _conceptual synthesis_, the possibility of which is a
_sine qua non_ for the exchange of information by speech and writing. It
should be noticed that this (very common) psychological interpretation
of "conception" differs from the metaphysical or general philosophical
definition given above, in so far as it includes mental presentations in
which the universal is not specifically distinguished from the
particulars. Some psychologists prefer to restrict the term to the
narrower use which excludes all mental states in which particulars are
cognized, even though the universal be present also.

In biology conception is the coalescence of the male and female
generative elements, producing pregnancy.

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] The word "conceit" in its various senses ("idea," "plan," "fancy,"
    "imagination," and, by modern extension, an overweening sense of one's
    own value) is likewise derived ultimately from the Latin _concipere_.
    It appears to have been formed directly from the English derivative
    "conceive" on the analogy of "deceit" from "deceive." According to the
    _New English Dictionary_ there is no intermediate form in Old French.

CONCEPTUALISM (from "Concept"), in philosophy, a term applied by modern
writers to a scholastic theory of the nature of universals, to
distinguish it from the two extremes of Nominalism and Realism. The
scholastic philosophers took up the old Greek problem as to the nature
of true reality--whether the general idea or the particular object is
more truly real. Between Realism which asserts that the _genus_ is more
real than the _species_, and that particulars have no reality, and
Nominalism according to which _genus_ and _species_ are merely names
(_nomina, flatus vocis_), Conceptualism takes a mean position. The
conceptualist holds that universals have a real existence, but only in
the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things: e.g. there
is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by reference to which
the mind can decide whether a given object is, or is not, a boat. On the
one hand "boat" is something more than a mere sound with a purely
arbitrary conventional significance; on the other it has, apart from
particular things to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely
abstract or conceptual. This theory was enunciated by Abelard in
opposition to Roscellinus (nominalist) and William of Champeaux
(realist). He held that it is only by becoming a predicate that the
class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity
(_conformitas_) is observed to exist between a number of objects in
respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality becomes real
as a mental concept when it is predicated of all the objects possessing
it ("quod de pluribus natum est praedicari"). Hence Abelard's theory is
alternatively known as Sermonism (_sermo_, "predicate"). His statement
of this position oscillates markedly, inclining sometimes towards the
nominalist, sometimes towards the realist statement, using the arguments
of the one against the other. Hence he is described by some as a
realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain that
objective similarity in things which is represented by the class-concept
or general term, he adopts the theological Platonic view that the ideas
which are the archetypes of the qualities exist in the mind of God. They
are, therefore, _ante rem, in re_ and _post rem_, or, as Avicenna stated
it, _universalia ante multiplicitatem, in multiplicitate, post
multiplicitatem_. (See LOGIC, METAPHYSICS.)

CONCERT (through the French from Lat. CON-, with, and _certare_, to
strive), a term meaning, in general, co-operation, agreement or union;
the more specific usages being, in music, for a public performance by
instrumentalists, vocalists or both combined, and in diplomacy, for an
understanding or agreement for common action between two or more states,
whether defined by treaty or not. The term "Concert of Europe" has been
commonly applied, since the congress of Vienna (1814-1815), to the
European powers consulting or acting together in questions of common
interest. (See ALLIANCE and EUROPE: _HISTORY_.)

CONCERTINA, or MELODION (Fr. _concertina_, Ger. _Ziehharmonica_ or
_Bandoneon_), a wind instrument of the seraphine family with free reeds,
forming a link in the evolution of the harmonium from the mouth organ,
intermediate links being the cheng and the accordion. The concertina
consists of two hexagonal or rectangular keyboards connected by a long
expansible bellows of many folds similar to that of the accordion. The
keyboards are furnished with rows of knobs, which, on being pressed down
by the fingers, open valves admitting the air compressed by the bellows
to the free reeds, which are thus set in vibration. These free reeds
consist of narrow tongues of brass riveted by one end to the inside
surface of the keyboard, and having their free ends slightly bent, some
outwards, some inwards, the former actuated by suction when the bellows
are expanded, the latter by compression. The pitch of the note depends
upon the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length
tending to sharpen the pitch of the note, while reduction of the
thickness lowers it. The bellows being unprovided with a valve can only
draw in and emit the air through the reed valves. In order to produce
the sound, the concertina is held horizontally between the hands, the
bellows being by turns compressed and expanded. The English concertina,
invented and patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1829, the year of the
reputed invention of the accordion (q.v.), is constructed with a double
action, the same note being produced on compressing and expanding the
bellows, whereas in the German concertina or accordion two different
notes are given out. Concertinas are made in complete families--treble,
tenor, bass and double bass, having a combined total range of nearly
seven octaves. The compass is as follows:--

[Illustration: Treble concertina, double action]

[Illustration: Tenor concertina, single action]

[Illustration: Bass concertina, single action]

[Illustration: Double bass concertina, single action]

The timbre of the concertina is penetrating but soft, and capable of the
most delicate gradations of tone. This quality is due to a law of
acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds by means of which
_fortes_ and _pianos_ are obtained by varying the pressure of the wind,
as is also the case with the double reed or the single or beating reed,
while the pressure of the reed with the lips combined with greater
pressure of wind produces the harmonic overtones which are not given out
by free reeds. The English concertina possesses one peculiarity which
renders it unsuitable for playing with instruments tuned according to
the law of equal temperament, such as the pianoforte, harmonium or
melodion, i.e. it has enharmonic intervals between G# and A# and between
D[flat] and E[flat]. The German concertina is not constructed according
to this system; its compass extends down to C or even B[flat], but it is
not provided with double action. It is possible on the English
concertina to play diatonic and chromatic passages or arpeggios in
legato or staccato style with rapidity, shakes single and double in
thirds; it is also possible to play in parts as on the pianoforte or
organ and to produce very rich chords. Concertos were written for
concertina with orchestra by Molique and Regondi, a sonata with piano by
Molique, while Tschaikowsky scored in his second orchestral suite for
four accordions.

The aeola, constructed by the representatives of the original firm of
Wheatstone, is a still more artistically developed concertina, having
among other improvements steel reeds instead of brass, which increase
the purity and delicacy of the timbre.

  See also ACCORDION; CHENG; HARMONIUM; Free-Reed Vibrator.     (K. S.)

CONCERTO (Lat. _concertus_, from _certare_, to strive, also confused
with _concentus_), in music, a term which appears as early as the
beginning of the 17th century, at first as a title of no very definite
meaning, but which early acquired a sense justified by its etymology and
became applied chiefly to compositions in which unequal instrumental or
vocal forces are brought into opposition.

