A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
by Charles Duroiselle
Third Edition 1997
Preface to the Third Edition
Most introductory Pāli grammar books consist of lessons that teach the elements of the language in stages, but because of that they are also very difficult to use as a reference when you need to look up a noun's declension, or a verb's conjugation. This book because of its practical and comprehensive coverage of the elements of the Pāli language in complete chapters is a very useful reference. This book was also not written for linguistics experts, but for students with little experience studying Pāli grammar. For these reasons I have found it extremely useful and I recommend it to people who have already completed one of the many books that have graduated exercies intended to introduce the basics of Pāli grammar. After you have completed one of those preliminary books and move on to really read Pāli texts you will find this book to be a really good friend.
Unfortunately, this book having been out of print for many years few people know of its existence and the copies that people who know about it are using are mainly photocopied versions like mine. So I thought that entering the text into a computer would be useful for both myself and also for other people interested in studying the Pāli language.
In producing this edition I have made some corrections and changes to the original. I have kept most of the archaic english spelling and usage. This is because it has a certain charm to it and is itself a lesson in language. Pāli has not changed in the last 80 years, but the reader will soon see how much English has changed. The corrections I made were mainly to errors in layout editing and punctuation that existed in the original book. Still, I have probably left a few and made some new ones for the editors of the fourth edition to correct when they update the English used.
I would like to thank Sayadaw U. Jotika who originally showed me the book and Miss Goh Poay Hoon who made a photocopy of it for me. Also Sean Doyle who generously let me use his scanner and optical character recognition software to scan the original in and then create a rough text to be edited; Gary Dellora who initially did the first editing of the scanned text; and Aniek Ley who donated the computer on which this text was edited.
May any merit made by all concerned be a condition for our attainment of Nibbāna.
U. Dhamminda 1997.
Mawlamyine
Preface to the Second Edition
This grammar was written at a time when it was urgently needed for schools and colleges, and as a consequence was conceived, written and seen through the press within the short space of a little over three months. Not-withstanding a few errors which had crept in - and which have now been corrected - the favour with which this work was received and reviewed in Europe, exceeded the author's expectations, if indeed he had any. Such favourable criticism it did not find in India: its great defect in the opinion of some Indian gentlemen being twofold; it does not enough adhere to the very ancient Hindu system of grammatical exposition; this venerable system was, it is readily recognized by every scholar, the most suitable - in fact the only suitable system for the method of imparting knowledge current in the times in which the earliest Sanskrit grammars and, modelled on them, the first Pāli grammars were composed. But, other times, other methods; and I am not alone in thinking that the old Hindu system, whatever its undeniable merits, could not be with success adapted to the clearer, more rapid and rational western methods of teaching. But the more unpardonable departure from the beaten track is, that the author has not thought it necessary constantly to refer to the Sanskrit forms and with them compare and from them deduce the Pāli ones. It must be remembered that this comparative method, however excellent and useful to persons already acquainted with Sanskrit who desire to take up the study of Pāli, does not answer in a practical manner to the needs of the class of students for whom this book has been written; that is, young students totally ignorant of the first principles of Sanskrit, and who do not, for the most part, in the least intend taking up such study. Moreover, to those who may later on, take up such a course, the close relation between the two languages will become easily apparent.
In section (603), mention is made of a so called "Nominative Absolute"; it is explained in a Pāli work called the Niruttidīpanī, printed in Rangoon. M. Monier Williams also mentions it in the preface to his Sanskrit Grammar.
Much official and literary work in connection with duties did not allow me to see this second edition through the press. Professor Maung Tin, of the Rangoon College, has most graciously undertaken this onerous work, and he has read and corrected every single proof. Persons who have had experience in proof-reading, above all of a book of such a character as the present one, will readily understand the magnitude of the service done me by my old pupil, and for which I beg here to thank him most sincerely.
Chas. Duroiselle. 1915.
Mandalay
Preface
This grammar was written for my pupils in the Rangoon College, to facilitate their work and make the study of the Pāli language easier for them. There is, to my knowledge no Pāli grammar suited to the requirements of students who do not know even the elements of Sanskrit, and to place into their hands grammars such as that of Muller of Frankfurter and of Minayef, which are intended for Sanskrit dilettanti, would serve rather to puzzle, than to help them; moreover, these grammars are not quite complete, consisting merely of the inflections of nouns and verbs. Mr James Gray's grammar, which was written with the same purpose as the one now presented to the public has long been out of stock; it had two drawbacks; the Pāli was all in Burmese characters, and it was too elementary to help the student in acquiring a thorough mastery of the language.
It is, I think, the first time, that Derivation has been treated systematically and fully in a European work; the chapter on Syntax. too, though not quite exhaustive (to make it so would require a special volume) is a novel feature, considering that Syntax has never as yet been treated of, except in one single instance (Pāli Grammar by H. H. Tilby, Rangoon Baptist College, 1899.), and very briefly and with no examples whatever given in illustration of the rules.
One of the greatest difficulties experienced has been to explain some forms (principally in Assimilation and Verbs), without the help of Sanskrit; scholars well understand how Pāli forms, thus explained, seem arbitrary, not to say incomprehensible in some cases; so that, although my avowed object was to write for students who do not know the first elements of Sanskrit grammar, I have thought it advisable to scatter here and there in the body of the work, a few explanations bearing on Sanskrit grammar, to make some forms better understood. But the student is perfectly free to skip them over and to assume the Pāli forms just as they are given; I would, however recommend him to peruse them at a second reading.
Each rule, throughout, is profusely illustrated with examples taken from the jātakas and from other books, and indigenous Pāli grammars. The paragraphs have been numbered and, to facilitate reference in looking up the rules, they are quoted whenever necessary, to render more easy the study of that part of the grammar which the student is actually reading.
Grammatical discoveries are not to be expected, but scholars will find in the work now issued, a few things which have never before appeared in European grammars of Pāli.
The following indigenous Pāli grammars have been consulted: saddanīti, mahārūpasiddhi, mahārūpasiddhi ṭikā, akhyātapadamālā, moggallāna, kacchāyana, gaḷon pyan.
I have availed myself of all the grammars published in Europe to which I could have access.
Chas. Duroiselle.
Rangoon: 20th December 1906.
Appendix
Here is a collection of dictionary definitions of some of the terms that can be found in this book.
Ablative: Of, relating to, or being a grammatical case indicating separation, direction away from, sometimes manner or agency, and the object of certain verbs. It is found in Latin and other Indo-European languages.
Ablative absolute: In Latin grammar, an adverbial phrase syntactically independent from the rest of the sentence and containing a noun plus a participle, an adjective, or a noun, both in the ablative case.
Accusative: Of, relating to, or being the case of a noun, pronoun, adjective, or participle that is the direct object of a verb or the object of certain prepositions.
Active: Indicating that the subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action expressed by the verb. Used of a verb form or voice.
Adjective: Any of a class of words used to modify a noun or other substantive by limiting, qualifying, or specifying and distinguished in English morphologically by one of several suffixes, such as -able, -ous, -er, and -est, or syntactically by position directly preceding a noun or nominal phrase, such as white in a white house.
Aorist: A form of a verb in some languages, such as Classical Greek or Sanskrit, that in the indicative mood expresses past action.
Conjugate: To inflect (a verb) in its forms for distinctions such as number, person, voice, mood, and tense.
Dative: Of, relating to, or being the grammatical case that in some Indo-European languages, such as Latin and Russian, as well as in some non-Indo-European languages, marks the recipient of action and is used with prepositions or other function words corresponding in meaning to English to and for.
Declension: Linguistics. a. In certain languages, the inflection of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in categories such as case, number, and gender.
Genitive: Of, relating to, or designating a case that expresses possession, measurement, or source.
Gerund: A verbal noun analogous to the Latin gerund, such as the English form ending in -ing when used as a noun, as in singing in We admired the choir's singing.
Grammar: The system of inflections, syntax, and word formation of a language.
Inflection: a. An alternation of the form of a word by adding affixes, as in English dogs from dog, or by changing the form of a base, as in English spoke from speak, that indicates grammatical features such as number, person, mood, or tense. b. The paradigm of a word. c. A pattern of forming paradigms, such as noun inflection or verb inflection.
Interrogative: Of, relating to, or being an element or construction used to ask a question: an interrogative adverb; an interrogative particle.
Locative: Of, relating to, or being a grammatical case in certain inflected languages that indicates place in or on which or time at which, as in Latin dom, 'at home.'
Nominative: Of, relating to, or belonging to a case of the subject of a finite verb (as I in I wrote the letter) and of words identified with the subject of a copula, such as a predicate nominative (as children in These are his children).
Optative: Of, relating to, or being a mood of verbs in some languages, such as Greek, used to express a wish. Designating a statement using a verb in the subjunctive mood to indicate a wish or desire, as in Had I the means, I would do it.
Present Participle: A participle expressing present action, formed in English by the infinitive plus -ing and used to express present action in relation to the time indicated by the finite verb in its clause, to form progressive tenses with the auxiliary be, and to function as a verbal adjective.
Passive: Of, relating to, or being a verb form or voice used to indicate that the grammatical subject is the object of the action or the effect of the verb. For example, in the sentence They were impressed by his manner, were impressed is in the passive voice.
Participle: A form of a verb that in some languages, such as English, can function independently as an adjective, as the past participle baked in We had some baked beans, and is used with an auxiliary verb to indicate tense, aspect, or voice, as the past participle baked in the passive sentence The beans were baked too long.
Past Participle: A verb form indicating past or completed action or time that is used as a verbal adjective in phrases such as baked beans and finished work and with auxiliaries to form the passive voice or perfect and pluperfect tenses in constructions such as She had baked the beans and The work was finished. Also called perfect participle.
Prefix: An affix, such as dis- in disbelieve, put before a word to produce a derivative word or an inflected form.
Pronominal: Of, relating to, or functioning as a pronoun. Resembling a pronoun, as by specifying a person, place, or thing, while functioning primarily as another part of speech. His in his choice is a pronominal adjective.
Radical: Arising from or going to a root or source; basic: a radical flaw in a plan; chose the radical solution of starting all over again.
Reflective: designating or expressing a grammatical relation in which a verb's subject and an object in the sentence refer to the same person or thing, serving to indicate that the action of the verb is directed back to the subject Ex. "Gary hurt himself", "Jane threw a party for herself".
Sanskrit: An ancient Indic language that is the language of Hinduism and the Vedas and is the classical literary language of India.
Substantive: 1. Expressing or designating existence; for example, the verb to be. 2. Designating a noun or noun equivalent.
Suffix: An affix added to the end of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending, such as -ness in gentleness, -ing in walking, or -s in sits.
Vocative: Relating to or being a grammatical case used in Latin and certain other languages to indicate the person or thing being addressed.
Verbal Adjective: An adjective that is derived from a verb and that in some constructions, participial phrases for example, preserves the verb's syntactic features, such as transitivity and the capability of taking nominal or verbal complements.
Abbreviations
Masc. = Masculine.
Fem. = Feminine.
Neut. = Neuter.
S., Sansk. = Sanskrit.
P.P.P. = Passive Perfect Participle.
P.P.A. = Perfect Participle Active.
F.P.P. = Future Passive Participle.
Adj. = Adjective.
Nom. = Nominative.
Gen. = Genitive.
Dat. = Dative.
Acc. = Accusative.
Inst. = Instrumentive,
Abl. = Ablative
Loc. = Locative.
Contents
(The numbers within bracket
refer to the paragraphs)
| Preface | |
| I | The Alphabet |
| Vowels short and long (2-5) The letters classified (6) Pronunciation (10-11) Conjunct consonants (12-13) |
|
| II | Sandhi Euphony |
| Introductory (14-16) Vowel sandhi (17-27) Consonantal Insertions (28) Consonantal sandhi (29-36) Niggahīta Sandhi (37-46) Interchange of letters (47) Signs (48-50) |
|
| III | Assimilation |
| Introductory (51-52) Kinds of Assimilation (53) General Rules (54-66) Assimilation of Nasals (67-69) Assimilation of y (70-79) Assimilation of r (80-84) Assimilation of s (85-95) Assimilation of h (96-102) |
|
| IV | Strengthening |
| V | Declension of Nominal Bases |
| Stem or Base (116, b) Gender (116, c, d) The Cases (116, f) Divisions of Declension (117) General case endings (118) Vowel declension, stems in a (119-121) Masculines in a, deva (122) Neuters in a, rūpa (123-124) Declension of nouns in ā (125) Feminines in ā kaññā (126-127) Masculines in ā, sā (128) Declension of nouns in i, (129) Masculines in i, kapi (130-131) Feminines in i, ī ratti (132-133) Neuters in i, vāri (134) Declension of nouns in ī (135) Masculines in ī, daṇḍī (136-137) Feminines in ī nadī (138-139) Declension of nouns in u (140) Masculines in u, bhikkhu (141) Feminines in u. dhenu (142-143) Neuters in u, cakkhu (144-145) Declension of nouns in ū (146) Masculines in ū, sayambhu (147) Feminines in ū, vadhū (148) Diphthongal stems (149) Special nouns, go, sakhā (150-151) Consonantal Declension (152) Attā (154) Brahmā (155) Rājā (156) Pumā (157) Stems in s, mano (159-160) îyu (161) Stems in r, satthā (163) Matā, pitā (164) Stems in at, vat, mat, bhavaṃ (166) Arahaṃ (167) |
|
| VI | Formation of Feminine Bases |
| Feminine suffixes (181) Feminine bases of substantives (182-192) Feminine bases of adjectives (193-195) |
|
| VII | Adjectives |
| Adjectives in a (197-201) Adjectives in ī (202-204) Adjectives in i (205-210) Adjectives in u (211-214) Adjectives In ū (215-218) Adjectives with consonantal bases (220-224) mahā (226) dhīmā (228) guṇavā (230) Adjectives in vi (231-235) Negative Adjectives (236-237) Comparison (238-247) Irregular Adjectives (247) |
|
| VIII | Numerals |
| Table of cardinals and ordinals
(251) Cardinals (252-272) Ordinals (273-278) Adverbial derivatives from numerals (279-287) |
|
| IX | Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Pronominal Derivatives |
| Personal (288-296) Demonstratives (297-311) Relatives (312-314) Interrogative (315-318) Indefinite (319-327) Other pronouns (328-335) Pronominal derivatives (336-352) Adjectives declined pronominally (353) |
|
| X | Verbs |
| Introductory (354-369) Primitive Verbs (369) First Conjugation (370-371) Rules of reduplication (372) Second Conjugation (373) Third Conjugation (374-375) Fourth Conjugation (376) Fifth Conjugation (377) Sixth Conjugation (378) Seventh Conjugation (379) Conjugation of the Present System (381-403) Irregular verbs (404) Aorist (405-426) System of the Perfect (427-430) Future System (431-438) Participles: Present (439-448) Future (449) P.P.P. (450-464) P.P.A. (465) F.P.P. (466-469) Gerund (470-472) Infinitive (473-477) Passive Voice (481-490) Causative Verbs (491-497) Denominative Verbs (498-502) Desiderative Verbs (503-507) Intensive Verbs (508-509) Defective anomolous verbs (510-513) Verbal prefixes (514-522) Paradigm of a Verb fully conjugated: pacati (523) coreti (524-527) Table of the changes occurring in the root (528) |
|
| XI | Indeclinables |
| Derivative Adverbs (531) Case-form Adverbs (532) Pure Adverbs (532) Prepositions (533-537) Conjunctions (538) |
|
| XII | Compounds |
| Introductory (539-541) dvanda (542-544) tappurisa (545) kammadhāraya (546) Nouns in apposition (547) digu (548) Adverbial Compounds (549) Relative Compounds (550-551) Upapada Compounds (552) Anomalous Compounds (553) Complex Compounds (554) Changes in certain words in Compounds (555) Verbal Compounds (556-557) |
|
| XIII | Derivation |
| Introductory (558-574) Primary derivatives, kita (575-578) Secondary derivation, taddhita (579-581) Kvi suffixes (582-584) |
|
| XIV | Syntax |
| Kāraka (587) Order of Sentences (588) Article (589) Concord (590-592) Nominative (594) Genitive (595) Dative (597) Accusative (598) Instrumentive (599) Ablative (600) Locative (601) Vocative (602) Genitive and Locative Absolute (603) of Adjectives (604) of Pronouns (605-609) Repetition (610) of Verbs (611-618) of Participles (619-622) of Indeclinables (623) Direct and Indirect Narration (624) Interrogation and Negation (625) |
|
| XV | Prosody |
| Introductory (626-627) Feet (628-629) Short and long syllables (630) Varieties of Metres (631) Sama class (632) Addhasama class (634) Visama class (635) Vatta (636) Kinds of vatta (638) Jāti (639-641) Vetāliya (642) |
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 1
The Alphabet
1. The Pāli Alphabet consists of 41 letters; namely: 6 vowels, 2 diphthongs, 32 consonants and one accessory nasal sound called Niggahīta.