Although by Bach's time the concerto as a polyphonic instrumental form
was thoroughly established, the term frequently appears in the autograph
title-pages of his church cantatas, even when the cantata contains no
instrumental prelude. Indeed, so entirely does the actual concerto form,
as Bach understands it, depend upon the opposition of masses of tone
unequal in volume with a compensating inequality in power of commanding
attention, that Bach is able to rewrite an instrumental movement as a
chorus without the least incongruity of style. A splendid example of
this is the first chorus of a university festival cantata, _Vereinigte
Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten_, the very title of which ("united
contest of turn-about strings") is a perfect definition of the earlier
form of _concerto grosso_, in which the chief mass of the orchestra was
opposed, not to a mere solo instrument, but to a small group called the
_concertino_, or else the whole work was for a large orchestral mass in
which tutti passages alternate with passages in which the whole
orchestra is dispersed in every possible kind of grouping. But the
special significance of this particular chorus is that it is arranged
from the second movement of the first Brandenburg concerto; and that
while the orchestral material is unaltered except for transposition of
key, enlargement of force and substitution of trumpets and drums for the
original horns, the whole chorus part has been evolved from the solo
part for a kit violin (_violino piccolo_). This admirably illustrates
Bach's grasp of the true idea of a concerto, namely, that whatever the
relations may be between the forces in respect of volume or sound, the
whole treatment of the form must depend upon the healthy relation of
function between that force which commands more and that which commands
less attention. _Ceteris paribus_ the individual, suitably placed, will
command more attention than the crowd, whether in real life, drama or
instrumental music. And in music the human voice, with human words, will
thrust any orchestral force into the background, the moment it can make
itself heard at all. Hence it is not surprising that the earlier
concerto forms should show the closest affinity (not only in general
aesthetic principle, but in many technical details) with the form of the
vocal aria, as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti. And the treatment of the
orchestra is, _mutatis mutandis_, exactly the same in both. The
orchestra is entrusted with a highly pregnant and short summary of the
main contents of the movement, and the solo, or the groups corresponding
thereto, will either take up this material or first introduce new themes
to be combined with it, and, in short, enter into relations with the
orchestra very like those between the actors and the chorus in Greek
drama. If the aria before Mozart may be regarded as a single large
melody expanded by the device of the ritornello so as to give full
expression to the power of a singer against an instrumental
accompaniment, so the polyphonic concerto form may be regarded as an
expansion of the aria form to a scale worthy of the larger and purely
instrumental forces employed, and so rendered capable of absorbing large
polyphonic and other types of structure incompatible with the lyric idea
of the aria. The _da capo_ form, by which the aria had attained its full
dimensions through the addition of a second strain in foreign keys
followed by the original strain _da capo_, was absorbed by the
polyphonic concerto on an enormous scale, both in first movements and
finales (see Bach's Klavier concerto in E, Violin concerto in E, first
movement), while for slow movements the _ground bass_ (see VARIATIONS),
diversified by changes of key (Klavier concerto in D minor), the more
melodic types of binary form, sometimes with the repeats ornamentally
varied or inverted (Concerto for 3 klaviers in D minor, Concerto for
klavier, flute and violin in A minor), and in finales the _rondo_ form
(Violin concerto in E major, Klavier concerto in F minor) and the binary
form (3rd Brandenburg concerto) may be found.

When conceptions of musical form changed and the modern sonata style
arose, the peculiar conditions of the concerto gave rise to problems the
difficulty of which only the highest classical intellects could
appreciate or solve. The number and contrast of the themes necessary to
work out a first movement of a sonata are far too great to be contained
within the single musical sentence of Bach's and Handel's ritornello,
even when it is as long as the thirty bars of Bach's Italian concerto (a
work in which every essential of the polyphonic concerto is reproduced
on the harpsichord by means of the contrasts between its full register
on the lower of its two keyboards and its solo stops on both). Bach's
sons had taken shrewd steps in forming the new style; and Mozart, as a
boy, modelled himself closely on Johann Christian Bach, and by the time
he was twenty was able to write concerto ritornellos that gave the
orchestra admirable opportunity for asserting its character and resource
in the statement in charmingly epigrammatic style of some five or six
sharply contrasted themes, afterwards to be worked out with additions by
the solo with the orchestra's co-operation and intervention. As the
scale of the works increases the problem becomes very difficult, because
the alternation between solo and tutti easily produces a sectional type
of structure incompatible with the high degree of organization required
in first movements; yet frequent alternation is evidently necessary, as
the orchestral solo is audible only above a very subdued orchestral
accompaniment, and it would be highly inartistic to use the orchestra
for no other purpose. Hence in the classical concerto the ritornello is
never abandoned, in spite of the enormous dimensions to which the sonata
style expanded it. And though from the time of Mendelssohn onwards most
composers have seemed to regard it as a conventional impediment easily
abandoned, it may be doubted whether any modern concerto, except the
four magnificent examples of Brahms, and Dr Joachim's Hungarian
concerto, possesses first movements in which the orchestra seems to
enjoy breathing space. And certainly in the classical concerto the entry
of the solo instrument, after the long opening tutti, is always dramatic
in direct proportion to its delay. The great danger in handling so long
an orchestral prelude is that the work may for some minutes be
indistinguishable from a symphony and thus the entry of the solo may be
unexpected without being inevitable. This is especially the case if the
composer has treated his opening tutti like the exposition of a sonata
movement, and made a deliberate transition from his first group of
themes to a second group in a complementary key, even if the transition
is only temporary, as in Beethoven's C minor concerto. Mozart keeps his
whole tutti in the tonic, relieved only by his mastery of sudden
subsidiary modulation; and so perfect is his marshalling of his
resources that in his hands a tutti a hundred bars long passes by with
the effect of a splendid pageant, of which the meaning is evidently
about to be revealed by the solo. After the C minor concerto, Beethoven
grasped the true function of the opening tutti and enlarged it to his
new purposes. With an interesting experiment of Mozart's before him, he,
in his G major concerto, _Op. 53_, allowed the solo player to state the
opening theme, making the orchestra enter _pianissimo_ in a foreign key,
a wonderful incident which has led to the absurd statement that he
"abolished the opening tutti," and that Mendelssohn in so doing has
"followed his example." In this concerto he also gave considerable
variety of key to the opening tutti by the use of an important theme
which executes a considerable series of modulations, an entirely
different thing from a deliberate modulation from material in one key to
material in another. His fifth and last pianoforte concerto, in E flat,
commonly called the "Emperor," begins with a rhapsodical introduction of
extreme brilliance for the solo player, followed by a tutti of unusual
length which is confined to the tonic major and minor with a strictness
explained by the gorgeous modulations with which the solo subsequently
treats the second subject. In this concerto Beethoven also dispenses
with the only really conventional feature of the form, namely, the
_cadenza_, a custom elaborated from the operatic aria, in which the
singer was allowed to extemporize a flourish on a pause near the end. A
similar pause was made in the final ritornello of a concerto, and the
soloist was supposed to extemporize what should be equivalent to a
symphonic coda, with results which could not but be deplorable unless
the player (or cadenza writer) were either the composer himself, or
capable of entering into his intentions, like Joachim, who has written
the finest extant cadenza of classical violin concertos.

Brahms's first concerto in D minor, _Op. 15_, was the result of an
immense amount of work, and, though on a mass of material originally
intended for a symphony, was nevertheless so perfectly assimilated into
the true concerto form that in his next essay, the violin concerto, _Op.
77_, he had no more to learn, and was free to make true innovations. He
succeeds in presenting the contrasts even of remote keys so immediately
that they are serviceable in the opening tutti and give the form a wider
range in definitely functional key than any other instrumental music.
Thus in the opening tutti of the D minor concerto the second subject is
announced in B flat minor. In the B flat pianoforte concerto, _Op. 83_,
it appears in D minor, and in the double concerto, _Op. 102_, for violin
and violoncello in A minor it appears in F major. In none of these cases
is it in the key in which the solo develops it, and it is reached with
a directness sharply contrasted with the symphonic deliberation with
which it is approached in the solo. In the violin concerto, _Op. 77_,
Brahms develops a counterplot in the opposition between solo and
orchestra, inasmuch as after the solo has worked out its second subject
the orchestra bursts in, not with the opening ritornello, but with its
own version of the material with which the solo originally entered. In
other words we have now not only the development by the solo of material
stated by the orchestra but also a counter-development by the orchestra
of material stated by the solo. This concerto is, on the other hand,
remarkable as being the last in which a blank space is left for a
cadenza, Brahms having in his friend Joachim a kindred spirit worthy of
such trust. In the pianoforte concerto in B flat, and in the double
concerto,[1] _Op. 102_, the idea of an introductory statement in which
the solo takes part before the opening tutti is carried out on a large
scale, and in the double concerto both first and second subjects are
thus suggested. It is unnecessary to speak of the other movements of
concerto form, as the sectional structure that so easily results from
the opposition between solo and orchestra is not of great disadvantage
to slow movements and finales, which accordingly do not show important
differences from the ordinary types of symphonic and chamber music. The
scherzo, on the other hand, is normally of too small a range of contrast
for successful adaptation to concerto form, and the solitary great
example of its use is the second movement of Brahms's B flat pianoforte
concerto.

Nothing is more easy to handle with inartistic or pseudo-classic
effectiveness than the opposition between a brilliant solo player and an
orchestra; and, as the inevitable tendency of even the most artistic
concerto has been to exhaust the resources of the solo instrument in the
increased difficulty of making a proper contrast between solo and
orchestra, so the technical difficulty of concertos has steadily
increased until even in classical times it was so great that the
orthodox definition of a concerto is that it is "an instrumental
composition designed to show the skill of an executant, and one which is
almost invariably accompanied by orchestra." This idea is in flat
violation of the whole history and aesthetics of the form, which can
never be understood by means of a study of averages. In art the average
is always false, and the individual organization of the greatest
classical works is the only sound basis for generalizations, historic or
aesthetic.     (D. F. T.)

FOOTNOTE:

  [1] Double and triple concertos are concertos with two or three solo
    players. A concerto for several solo players is called a concertante.

CONCH (Lat. _concha_, Gr. [Greek: konchê]), a shell, particularly one of
a mollusc; hence the term "conchology," the science which deals with
such shells, more used formerly when molluscs were studied and
classified according to the shell formation; the word is chiefly now
used for the collection of shells (see MOLLUSCA, and such articles as
GASTROPODA, MALACOSTRACA, &c.). Large spiral conchs have been from early
times used as a form of trumpet, emitting a very loud sound. They are
used in the West Indies and the South Sea Islands. The Tritons of
ancient mythology are represented as blowing such "wreathed horns." In
anatomy, the term _concha_ or "conch" is used of the external ear, or of
the hollowed central part leading to the meatus; and, in architecture,
it is sometimes given to the half dome over the semicircular apse of the
basilica. In late Roman work at Baalbek and Palmyra and in Renaissance
buildings shells are frequently carved in the heads of circular niches.
A low class of the negro or other inhabitants of the Bahamas and the
Florida Keys are sometimes called "Conches" or "Conks" from the
shell-fish which form their staple food.

CONCHOID (Gr. [Greek: konchê], shell, and [Greek: eidos], form), a plane
curve invented by the Greek mathematician Nicomedes, who devised a
mechanical construction for it and applied it to the problem of the
duplication of the cube, the construction of two mean proportionals
between two given quantities, and possibly to the trisection of an angle
as in the 8th lemma of Archimedes. Proclus grants Nicomedes the credit
of this last application, but it is disputed by Pappus, who claims that
his own discovery was original. The conchoid has been employed by later
mathematicians, notably Sir Isaac Newton, in the construction of various
cubic curves.

The conchoid is generated as follows:--Let O be a fixed point and BC a
fixed straight line; draw any line through O intersecting BC in P and
take on the line PO two points X, X', such that PX = PX' = a constant
quantity. Then the locus of X and X' is the conchoid. The conchoid is
also the locus of any point on a rod which is constrained to move so
that it always passes through a fixed point, while a fixed point on the
rod travels along a straight line. To obtain the equation to the curve,
draw AO perpendicular to BC, and let AO = a; let the constant quantity
PX = PX' = b. Then taking O as pole and a line through O parallel to BC
as the initial line, the polar equation is r = a cosec [theta] ± b, the
upper sign referring to the branch more distant from O. The cartesian
equation with A as origin and BC as axis of x is x²y² = (a + y)² (b² -
y²). Both branches belong to the same curve and are included in this
equation. Three forms of the curve have to be distinguished according to
the ratio of a to b. If a be less than b, there will be a node at O and
a loop below the initial point (curve 1 in the figure); if a equals b
there will be a cusp at O (curve 2); if a be greater than b the curve
will not pass through O, but from the cartesian equation it is obvious
that O is a conjugate point (curve 3). The curve is symmetrical about
the axis of y and has the axis of x for its asymptote.

CONCIERGE (a French word of unknown origin; the Latinized form was
_concergius_ or _concergerius_), originally the guardian of a house or
castle, in the middle ages a court official who was the custodian of a
royal palace. In Paris, when the _Palais de la Cité_ ceased about 1360
to be a royal residence and became the seat of the courts of justice,
the _Conciergerie_ was turned into a prison. In modern usage a
"concierge" is a hall-porter or janitor.

CONCINI, CONCINO (d. 1617), COUNT DELLA PENNA, MARSHAL D'ANCRE, Italian
adventurer, minister of King Louis XIII. of France, was a native of
Florence. He came to France in the train of Marie de' Medici, and
married the queen's lady-in-waiting, Leonora Dori, known as Galigai. The
credit which his wife enjoyed with the queen, his wit, cleverness and
boldness made his fortune. In 1610 he had purchased the marquisate of
Ancre and the position of first gentleman-in-waiting. Then he obtained
successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy, and in 1614 the
bâton of marshal. From then first minister of the realm, he abandoned
the policy of Henry IV., compromised his wise legislation, allowed the
treasury to be pillaged, and drew upon himself the hatred of all
classes. The nobles were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Condé,
with whom he negotiated the treaty of Loudun in 1616, and whom he had
arrested in September 1616. This was done on the advice of Richelieu,
whose introduction into politics was favoured by Concini. But Louis
XIII., incited by his favourite Charles d'Albert, due de Luynes, was
tired of Concini's tutelage. The baron de Vitry received in the king's
name the order to imprison him. Apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre,
Concini was killed by the guards on the 24th of April 1617. Leonora was
accused of sorcery and sent to the stake in the same year.

  In 1767 appeared at Brescia a _De Concini vita_, by D. Sandellius. On
  the rôle of Concini see the _Histoire de France_, published under the
  direction of E. Lavisse, vol. vi. (1905), by Mariéjol.

CONCLAVE (Lat. _conclave_, from _cum_, together, and _clavis_, a key),
strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in this sense the
word is now obsolete in English, though the _New English Dictionary_
gives an example of its use so late as 1753. Its present loose
application to any private or close assembly, especially ecclesiastical,
is derived from its technical application to the assembly of cardinals
met for the election of the pope, with which this article is concerned.