2. The vowels are divided into short and long; the short vowels are: a, i, u; the long vowels are ā, ī, ū.
3. The value of a long vowel is about twice that of a short one, so that it takes twice as much time to pronounce a long vowel as to pronounce a short one.
4. The sign of a long vowel is a dash placed over it. Besides the above three long vowels, all short vowels are prosodically long that come before a conjunct or double consonant: for instance, in bhikkhu, raṭṭha and puppha, the -i before kkh, the -a before ṭṭh and the -u before pph are said to be long.
Long also are a, i, u when followed by ṃ (niggahīta), as in: pupphaṃ, a flower; cakkhuṃ, eye; kapiṃ, monkey.
5. The two diphthongs are e and o, which are always long. They are diphthongs only grammatically, because they are supposed to be the product of the meeting and contraction of two vowels (a + i = e; and a + u = o). In reality and practically they are simple vowels.
6. The consonants are divided into: 25 mutes, 5 semi-vowels, one sibilant and one aspirate (spirant). The 25 mutes are divided, according to the place of their formation and utterance, into 5 groups of 5 letters each.
The following table shows at a glance the classification of all the letters:
| Consonants | |||||||||||
| Mutes | |||||||||||
| Surd | Sonants | ||||||||||
| Unaspirate | Aspirate | Unaspirate | Aspirate | Nasals | Semi-vowels Liquids |
Spirant | Sibilant | Vowels | |||
| gutterals | k | kh | g | gh | ṅ | h | a, ā | e | o | ||
| palatals | c | ch | j | jh | ñ | y | i, ī | ||||
| linguals | ṭ | ṭh | ḍ | ḍh | ṇ | r, ḷ | |||||
| dentals | t | th | d | dh | n | l | s (surd) |
||||
| labials | p | ph | b | bh | m | v | u, ū | ||||
| ṃ (niggahīta) - sonant |
7. ḷ is now generally considered to be a semi-vowel and it is a liquid, a modification of l; in palm-leaf MSS l and ḷ are constantly interchanged. ḷ is not seldom the substitute of ḍ; it is a lingual because it is pronounced as the letters of that class (ṭ, ṭh, etc.).
8. ṃ or niggahīta comports, properly speaking, no classification; it is merely a nasal breathing found only after the short vowels: aṃ, iṃ, uṃ.
9. The
Gutterals are so called from their being pronounced in the
throat;
The Palatals, from being uttered by pressing the tongue on the
front-palate;
The Linguals are formed by bringing the up-turned tip of the
tongue in contact with the back of the palate;
The Dentals are so called from their being pronounced with the
aid of the teeth;
The Labials are formed by means of the lips;
The Nasals are sounded through the nose;
The Sibilant has a hissing sound; and,
The Spirant a strong aspirated breathing.
The Mutes are so called on account of their not being readily
pronounced without the aid of a vowel;
Surds, are hard, flat, and toneless;
The Sonants are soft and uttered with a checked tone;
The Liquids, readily combine with other consonants: (except,
perhaps, ḷ);
The Aspirates are pronounced with a strong breathing or h sound
added to them;
The Unaspirates are pronounced naturally, without effort and
without the h sound.

The Consonants
11. Remark. In all cases, the aspirates are pronounced like the unaspirates, but with the addition of a strong h sound; hence the pronunciation of the unaspirates only is given.
k is pronounced like k in king.
g is pronounced like garden, go.
ṅ is pronounced like ng in king, bring.
c is pronounced like ch in church, chip.
j is pronounced like jail, jar.
ñ is pronounced like ny in banyan.
t is pronounced like table, tack.
th, it must be borne in mind, is never pronounced like the
English -th, in such words as: the, thin, etc. It is merely -t,
uttered with an effort.
d is pronounced like d in deed.
n is pronounced like n in nag.
p is pronounced like p in part.
ph, it must be remarked, is simply the aspirate of p, and ought
not to be pronounced like f (as in: philosophy).
b is pronounced like b in book.
m, y, r, l, s, h are pronounced like the corresponding English
letters.
v, not preceded by a consonant has the sound of v, in vine, vile.
But preceded by a consonant, it is sounded like w in wind,
win; tvā, therefore, is pronounced
twā.
ṃ, (niggahīta), found always at the end of words is, in Burma,
pronounced like m in, jam, ram;
in Ceylon, it is given the sound of ng in, bring,
king.
Conjunct Consonants
12. Two consonants coming together form what is called a conjunct or double consonant. For instance, in: vassa, kattha and pandāpeti, the ss, tth, and nd, are conjunct consonants.
13. Only the letters of a same vagga or group (viz., the five divisions of the mutes: gutterals, palatals, etc.), can be brought together to form a conjunct consonant: the first and second, and the third and fourth only: the fifth letter of each group, that is the nasal, can be coupled with any of the other four consonants in its group.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 2
Sandhi (Euphony)
14. Sandhi (union) is that part of the grammar which treats of the euphonic changes that occur when one word is joined to another.
15. Generally
these changes occur
(a) When a word ending in a vowel is joined to a word beginning
with a vowel.
(b) When a word ending in a vowel, is joined to another word
beginning with a consonant.
(c) When a word ending in niggahīta (ṃ) is followed by a word
beginning either with a vowel or with a consonant.
16. From the
above it will be seen that sandhi is of three kinds:
(I) Vowel-sandhi, (II) Mixed sandhi and (III) Niggahīta-sandhi.
Remarks. It is not absolutely necessary that the student should master thoroughly the rules of sandhi before beginning the study of the other chapters; but he should read them once carefully, and always refer to them whenever in the course of his reading he finds forms and combinations that puzzle him.
I. Vowel-Sandhi
17. A vowel before another vowel is elided.
Examples
| Elision of a, | yassa + indriyāni = yassindriyāni. |
| ajja + uposatho = ajjuposatho. | |
| Elision of ā, | mā + āvuso evarūpaṃ akāsi = māvuso, etc. |
| tadā + uṭṭhahi = taduṭṭhahi. | |
| Elision of i, | udadhi + ūmiyo = udadhūmiyo. |
| aggi + āhito = aggāhito. | |
| Elision of ī, | bhikkhunī + ovādo = bhikkhunovādo. |
| migī + iva = migiva. | |
| Elision of u, | dhātu + āyatanāni = dhātāyatanāni. |
| dhātu + indriyāni = dhātindriyāni. | |
| Elision of ū, | jambū + ādīni = jambādīni. |
| jambū + īrita vātena = jambīrita vātena. | |
| Elision of e, | laddho me + okāso = laddho m'okāso. |
| gāthā me + udīritā = gāthā m'udīritā. | |
| Elision of o, | eso + āvuso āyasmā = es'āvuso āyasmā. |
Remarks. When ī is followed by a vowel it is very seldom elided: in the expression tuṇhassa, however, we have an example of its elision; tuṇhassa = tuṇhī + assa; tuṇhī ahesuṃ, remains without change.
18. A vowel coming after another vowel may, if it is dissimilar, be elided.
Examples
(i) cakkhu + indriyaṃ =
cakkhundriyaṃ.
(ii) yassa + idāni = yass'idāni.
19. The first vowel having been elided the following vowel may be lengthened.
Examples
(i) tatra + ayaṃ =
tatrāyaṃ.
(ii) sa + atthika = sātthika.
(iii) kiki + iva = kikīva.
(iv) kamma + upanissayo = kammūpanissayo.
(Note: A short vowel, a, i, u, is lengthened by putting a
"-"(Dash) over it).
20. Sometimes the second vowel having been elided, the preceding vowel is lengthened.
Examples
(i) vi + atimānenti =
vītimānenti.
(ii) kiṃsu + idha vittaṃ = kiṃsūdha vittaṃ.
21. Generally:
(i) a or ā + i or ī = e.
(ii) a or ā + u or ū = o.
Examples
I. a or
ā + i or ī
(i) upa + ikkhati = upekkhati.
(ii) jina + īritanayo = jineritanayo.
(iii) ava + ecca = avecca.
(iv) bandhussa + iva = bandhusseva.
Exceptions
(a) iti preceded by a becomes
āti, as:
(i) tassa + iti = tassāti.
(ii) tissa + iti = tissāti.
(b) i may be elided after a;
as:
(i) pana + ime = pana'me.
(ii) tena + ime = tena'me.
(c) Sometimes ā + i
becomes i; as:
seyyathā + idaṃ = seyyathidaṃ.
II. a
or ā + u or ū
(i) canda + udayo = candodayo.
(ii) na + upeti = nopeti.
(iii) udaka + ūmi = udakomi.
(iv) yathā + udaka = yathodaka.
22. When two
vowels of the same organ meet, the result is generally long: that
is,
a + a = ā, a + ā = ā, ā + a = ā, ā
+ ā = ā.
i + i = ī, i + ī = i, ī + i = ī, ī + ī = ī.
u + u = ū, u + ū = ū, ū + u = ū, ū + ū = ū.
Examples
(i) ñāṇa +
ālokena = ñāṇālokena.
(ii) demi + iti = demīti.
23. i and u may, before verbs beginning with a vowel, remain unchanged.
Examples
(i) gāthāhi
ajjhabhāsi.
(ii) adhivāsesi avihaññamāno.
(iii) satthu adāsi.
24. A final vowel may remain unchanged before any other vowel when not followed by iti, in the following cases:
(a) In nouns in the vocative case: kassappa etaṃ...
(b) In a word ending in a long vowel if it does not form a compound with the following word: bhagavā uṭṭhāyāsanā.
(c) After particles, vowels remain unchanged.
Examples
(i) atho + anto ca = atho anto
ca.
(ii) atha kho + āyasmā = atha kho āyasmā.
(iii) no + atikkamo = no atikkamo.
Remarks. The particles, called nipāta, are indeclinable; they are rather numerous. The following are a few of them and the most common: atho, atha, yeva, adho, yathā, tathā, tāva, yāva, eva, ivā, va, re, are, ca, hi, tu, kacci, kho, khalu, kira, pana, ce, nanu, nūna, nāma, etc., etc.*
*There are two kinds of indeclinable words: the nipāta or adverbs and the upasagga, or prepositions. The latter number only 20: ā, u, ati, pati, pa, pari, ava, parā, adhi, abhi, anu, upa, apa, api, saṃ, vi, ni, nī, su, du, (saddanīti: catupadavibhāga). All the other indeclinables are of course nipāta.
Note. Final vowels before
particles beginning with a, i, e, as: atha, iva, eva, follow the
rules of sandhi, as;
(i) itthī + iti = itthīti.
(ii) sabbe + eva = sabbe'va.
(iii) so + eva = sveva.
(iv) na + ettha = n'ettha.
(d) i and u before a verb may remain unchanged: (see 23)
25. The vowel e, when followed by a long dissimilar vowel and also when followed by a short dissimilar vowel followed by a conjunct consonant, may be elided.
Examples
(i) me + āsi = m'āsi.
(ii) sace + assa = sac'assa.
26. After o, a vowel is usually elided.
Examples
(i) yo + ahaṃ = yo'haṃ.
(ii) cattāro + ime = cattāro'me.
Transformation of Vowels into Semi-vowels
27. The vowels
i, u, e, o, when followed by another vowel may be transformed
into their semi-vowels.
(i) The semi-vowel of i, and e, is y.
(ii) The semi-vowel of u and o, is v.
(a) Final i, before a
dissimilar vowel is changed to y.
(i) vi + ākāsi = vyākāsi.
(ii) vitti + anubhuyyate = vittyanubhuyyate.
(iii) dāsi + ahaṃ = dāsyāhaṃ.
Remarks. iti + eva = itveva.
(b) In such words as: me, te, ke, ye, etc., e is changed to y, and, if the a following e stands before a single consonant it is lengthened to ā.
Examples
(i) me + ahaṃ = myāhaṃ.
(ii) me + ayaṃ = myāyaṃ.
(iii) te + ayaṃ = tyāyaṃ.
(iv) te + ahaṃ = tyāhaṃ.
(v) ke + assa = kyassa (34).
Exceptions
(a) Final e may be elided
before a long vowel: me + āsi = m'āsi.
(b) Final e may be elided before a short vowel followed by a
double consonant: sace + assa = sac'assa.
(c) Final e sometimes elides a following vowel:
(i) te + ime = te'me.
(ii) sace + ajja = sace'jja.
(d) Final e + a may give ā: sace + ayaṃ = sacāyaṃ.
(c) When u, is followed by a dissimilar vowel, it is changed to v.
Examples
(i) anu + eti = anveti.
(ii) dhātu + anta = dhātvanta.
(iii) dhātu + attha = dhātvattha.
(iv) bahu + ābādho = bahvābādho.
(v) su + āgataṃ = svāgataṃ.
(vi) anu + aḍḍhamāsaṃ = anvaḍḍhamāsaṃ.
Exceptions
(a) Final u may be elided
before a dissimilar vowel: sametu + āyasmā =
samet'āyasmā.
(b) Not seldom, u + i gives ū: sādhu + iti = sādhūti.
(d) Final o, may be changed to v before a dissimilar vowel.
Examples
(i) ko + attho = kvattho.
(ii) agamā nu kho + idha = agamā nu khvidha.
(iii) yato + adhikaraṇaṃ = yatvadhikaraṇaṃ.
(iv) yo + ayaṃ = yvāyaṃ.
Exceptions
Final o before a long vowel or
a short vowel followed by a double consonant, is generally
elided:
(i) kuto + ettha = kut'ettha.
(ii) tato + uddhaṃ = tat'uddhaṃ.
(iii) tayo + assu = tay'assu.
Remarks.
1. The change of u and o, to v occurs chiefly when u or o, comes
after one of the following consonants: k, kh, t, th, d, na, y, s
and h (saddanīti, part III sandhisuttamālā).
2. Sometimes, after i or ī, y is inserted before a word
beginning with a vowel, to avoid hiatus:
(i) aggi + āgāre = aggiyāgāre.
(ii) sattamī + atthe = sattamīyatthe.
3. Similarly, to avoid a hiatus, a v is inserted between final u
and another vowel:
(i) du + aṅgikaṃ = duvaṅgikaṃ.
(ii) bhikkhu + āsane = bhikkhuvāsane.
(See below Consonantal Insertions.)
Consonantal Insertions
28. (a) Not seldom, to avoid a hiatus, a
consonant is inserted between two vowels.
(b) The consonants thus inserted are: y, v, m, d, n, t, r, l(=
ḷ), and h. (Saddanītī gives also, h.)
(c) Of these, the most frequently used are: d, r, m, y and v.
Remarks. Some of these consonants are mere revivals from the older language, as in: puna + eva = punareva. Here, the r is simply revived.
Examples of Insertion of Consonants
Insertion of y:
(i) na + imassa = nayimassa.
(ii) mā + evam = māyevaṃ.
(iii) santi + eva = santiyeva.
Insertion of v:
(i) bhū + ādāya = bhūvādāya.
(ii) migī bhantā + udikkhati = migī bhantā
vudikkhati.
(iii) pa + uccati = pavuccati.
Insertion of m:
(i) idha + āhu = idhamāhu.
(ii) lahu + essati = lahumessati.
(iii) bhāyati + eva = bhāyatimeva.