Conclave is the name applied to that system of strict seclusion to which
the electors of the pope have been and are submitted, formerly as a
matter of necessity, and subsequently as the result of a legislative
enactment; hence the word has come to be used of the electoral assembly
of the cardinals. This system goes back only as far as the 12th century.

_Election of the Popes in Antiquity._--The very earliest episcopal
nominations, at Rome as elsewhere, seem without doubt to have been made
by the direct choice of the founders of the apostolic Christian
communities. But this exceptional method was replaced at an early date
by that of election. At Rome the method of election was the same as in
other towns: the Roman clergy and people and the neighbouring bishops
each took part in it in their several capacities. The people would
signify their approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or
less tumultuously, while the clergy were, strictly speaking, the
electoral body, met to elect for themselves a new head, and the bishops
acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the election. The
choice had to meet with general consent; but we can well imagine that in
an assembly of such size, in which the candidates were acclaimed rather
than elected by counting votes, the various functions were not very
distinct, and that persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were
bound to influence the elections, and sometimes decisively. Moreover,
this form of election lent itself to cabals; and these frequently gave
rise to quarrels, sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms, i.e. the
election of antipopes, as they were later called. Such was the case at
the elections of Cornelius (251), Damasus (366), Boniface (418),
Symmachus (498), Boniface II. (530) and others. The remedy for this
abuse was found in having recourse, more or less freely, to the support
of the civil power. The emperor Honorius upheld Boniface against his
competitor Eulalius, at the same time laying down that cases of
contested election should henceforth be decided by a fresh election; but
this would have been a dangerous method and was consequently never
applied. Theodoric upheld Symmachus against Laurentius because he had
been elected first and by a greater majority. The accepted fact soon
became law, and John II. recognized (532) the right of the Ostrogothic
court of Ravenna to ratify the pontifical elections. Justinian succeeded
to this right together with the kingdom which he had destroyed; he
demanded, together with the payment of a tribute of 3000 golden
_solidi_, that the candidate elected should not receive the episcopal
consecration till he had obtained the confirmation of the emperor. Hence
arose long vacancies of the See, indiscreet interference in the
elections by the imperial officials, and sometimes cases of simony and
venality. This bondage became lighter in the 7th century, owing rather
to the weakening of the imperial power than to any resistance on the
part of the popes.

_9th to 12th Centuries._--From the emperors of the East the power
naturally passed to those of the West, and it was exercised after 824 by
the descendants of Charlemagne, who claimed that the election should not
proceed until the arrival of their envoys. But this did not last long;
at the end of the 9th century, Rome, torn by factions, witnessed the
scandal of the posthumous condemnation of Formosus. This deplorable
state of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of
the 11th century. When the emperors were at Rome, they presided over the
elections; when they were away, the rival factions of the barons, the
Crescentii and the Alberici especially, struggled for the spiritual
power as they did for the temporal. During this period were seen cases
of popes imposed by a faction rather than elected, and then, at the
mercy of sedition, deposed, poisoned and thrown into prison, sometimes
to be restored by force of arms.

  Election reserved to the cardinals.

The influence of the Ottos (962-1002) was a lesser evil; that of the
emperor Otto III. was even beneficial, in that it led to the election of
Gerbert (Silvester II., in 999). But this was only a temporary check in
the process of decadence, and in 1146 Clement II., the successor of the
worthless Benedict IX., admitted that henceforth not only the
consecration but even the _election_ of the Roman pontiffs could only
take place in presence of the emperor. In fact, after the death of
Clement II. the delegates of the Roman clergy did actually go to Polden
to ask Henry III. to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken
after the death of Damasus II., who reigned only twenty days.
Fortunately on this occasion Henry III. appointed, just before his
death, a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Toul, who
presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand. From this time
began the reform. Hildebrand had the elections of Victor II. (1055),
Stephen IX. (1057), and Nicholas II. (1058) carried out according to the
canonical form, including the imperial ratification. The celebrated bull
_In nomine Domini_ of the 13th of April 1059 determined the electoral
procedure; it is curious to observe how, out of respect for tradition,
it preserves all the former factors in the election though their scope
is modified: "In the first place, the cardinal bishops shall carefully
consider the election together, then they shall consult with the
cardinal clergy, and afterwards the rest of the clergy and the people
shall by giving their assent confirm the new election." The election,
then, is reserved to the members of the higher clergy, to the cardinals,
among whom the cardinal bishops have the preponderating position. The
consent of the rest of the clergy and the people is now only a
formality. The same was the case of the imperial intervention, in
consequence of the phrase: "Saving the honour and respect due to our
dear son Henry (Henry IV.), according to the concession we have made to
him, and equally to his successors, who shall receive this right
personally from the Apostolic See." Thus the emperor has no rights save
those he has received as a concession from the Holy See. Gregory VII.,
it is true, notified his election to the emperor; but as he set up a
series of five antipopes, none of Gregory's successors asked any more
for the imperial sanction. Further, by this bull, the emperors would
have to deal with the _fait accompli_; for it provided that, in the
event of disturbances aroused by mischievous persons at Rome preventing
the election from being carried out there freely and without bias, the
cardinal bishops, together with a small number of the clergy and of the
laity, should be empowered to go and hold the election where they should
think fit; that should difficulties of any sort prevent the enthronement
of the new pope, the pope elect would be empowered immediately to act as
if he were actually pope. This legislation was definitely accepted by
the emperor by the concordat of Worms (1119).

A limited electoral body lends itself to more minute legislation than a
larger body; the college for electing the pope, thus reduced so as to
consist in practice of the cardinals only, was subjected as time went on
to laws of increasing severity. Two points of great importance were
established by Alexander III. at the Lateran Council of 1179. The
constitution _Licet de vitanda discordia_ makes all the cardinals
equally electors, and no longer mentions the lower clergy or the people;
it also requires a majority of two-thirds of the votes to decide an
election. This latter provision, which still holds good, made imperial
antipopes henceforth impossible.

  The conclave.

Abuses nevertheless arose. An electoral college too small in numbers,
which no higher power has the right of forcing to haste, can prolong
disagreements and draw out the course of the election for a long time.
It is this period during which we actually find the Holy See left vacant
most frequently for long spaces of time. The longest of these, however,
gave an opportunity for reform and the remedy was found in the conclave,
i.e. in the forced and rigid seclusion of the electors. As a matter of
fact, this method had previously been used, but in a mitigated form: in
1216, on the death of Innocent III., the people of Perugia had shut up
the cardinals; and in 1241 the Roman magistrates had confined them
within the "Septizonium"; they took two months, however, to perform the
election. Celestine IV. died after eighteen days, and this time, in
spite of the seclusion of the cardinals, there was an interregnum of
twenty months. After the death of Clement IV. in 1268, the cardinals, of
whom seventeen were gathered together at Viterbo, allowed two years to
pass without coming to an agreement; the magistrates of Viterbo again
had recourse to the method of seclusion: they shut up the electors in
the episcopal palace, blocking up all outlets; and since the election
still delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed
nothing but bread and water to be sent in. Under the pressure of famine
and of this strict confinement, the cardinals finally agreed, on the 1st
of September 1271, to elect Gregory X., after an interregnum of two
years, nine months and two days.

  Laws made by Gregory X.

Taught by experience, the new pope considered what steps could be taken
to prevent the recurrence of such abuses; in 1274, at the council of
Lyons, he promulgated the constitution _Ubi periculum_, the substance of
which was as follows: At the death of the pope, the cardinals who were
present are to await their absent colleagues for ten days; they are then
to meet in one of the papal palaces in a closed conclave; none of them
is to have to wait on him more than one servant, or two at most if he
were ill; in the conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even
having separate cells; they are to have no communication with the outer
world, under pain of excommunication for any who should attempt to
communicate with them; food is to be supplied to the cardinals through a
window which would be under watch; after three days, their meals are to
consist of a single dish only; and after five days, of bread and water,
with a little wine. During the conclave the cardinals are to receive no
ecclesiastical revenue. No account is to be taken of those who are
absent or have left the conclave. Finally, the election is to be the
sole business of the conclave, and the magistrates of the town where it
was held are called upon to see that these provisions be observed.
Adrian V. and John XX. were weak enough to suspend the constitution _Ubi
periculum_; but the abuses at once reappeared; the Holy See was again
vacant for long periods; this further proof was therefore decisive, and
Celestine V., who was elected after a vacancy of more than two years,
took care, before abdicating the pontificate, to revive the constitution
of Gregory X., which was inserted in the Decretals (lib. i. tit. vi.,
_de election._ cap. 3).

  Julius II.

Since then the laws relating to the conclave have been observed, even
during the great schism; the only exception was the election of Martin
V., which was performed by the cardinals of the three obediences, to
which the council of Constance added five prelates of each of the six
nations represented in that assembly. The same was the case up to the
16th century. At this period the Italian republics, later Spain, and
finally the other powers, took an intimate interest in the choice of the
holder of what was a considerable political power; and each brought more
or less honest means to bear, sometimes that of simony. It was against
simony that Julius II. directed the bull _Cum tam divino_ (1503), which
directed that simoniacal election of the pope should be declared null;
that any one could attack it; that men should withdraw themselves from
the obedience of a pope thus elected; that simoniacal agreements should
be invalid; that the guilty cardinals should be excommunicate till their
death, and that the rest should proceed immediately to a new election.
The purpose of this measure was good, but the proposed remedy extremely
dangerous; it was fortunately never applied. Similarly, Paul IV.
endeavoured by severe punishments to check the intriguing and plotting
for the election of a new pope while his predecessor was still living;
but the bull _Cum secundum_ (1558) was of no effect.

  Pius IV.

  Gregory XV.

Pius IV. undertook the task of reforming and completing the legislation
of the conclave. The bull _In eligendis_ (of October 1st, 1562), signed
by all the cardinals, is a model of precision and wisdom. In addition to
the points already stated, we may add the following: that every day
there was to be a scrutiny, i.e. a solemn voting by specially prepared
voting papers (concealing the name of the voter, and to be opened only
in case of an election being made at that scrutiny), and that this was
to be followed by the "accessit," i.e. a second voting, in which the
cardinals might transfer their suffrages to those who had obtained the
greatest number of votes in the first. Except in case of urgent matters,
the election was to form the whole business of the conclave. The cells
were to be assigned by lot. The functionaries of the conclave were to be
elected by the secret vote of the Sacred College. The most stringent
measures were to be taken to ensure seclusion. The bull _Aeterni Patris_
of Gregory XV. (15th of November 1621) is a collection of minute
regulations. In it is the rule compelling each cardinal, before giving
his vote, to take the oath that he will elect him whom he shall judge to
be the most worthy; it also makes rules for the forms of voting and of
the voting papers, for the counting, the scrutiny, and in fact all the
processes of the election. A second bull, _Decet Romanum Pontificem_, of
the 12th of March 1622, fixed the ceremonial of the conclave with such
minuteness that it has not been changed since.

All previous legislation concerning the conclave was codified and
renewed by Pius X.'s bull, _Vacante Sede Apostolico_ (Dec. 25, 1904),
which abrogates the earlier texts, except Leo XIII.'s constitution
_Praedecessores Nostri_ (May 24, 1882), authorizing occasional
derogations in circumstances of difficulty, e.g. the death of a pope
away from Rome or an attempt to interfere with the liberty of the Sacred
College. The bull of Pius X. is rather a codification than a reform, the
principal change being the abolition of the scrutiny of accession and
the substitution of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session.

On some occasions exceptional circumstances have given rise to
transitory measures. In 1797 and 1798 Pius VI. authorized the cardinals
to act contrary to such of the laws concerning the conclave as a
majority of them should decide not to observe, as being impossible in
practice. Similarly Pius IX., by means of various acts which remained
secret up till 1892, had taken the most minute precautions in order to
secure a free and rapid election, and to avoid all interference on the
part of the secular powers. We know that the conclaves in which Leo
XIII. and Pius X. were elected enjoyed the most complete liberty, and
the hypothetical measures foreseen by Pius IX. were not applied.

  The conclave at Rome.

Until after the Great Schism the conclaves were held in various towns
outside of Rome; but since then they have all been held in Rome, with
the single exception of the conclave of Venice (1800), and in most cases
in the Vatican.

  Modern procedure.

There was no place permanently established for the purpose, but
removable wooden cells were installed in the various apartments of the
palace, grouped around the Sistine chapel, in which the scrutinies took
place. The arrangements prepared in the Quirinal in 1823 did duty only
three times, and for the most recent conclaves it was necessary to
arrange an inner enclosure within the vast but irregular palace of the
Vatican. Each cardinal is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for
this reason as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the officials
of the conclave, this makes about two hundred and fifty persons who
enter the conclave and have no further communication with the outer
world save by means of turning-boxes. Since 1870 the solemn ceremonies
of earlier times have naturally not been seen; for instance the
procession which used to celebrate the entry into conclave; or the daily
arrival in procession of the clergy and the brotherhoods to enquire at
the "rota" (turning-box) of the auditors of the Rota: "Habemusne
Pontificem?" and their return accompanied by the chanting of the "_Veni
Creator_"; or the "Marshal of the Holy Roman Church and perpetual
guardian of the conclave" visiting the churches in state. But a crowd
still collects morning and evening in the great square of St Peter's,
towards the time of the completion of the vote, to look for the smoke
which rises from the burning of the voting-papers after each session;
when the election has not been effected, a little straw is burnt with
the papers, and the column of smoke then apprises the spectators that
they have still no pope. Within the conclave, the cardinals, alone in
the common hall, usually the Sistine chapel, proceed morning and evening
to their double vote, the direct vote and the "accessit." Sometimes
these sessions have been very numerous; for example, in 1740, Benedict
XIV. was only elected after 255 scrutinies; on other occasions, however,
and notably in the case of the last few popes, a well-defined majority
has soon been evident, and there have been but few scrutinies. Each vote
is immediately counted by three scrutators, appointed in rotation, the
most minute precautions being taken to ensure that the voting shall be
secret and sincere. When one cardinal has at last obtained two-thirds of
the votes, the dean of the cardinals formally asks him whether he
accepts his election, and what name he wishes to assume. As soon as he
has accepted, the first "obedience" or "adoration" takes place, and
immediately after the first cardinal deacon goes to the _Loggia_ of St
Peter's and announces the great news to the assembled people. The
conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place the two other
"obediences," and the election is officially announced to the various
governments. If the pope be not a bishop (Gregory XVI. was not), he is
then consecrated; and finally, a few days after his election, takes
place the coronation, from which the pontificate is officially dated.
The pope then receives the tiara with the triple crown, the sign of his
supreme spiritual authority. The ceremony of the coronation goes back to
the 9th century, and the tiara, in the form of a high conical cap, is
equally ancient (see TIARA).