Insertion of d:
(i) saki + eva = sakideva.
(ii) tāva + eva = tāvadeva.
(iii) sammā + aññā =
sammādaññā.
Remarks. The insertion of d, is constant after the particle u, and very frequent after: sakiṃ, kenaci, kiñci, kinniñci, koci, sammā, yāva, tāva, puna; as well as after the bases of pronouns such as: ya, ta, sa etc.*, as: u + aggo = udaggo; u + apādi = udapādi; kenaci + eva = kenacideva; yāva + atthaṃ = yāvadatthaṃ; puna + eva = punadeva; ta + atthaṃ = tadatthaṃ; ta + antaro = tadantaro; eta + atthaṃ = etadatthaṃ.
Insertion of n:
(i) ito + āyati = itonāyati.
(ii) ciraṃ + āyati = ciraṃ nāyati or cirannāyati
(30).
Insertion of t:
(i) yasmā + iha = yasmātiha.
(ii) ajja + agge = ajjatagge.
Remarks. The insertion of t, mostly takes place after the words: yāva, tāva, ajja, before iha and agga.
Insertion of r:
(i) ni + antaraṃ = nirantaraṃ.
(ii) ni + ojaṃ = nirojaṃ.
(iii) du + atikkamo = duratikkamo.
(iv) du + ājāno = durājāno.
(v) pātu + ahosi = pāturahosi.
(vi) catu + ārakkhā = caturārakkhā.
*mahārūpasiddhi (sandhi). It must, however, be remarked that the d is, in most words, a survivance from the older language; Sansk, has invariably preserved it. Thus u, of the native Pāli grammarians is but the Sansk: ud; so ...ci, ...cid. etc.
Remarks.
1. Between tathā eva and yathā eva, ri is often
inserted; the ā preceding is shortened and the e of eva
elided: tathariva, yathariva.
2. This consonant r, is generally inserted after: the particles:
ni, du, pātu, puna, dhi, pāta, catu, and a few others.
In most cases it is simply revived.
Insertion of l = ḷ:
(i) cha + aṅgām = chaḷaṅgaṃ.
(ii) cha + aṃsa = chaḷaṃsa.
Remarks. l = ḷ is generally inserted after cha (six).
Insertion of h:
(i) su + ujuca = suhujuca.
(ii) su + uṭṭhitaṃ = suhuṭṭhitaṃ.
II. Consonantal Sandhi
29. Consonantal sandhi occurs when a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a consonant.
30. In the majority of cases, Consonantal sandhi is resorted to, to meet the exigencies of metres but not always.
31. Before a
consonant, a long vowel may be shortened:
(i) yathā + bhāvi + guṇena = yathabhāviguṇena.
(ii) yiṭṭhaṃ vā hutaṃ vā loke = yiṭṭhaṃ va
hutaṃ va loke.
32. A vowel,
before a consonant, if short, may be lengthened:
(i) evaṃ gāme muni care = evaṃ gāme muni care
(ii) du + rakkhaṃ = dūrakkhaṃ.
(iii) su + rakkhaṃ = sūrakkhaṃ.
33. A consonant following a word or a particle ending in a vowel, is generally reduplicated.
Examples
(i) idha + pamādo =
idhappamādo.
(ii) su + paṭṭhito = suppaṭṭhito.
(iii) vi + payutto = vippayutto.
(iv) a + pativattiyo = appativattiyo.
(v) pa + kamo = pakkamo.
(vi) yathā + kamaṃ = yathakkamaṃ. (34)
(vii) anu + gaho = anuggaho.
(viii) vi + jotati = vijjotati.
(ix) kata + ñū = kataññū.
(x) du + labho = dullabho.
(xi) du + sīlo = dussīlo.
Remarks.
1. v, after a vowel becomes bb:
(i) ni + vānaṃ = nibbānaṃ.
(ii) ni + vāyati = nibbāyati.
(iii) du + vinicchayo = dubbinicchayo.
2. Reduplication of the consonants takes place generally after
the prefixes:
u, upa, pari, ati, pa, a, anu, etc.
3. The constant rule in reduplication is that an aspirate is
reduplicated by an unaspirate, and an unaspirate by an
unaspirate. That is to say, an unaspirate is reduplicated by
itself.
34. The vowel preceding a conjunct consonant being prosodically long, the naturally long vowels: ā, ī, ū, are not allowed to stand before a double consonant.
35. When,
according to para (33), a consonant is reduplicated after a
particle ending in a long vowel, this vowel is shortened:
(i) ā + kamati = akkamati.
(ii) parā + kamo = parakkamo.
Exceptions
There are, however, a few
exceptions to paras 34, 35. The following are the most common
examples:
(i) na + añña = nāñña. (ii) na + assa =
nāssa.
(iii) na + assu = nāssu. (iv) kasmā + assa =
kasmāssa.
(v) tatra + assa = tatrāssa. (vi) sa + antevāsiko =
sāntevāsiko.
(vii) sa + atthi = sātthi. (viii) vedanā + khandho =
vedanākkhandho, etc.
36. (a) Before
a consonant, the o in so, eso, may be changed to a:
(i) eso dhammo or esa dhammo.
(ii) so muni or sa muni.
(b) Sometimes, this change occurs even before a vowel, thus
creating a hiatus, which is allowed to remain: so attho or sa
attho.
(c) The same change (of o to a), occurs also, but not so
frequently, in: ayo (iron), mano (the mind), tamo (darkness),
paro (other), tapo (penance, mortification) and a few others:
ayopattaṃ or ayapattaṃ, etc.
III. Niggahīta Sandhi
37. Niggahīta sandhi takes place when a word ending in ṃ (niggahīta) is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, or with a consonant.
38. Niggahita when followed by a consonant, may, remain unchanged.
Examples
(i) taṃ dhammaṃ kataṃ.
(ii) taṃ khaṇaṃ.
(iii) taṃ patto.
39. Niggahita, followed by a consonant, may be transformed to the nasal of the class to which that consonant belongs.
Examples
(i) raṇaṃ + jaho =
ranañjaho.
(ii) taṇhaṃ + karo = taṇhaṅkaro.
(iii) saṃ + ṭhito = saṇṭhito.
(iv) jutiṃ + dharo = jutindharo.
(v) saṃ + mato = sammato.
(vi) evaṃ + kho = evaṅ kho.
(vii) dhammaṃ + ca = dhammañca.
(viii) taṃ + niccutaṃ = tanniccutaṃ.
Remarks. Before initial l, the
niggahita of saṃ and puṃ is changed to l:
(i) saṃ + lakkhaṇā = sallakkhaṇā.
(ii) paṭi saṃ līno = paṭisallīno.
(iii) saṃ + lekko = sallekho.
(iv) puṃ + liṅgaṃ = pulliṅgaṃ.
40. Niggahita,
followed by e or h is changed to ññ and ñh
respectively.
(i) taṃ + eva = taññeva.
(ii) paccantaraṃ + eva = paccantaraññeva.
(iii) evaṃ + hi kho = evañhi kho.
(iv) taṃ + hitassa = tañhitassa.
41. y
following niggahita, becomes assimilated to it, and both together
may become ññ:
(i) saṃ + yuttaṃ = saññuttaṃ.
(ii) saṃ + yogo = saññogo.
Remarks. Not seldom, no coalescence takes place, and both letters remain unchanged: saṃyuttaṃ; saṃyojanaṃ.
42. When
preceding a vowel, niggahita becomes m:
(i) taṃ + atthaṃ = tam atthaṃ.
(ii) yaṃ + āhu = yam āhu.
(iii) kiṃ + etaṃ = kim etaṃ.
Remarks. Rules 39 and 42, are not strictly adhered to in texts edited in Roman characters; in prose above all, niggahita is allowed to remain unchanged before a vowel or a consonant, even in the middle of a word sometimes; in poetry, the retention of niggahita or its change to m before a vowel, is regulated by the exigencies of the metres.
43. Sometimes,
niggahita before a vowel, may become d:
(i) etaṃ + attho = etadattho.
(ii) etaṃ + eva = etadeva.
(iii) etaṃ + avoca = etadavoca.
(iv) yaṃ + anantaraṃ = yadanantaraṃ.
(v) yaṃ + idaṃ = yadidaṃ.
Remarks. The change of niggahīta into d is more fictitious than real; in most examples, the d is simply a survivance. (See Insertion of consonants).
44.
Niggahīta, before a vowel or a consonant may be elided:
(i) tāsaṃ + ahaṃ santike = tāsāhaṃ santike.
(ii) ariyasaccānaṃ + dassanaṃ =
ariyasaccānadassanaṃ.
(iii) etaṃ buddhānaṃ + sāsanaṃ = etaṃ
buddhānasāsanaṃ.
45. A
niggahīta may sometimes be inserted before a vowel or a
consonant:
(i) ava siro = avaṃsiro.
(ii) manopubba gamā = manopubbaṅgamā.
(iii) cakkhu + udapādi = cakkhuṃ udapādi.
(iv) yāva c'idha bhikkhave = yāvañc'idha.
46. After
niggahita, a vowel may be elided:
(i) kiṃ + iti = kinti.
(ii) idaṃ + api = idaṃ pi.
(iii) cakkaṃ + iva = cakkaṃ va.
(iv) kaliṃ + idāni = kaliṃ 'dāni or kalin dāni.
Interchange of Letters
47. Not unfrequently an interchange of
letters takes place:
(i) dh becomes h; rudhira = ruhira.
(ii) d becomes t; sugado = sugato.
(iii) t becomes ṭ; pahato = pahaṃo.
(iv) t becomes d; gantabba = gandabba.
(v) g becomes k; hatthupaga = hatthupaka.
(vi) r becomes l; paripanno = palipanno.
(vii) y becomes j; gavayo = gavajo.
(viii) k becomes y; sake pure = saye pure.
(ix) j becomes y; nijaṃputtaṃ = niyaṃputtaṃ.
(x) t becomes k; niyato = niyako.
(xi) k becomes kh; nikamati = nikhamati.
Signs
48. As has already been said a dash (-)
indicates a long vowel:
(i) ahaṃ sakkhī ahaṃ sakkhī = I am witness!
(ii) pajjalantāni pabbatakūṭāni mālāguḷabhāvaṃ
āpannāni disvā = seeing the blazing mountain peaks
had turned into nosegays.....
49. Crasis,
the contraction of two syllables into one, is shown by the
circumflex accent (^):
(i) sādhu hoti, lacchasīti. all right! you'll get it.
(ii) taṃ... gaṇhissāmīti. I'll seize him!
Remarks. In most texts, crasis is expressed by a (-) dash, as used for the long vowels.
50. The
elision of a vowel is expressed by an apostrophe ('):
(i) eken'ūno = ekena ūno.
(ii) idān'eva = idāni eva.
(iii) pi'ssa = pi assa.
(iv) tass'ekadivasaṃ = tassa ekadivasaṃ.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 3
Assimilation
51. The matter included in this chapter should perhaps have come under the head of "sandhi" for assimilation is nothing but changes that occur for the sake of euphony.
I have remarked that, although the rules of sandhi, as explained in the preceding chapter, are readily understood and applied by the young students, the laws of assimilation puzzle them not a little, and retard their reading much more than is necessary. The difficulty thus experienced arises from their ignorance of Sanskrit, without at least a slight knowledge of which, the study of Pāli becomes sensibly more difficult.
In the following paragraphs, I shall try and explain as succinctly and as clearly as possible, the rules of assimilation. The student cannot be too much recommended to study thoroughly this chapter and to refer to it constantly in the course of his studies.
52. Assimilation is the blending into one of two consonantal sounds. It involves the change of one sound to another of the same series, but sometimes also to a sound of another series. (See chart at end of para 6).
53.
Assimilation is of two kinds:
(i) The initial consonant is assimilated to the final consonant
of the preceding word. This is called Progressive Assimilation.
(ii) The final consonant of the preceding word is assimilated to
the initial consonant of the word that follows. This is called
Regressive Assimilation.
I.
Progressive Assimilation
(a) √lag (to
cling) + na = lagna = lagga (clung).
(b) √budh (to know) + ta = budhta = buddha (known).
It will be remarked that in example (a) the n (dental) has been assimilated to the g which belongs to another series (gutteral).
In (b), the t, become d, assimilates to the preceding dh, both being sounds of the same series (dentals).
II.
Regressive Assimilation
(a) √lip (to smear) + ta = lipta = litta (smeared).
(b) √dam (to subdue) + ta = damta = danta (subdued).
In these two examples, p in (a), is assimilated to initial t and passes to another series of sounds.
In (b), m likewise passing to another series, assimilates itself to t and becomes n.
General Rules of Assimilation
54. Assimilation takes place mostly in the formation of the Passive Voice, the Passive Perfect Participle, the base of verbs of the third conjugation, of the Infinitive, Gerund, the Potential Passive Participle and in the formation of the Desiderative; also under the influence of certain suffixes in the derivation of words.
55. In Pāli, regressive Assimilation is the more common.
56. When a
mute meets with an initial mute (non-nasal), there is regressive
assimilation generally, that is the first consonant is
assimilated to the second:
(i) sak + ta = sakta = satta.
(ii) sak + thi = sakthi = satthi.
57. A gutteral
assimilates the following dental:
(i) lag + na = lagna = lagga.
(ii) sak + no = sakno = sakko + ti = sakkoti.
58. A gutteral
assimilates a final dental:
(i) ud + kamāpeti = ukkamāpeti.
(ii) tad + karo = takkaro.
(iii) ud + gacchati = uggacchati.
59. A final
palatal* being followed by a dental surd or
sonore, assimilates it into a lingual:
(i) √maj + ta = maṭṭha or maṭṭa.
(ii) √pucch + ta = puṭṭha.
(iii) √icch + ta = iṭṭha.
(a) j however sometimes is
assimilated to the following t:
(iv) √bhuj + ta = bhutta.
(b) c also becomes assimilated
to t:
(v) √muc + ta = mutta.
*To better understand these changes, the
student ought to bear in mind that no word can end in a palatal
nor in h, because these letters are not primitive letters the
palatals have sprung into existence from the contact of gutteral
consonants with certain vowels; and h represents an old gh and is
the aspirate of j; the original gutterals, therefore, reappear at
the end of words either pure or transformed into a lingual, and
then assimilate or are assimilated by the following dental. For
instance:
√pucch = puṭh + ta = puṭṭha, but, √muc = muk + ta = mukta =
mutta;
√bhuj = bhuk + ta = bhukta = bhutta;
again, √maj = maṭ (ṭ = Sansk. s) + ta = maṭṭa.
In Sansk., √m¨j + ta = mrsta = Pāli: maṭṭa.
60. But an
initial palatal assimilates a final dental in palatal:
ud + cinati = uccinati.
ud + chedī = ucchedī.
ud + jala = ujjala.
ud + jhāyati = ujjhāyati.
61. A final lingual assimilates a following surd dental, (t): √kuṭṭ + ta = kuṭṭha.
62. A final
dental is assimilated to the following consonant:
(i) ud + gaṇhāti = uggaṇhāti.
(ii) ud + khipati = ukkhipati.
(iii) ud + chindati = ucchindati.
(iv) ud + jhāyati = ujjhāyati.
(v) ud + sāha = ussāha.
(vi) ud + tiṇṇa = uttiṇṇa.
(vii) ud + loketi = ulloketi.
63. When initial t, follows a sonant aspirate, the assimilation is progressive: the final sonant aspirate loses its aspiration, the following t (surd) becomes sonant, viz; d, and taking the aspiration which the final sonant has lost, becomes dh.
Examples
√rudh + ta = rudh + da = rud + dha = ruddha.
Remark. In the case of final
bh, initial t having become dh, regressive assimilation takes
place;
√labh + ta = labh + d = lab + dha = laddha.
64. Before an
initial dental surd, a gutteral or a labial surd unaspirate is
generally assimilated:
(i) tap + ta = tapta = tatta.
(ii) sak + ta = sakta = satta.
(iii) sakt + hi = sakthi = satthi.
(iv) kam + ta = kamta = kanta.