  The right of veto.

In conclusion, a few words should be said with regard to the right of
_veto_. In the 16th and 17th centuries the character of the conclaves
was determined by the influence of what were then known as the
"factions," i.e. the formation of the cardinals into groups according to
their nationality or their relations with one of the Catholic courts of
Spain, France or the Empire, or again according as they favoured the
political policy of the late pope or his predecessor. These groups
upheld or opposed certain candidates. The Catholic courts naturally
entrusted the cardinals "of the crown," i.e. those of their nation, with
the mission of removing, as far as lay in their power, candidates who
were distasteful to their party; the various governments could even make
public their desire to exclude certain candidates. But they soon claimed
an actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be notified
in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged with this mission,
and should have a decisive effect; this is what has been called the
right of veto. We cannot say precisely at what time during the 16th
century this transformation of the practice into a right, tacitly
accepted by the Sacred College, took place; it was doubtless felt to be
less dangerous formally to recognize the right of the three sovereigns
each to object to one candidate, than to face the inconvenience of
objections, such as were formulated on several occasions by Philip II.,
which, though less legal in form, might apply to an indefinite number of
candidates. The fact remains, however, that it was a right based on
custom, and was not supported by any text or written concession; but the
diplomatic right was straightforward and definite, and was better than
the intrigues of former days. During the 19th century Austria exercised,
or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except
that which elected Leo XIII. (1878); it did so again at the conclave of
1903. On the 2nd of August Cardinal Rampolla had received twenty-nine
votes, when Cardinal Kolzielsko Puzina, bishop of Cracow, declared that
the Austrian government opposed the election of Cardinal Rampolla; the
Sacred College considered that it ought to yield, and on the 4th of
August elected Cardinal Sarto, who took the name of Pius X. By the bull
_Commissum Nobis_ (January 20, 1904), Pius X. suppressed all right of
"veto" or "exclusion" on the part of the secular governments, and
forbade, under pain of excommunication reserved to the future pope, any
cardinal or conclavist to accept from his government the charge of
proposing a "veto," or to exhibit it to the conclave under any form.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best and most complete work is Lucius Lector, _Le
  Conclave, origine, histoire, organisation, législation ancienne et
  moderne_ (Paris, 1894). See also Ferraris, _Prompta Bibliotheca, s. v.
  Papa_, art. i.; Moroni, _Dizionario di erudizione
  storico-ecclesiastica, s. v. Conclave, Conclavisti, Cella, Elezione,
  Esclusiva_; Bouix, _De Curia Romana_, part i. c. x.; _De Papa_, part
  vii. (Paris, 1859, 1870); Barbier de Montault, _Le Conclave_ (Paris,
  1878). On the conclave of Leo XIII., R. de Cesare, _Conclave di Leone
  XIII._ (Rome, 1888). On the conclave of Pius X.: an eye-witness (Card.
  Mathieu), _Les Derniers Jours de Léon XIII et le conclave_ (Paris,
  1904). See further, for the right of veto: Phillips, _Kirchenrecht_,
  t. v. p. 138; Sägmüller, _Die Papstwahlen und die Staate_ (Tübingen,
  1890); _Die Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht des Exclusive_
  (Tübingen, 1892); Wahrmund, _Ausschliessungsrecht der katholischen
  Staaten_ (Vienna, 1888).     (A. Bo.*)

CONCORD, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20
m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 5652; (1910, U.S. census) 6421. Area 25
sq. m. It is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway. Where the Sudbury
and Assabet unite to form the beautiful little Concord river, celebrated
by Thoreau, is the village of Concord, straggling, placid and beautiful,
full of associations with the opening of the War of Independence and
with American literature. Of particular interest is the "Old Manse,"
built in 1765 for Rev. William Emerson, in which his grandson R. W.
Emerson wrote _Nature_, and Hawthorne his _Mosses from an Old Manse_,
containing a charming description of the building and its associations.
At Concord there is a state reformatory, whose inmates, about 800 in
number, are employed in manufacturing various articles, but otherwise
the town has only minor business and industrial interests. The
introduction of the "Concord" grape, first produced here by Ephraim Bull
in 1853, is said to have marked the beginning of the profitable
commercial cultivation of table grapes in the United States. Concord was
settled and incorporated as a township in 1635, and was (with Dedham)
the first settlement in Massachusetts back from the sea-coast. A county
convention at Concord village in August 1774 recommended the calling of
the first Provincial Congress of Massachusetts--one of the first
independent legislatures of America--which assembled here on the 11th of
October 1774, and again in March and April 1775. The village became
thereafter a storehouse of provisions and munitions of war, and hence
became the objective of the British expedition that on the 19th of April
1775 opened with the armed conflict at Lexington (q.v.) the American War
of Independence. As the British proceeded to Concord the whole country
was rising, and at Concord about 500 minute-men confronted the British
regulars who were holding the village and searching for arms and stores.
Volleys were exchanged, the British retreated, the minute-men hung on
their flanks and from the hillsides shot them down, driving their
columns on Lexington. A granite obelisk, erected in 1837, when Emerson
wrote his ode on the battle, marks the spot where the first British
soldiers fell; while across the stream a fine bionze "Minute-Man" (1875)
by D. C. French (a native of Concord) marks the spot where once "the
embattled farmers stood and fired the shot heard round the world"
(Emerson). Concord was long one of the shire-townships of Middlesex
county, losing this honour in 1867. The village is famous as the home of
R. W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry D. Thoreau, Louisa M. Alcott
and her father, A. Bronson Alcott, who maintained here from 1879 to 1888
(in a building still standing) the Concord school of philosophy, which
counted Benjamin Peirce, W. T. Harris, Mrs J. W. Howe, T. W. Higginson,
Professor William James and Emerson among its lecturers. Emerson,
Hawthorne, Thoreau and the Alcotts are buried here in the beautiful
Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Of the various orations (among others one by
Edward Everett in 1825) that have been delivered at Concord
anniversaries perhaps the finest is that of George William Curtis,
delivered in 1875.

  See A. S. Hudson, _The History of Concord_, vol. i. (Concord, 1904);
  G. B. Bartlett, _Concord: Historic, Literary and Picturesque_ (Boston,
  1885); and Mrs J. L. Swayne, _Story of Concord_ (Boston, 1907).

CONCORD, a city and the county-seat of Cabarrus county, North Carolina,
U.S.A., on the Rocky river, about 150 m. W.S.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890)
4339; (1900) 7910 (1789 negroes); (1910) 8715. It is served by the
Southern railway. Concord is situated in a cotton-growing region, and
its chief interest is in the manufacture of cotton goods. The city is
the seat of Scotia seminary (for negro girls), founded in 1870 and under
the care of the Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen, Pittsburgh
Pa. Concord was laid out in 1793 and was first incorporated in 1851.