65. An initial
labial generally assimilates a preceding dental surd or sonant
unaspirate:
(i) tad + purisa = tappurisa.
(ii) ud + bhijjati = ubbhijjati.
(iii) ud + pajjati = uppajjati.
(iv) ud + majjati = ummajjati.
66. A final labial may assimilate an initial nasal: pāp + no + ti = pāpno + ti = pappoti
Assimilation of Nasals
67. Final m before t is assimilated: √gam + tvā = gamtvā = gantvā.
68. The group sm is preserved: tasmiṃ, bhasmā, asmā, usmā.
69. An initial nasal assimilates a preceding dental: ud + magga = un + magga = ummagga.
Remark. Here final d, being
before a nasal, is first changed to the nasal of its class, that
is n, and this n (dental) is then assimilated to m (labial). So
for gantvā in (67).
(i) ud + nadati = unnadati.
(ii) √chid + na = chinna.
Assimilation of Y
70. y is regularly assimilated to the preceding consonant by Progressive Assimilation.
71. The
assimilation of y takes place principally in the Passive Voice in
the formation of verbal bases of the 3rd conjugation, of some
gerunds and of numerous derived nouns.
(i) √gam + ya = gamya = gamma.
(ii) √pac + ya = pacya = pacca.
(iii) √mad + ya = madya = majja.
(iv) √bhaṇ + ya = bhanya = bhañña.
(v) √div + ya = divva = dibba.
(vi) √khād + ya = khādya = khajja (34).
(vii) √khan + ya = khanya = khañña.
72. This rule holds good also in the middle of a compound word: final i having become y by Rule 27 (i) (a), is assimilated to the preceding, consonant, and the following word is joined on to form a compound.
Examples
(i) pali* + aṅko = paly aṅkso = pallaṅko.
(ii) vipali* + āso = vipaly āso =
vipallāso.
(iii) vipali + atthaṃ = vipaly atthaṃ = vipallatthaṃ.
(iv) api + ekacce = apy ekacce = appekacce.
(v) api + ekadā = apy ekadā = appekadā.
(vi) abhi + uggacchati = abhy uggacchati = abbhuggacchati.
(vii) abhi + okiraṇaṃ = abhy okiraṇaṃ = abbhokiraṇaṃ.
(viii) abhi + añjanaṃ = abhy añjanaṃ =
abbhañjanaṃ.
(ix) āni + āyo = ānv āyo =
aññāyo. (34, 35)
*The preposition pari, is often changed into pali.
73. By far the most common changes occurring through the assimilation of y (final as in the above examples) or of y (initial as in 71), take place when the dental surd unaspirate t or the dental sonore aspirate or unaspirate d, dh, precedes. To state the rule shortly:
74. (i) final
ti + any dissimilar vowel becomes cc + that vowel.
(ii) final dhi + any dissimilar vowel becomes jjh + that vowel.
(iii) final di + any dissimilar vowel becomes jj + that vowel.
(iv) final t + y = cc.
(v) final d + y = jj.
(vi) final dh + y = jjh.
Examples
(i) ati + antaṃ = aty antaṃ =
accantaṃ.
(ii) pati + ayo = paty ayo = paccayo.
(iii) pati + eti = paty eti = pacceti.
(iv) iti + assa = ity assa = iccassa.
(v) iti + ādi = ity ādi = iccādi.
(vi) jāti + andho = jāty andho = jaccandho. (34, 35)
(vii) adhi + āgamo = adhy āgamo = ajjhāgamo.
(viii) adhi + ogāhitvā = adhy ogāhitvā =
ajjhogāhitvā.
(ix) adhi + upagato = adhy upagato = ajjhupagato.
(x) adhi + eti = adhy eti = ajjheti.
(xi) nadī + ā = nady ā = najjā.
(xii) yadi + evaṃ = yady evaṃ = yajjevaṃ.
(xiii) sat + ya = satya = sacca.
(xiv) paṇḍita + ya = paṇḍitya = paṇḍicca.
(xv) √mad + ya = madya = majja.
(xvi) √vad + ya = vadya = vajja.
(xvii) √rudh + ya = rudhya = rujjha.
75. Final th + y = cch: tath + ya = tathya = taccha.
76. A final
sibilant may assimilate a following y:
(i) √pas + ya = pasya = passa.
(ii) √dis + ya = disya = dissa.
77. v + y
becomes bb:
(i) √div + ya = divya = dibba.
(ii) √siv + ya = sivya = sibba.
Remarks. At the beginning of a
word, however, the y (the semi-vowel of i) is retained, and v, is
changed to b:
(i) vi + ākaraṇaṃ = vyākaraṇaṃ = byākaraṇaṃ.
(ii) vi + añjanaṃ = vyañjanaṃ = byañjanaṃ.
78. When y
follows h, metathesis, the transposition of letters, takes place:
(i) √sah + ya = sahya, and by metathesis = sayha.
(ii) √guh + ya = guhya = guyha.
79. Initial y,
may assimilate a final dental, non-nasal:
(i) ud + yuñjati = uyyuñjati.
(ii) ud + yāti = uyyāti.
(iii) ud + yāna = uyyāna.
Assimilation of R
80. Final r is
often assimilated to a following mute:
(i) √kar + tabba = kattabba.
(ii) √kar + tā = kattā.
(iii) √kar + ya = kayya.
(iv) √dhar + ma = dhamma.
81. Very often
too, final r is dropped:
(i) √mar + ta = mata.
(ii) √kar + ta = kata.
82. Sometimes,
r having been dropped, the vowel a before it, is lengthened:
(i) √kar + tabba = kātabba.
(ii) √kar + tuṃ = kātuṃ.
83. r followed
by n, lingualizes the n, and then becomes assimilated to it:
√car + na = carṇa = ciṇṇa.
The student will understand the insertion of i when reading the chapter on Passive Perfect Participles.
84. Final r
may be assimilated to a following l:
dur (=du) + labho = dullabho.
Assimilation of S
85. s (or sa) is assimilated by the preceding consonant, having first been transformed into a gutteral or a palatal.
86. Final j +
sa = kkha:
(i) titij + sa = titikkha.
(ii) bubhuj + sa = bubhukkha.
87. Final p +
sa = ccha:
jigup + sa = jiguccha.
88. Final t +
sa = cch:
tikit + sa = tikiccha.
89. Final s +
sa = ccha:
jighas + sa = jighaccha.
90. Final s
assimilates a following y:
√nas + ya = nassa. (See para 76).
91. But
sometimes the combination remains unchanged:
alasa + ya = ālasya.
92. Final s,
assimilates an initial t into a lingual:
(i) √kas + ta = kaṭṭha.
(ii) √kilis + ta = kiliṭṭha.
(iii) √das + ta = daṭṭha.
93. Initial s
assimilates a preceding dental:
(i) ud (or ut) + sāha = ussāha.
(ii) ud (or ut) + suka = ussuka.
94. Pretty
often, s + t = t:
√jhas + ta = jhatta.
95. Sometimes
too, s + t = tth:
√vas + ta = vuttha.
Assimilation of H
96. Initial h
sometimes is changed to the mute aspirate of the class of the
preceding final consonant:
(i) ud + harati = uddharati.
(ii) ud + haraṇa = uddharaṇa.
(iii) ud + hata (√han) = uddhata.
97. When final
h is followed by a nasal, the group generally undergoes
metathesis (see 78, note):
√gah + ṇa = gahṇa = gaṇha.
98. Metathesis
also occurs in the groups hy and hv:
(i) mahyaṃ becomes mayhaṃ.
(ii) oruh + ya becomes oruyha.
(iii) jihvā becomes jivhā.
Remarks. Very seldom, h is assimilated to the following y, leh + ya = leyya.
99. h is sometimes changed to gh; (*) principally in the root han, to kill.
hanati, to kill, or ghaṭeti,
to kill.
ghañña, killing, from √han (han or ghan + ya =
ghañña).
ghammati, to go = hammati, to go.
*It must be remembered that h is the aspirate of j, since it now represents an ancient gh (59, note), and therefore, in euphony, it is treated exactly as j, that is to say when final it becomes sometimes k and sometimes t. The above rules, which may seem arbitrary are familiar to the Sanskritist.
100. Final h +
t becomes generally ddha:
√duh + ta = duddha.
101. Sometimes
also h + t = dh:
√lih + tuṃ = ledhuṃ.
(For the change of i to e see "Strengthening")
102. It has been said above (7) that ḷ is very often interchangeable with ḍ; when the ḍ is aspirate viz, ḍh, its substitute also becomes aspirate, viz., ḷh.
Now, according to para (101),
we have seen that h + t becomes ḍh; for this ḍh may be
substituted ḷh, so that we have the following form:
√muh + ta = mūḍha = mūḷha.
√ruh + ta = rūḍha = rūḷha.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 4
(a) Strengthening Process
103. Strengthening is the process of changing a vowel sound into another vowel sound.
104. The vowels which undergo strengthening are: a, i, ī, u and ū.
105.  The result thus obtained is also called guṇa (quality).
107. Therefore, the guṇa of a is ā, that of i and ī is e, that of u and ū is o.
108. Further, as we already know (by rules 27(i)a, 27(ii)b), final e and o when followed by a vowel may be changed into their semi-vowel + that vowel.
109. The following table of these very useful changes should be borne in mind.
| Simple vowel | Strengthening or guṅa | Vowel and semi-vowel |
| a i, ī u, ū |
ā e o |
none ay av |
110. Strengthening occurs frequently in the formation of verbal bases, of Verbals (See chapter on Verbs) and in the derivation of words under the influence of certain suffixes.
Remarks. In the derivation of
Primary and Secondary Nouns (see Derivation), it will simplify
matters to assume at once that:
i or ī + a = aya.
u or ū + a = ava.
e + a = aya.
o + a = ava.
(b) Metathesis
111. Examples of metathesis have already (78) been given.
112.
Metathesis is the transposition of letters or of syllables in a
word; the following are further instances of this transposition:
(i) pariyudāhāsi becomes payirudāhāsi.
(ii) ariya becomes ayira.
(iii) kariyā becomes kayirā.
(iv) masaka becomes makasa.
(v) rasmi becomes raṃsi.
(vi) na abhineyya becomes anabhineyya.
(vii) cilimikā becomes cimilikā.
(c) Epenthesis
113. Epenthesis is the insertion of a letter in the middle of a word.
114. Epenthesis is resorted to mostly to avoid a hiatus of the collocation of consonants of different organs:
Examples
(i) klesa becomes kilesa.
(ii) ācārya becomes ācāriya.
(iii) tiaṅgula becomes tivaṅgula.
(iv) hyo becomes hīyo or hiyyo.
(v) barhisa becomes barihisa.
(vi) hrada becomes harada.
(vii) arhati becomes arahati.
(viii) srī becomes Sirī.
(ix) hrī becomes hirī.
(x) plavati becomes pilavati.
(d) Dropping of Syllables
115.
Sometimes, for the sake of the metre, or to facilitate
pronunciation, whole syllables are dropped:
(i) abhiññāya sacchikatvā, becomes,
abhiññā sacchikatvā.
(ii) jambudīpaṃ avekkhanto addasa, becomes, jambudīpaṃ
avekkhanto adda.
(iii) dasasahassī, becomes, dasahassi.
(iv) chadaṅgula, becomes, chaṅgula.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 5
Declension
116. (a)
Declension is the adding to the stems of Nouns and Adjectives
certain suffixes which show, case, gender and number.
(b) The stem or base of a noun is that noun as it stands before
any suffix has been added to it.
(c) Pāli has three genders: the Masculine, the Feminine and
the Neuter.
(d) Pāli does not strictly follow the natural division of
male, female, etc, in assigning gender to nouns, many nouns which
are Masculine in English are Feminine or Neuter in Pāli and
vice-versa; a great number of nouns which we consider as neuter
are, some Masculine, some Feminine in Pāli. This is called
grammatical gender.
(e) There are two numbers: the singular and the plural.
(f) There are eight cases.
1. Nominative, showing the
subject of the sentence.
2. Genitive, showing possession (of 's).
3. Dative, showing the object or person to or for whom something
is given or done.
4. Accusative, this is the object of the sentence.
5. Instrumentive, shows the object or person with or by whom
something is performed.
6. Ablative, generally showing separation, expressed by from.
7. Locative, showing place (in, on, at, upon, etc.).
8. Vocative, used in addressing persons.
Remarks. The student will find fuller explanations of the uses of the cases in the chapter on Syntax.
117. The
declension of nouns is divided into two great divisions:
(a) Vowel-declension, comprising all the stems that end in a
vowel.
(b) Consonantal, declension, in which are included all the stems
ending in a consonant.
(c) Vowel-declension is generally, for the sake of clearness,
divided again into three classes:
(i) the declension of stems ending in a or ā.
(ii) the declension of stems ending in i or ī.
(iii) the declension of stems ending in u or ū.
118. (a) Native grammarians give the following as the regular case endings or suffixes for all nouns.
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. s | Nom. yo |
| Gen. ssa | Gen. naṃ |
| Dat. ssa | Dat. naṃ |
| Acc. aṃ | Acc. yo |
| Ins. ā | Ins. hi |
| Abl. smā | Abl. hi |
| Loc. smiṃ | Loc. su |
| Voc. (like the stem of Nom.) | Voc. (like the Nom.) |
(b) Most of the above suffixes are theoretical only, in practice they differ considerably according to gender and case.
The actual suffixes will be given with each declension.
Vowel Declension
Declension of stems ending in a (short)
119. (a) The
great bulk of nouns and adjectives belong to this declension, and
as the other declensions have borrowed several of its suffixes,
its thorough mastery is most important and will greatly
facilitate the study of the other declensions.
(b) Nouns ending in a, are all masculine or neuter.
120. The following are the suffixes of masculine nouns the stem of which ends in a:
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. o | Nom. ā, āse |
| Gen. ssa | Gen. naṃ |
| Dat. ssa, āya | Dat. naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | Acc. e |
| Ins. ina | Ins. ehi, ebhi |
| Abl. ā, smā, mhā, to | Abl. ehi, ebhi |
| Loc. i, smiṃ, mhi | Loc. su |
| Voc. (like the stem) and ā | Voc. a |
121. These suffixes have to be attached to the stems, taking care to observe the sandhi rules which may apply when suffixes begin with a vowel; in every case the student should accustom himself to look up the rules, which will be referred to by their numbers, and accustom himself to account for every form he meets with, whether nominal, verbal or derivative. He should remember that a systematic study from the start will ensure thoroughness and eventually save him a great deal of labour and time.
122. Declension of Deva, God, Angel
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. devo, a god | devā, gods |
| Gen. devassa, a god's | devānaṃ, gods', of gods |
| Dat. devassa, to or for a god | devānaṃ, to or for gods |
| Acc. devaṃ, a god | deve, gods |
| Ins. devena, by, with or on account of, a god. | devehi, devebhi, by, with, or on account, of gods |
| Abl.
devā, from a god devasmā, from a god devamhā, from a god devato, from a god |
devehi, devebhi, from gods |
| Loc deve,
in, on, or upon a god devasmiṃ on, or upon a god devamhi on, or upon, a god |
devesu, in on, or upon gods |
| Voc. deva, devā, O god! | devā, O gods! |
Exercise
Decline like deva (masc.):
nara, man. mātaṅga, elephant.
byaggha, tiger. sīha, lion.
miga, deer. orodha, a seraglio.
gandhabba, musician. dhamma, doctrine, right.
kacchapa, tortoise. putta, son.
satta, being. kūpa, a mast.
suṃsumāra, crocodile. makara, a sea monster.
Remarks.
(a) The true Dat. sing. in āya has now generally been
displaced by the suffix of the gen. ssa; the Dat. āya is
almost equal to an lnfinitive and mostly denotes intention.
(b) smā and mhā of the Abl. and smiṃ and mhi of the
Loc. have been borrowed from the pronominal declension (see
Declension of Pronouns).
(c) so is sometimes used also as an Abl. sing. suffix:
vaggaso, by groups, bhāgaso, by share.