CONCORD, the capital of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
Merrimack county, on both sides of the Merrimac river, about 75 m. N.W.
of Boston, Massachusetts. Pop. (1890) 17,004; (1900) 19,632, of whom
3813 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 21,497. Concord is served by the
Boston & Maine railway. The area of the city in 1906 was 45.16 sq. m.
Concord has broad streets bordered with shade trees; and has several
parks, including Penacook, White, Rollins and the Contoocook river.
Among the principal buildings are the state capitol, the state library,
the city hall, the county court-house, the post-office, a public library
(17,000 vols.), the state hospital, the state prison, the Centennial
home for the aged, the Margaret Pillsbury memorial hospital, the Rolfe
and Rumford asylum for orphan girls, founded by Count Rumford's
daughter, and some fine churches, including the Christian Science church
built by Mrs Eddy. There are a soldiers' memorial arch, a statue of
Daniel Webster by Thomas Ball, and statues of John P. Hale, John Stark,
and Commodore George H. Perkins, the last by Daniel C. French; and at
Penacook, 6 m. N.W. of Concord, there is a monument to Hannah Dustin
(see HAVERHILL). Among the educational institutions are the well-known
St Paul's school for boys (Protestant Episcopal, 1853), about 2 m. W. of
the city, and St Mary's school for girls (Protestant Episcopal, 1885).
From 1847 to 1867 Concord was the seat of the Biblical Institute
(Methodist Episcopal), founded in Newbury, Vermont, in 1841, removed to
Boston as the Boston Theological Seminary in 1867, and after 1871 a part
of Boston University. The city has various manufactures, including flour
and grist mill products, silver ware, cotton and woollen goods,
carriages, harnesses and leather belting, furniture, wooden ware, pianos
and clothing; the Boston & Maine Railroad has a large repair shop in the
city, and there are valuable granite quarries in the vicinity. In 1905
Concord ranked third among the cities of the state in the value of its
factory products, which was $6,387,372, being an increase of 51.7% since
1900. When first visited by the English settlers, the site of Concord
was occupied by Penacook Indians; a trading post was built here about
1660. In 1725 Massachusetts granted the land in this vicinity to some of
her citizens; but this grant was not recognized by New Hampshire, whose
legislature issued (1727) a grant (the Township of Bow) overlapping the
Massachusetts grant, which was known as Penacook or Penny Cook. The New
Hampshire grantees undertook to establish here a colony of Londonderry
Irish; but the Massachusetts settlers were firmly established by the
spring of 1727, Massachusetts definitely assumed jurisdiction in 1731,
and in 1734 her general court incorporated the settlement under the name
of Rumford. The conflicting rights of Rumford and Bow gave rise to one
of the most celebrated of colonial land cases, and although the New
Hampshire authorities enforced their claims of jurisdiction, the privy
council in 1755 confirmed the Rumford settlers in their possession. In
1765 the name was changed to the "parish of Concord," and in 1784 the
town of Concord was incorporated. Here, for some years before the War of
American Independence, lived Benjamin Thompson, later Count Rumford. In
1778 and again in 1781-1782 a state constitutional convention met here;
the first New Hampshire legislature met at Concord in 1782; the
convention which ratified for New Hampshire the Federal Constitution met
here in 1788; and in 1808 the state capital was definitely established
here. The New Hampshire _Patriot_, founded here in 1808 (and for twenty
years edited) by Isaac Hill (1788-1851), who was a member of the United
States Senate in 1831-1836, and governor of New Hampshire in 1836-1839,
became one of the leading exponents of Jacksonian Democracy in New
England. In 1814 the Middlesex Canal, connecting Concord with Boston,
was completed. A city charter granted by the legislature in 1849 was not
accepted by the city until 1853.

  See J. O. Lyford, _The History of Concord, New Hampshire_ (City
  History Commission) (2 vols., Concord, 1903); _Concord Town Records,
  1732-1820_ (Concord, 1894); J. B. Moore, _Annals of Concord,
  1726-1823_ (Concord, 1824); and Nathaniel Bouton, _The History of
  Concord_ (Concord, 1856).

CONCORD, BOOK OF (_Liber Concordiae_), the collective documents of the
Lutheran confession, consisting of the _Confessio Augustana_, the
_Apologia Confessionis Augustanae_, the _Articula Smalcaldici_, the
_Catechismi Major et Minor_ and the _Formula Concordiae_. This last was
a formula issued on the 25th of June 1580 (the jubilee of the Augsburg
Confession) by the Lutheran Church in an attempt to heal the breach
which, since the death of Luther, had been widening between the extreme
Lutherans and the Crypto-Calvinists. Previous attempts at concord had
been made at the request of different rulers, especially by Jacob Andreä
with his Swabian Concordia in 1573, and Abel Scherdinger with the
Maulbronn Formula in 1575. In 1576 the elector of Saxony called a
conference of theologians at Torgau to discuss these two efforts and
from them produce a third. The _Book of Torgau_ was evolved, circulated
and criticized; a new committee, prominent on which was Martin Chemnitz,
sitting at Bergen near Magdeburg, considered the criticisms and finally
drew up the _Formula Concordiae_. It consists of (a) the "Epitome," (b)
the "Solid Repetition and Declaration," each part comprising twelve
articles; and was accepted by Saxony, Württemberg, Baden among other
states, but rejected by Hesse, Nassau and Holstein. Even the free cities
were divided, Hamburg and Lübeck for, Bremen and Frankfort against.
Hungary and Sweden accepted it, and so finally did Denmark, where at
first it was rejected, and its publication made a crime punishable by
death. In spite of this very limited reception the _Formula Concordiae_
has always been reckoned with the five other documents as of
confessional authority.

  See P. Schaff, _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 258-340, iii. 92-180.

CONCORDANCE (Late Lat. _concordantia_, harmony, from _cum_, with, and
_cor_, heart), literally agreement, harmony; hence derivatively a
citation of parallel passages, and specifically an alphabetical
arrangement of the words contained in a book with citations of the
passages in which they occur. Concordances in this last sense were first
made for the Bible. Originally the word was only used in this connexion
in the plural _concordantiae_, each group of parallel passages being
properly a _concordantia_. The Germans distinguish between concordances
of things and concordances of words, the former indexing the subject
matter of a book ("real" concordance), the latter the words ("verbal"
concordance).