(d) sā is also found as an Ins. sing. suffix, as:
balasā, by force, forcibly, talasā, with the sole of
the foot.
(e) The Nom. plur. in āse, very scarce, corresponds to the
Vedic Nom. plur.
(f) ebhi, of the Ins. and Abl. plural, is mostly used in poetry,
and probably comes from the Vedic -ebhis.
(g) Before o, Nom. sing., ehi, ebhi, Ins. and Abl. plur. and e,
Acc. plur. final a of the stem is dropped:
deva + o = dev + o = devo, deva + ehi = dev + ehi = devehi.
(h) Before su, Loc. plur. final a of stem is changed to e
(i) In the Dat., Ins., Abl. and Loc. sing.; and in Nom. and Voc.
plur. the usual rules of sandhi are regularly followed:
| Singular | |
| Instrumentive | deva + ina = devena (21-i) |
| Dative | deva + āya = devāya (22) |
| Loc. | deva + i = deve (21-i) |
| Abl. | deva + ā = devā (22) |
| Plural | |
| Nom. | deva + a = devā (ibid) |
| deva + āse = devāse (ibid) | |
| Voc. | devā + a = devā (ibid) |
(j) Before naṃ, Gen. and Dat.
plur., final a of the stem is lengthened.
deva + naṃ = devā + naṃ = devānaṃ.
123. Neuter nouns in a (short)
| Suffixes | |
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. ṃ | ni, a |
| Gen. ssa | naṃ |
| Dat. ssa, āya | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ni, e |
| Ins. ina | ehi, ebhi |
| Abl. ā, smā, mhā, to | ehi, ebhi |
| Loc. i, smiṃ, mhi | su |
| Voc. (like the stem) | ni, a |
124. Declension of Rūpa (Neuter), Form
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. rūpaṃ | rūpāni, rūpā |
| Gen. rūpassa | rūpānaṃ |
| Dat. rūpassa, rūpāya | rūpānaṃ |
| Acc. rūpaṃ | rūpāni, rūpe |
| Ins. rūpena | rūpehi, rūpebhi |
| Abl. rupā, rūpasmā, rūpamhā, rūpato | rūpehi, rūpebhi |
| Loc. rūpe, rūpasmiṃ, rūpamhi | rūpesu |
| Voc. rūpa | rūpāni, rūpā |
Remarks.
(a) ni is essentially the distinctive sign of Neuter nouns in the
Nom., Acc., and Voc. plur. in all declensions.
(b) The final vowel of the stem is lengthened before ni.
Exercise
Decline like rūpa:
citta, mind. sota, ear.
mūla, root, price. veḷuriya, coral.
upaṭṭhāna, service. ahata, cloth (new).
jala, water. osāna, end.
loṇa, salt. savana, hearing.
vajira, diamond. sāṭaka, garment.
vāta, wind. pesana, despatch, sending.
yotta, rope. paṭṭana, a sea port.
yuddha, fight. paṇṇa, leaf.
Remarks.
(a) It will be noticed that neuter nouns in a differ from the
masculine in a, in the Nom. sing. and in the Nom. Acc. and Voc.
plur.; all the other cases are identical.
(b) In the plur. the Nom., Acc. and Voc. have the same form.
(c) The form in āni, of the Nom., Acc. and Voc. plur. is the
most common.
125. Declension of nouns in ā (long)
All nouns ending in ā are Feminine.
126. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. - | ā, yo |
| Gen. āya | naṃ |
| Dat. āya | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ā, yo |
| Ins. āya | hi, bhi |
| Abl. āya, to | hi, bhi |
| Loc. āyaṃ, āya | su |
| Voc. e | ā, yo |
127. Declension of Kaññā (Fem.), a Virgin
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. kaññā | kaññā, kaññāyo |
| Gen. kaññāya | kaññānaṃ |
| Dat. kaññāya | kaññānaṃ |
| Acc. kaññaṃ | kaññā, kaññāyo |
| Ins. kaññāya | kaññāhi, kaññābhi |
| Abl. kaññāya, kaññato | kaññāhi, kaññābhi |
| Loc. kaññāyaṃ, kaññāya | kaññāsu |
| Voc. kaññā, kaññe | kaññā, kaññāyo |
Remarks.
(a) Before to of the Abl. sing. the final vowel, if long, is
shortened. So also before ṃ of Acc. sing.
(b) The following words all meaning mother have two forms in the
Voc. sing:
| ammā | ambā | annā | tātā | |
| Voc. Sing. | ammā | ambā | annā | tātā |
| amma | amba | anna | tāta |
(c) In the Acc. sing. final ā is shortened.
Exercise
Decline like
kaññā:
saddhā, faith. medhā, intelligence.
vijjā, science. paññā, wisdom.
taṇhā, lust, thirst. mettā, love.
icchā, desire. bhikkhā, begged-food,
gāthā, stanza, mālā, garland.
khiḍḍā, play, sport. pūjā, honour.
senā, army. chāyā, shadow
nāvā, boat. pipāsā, thirst.
gīvā, throat. velā, time.
128. It has been said above (125) that all nouns ending in ā are feminine; but there are a very few examples of masculine nouns ending in ā. We give below their declension.
| Masculine nouns in ā (long) | |
| Declension of Sā (Dog) | |
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. sā | sā |
| Gen. sassa | sānaṃ |
| Dat. sassa, sāya | sānaṃ |
| Acc. saṃ | sāne |
| Ins. sena | sāhi, sābhi |
| Abl. sā, sasmā, samhā | sāhi, sābhi |
| Loc. se, sasmiṃ, samhi | sāsu |
| Voc. sa | sā |
Remarks.
(a) the declension above given is according to rūpasiddhi
grammar book.
(b) The declension given in the Saddaniti differs slightly:
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. sā | sā, sāno |
| Gen. sassa | sānaṃ |
| Dat. sassa | sānaṃ |
| Acc. sānaṃ | sāne |
| Ins. sānā | sānehi, sānebhi |
| Abl. sānā | sānehi, sānebhi |
| Loc. sāne | sānesu |
| Voc. sa | sā, sāno |
The following are declined like
sā:
paccakkhadhammā, one to whom the Doctrine is evident.
gaṇḍīvandhavā, Arjuna.
mā, the moon.
rahā*, sin.
*niruttidīpanī, a scholium on
moggallānavyākaraṇa, a grammar held in high esteem in
Ceylon and Burma.
Remarks. Masculine nouns in ā belong to the Consonantal declension, but native grammarians, consider them as stems ending in a vowel.
129. Declension of nouns in i (short)
Nouns the stem of which ends in i are Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. They do not form a very numerous class.
130. Masc. nouns in i (suffixes)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. - | ī, yo |
| Gen. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Dat. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ī, yo |
| Ins. nā | hi, bhi |
| Abl. nā, smā, mhā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. smiṃ, mhi | su |
| Voc. - | ī, yo |
131. Declension of Kapi (Masc.), Monkey
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. kapi | kapī, kapayo |
| Gen. kapissa, kapino | kapīnaṃ |
| Dat. kapissa, kapino | kapīnaṃ |
| Acc. kapiṃ | kapī, kapayo |
| Ins. kapinā | kapīhi, kapībhi |
| Abl. kapinā, kapismā, kapimhā | kapīhi, kapībhi |
| Loc. kapismiṃ, kapimhi | kapīsu |
| Voc. kapi | kapī, kapayo |
Remarks.
(a) The Nom. and Voc. sing. are like the stem.
(b) In the Nom., Acc. and Voc. plur., final i is changed to a
before suffix yo.
(c) However final i is sometimes preserved before yo, so that we
also have the form kapiyo (rare).
(d) In the plural, before suffixes: naṃ, hi, bhi, su, final i is
lengthened.
(e) Some rare and old forms are sometimes found:
(i) Gen. sing. ending in -e, as: mune.
(ii) Loc. sing. ending in -o, as: ādo, and also
(iii) Loc. sing. ending in -e, as: gire.
(iv) Ins. sing. ending in -ena, as: raṃsena.
(v) Nom. plur. ending in -no, as: saramatino.
(f) Not seldom, the stem itself is used for almost all the cases
in the singular.
Exercise
Words declined like kapi
(masc.):
aggi, fire. kali, sin.
sandhi, union. nidhi, a depository.
sārathi, a charioteer. yati, a monk
añjali, salutation. ari, an enemy.
bondi, body. giri, a mountain.
ūmi, a wave. bali, oblation.
senāpati, a general. gahapati, householder.
Feminine nouns in i (short)
132. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. - | ī, yo |
| Gen. ā | naṃ |
| Dat. ā | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ī, yo |
| Abl. ā | hi, bhi |
| Ins. ā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. ā, aṃ | su |
| Voc. - | ī, yo |
133. (a) Declension of Ratti (Fem.), Night
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. ratti | rattī, rattiyo, ratyo |
| Gen. rattiyā, ratyā | rattīnaṃ |
| Dat. rattiyā, ratyā | rattīnaṃ |
| Acc. rattiṃ | rattī, rattiyo, ratyo |
| Ins. rattiyā, ratyā | rattīhi, rattībhi |
| Abl. rattiyā, ratyā | rattīhi, rattībhi |
| Loc. ratiyā, ratyā, rattiyaṃ, ratyaṃ | rattīsu |
| Voc. ratti | rattī, rattiyo, ratyo |
Remarks.
(a) There is an ancient Loc. sing. in o: ratto.
(b) An Abl. sing. in to, is also found: rattito.
(c) In the Gen., Dat., Ins., Abl. and Loc. sing. a y is inserted
between the stem and the suffix ā to avoid a hiatus, (See
27(ii) Remark 2); so also in the Loc. sing. before aṃ.
(d) Before ā, of the same cases, final i of the stem may
become y by rule 27(i)-a; and as in Pāli there can be no
group of three consonants* one t is
dropped. Hence we get: ratti + ā = rattyā = ratyā.
*Except ntr, as in antra, etc.
(e) Before suffixes, naṃ, hi, bhi, su of the plural, the i of
the stem is lengthened.
(b) Declension of Jāti (Fem.), Birth
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. jāti | jātī, jātiyo, jatyo, jacco |
| Gen. jātiyā, jatyā, jaccā | jātīnaṃ |
| Dat. jātiyā, jatyā, jaccā | jātīnaṃ |
| Acc. jatiṃ | jātī, jātiyo, jatyo, jacco |
| Ins. jātiyā, jatyā, jaccā | jātīhi, jātībhi |
| Abl. jātiyā, jatyā, jaccā | jātīhi, jātībhi |
| Loc. jātiyā, jatyā, jaccā, jātiyaṃ, jatyaṃ, jaccaṃ | jātīsu |
| Voc. jāti | jātī, jātiyo, jatyo, jacco |
Remarks.
(a) For the forms, jaccā and jaccaṃ see rule (74).
(b) Jacco is obtained by the assimilation of y after the elision
of final i. (71, 74).
(c) It will be remarked that, whereas in Masc. nouns in i the i
of the stem is changed to a before yo, in Fem. nouns it is
retained.
Exercise
Nouns declined like ratti
(fem).
bhūmi, earth. keḷi, amusement.
satti, ability. nandi, joy.
patti, attainment. mati, understanding.
tuṭṭhi, satisfaction. mutti, deliverance.
āsatti, attachment. vuddhi, increase.
dhūli. dust. ruci, splendour.
tanti, a string. chavi, the skin.
gati, going, rebirth. cuti, disappearance.
sati, recollection. diṭṭhi, sight, belief.
Neuter nouns in i (short)
134. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. - | ni, ī |
| Gen. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Dat. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ni, ī |
| Ins. nā | hi, bhi |
| Abl. nā, smā, mhā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. smiṃ, mhi | su |
| Voc. - | nī, ī |
| Declension of Vāri (Neut.), Water | |
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. vāri | vārīni, vārī |
| Gen. vārissa, vārino | vārinaṃ |
| Dat. vārissa, vārino | vārinaṃ |
| Acc. vāriṃ | vārīni, vārī |
| Ins. vārinā | vārīhi, vārībhi |
| Abl. vārinā, vārismā, vārimhā | vārīhi, vārībhi |
| Loc. vārismiṃ, vārimhi | vārīsu |
| Voc. vāri | vārini, vārī |
Remarks.
(a) There is also found a Nom. sing. in ṃ like the Acc., as,
aṭṭhiṃ, bone, akkhiṃ, eye, etc.
(b) As usual, final i is lengthened before ni, naṃ, hi, bhi and
su in the plural.
Exercise
Decline like vāri (neut):
aṭṭhi, bone. satthi, the thigh.
akkhi, eye. dadhi, milk curds.
sappi, ghee. acchi, eye.
chadi, roof. rūpi, silver.
135. Declensions of nouns in ī (Iong)
There are no Neuter nouns ending in ī (long).
Masculine nouns in ī (long)
136. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. ī | ī, no |
| Gen. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Dat. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ, naṃ | ī, no |
| Ins. nā | hi, bhi |
| Abl. nā, smā, mhā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. smiṃ, mhi | su |
| Voc. ī | ī, no |
| Declension of Daṇḍī (Masc.), Mendicant | |
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. daṇḍī | daṇḍī, daṇḍino |
| Gen. daṇḍissa, daṇḍino | daṇḍinaṃ |
| Dat. daṇḍissa, daṇḍino | daṇḍinaṃ |
| Acc. daṇḍiṃ, daṇḍinaṃ | daṇḍī, daṇḍino |
| Ins. daṇḍinā | daṇḍīhi, daṇḍībhi |
| Abl. dandinā, daṇḍismā | daṇḍīhi, daṇḍībhi |
| Loc. daṇḍismiṃ, daṇḍimhi | daṇḍīsu |
| Voc. daṇḍī | daṇḍī, daṇḍino |
Remarks.
(a) A Nom sing. in i (Short) is sometimes met with: daṇḍi.
(b) Voc. sing. in ni is also found: daṇḍini.
(c) Note that in all the oblique cases of the singular the final
i of the stem is shortened before the suffixes.
(d) In the Nom. plur. a rare form in yo is found formed on the
analogy of Masc. in i (short); as daṇḍiyo.
(e) An Acc. plur. in ye is occasionally met with: daṇḍiye.
(f) It should be noticed that before no of the Nom. Acc. and Voc.
plur. ī of the base is shortened.
(g) An Acc. sing. in aṃ with the semi-vowel y developed before
it is met with: daṇḍiyaṃ.
(h) An Abl. sing. in to is found pretty frequently daṇḍito.
Exercise
Decline like daṇḍī (Masc):
sāmī, lord. senānī, a general.
kapaṇī, pauper. sakkhī, a witness.
mantī, minister. yoddhī, warrior.
137. Most Masc. nouns in ī are not pure substantives, they are adjectives used substantively; their true stem is in in, the Nom. sing. being ī. The true stem of daṇḍī therefore is daṇḍin. Properly, all these words belong to the consonantal declension.
Feminine nouns ī (long)
138. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. ī | ī, yo |
| Gen. ā | naṃ |
| Dat. ā | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ī, yo |
| Ins. ā | hi, bhi |
| Abl. ā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. a, aṃ | su |
| Voc. ī | ī, yo |
139. Declension of Nadī (Fem.), River
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. nadī | nadī, nadiyo, najjo |
| Gen. nadiyā, nadyā, najjā | nadinaṃ |
| Dat. nadiyā, nadyā, najjā | nadinaṃ |
| Acc. nadiṃ | nadī, nadiyo, najjo |
| Ins. nadiyā, nadyā, najjā | nadīhi, nadībhi |
| Abl. nadiyā, nadyā, najjā | nadīhi, nadībhi |
| Loc. nadiyā, nadyā, najjā, nadiyaṃ, nadyaṃ, najjaṃ | nadīsu |
| Voc. nadī | nadī, nadiyo, najjo |
Remarks.
(a) There is a Gen. plur. in ānaṃ, nadiyānaṃ.
(b) In all the oblique cases of the sing, final ī of the base is
shortened; also before yo in the plural.
(c) For insertion of y before suffixes beginning with a vowel,
see 27, Remark 2.
(d) For the forms nadyā, najjā, and najjaṃ see Rules
71, 74.
(4) In the form najjo, yo is assimilated after the elision of
final i.
Exercise
Decline like nadī (Fem.):
paṭī, canvas. Bārāṇasī, Benares.
lakkhī, prosperity. rājinī, queen.
sīhī, lioness. dabbī, spoon.
pātī, bowl. bhisī, mat
kumārī, girl. sakhī, a female friend.
brāhmaṇī, a brahmin woman. taruṇī, young woman
bhikkhunī, nun. kākī, a female crow.
vānarī, ape. mahī, the earth.
yakkhī, ogress. migī, a doe.
devī, nymph. vāpī, a reservoir, tank.
Delension of nouns in u (short)
140. The nouns ending in u (short), are either Masculine, Feminine or Neuter.
Masculine nouns in u (short)
141. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. - | ū, o |
| Gen. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Dat. ssa, no | naṃ |
| Acc. ṃ | ū, o |
| Ins. nā | hi, bhi |
| Abl. nā, smā, mhā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. smiṃ, mhi | su |
| Voc. - | ū, o, e |
| Declension of Bhikkhu (Masc.), Monk | |
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. bhikkhu | bhikkhū, bhikkhavo |
| Gen. bhikkhussa, bhikkhuno | bhikkhūnaṃ |
| Dat. bhikkhussa, bhikkhuno | bhikkhūnaṃ |
| Acc. bhikkhuṃ | bhikkhū, bhikkhavo |
| Ins. bhikkhunā | bhikkhūhi, bhikkhūbhi |
| Abl. bhikkhunā, bhiskhusmā, bhikkhumhā | bhikkhūhi, bhikkhūbhi |
| Loc. bhikkhumhi, bhikkhusmiṃ | bhikkhūsu |
| Voc. bhikkhu | bhikkhū, bhikkhavo, bhikkhave |
Remarks.
(a) In a Nom. and an Acc. plural, yo are sometimes met with in
some words: jantuyo, hetuyo.
(b) Before suffixes o and e, in the plural u of the stem or base
is strengthened and becomes av. (27(ii)-a)
Exercise
Nouns declined like bhikkhu
(Masc.):
pasu, goat. velu, bamboo.
bandhu, relative. bhāṇu, the sun.
maccu, death. ucchu, sugar-cane.
bāhu, arm. setu, bridge.
ketu, flag. katu, sacrifice.
pharasu, axe. ruru, a deer.
taru, tree. hetu, cause.
Feminine nouns in u (Short)
142. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. - | ū, yo |
| Gen. yā | naṃ |
| Dat. yā | naṃ |
| Acc. m | ū, yo |
| Ins. yā | hi, bhi |
| Abl. yā | hi, bhi |
| Loc. yaṃ, yā | su |
| Voc. - | ū, yo |
143. Declension of Dhenu (Fem.), Cow
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. dhenu | dhenū, dhenuyo |
| Gen. dhenuyā | dhenūnaṃ |
| Dat. dhenuyā | dhenūnaṃ |
| Acc. dhenuṃ | dhenū, dhenuyo |
| Ins. dhenuyā | dhenūhi, dhenūbhi |
| Abl. dhenuyā | dhenūhi, dhenūbhi |
| Loc. dhenuyaṃ, dhenuyā | dhenūsu |
| Voc. dhenū | dhenuyo |
Remarks.
(a) An Abl. sing. in to is common: dhenuto, jambuto.
(b) A Nom. plur. in o occurs without strengthening of final u but
with insertion of v: dhenūvo.
(c) Final u is, in the plural, lengthened before naṃ, hi, bhi
and su.
Exercise
Decline like dhenu:
dhātu, an element. yāgu, rice gruel.
rajju, string. kareṇu, elephant.
ku, the earth. hanu, jaw.
daddu, ringworm. vaṇṇu, sand.
kāsu, a hole, pit. kaṇḍu, itch.
kacchu, scab. piyaṅgu, a medicinal plant.
natthu, nose. vijju, lightning.
Neuter nouns in u (short)
144. Suffixes
| Singular | Plural |
| (Like the Masculine) | Nom. Acc. Voc. ū, ni |
| (The rest like the Masc.) |
145. Declension of Cakkhu (Neut.), Eye
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. cakkhu | cakkhūni, cakkhū |
| Gen. cakkhussa, cakkhuno | cakkhuno, cakkhūnaṃ |
| Dat. cakkhussa, cakkhuno | cakkhūnaṃ |
| Acc. cakkhuṃ | cakkhūni, cakkhū |
| Ins. cakkhunā | cakkhūhi, cakkhūbhi |
| Abl. cakkhunā, cakkhusmā, cakkhumhā | cakkhūhi, cakkhūbhi |
| Loc. cakkhusmiṃ, cakkhumhi | cakkhūsu |
| Voc. cakkhu | cakkhūni, cakkhū |
Remarks. There is a form of the Nom. sing. in ṃ cakkhuṃ.
 Declension of
Nouns ū (long)
(a) This declension includes Masculine and Feminine nouns only.
(b) The suffixes are much the same as those of the u (short)
declension, and present no difficulty.
147. Declension of Sayambhū (Masc.), an Epithet of the Buddha
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. sayambhū | sayambhū, sayambhuvo |
| Gen. sayambhussa, sayambhuno | sayambhūnaṃ |
| Dat. sayambhussa, sayambhuno | sayambhūnaṃ |
| Acc. sayambhuṃ | sayambhū, sayambhuvo |
| Ins. sayambhunā | sayambhūhi, sayambhūbhi |
| Abl. sayambhunā, sayambhusmā, sayambhumhā | sayambhūhi, sayambhūbhi |
| Loc. sayambhusmiṃ, sayambhumhi | sayambhū |
| Voc. sayambhū | sayambhū, sayambhuvo |
Remarks.
(a) In the Nom., Acc. and Voc. Plur., v is inserted between the
suffix o and the stem after the shortening of ū.
(b) Final ū of the stem is shortened to u in the oblique
cases of the singular.
148. Declension of Vadhū (Fem.), a Widow
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. vadhū | vadhū, vadhuyo |
| Gen. vadhuyā | vadhūnaṃ |
| Dat. vadhuyā | vadhūnaṃ |
| Acc. vadhuṃ | vadhū, vadhuyo |
| Ins. vadhuyā | vadhūhi, vadhūbhi |
| Abl. vadhuyā | vadhūhi, vadhūbhi |
| Loc. vadhuyā, vadhuyaṃ | vadhūsu |
| Voc. vadhū | vadhū, vadhuyo |
Remarks.
(a) As in the Masc., final ū is shortened in the oblique cases of
the sing.
(b) A form in to is also found in the Abl. sing., vadhuto.
(c) In the plural, before yo, final ū is shortened.
149. Stems ending in a diphthong
All diphthongic stems have disappeared in Pāli; only one such stem remains, it is the word go, a cow.
Special Nouns
150. (I) Declension of Go (Diphthongic Stem), a Cow
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. go | gavo, gāvo |
| Gen. gavassa, gāvassa | gavaṃ, gonaṃ, gunnaṃ |
| Dat. gavassa, gāvassa | gavaṃ, gonaṃ, gunnaṃ |
| Acc. gavaṃ, gāvaṃ, gavuṃ, gāvuṃ | gavo, gāvo |
| Ins. gavena, gāvena | gohi, gobhi, gavehi |
| Abl. gavā, gāvā, gavasmā, gāvasmā, gavamhā, gāvamhā | gohi, gobhi, gavehi |
| Loc. gave, gāve, gavasmiṃ, gāvasmiṃ, gavamhi, gāvamhi | gosu, gavesu, gāvesu |
| Voc. go | gavo, gāvo |
151. (II) Declension
of Sakhā, a Friend
(Sansk. sakhi. The stem is irregular. Masc.)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. sakhā | sakhāyo, sakhāno, sakhino, sakhā |
| Gen. sakhino, sakhissa | sakhārānaṃ, sakhīnaṃ, sakhānaṃ |
| Dat. sakhino, sakhissa | sakhārānaṃ, sakhīnaṃ, sakhānaṃ |
| Acc. sakhānaṃ, sakhaṃ, sakhāraṃ | sakhī, sakhāyo, sakhāno, sakhino |
| lns. sakhinā | sakhārehi, sakhārebhi, sakhehi, sakhebhi |
| Abl. sakhinā, sakhārā, sakharasmā | sakhārehi, sakhārebhi, sakhehi, sakhebhi |
| Loc. sakhārasmiṃ, sakhārimhi | sakhāresu, sakhesu |
| Voc. sakha, sakhā, sakhi, sakhī, sakhe | sakhāyo, sakhāno, sakhino, sakhā |
Remarks. The student will perceive that sakhā has forms belonging to stems in ar and others to stems in in. (See: Consonantal Declension.)
152. Consonantal Declension
(a) The Consonantal Declension
includes all nouns and adjectives whose stem ends in a consonant.
(b) Nouns the stem of which ends in a consonant, are rather few
and special, the majority of the words included in this
declension being adjectives ending in vat or mat, and all words
ending in a nasal (n) being considered as belonging to the Vowel
Declension, by native grammarians.
(c) Most of the words of the Consonantal Declension seem to
follow two declensions; some suffixes belong to the vowel, and
others to the Consonantal Declension.
153. (I) Stems ending in a nasal (n)
154. Declension of
Attā (Stem Attan), Self
(Stem in an, Masc.)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. attā | attāno, attā |
| Gen. attano, attassa | attānaṃ |
| Dat. attano, attassa | attānaṃ |
| Acc. attānaṃ, attaṃ, attanaṃ | attāno, atte |
| Ins. attanā, attena | attanehi, attanebhi |
| Abl. attanā, attasmā, attamhā | attanehi, attanebhi |
| Loc. attani, attasmiṃ, attamhi | attanesu |
| Voc. atta, attā | attāno, attā |
Like attā (stem: attan)
are declined:
ātumā, self. muddhā, head.
asmā, stone. addhā, road, distance, time.
155. Declension of Brahmā (Stem Brahman, Masc.), Brahma
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. brahmā | brahmāno, brahmā |
| Gen. brahmuno, brahmassa | brahmānam, brahmunaṃ |
| Dat. brahmuno, brahmassa | brahmānam, brahmunaṃ |
| Acc. brahmānaṃ, brahmaṃ | brahmāno |
| Ins. brahmanā, brahmunā | brahmehi, brahmebhi, brahmūhi, brahmūbhi |
| Abl. brahmanā, brahmunā | brahmehi, brahmebhi, brahmūhi, brahmūbhi |
| Loc. brahme, brahmani | brahmesu |
| Voc. brahme | brahmāno, brahmā |
(a) In the Loc. Sing. we meet with the forms in - smiṃ, mhi: brahmasmiṃ, brahmamhi.
156. Declension of Rājā, (Stem Rājan Masc.), a King
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. rājā | rājāno, rājā |
| Gen. rañño, rājino, rājassa | raññam, rājūnaṃ, rājānaṃ |
| Dat. rañño, rājino, rājassa | raññam, rājūnaṃ, rājānaṃ |
| Acc. rājānaṃ, rājaṃ | rājāno |
| Ins. raññā, rājena, rājinā | rājūhi, rājūbhi, rājehi, rājebhi |
| Abl. raññā, rājasmā, rājamhā | rājūhi, rājūbhi, rājehi, rājebhi |
| Loc. raññe, raññi, rājini, rājimhi, rājismiṃ | rājūsu, rājesu |
| Voc. rāja, rājā | rājāno, rājā |
Remarks.
(a) When the word rājā is used by itself in a sentence,
it follows the above declension, but when it forms the last part
of a compound as for instance in dhammarājā,
mahārājā, etc., it follows the declension of
Masculine nouns in a, like deva.
(b) The forms of the plural seem to point to a base or stem in u:
rāju.
(c) A few nouns the stem of which ends in an, follow the a
declension of Masc. nouns like deva; they are:
vissakamma, the architect of the gods.
vivattacchaddo, He by whom the veil (of ignorance) is rolled back
(from this world).
puthuloma, a fish.
yakana, the liver.
athabbana, the fourth veda
and some others.
157. Declension of Pumā (Stem Puman), a Man
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. pumā | pumāno, pumā |
| Gen. pumuno, pumassa | pumānaṃ |
| Dat. pumuno, pumassa | pumānaṃ |
| Acc. pumānaṃ, pumaṃ | pumāno, pume |
| Ins. pumānā, pumunā, pumena | pumānehi, pumānebhi, pumehi, pumebhi |
| Abl. pumunā, pumānā, pumā, pumasmā, pumamhā | pumānehi, pumānebhi, pumehi, pumebhi |
| Loc. pumāne, pume, pumasmiṃ, pumamhi | pumānesu, pumāsu, pumesu |
| Voc. pumaṃ, puma | pumāno, pumā |
Remarks.
(a) The influence of the a declension Masculine, is clearly
discernible throughout.
(b) The word sā a dog, given at (128), properly belongs to
this declension; this gives the stem, san, from Sanskrit
van. The declension of nouns the stem of which ends in -in,
has already been given (130); these words declined like daṇḍi,
(stem daṇḍin) and rather numerous, form the transition between
the pure vowel declension and the declension of
consonantal-stems.
158. (II) Stems ending in s
159. Declension of Mano (Stem Manas), the Mind
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. mano, manaṃ | manā |
| Gen. manaso, manassa | manānaṃ |
| Dat. manaso, manassa | maninaṃ |
| Acc. mano, manaṃ | mane |
| Ins. manasā, manena | manehi, manebhi |
| Abl. manasā, manasmā, manamhā, manā | manehi, manebhi |
| Loc. manasi, mane, manasmiṃ, manamhi | manesu |
| Voc. mano, manaṃ, manā, mana | manā |
Remarks.
(a) It should be borne in mind that mano is never used in the
plural, although the forms are given by some grammarians.
(b) The influence of the a declension is here also clearly seen,
principally in the plural, of which in fact, all the forms are
after the a declension.
(c) There is also a Neuter form in ni in the plural: manāni.
160. Native
grammarians give the following nouns as belonging to the manas
declension, their stems ending in as:
vaco, discourse. tejo, power.
vayo, age. tapo, heat.
ceto, thought. tamo, darkness.
yaso, glory, fame. ayo, iron.
payo, a beverage. siro, the head.
chando, metrics, prosody. saro, a lake.
uro, breast. raho, solitude, privacy.
aho, day. rajo, dust, passion.
ojo, splendour; strength. thāmo, strength, vigour.
vāso, cloth, clothing.
Remarks.
(a) aha, day, in the Loc. sing. has the following forms:
ahasmiṃ, ahamhi, ahe, ahu, ahasi, ahuni.
(b) The words: rajo, ojo, thāmo and vāso are included
in the manas declension by the Sinhalese grammarians.
(c) The comparative adjectives ending in yo, iyyo, as for
instance seyyo, gariyo, follow the manas declension.
161. Declension of āyu (Stem āyus), Life
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. āyu, ayuṃ | āyū, āyūni |
| Gen. āyussa, āyuno | āyūnaṃ, āyusaṃ |
| Dat. āyussa, āyuno | āyūnaṃ, āyusaṃ |
| Acc. āyu, āyuṃ | āyū, āyūni |
| Ins. āyunā, āyusā | āyūhi, āyūbhi |
| Abl. āyunā, āyusā | āyūhi, āyūbhi |
| Loc. āyuni, āyusi | āyūsu |
| Voc. āyu, āyuṃ | āyū, āyūni |
162. III. Stems ending in ar (=SANSK ¨)
163. Declension of
Satthā, the Teacher (Buddha)
(Stem Satthar, Sansk Castr)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. satthā | satthāro, satthā |
| Gen. satthu, satthussa, satthuno | satthānaṃ, satthārānaṃ, satthūnaṃ |
| Dat. satthu, satthussa, satthuno | satthānaṃ, satthārānaṃ, satthūnaṃ |
| Acc. satthāraṃ, sattharaṃ | satthāro, satthāre |
| Ins. sattharā, satthārā, satthunā | satthārehi, satthārebhi |
| Abl. sattharā, satthārā, satthunā | satthārehi, satthārebhi |
| Loc. satthari | satthāresu, satthūsu |
| Voc. sattha, satthā | satthāro, satthā |
Remarks.