The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to the
conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent with each
other, as parts of a divine revelation, and may be combined as
harmonious elements in one system of spiritual truth. To Anthony of
Padua (1195-1231) ancient tradition ascribes the first concordance, the
anonymous _Concordantiae Morales_, of which the basis was the Vulgate.
The first authentic work of the kind was due to Cardinal Hugh of St
Cher, a Dominican monk (d. 1263), who, in preparing for a commentary on
the Scriptures, found the need of a concordance, and is reported to have
used for the purpose the services of five hundred of his brother monks.
This concordance was the basis of two which succeeded in time and
importance, one by Conrad of Halberstadt (fl. c. 1290) and the other by
John of Segovia in the next century. This book was published in a
greatly improved and amplified form in the middle of the 19th century by
David Nutt, of London, edited by T. P. Dutripon. The first Hebrew
concordance was compiled in 1437-1445 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan b. Kalonymus
of Arles. It was printed at Venice in 1523 by Daniel Bomberg, in Basel
in 1556, 1569 and 1581. It was published under the title _Meir Natib_,
"The Light of the Way." In 1556 it was translated into Latin by Johann
Reuchlin, but many errors appeared in both the Hebrew and the Latin
edition. These were corrected by Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan friar,
who published a four volume folio _Concordantiae Sacr. Bibl. Hebr. et
Latin._ at Rome, 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included.
Another concordance based on Nathan's was Johann Buxtorf the elder's
_Concordantiae Bibl. Ebraicae nova et artificiosa methodo dispositae_,
Basel, 1632. It marks a stage in both the arrangement and the knowledge
of the roots of words, but can only be used by those who know the
massoretic system, as the references are made by Hebrew letters and
relate to rabbinical divisions of the Old Testament. Calasio's
concordance was republished in London under the direction of William
Romaine in 1747-1749, in four volumes folio, under the patronage of all
the monarchs of Europe and also of the pope. In 1754 John Taylor, D.D.,
a Presbyterian divine in Norwich, published in two volumes the _Hebrew
Concordance adapted to the English Bible_, disposed after the manner of
Buxtorf. This was the most complete and convenient concordance up to the
date of its publication. In the middle of the 19th century Dr Julius
Fürst issued a thoroughly revised edition of Buxtorf's concordance. The
_Hebräischen und chaldäischen Concordanz zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten
Testaments_ (Leipzig, 1840) carried forward the development of the
concordance in several directions. It gave (1) a corrected text founded
on Hahn's Vanderhoogt's Bible; (2) the Rabbinical meanings; (3)
explanations in Latin, and illustrations from the three Greek versions,
the Aramaic paraphrase, and the Vulgate; (4) the Greek words employed by
the Septuagint as renderings of the Hebrew; (5) notes on philology and
archaeology, so that the concordance contained a Hebrew lexicon. An
English translation by Dr Samuel Davidson was published in 1867. A
revised edition of Buxtorf's work with additions from Fürst's was
published by B. Bär (Stettin, 1862). A new concordance embodying the
matter of all previous works with lists of proper names and particles
was published by Solomon Mandelkern in Leipzig (1896); a smaller edition
of the same, without quotations, appeared in 1900. There are also
concordances of Biblical proper names by G. Brecher (Frankfort-on-Main,
1876) and Schusslovicz (Wilna, 1878).

A _Concordance to the Septuagint_ was published at Frankfort in 1602 by
Conrad Kircher of Augsburg; in this the Hebrew words are placed in
alphabetical order and the Greek words by which they are translated are
placed under them. A Septuagint concordance, giving the Greek words in
alphabetical order, was published in 1718 in two volumes by Abraham
Tromm, a learned minister at Groningen, then in the eighty-fourth year
of his age. It gives the Greek words in alphabetical order; a Latin
translation; the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is used
by the Septuagint; then the places where the words occur in the order of
the books and chapters; at the end of the quotations from the Septuagint
places are given where the word occurs in Aquila, Symmachus and
Theodotion, the other Greek translations of the O. T.; and the words of
the Apocrypha follow in each case. Besides an index to the Hebrew and
Chaldaic words there is another index which contains a lexicon to the
_Hexapla_ of Origen. In 1887 (London) appeared the _Handy Concordance of
the Septuagint giving various readings from Codices Vaticanus,
Alexandrinus, Sinaiticus and Ephraemi, with an appendix of words from
Origen's Hexapla, not found in the above manuscripts_, by G. M., without
quotations. A work of the best modern scholarship was brought out in
1897 by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, entitled _A Concordance to the
Septuagint and the other Greek versions of the Old Testament including
the Apocryphal Books_, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Redpath, assisted by
other scholars; this was completed in 1900 by a list of proper names.

_The first Greek concordance_ to the New Testament was published at
Basel in 1546 by Sixt Birck or Xystus Betuleius (1500-1554), a
philologist and minister of the Lutheran Church. This was followed by
Stephen's concordance (1594) planned by Robert Stephens and published by
Henry, his son. Then in 1638 came Schmied's [Greek: tamieion], which has
been the basis of subsequent concordances to the New Testament. Erasmus
Schmied or Schmid was a Lutheran divine who was professor of Greek in
Wittenberg, where he died in 1637. Revised editions of the [Greek:
tamieion] were published at Gotha in 1717, and at Glasgow in 1819 by the
University Press. In the middle of the 19th century Charles Hermann
Bruder brought out a beautiful edition (Tauchnitz) with many
improvements. The _apparatus criticus_ was a triumph of New Testament
scholarship. It collates the readings of Erasmus, R. Stephens' third
edition, the Elzevirs, Mill, Bengel, Webster, Knapp, Tittman, Scholz,
Lachmann. It also gives a selection from the most ancient patristic
MSS. and from various interpreters. No various reading of critical value
is omitted. An edition of Bruder with readings of Samuel Prideaux
Tregelles was published in 1888 under the editorship of Westcott and
Hort. The _Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament_, and the
_Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance_, are books intended to put
the results of the above-mentioned works at the service of those who
know little Hebrew or Greek. Every word in the Bible is given in Hebrew
or Greek, the word is transliterated, and then every passage in which it
occurs is given--the word, however it may be translated, being
italicized. They are the work of George V. Wigram assisted by W. Burgh
and superintended by S. P. Tregelles, B. Davidson and W. Chalk (1843;
2nd ed. 1860). Another book which deserves mention is, _A Concordance to
the Greek Testament with the English version to each word; the principal
Hebrew roots corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint, with
short critical notes and an index_, by John Williams, LL.D., Lond. 1767.

In 1884 Robert Young, author of an analytical concordance mentioned
below, brought out a _Concordance to the Greek New Testament with a
dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms_: this contains a concise
concordance to eight thousand changes made in the Revised Testament.
Another important work of modern scholarship is the _Concordance to the
Greek Testament_, edited by the Rev. W. F. Moulton and A. E. Geden,
according to the texts adopted by Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and
the English revisers.

The first concordance to the English version of the New Testament was
published in London, 1535, by Thomas Gybson. It is a black-letter volume
entitled _The Concordance of the New Testament most necessary to be had
in the hands of all soche as delyte in the communicacion of any place
contayned in ye New Testament_.

The first English concordance of the entire Bible was John Marbeck's, _A
Concordance, that is to saie, a worke wherein by the order of the
letters of the A.B.C. ye maie redely find any worde conteigned in the
whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or mentioned_, Lond.
1550. Although Robert Stephens had divided the Bible into verses in
1545, Marbeck does not seem to have known this and refers to the
chapters only. In 1550 also appeared Walter Lynne's translation of the
concordance issued by Bullinger, Jude, Pellican and others of the
Reformers. Other English concordances were published by Cotton, Newman,
and in abbreviated forms by John Downham or Downame (cd. 1652), Vavasor
Powell (1617-1670), Jackson and Samuel Clarke (1626-1701). In 1737
Alexander Cruden (q.v.), a London bookseller, born and educated in
Aberdeen, published his _Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of
the Old and New Testament, to which is added a concordance to the books
called Apocrypha_. This book embodied, was based upon and superseded all
its predecessors. Though the first edition was not remunerative, three
editions were published during Cruden's life, and many since his death.
Cruden's work is accurate and full, and later concordances only
supersede his by combining an English with a Greek and Hebrew
concordance. This is done by the _Critical Greek and English
Concordance_ prepared by C. F. Hudson, H. A. Hastings and Ezra Abbot,
LL.D., published in Boston, Mass., and by the _Critical Lexicon and
Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament_, by E. L. Bullinger,