(a) The form of the Gen. sing. in u: satthu, is the base employed
in the formation of compound words.
(b) Stems ending in ar (Sansk. ¨) have their Nom. sing. in
ā as pitar (=Sansk. pit¨), Nom. sing. pitā; so
mātar (=māt¨), Nom. sing. mātā. Their base
in composition is generally in u.
(c) Before suffix to of the Abl. sing. stems in ar often take the
vowel i; as pitito, mātito, and sometimes a base piti,
māti is used in composition: pitipakkhe.
(d) Some words whose stem is in ar, follow the a declension (of
deva), for instance: sallakatta (stem sallakattar), a physician;
kattara (stem kattarar), a weak person; sota (stem sotar), a
hearer.
Exercise
Decline like satthā:
netā, a guide. nattā, a grandson.
mātā, mother. pitā, father.
jetā, a conqueror. dātā, a giver.
kattā, an agent. bhātā, brother.
The words pitā and mātā present some
peculiarities.
164. Declension of
Mātā, Mother
(Stem Mātar, Sansk. Māt¨)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. mātā | mātaro, mātā |
| Gen. mātu, mātuyā, mātyā | mātarānaṃ, mātānaṃ, mātūnaṃ, mātunnaṃ |
| Dat. mātu, mātuyā, mātyā | mātarānaṃ, mātānaṃ, mātūnaṃ, mātunnaṃ |
| Acc. mātaraṃ | mātaro, matare |
| Ins. mātarā, mātuyā, mātyā | mātarehi, mātārebhi, mātūhi, mātūbhi |
| Abl. mātarā, mātuyā, mātyā | mātarehi, mātārebhi, mātūhi, mātūbhi |
| Loc. mātari, mātuyā, mātyā, mātuyaṃ, mātyaṃ | mātaresu, mātūsu |
| Voc. māta, mātā | mātaro, mātā |
Remarks.
(a) In the oblique cases of the singular, the student will
readily recognize the influence of the Feminine declension in the
suffixes ā and ṃ.
(b) There is also found, rarely, a Gen. sing. in ssa:
mātussa.
Declension of Pitā, Father (Stem Pitar, Sansk. Pit¨)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. pitā | pitaro |
| Gen. pitu, pituno, pitussa | pitarānaṃ, pitānaṃ, pitunnaṃ, pitūnaṃ |
| Dat. pitu, pituno, pitussa | pitarānaṃ, pitānaṃ, pitunnaṃ, pitūnaṃ |
| Acc. pitaraṃ, pituṃ | pitaro, pitare |
| Ins. pitarā, pitunā, pityā, petyā | pitarehi, pitarebhi, pitūhi, pitūbhi |
| Abl. pitarā, pitu, pityā, petyā | pitarehi, pitarebhi, pitūhi, pitūbhi |
| Loc. pitari | pitaresu, pitūsu |
| Voc. pita, pitā | pitaro |
Remarks. In the Dat. and Gen. plur. of mātā and pitā the n is doubled to compensate for the shortening of ū (long); hence: mātunnaṃ, mātūnaṃ and pitunnaṃ, pitūnaṃ.
165. (IV) The words ending in: at (or ant), vat (or vant), mat (or mant), are mostly adjectives and their declension will be given in the chapter on Adjectives.
We shall, however, give here the declension of a few nouns, in at or vant.
166. Declension of Bhavaṃ, Sir (Stem in at, or ant)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. bhavaṃ, bhanto | bhavanto, bhavantā, bhonto |
| Gen. bhavantassa, bhavato, bhoto | bhavataṃ, bhavantānaṃ |
| Dat. bhavantassa, bhavato, bhoto | bhavataṃ, bhavantānaṃ |
| Acc. bhavantaṃ, bhotaṃ | bhavante, bhonte |
| Ins. bhavantena, bhavatā, bhotā | bhavantehi, bhavantebhi |
| Abl. bhavatā, bhavantā, bhotā | bhavantehi, bhavantebhi |
| Loc. bhavati, bhavante | bhavantesu |
| Voc. bho, bhonta, bhante | bhavanto, bhonto, bhante, bhavantā |
Remarks.
(a) Bhavaṃ is a polite term of address, and it may be translated
by "Your Honour."
(b) Native grammarians invariably use it as the sign of the
Vocative case.
(c) The Feminine, bhotī, "madam" is regularly declined
after the ī declension Feminine, (adī).
167. Declension of Arahaṃ, Saint (Stem in at, or ant)
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. arahaṃ, arahā | arahanto, arahā |
| Gen. arahato, arahantassa | arahataṃ, arahantānaṃ |
| Dat. arahato, arahantassa | arahataṃ, arahantānaṃ |
| Acc. arahantaṃ | arahante |
| Ins. arahatā, arahantena | arahantehi, arahantebhi |
| Abl. arahatā, arahantā, arahantasmā, arahantamhā | arahantehi, arahantebhi |
| Loc. arahati, arahante, arahantasmiṃ, arahantamhi | arahantesu |
| Voc. arahanta | arahanto |
Similarly is declined santa, meaning a good man.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 6*
Formation of Feminine Bases of Nouns and Adjectives
*This chapter has for the most part been adopted from the niruttīdipanī.
168. From what has been already said (116, d) about grammatical gender, it will be easily understood that the gender of substantives will be better learned from the dictionary. The student will already have remarked, however, that:
169. All nouns the stem of which ends in a, and the Nom. sing in o, are Masculine.
| Examples | |
| Stem | Nom. Sing. Masc. |
| sīha, lion. | sīho. |
| assa, horse. | asso. |
| hattha, the hand. | hattho. |
| dāra, wife. | dāro. |
170. All nouns the stem of which ends in o, and the Nom. sing. in aṃ, are Neuter.
| Examples | |
| Stem | Nom. Sing. Neut. |
| citta, the mind. | cittaṃ. |
| rūpa, an image. | rūpaṃ. |
| bhatta, rice. | bhattaṃ. |
| hita, benefit. | hitaṃ. |
| bhaya, fear. | bhayaṃ. |
171. All nouns the stem of which ends in ā, and the Nom. sing. in ā are Feminine.
| Examples | |
| Stem | Nom. Sing. Fem. |
| vācā, a word. | vācā. |
| nāvā, a boat. | nāvā. |
| sālā, a hall. | sālā. |
| gāthā, a stanza. | gāthā. |
| pūjā, worship. | pūjā. |
Remarks. The Masculine nouns with stems in ā (128) are very few in number and rarely met with. Although included by all native grammarians, as has already been remarked, in the Vowel-declension, they properly belong to the Consonantal-declension. For instance, the true stem of sā, a dog is san (Sanskrit van); that of mā, the moon, is mas (Sansk. mās); again, the true stem of gaṇḍīvadhanva, Arjuna, is gaṇḍīvadhanvan.
172. All nouns whose stem ends in ī and the Nom. sing. also in ī are Feminine.
| Examples | |
| Stem | Nom. Sing. Fem. |
| mahī, the earth. | mahī. |
| sīhī, lioness. | sīhī. |
| bhisī, a mat. | bhisī. |
| rājinī, a queen. | rājinī. |
| bhūmī the earth. | bhūmī. |
173. There are also some Masculine nouns whose Nom. sing ends in ī. As a general rule, the Masc. nouns of this class are adjectives used substantively; they properly belong to the Consonantal-declension, and their stems end in -in.
174. There are no Neuter nouns in ī.
175. Nouns the stem of which ends in u, are either Masculine, Feminine or Neuter. The gender is best learned from the dictionary.
176. All pure substantives whose stem ends in ū and the Nom sing, also in ū are Feminine.
| Examples | |
| Stem | Nom. Sing. Fem. |
| camū, an army. | camū. |
| pādū, a shoe. | pādū. |
| sassū, mother-in-law. | sassū. |
| bhū, the earth. | bhū. |
| vadhū, daughter-in-law. | vadhū. |
Remarks. This class is not numerous.
177. Masculine nouns the stem of which ends in u and the Nom. sing. in ū, are properly not pure substantives, but adjectives, sometimes used substantively.
| Examples | ||
| Stem. | Adjective Substantival use. | Nom. Sing. Masc. |
| abhibhū, mastering. | chief, conqueror. | abhibhū. |
| vedagū, knowing the vedas. | a sage, a savant. | vedagū. |
| maggaññū, knowing the Way. | a saint. | maggaññū. |
178. There are no Neuter nouns the stem of which ends in ū.
179. The above rules, though meagre, will somewhat help the student to discriminate the gender of nouns.
180. As in other languages, many Feminine substantives are derived from the base or stem of Masculine substantives by means of certain suffixes.
181. The
suffixes used in Pāli to form Feminine bases are:
1. ā, ikā, akā.
2. ī, ikinī.
3. nī, inī.
4. ā, nī.
182. Feminine Bases of Substantives
183. Many Feminine bases are derived from Masculine ones ending in a by means of ā and ī.
184. Examples with ā
Remarks. Feminine bases formed with ā, are not very numerous, and most of them can also be formed with ī or inī, or ikā.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| mānusa a man. | mānusā, a woman. |
| assa, a horse. | assā, a mare. |
| kumbhakāra, a potter. | kumbhakārā, a potter's wife. |
| kaṭapūtana, a demon. | kaṭapūtanā, a she-demon. |
| vallabha, a favourite. | vallabhā, a favourite woman. |
185. Examples with ī
Remarks. Feminine bases derived from the Masculine by means of ī are very numerous.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| sīha, lion. | sīhī, lioness. |
| miga, deer. | migī, doe. |
| kumāra, boy, prince. | kumārī, girl, princess. |
| māṇava, a young man. | māṇavī, a young woman. |
| sāmaṇera, a novice. | sāmaṇerī, a novice (fem.) |
186. The Feminine of many patronymics is also formed by means of ī.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| kacchāyana. | kacchāyanī. |
| vāseṭṭha. | vaseṭṭhī. |
| gotama. | gotamī. |
187. Nouns in ka (mostly adjectives used substantively) form their Feminine in ikā or ikinī.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| nāvika, a boatman. | nāvikā, nāvikinī. |
| paribbājaka, a wandering ascetic. | paribbājikā, paribbājikinī. |
| paṃsukūlika, a monk wearing robes made of picked-up rags. | paṃsukūlikinī, paṃsukūlikā, a nun wearing robes made of picked-up rags. |
| kumāraka, a boy. | kumārikā, a girl. |
188. Examples with inī
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| rājā, king. | rājinī, queen. |
| kumbhakāra, potter. | kumbhakārinī, potter's wife. |
| miga, deer. | miginī, doe. |
| sīha, lion. | sīhinī, lioness. |
| yakkha, an ogre. | yakkhinī, an ogress. |
189. Examples with nī
Remarks. The suffix nī is used after Masculine bases ending in i, ī, and u, ū. The ī and ū of the base are shortened before nī.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| bhikkhu, Buddhist monk. | bhikkhunī, Buddhist nun. |
| bandhu, a relative. | bandhunī, a female relative. |
| paṭu, a wise man. | paṭunī, a wise woman. |
| dhammaññū, a pious man. | dhammaññunī, a pious woman. |
| daṇḍī a mendicant. | daṇḍinī, a female mendicant. |
| brahmacārī, one who lives the higher life. | brahmacārinī, a woman who lives the higher life, a religious student. |
| hatthi, an elephant. | hatthinī, female elephant. |
190. Examples with ānī
191. A few nouns form their Feminine by means of the suffix ānī.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| mātula, uncle. | mātulānī, aunt. |
| vāruṇa, Vāruṇa. | varuṇānī. |
| khattiya, a nobleman. | khattiyānī, a noblewoman. |
| ācariya, a teacher. | ācariyānī. |
| gahapati, householder. | gahapatānī, householder's wife. |
Remark. Note that in gahapati, final i is dropped before ānī.
192. Some nouns assume two or more Feminine forms.
| Examples | |
| Masc. base | Fem. base |
| atthakāma one wishing to be useful. | atthakāmā, atthakāmī, atthakāminī. |
| kumbhakāra, potter. | kumbhakārā, kumbhakārī, kumbhakārinī. |
| yakkha, ogre. | yakkhī, yakkhinī. |
| nāga, snake, elephant. | nāgī, nāginī. |
| miga, deer. | migī, miginī. |
| sīha, lion. | sīhī, sīhinī. |
| byaggha, tiger. | byagghī, byagghinī. |
| kākā, a crow. | kākī, kākinī. |
| mānusa, a man. | mānusā, mānusī, mānusinī. |
193. The
suffixes used for the formation of Adjectival Feminine bases are
the same as those
given above (181), that is;-
194. Of Adjectives the stem of which ends in a, some form their Feminine in ā, some in ī.
195. Adjectives ending in i, ī, and u, ū, form their Feminine by adding nī (189), before which long ī and ū are shortened.
(For examples see Chapter VII. Adjectives.)
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 7
Adjectives
Declension
196. Adjectives, like nouns, may be divided into those whose stem ends in a vowel and those the stem of which ends in a consonant.
To the student who has mastered the declension of nouns, that of Adjectives will present no difficulties.
Declension of adjectives in a
197. Adjectives in a form their Feminine by means of ā mostly; some by means of ī.
198. The Neuter is obtained by adding ṃ to the stem.
199. The Masculine is declined like deva (122); the Feminine like kaññā (127), and the Neuter like rūpaṃ (124).
Feminines in i are declined like nadī (139).
200. Declension of Bāla (stem), foolish
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | bālo. | bālā. | bālaṃ. |
| Gen. | bālassa. | bālāya. | bālassa. |
| Dat. | bālassa, bālāya. | bālāya. | bālassa, bālāya. |
| Acc. | bālaṃ. | bālaṃ. | bālaṃ. |
| Ins. | bālena. | bālāya. | bālena. |
| Abl. | bālā, bālasmā, bālamhā, bālato. | bālāya. | bālā, bālasmā, bālamhā, bālato. |
| Loc. | bāle, bālasmiṃ, bālamhi. | bālāya, bālāyaṃ. | bāle, bālasmiṃ, bālamhi. |
| Voc. | bāla, bālā. | bālā, bāle. | bāla. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | bālā. | bālā, bālāyo. | bālāni, bālā. |
| Gen. | bālānaṃ. | bālānaṃ. | bālānaṃ. |
| Dat. | bālānaṃ. | bālānaṃ. | bālānaṃ. |
| Acc. | bāle. | bālā, bālāyo. | bālāni, bāle. |
| Ins. | bālehi, bālebhi. | bālāhi, bālābhi. | bālehi, bālebhi. |
| Abl. | bālehi, bālebhi. | bālāhi, bālābhi. | bālehi, bālebhi. |
| Loc. | bālesu. | bālāsu. | bālesu. |
| Voc. | bālā. | bālā, bālāyo. | bālāni, bālā. |
| Exercise | |||
| Adjectives declined like deva, kaññā and rūpaṃ. | |||
| Stem | Masc. | Fem. | Neut. |
| dūra, far. | dūro | dūrā | dūraṃ |
| taruṇa, young. | taruṇo | taruṇā | taruṇaṃ |
| dīgha, long. | dīgho | dīghā | dīghaṃ |
| rassa, short. | rasso | rassā | rassaṃ |
| gambhīra, deep. | gambhīro | gambhīrā | gambhīraṃ |
| pharusa, harsh. | pharuso | pharusā | pharusaṃ |
| sukkha, dry. | sukkho | sukkhā | sukkhaṃ |
| āmaka, raw. | āmako | āmakā | āmakaṃ |
| pāpa, evil. | pāpo | pāpā | pāpaṃ |
| khema, calm. | khemo | khemā | khemaṃ |
201. We give here only a few examples of Feminine adjectives formed by means of ī from stems in a.
| pāpa, evil. | pāpo, | pāpī. |
| taruṇa, young. | taruṇo, | taruṇī. |
| dīpana, illuminating. | dīpano, | dīpanī. |
Remarks. As said above these adjectives are declined like nadī and therefore present no difficulty.
202. Adjectives in ī (short)
203. Adjectives ending in i are declined like kapi, in the Masculine, and like vāri, in the Neuter. The Feminine formed by means of ni is declined like nadī.
204. Declension of Bhūri (stem), abundant
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | bhūri. | bhūrinī. | bhūri. |
| Gen. | bhūrissa, bhūrino. | bhūriniyā. | bhūrissa, bhūrino. |
| Dat. | bhūrissa, bhūrino. | bhūriniyā. | bhūrissa, bhūrino. |
| Acc. | bhūriṃ. | bhūriniṃ. | bhūriṃ. |
| Ins. | bhūrinā. | bhūriniyā. | bhūrinā. |
| Abl. | bhūrinā, bhūrismā, bhūrimhā. | bhūriniyā. | bhūrinā, bhūrismā, bhūrimhā. |
| Loc. | bhūrismiṃ, bhūrimhi. | bhūriniyā, bhūriniyaṃ. | bhūrismiṃ, bhūrimhi. |
| Voc. | bhūri. | bhūrini. | bhūri. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | bhūrī, bhūrāyo. | bhūrinī, bhūriniyo. | bhūrinī, bhūrī. |
| Gen. | bhūrīnaṃ. | bhūrinīnaṃ. | bhūrinaṃ. |
| Dat. | bhūrīnaṃ. | bhūrinīnaṃ. | bhūrinaṃ. |
| Acc. | bhūrī, bhūrāyo. | bhūrinī, bhūriniyo. | bhūrinī, bhūrī. |
| Ins. | bhūrīhi, bhūrībhi. | bhūrinīhi, bhūrinībhi. | bhūrīhi, bhūrībhi. |
| Abl. | bhūrīhi, bhūrībhi. | bhūrinīhi, bhūrinībhi. | bhūrīhi, bhūrībhi. |
| Loc. | bhūrīsu. | bhūrinīsu. | bhūrīsu. |
| Voc. | bhūrī, bhūrayo. | bhūrini, bhūrinīyo. | bhūrini, bhūrī. |
205. Adjectives in ī (long)
206. A numerous class of Masculine adjectives are derived from nouns by means of suffix i (an adjectival suffix not to be confounded with the Feminine suffix ī) (181, 2; 185).
| Examples | |
| Substantives | Adjectives |
| pāpa, sin. | pāpī, sinful. |
| dhamma, religion. | dhammī, religious, pious. |
| māna, pride. | mānī, proud. |
| soka, sorrow. | sokī, sorrowful. |
| roga, sickness. | rogī, sick. |
| makkha, hypocrisy. | makkhī, hypocritical. |
207. The Masculine is declined like daṇḍi.
208. The Feminine is formed by adding ni, before which final ī is shortened; it is declined like nadī.
209. In the Neuter final ī is shortened to i and is declined like vāri.
210. Declension of Esī, wishing
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | esī. | esinī. | esi. |
| Gen. | esissa, esino. | esiniyā. | esissa, esino. |
| Dat. | esissa, esino. | esiniyā. | esissa, esino. |
| Acc. | esiṃ. | esiniṃ. | esiṃ. |
| Ins. | esinā. | esiniyā. | esinā. |
| Abl. | esinā, esismā, esimhā. | esiniyā. | esinā, esismā, esimhā. |
| Loc. | esismiṃ, esimhi. | esiniyā, esiniyaṃ. | esismiṃ, esimhi. |
| Voc. | esi. | esinī. | esi. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | esī, esino. | esinī, esiniyo. | esīni, esī. |
| Gen. | esīnaṃ. | esinīnaṃ. | esinaṃ. |
| Dat. | esīnaṃ. | esinīnaṃ. | esīnaṃ. |
| Acc. | esī. | esinī, esiniyo. | esīni, esi. |
| Ins. | esīhi, esībhi. | esinīhi, esinībhi. | esīhi, esībhi. |
| Abl. | esīhi, esībhi. | esinīhi, esinībhi. | esihi, esibhi. |
| Loc. | esīsu. | esinīsu. | esīsu. |
| Voc. | esī. | esinī. | esī. |
| Decline like esī | ||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
| ekākī, solitary. | ekākinī, | ekāki. |
| cārī, roaming. | cārinī, | cāri. |
| ekakkhī, one eyed. | ekakkhinī, | ekakkhi. |
| maccharī, niggardly. | maccharinī, | macchari. |
| sūrī, wise. | sūrinī, | sūri. |
| jayī, victorious. | jayinī, | jayi. |
211. Adjectives in u (short)
212. These are declined in the Masculine like bhikkhu, in the Feminine like nadī, and in the Neuter like cakkhu.
213. The Feminine base is formed by the addition of ni.
214. Declension of Garu (stem), heavy
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | garu. | garunī. | garu. |
| Gen. | garussa, garuno. | garuniyā. | garussa, garuno. |
| Dat. | garussa, garuno. | garuniyā. | garussa, garuno. |
| Acc. | garuṃ. | garuniṃ. | garuṃ. |
| Ins. | garunā. | garuniyā. | garunā. |
| Abl. | garunā, garusmā, garumhā. | garuniyā. | garunā, garusmā, garumhā. |
| Loc. | garusmiṃ, garumhi. | garuniyā, garuniyaṃ. | garusmiṃ, garumhi. |
| Voc. | garu. | garunī. | garu. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | garū, garavo. | garunī, garuniyo. | garūni, garū. |
| Gen. | garūnaṃ. | garunīnaṃ. | garūnaṃ. |
| Dat. | garūnaṃ. | garunīnaṃ. | garūnaṃ. |
| Acc. | garū, garavo. | garunī, garuniyo. | garūni, garū. |
| Ins. | garūhi, garūbhi. | garunīhi, garunībhi. | garūhi, garūbhi. |
| Abl. | garūhi, garūbhi. | garunīhi, garunībhi. | garūhi, garūbhi. |
| Loc. | garūsu. | garunīsu. | garūsu. |
| Voc. | garū, garavo. | garunī, garuniyo. | garūni, garū. |
| Decline like garu. | ||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
| bahu, many. | bahunī, | bahu. |
| sādu, agreeable. | sādunī, | sādu. |
| sādhu, good. | sādhunī, | sādhu. |
| dattu, stupid. | dattunī, | dattu. |
215. Adjectives in ū (long)
216. Adjectives in ū form their Feminine by means of nī, ū being shortened before it.
217. They are declined, in the Masc. like sayambhū, and in the Feminine like nadī and in the Neut. like cakkhu.
218. Declension of Viññū, wise
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | viññū. | viññunī. | viññū. |
| Gen. | viññussa, viññuno. | viññuniyā. | viññussa, viññuno. |
| Dat. | viññussa, viññuno. | viññuniyā. | viññussa, viññuno. |
| Acc. | viññuṃ. | viññuniṃ. | viññuṃ. |
| Ins. | viññunā. | viññuniyā. | viññunā. |
| Abl. | viññunā, viññusmā, viññumhā. | viññuniyā. | viññunā, viññusmā, viññumhā. |
| Loc. | viññusmiṃ, viññumhi. | viññuniyā, viññuniyaṃ. | viññusmiṃ, viññumhi. |
| Voc. | viññū. | viññunī. | viññū. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | viññū, viññuvo. | viññunī, viññuniyo. | viññūni, viññū. |
| Gen. | viññūnaṃ. | viññunīnaṃ. | viññūnaṃ. |
| Dat. | viññūnaṃ. | viññunīnaṃ. | viññūnaṃ. |
| Acc. | viññū, viññuvo. | viññunī, viññuniyo. | viññūni, viññū. |
| Ins. | viññūhi, viññūbhi. | viññunīhi, viññunībhi. | viññūhi, viññūbhi. |
| Abl. | viññūhi, viññūbhi. | viññunīhi, viññunībhi. | viññūhi, viññūbhi. |
| Loc. | viññūsu. | viññunīsu. | viññūsu. |
| Voc. | viññū, viññuvo. | viññunī, viññuniyo. | viññūni, viññū. |
| Decline like viññū, in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter. | |
| niddālū, sleepy. | pabhū, powerful. |
| mattaññū, temperate. | kataññū, grateful. |
219. Adjectives with Consonantal Bases
220.
Adjectives with consonantal bases are of three kinds:
(1) those the stem of which ends in at or ant.
(2) those the stem of which ends in mat or mant.
(3) those the stem of which ends in vat or vant.
221. All the adjectives in mat, mant, and vat, vant, are formed from nouns by means of suffixes mā and vā, (whose original base is mat and vat), which express possession of the quality or state indicated by the noun to which they are affixed.
222. It must, however, be remarked that vā and mā are not affixed indiscriminately. The following rule is invariable.
(a) Suffix vā is added
only to nouns ending in a.
(b) Suffix mā is always added to nouns ending in i and u.
| Example | |
| Noun | Adj. |
| māna, pride. | mānavā, having pride, viz, proud. |
| guṇa, virtue. | gunavā, having virtue, viz., virtuous. |
| bhoga, wealth. | bhogavā, possessing wealth, viz., wealthy. |
| bala, strength. | balavā, possessing strength, viz., strong. |
| Example | |
| Noun | Adj. |
| suci, purity. | sucimā, endowed with purity, viz., pure. |
| sati, mindfulness. | satimā, possessed of mindfulness, viz., mindful. |
| khanti, patience. | khantimā, endowed with patience, viz., patient. |
| hetu, cause. | hetumā, having a cause, causal. |
| bandhu, relative. | bandhumā, having a relative. |
223. The Feminine is formed by adding ī to either of the bases viz, mat, mant or vat, vant; for instance:
| Stem | Masculine | Feminine |
| guṇavat. | guṇavā. | guṇavatī. |
| guṇavant. | guṇavantī. | |
| jutimat. | jutimā. | jutimatī. |
| jutimant. | jutimantī. |
224. In the Nom., Acc., and Voc. sing. the Neuter is formed by adding ṃ after vā and mā, the long ā being shortened (4, 34); and ni to the stem in vant and mant, for the Nom., Acc., and Voc. plural.
| Stem | Masculine | Feminine | |
| Singular | Plural | ||
| jutimant. | jutimā. | jutimaṃ. | jutimantāni. |
| guṇavant. | guṇavā. | guṇavaṃ. | guṇavantāni. |
225. Declension of adjectives in at or ant
226. Declension of Mahā (stem: Mahat, Mahant)
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | mahaṃ, mahanto. | mahatī, mahantī. | mahaṃ, mahantaṃ. |
| Gen. | mahato, mahantassa. | mahatiyā, mahantiyā. | mahato, mahantassa. |
| Dat. | mahato, mahantassa. | mahatiyā, mahantiyā. | mahato, mahantassa. |
| Acc. | mahantaṃ. | mahatiṃ, mahantiṃ. | mahantaṃ. |
| Ins. | mahatā, mahantena. | mahatiyā, mahantiyā. | mahatā, mahantena. |
| Abl. | mahatā, mahantasmā, mahantamhā. | mahatiyā, mahantiyā. | mahatā, mahantasmā, mahantamhā |
| Loc. | mahati, mahante, mahantasmiṃ, mahantamhi. | mahatiyā, mahantiyā, mahatiyaṃ, mahantiyaṃ. | mahati, mahante, mahantasmiṃ, mahantamhi. |
| Voc. | mahaṃ, mahā, maha. | mahatī, mahantī. | mahaṃ, mahā, maha. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | mahanto, mahantā. | mahatī, mahatiyo, mahantī, mahantiyo. | mahantāni, mahantā. |
| Gen. | mahataṃ, mahantānaṃ. | mahatīnam, mahantīnaṃ. | mahataṃ, mahantānaṃ. |
| Dat. | mahataṃ, mahantānaṃ. | mahatīnam, mahantīnaṃ. | mahataṃ, mahantānaṃ. |
| Acc. | mahante, mahantā, mahanto. | mahatī, mahatiyo, mahantī, mahantiyo. | mahantāni, mahantā. |
| Ins. | mahantehi, mahantebhi. | mahantīhi, mahantībhi, mahatīhi, mahatībhi. | mahantehi, mahantebhi. |
| Abl. | mahantehi, mahantebhi. | mahantīhi, mahantībhi, mahatīhi, mahatībhi. | mahantehi, mahantebhi. |
| Loc. | mahantesu. | mahatīsu, mahantīsu. | mahantesu. |
| Voc. | mahantā, mahanto. | mahatī, mahatiyo, mahantī, mahantiyo. | mahantāni, mahantā. |
Remarks.
(a) The declension of mahā should be carefully studied, as
all the Present Participles, in at and ant, as for instance
gacchaṃ or gacchanto, karaṃ or karanto, pacaṃ or pacanto, are
declined like it.
(b) We have already given (167) the declension of arahaṃ which,
in the Nom. sing, has also the form arahā.
(c) The word santo (167) meaning a good man, is similarly
declined; the form sabbhi, however, is also found in the Ins. and
Abl. plural.
Exercise
Decline like mahaṃ (stem:
mahat, mahant), in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter.
caraṃ, caranto (stem: carat, carant) walking, roaming.
bhuñjaṃ, bhuñjanto (stem: bhuñjaṭ,
bhuñjant) eating.
karaṃ, karanto (stem: karat, karant) doing.
saraṃ, saranto (stem: sarat, sarant) remembering.
vasaṃ, vasanto (stem: vasat, vasant) living.
pucchaṃ, pucchanto (stem: pucchat, pucchant) asking.
227. Declension of adjectives in mat or mant
228. Declension of Dhīmā, wise (stem: Dhīmat, Dhīmant)
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | dhīmā, dhīmanto. | dhīmatī, dhīmantī. | dhīmaṃ, dhīmantam. |
| Gen. | dhīmato, dhīmantassa. | dhīmatiyā, dhīmantiyā. | dhīmato, dhimantassa. |
| Dat. | dhīmato, dhīmantassa. | dhīmatiyā, dhīmantiyā. | dhīmato, dhimantassa. |
| Acc. | dhīmaṃ, dhīmantaṃ. | dhīmatiṃ, dhīmantiṃ. | dhīmaṃ, dhīmantaṃ. |
| Ins. | dhīmatā, dhīmantena. | dhīmatiyā, dhīmantiyā. | dhīmatā, dhīmantena. |
| Abl. | dhīmatā, dhīmantā, dhīmantasmā, dhīmantamhā. | dhīmantiyā, dhīmatiyā. | dhīmatā, dhīmantā, dhīmantasmā, dhīmantamhā. |
| Loc. | dhīmati, dhīmante, dhīmantasmiṃ, dhīmantamhi. | dhīmatiyā, dhīmantiyā, dhīmatiyaṃ, dhīmantiyaṃ. | dhīmati, dhīmante, dhīmantasmiṃ, dhīmantamhi. |
| Voc. | dhīmaṃ, dhīmā, dhīma, dhīmantā, dhīmanta. | dhīmatī, dhīmantī. | dhīmaṃ, dhīmā, dhīma, dhīmanta, dhīmantā. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | dhīmantā, dhīmanto, dhīmā. | dhīmatī, dhīmatiyo, dhīmantī, dhīmantiyo. | dhīmantāni, dhīmantā. |
| Gen. | dhīmataṃ, dhīmantānaṃ. | dhīmatīnaṃ, dhīmantīnaṃ. | dhīmataṃ, dhīmantānaṃ. |
| Dat. | dhīmataṃ, dhīmantānaṃ. | dhīmatīnaṃ, dhīmantīnaṃ. | dhīmataṃ, dhīmantānaṃ. |
| Acc. | dhīmante. | dhīmatī, dhīmatiyo, dhīmantī, dhīmantiyo. | dhīmantāni, dhīmantā. |
| Ins. | dhīmantehi, dhīmantebhi. | dhīmatīhi, dhīmatībhi, dhīmantīhi, dhīmantībhi. | dhīmantehi, dhīmantebhi. |
| Abl. | dhīmantehi, dhīmantebhi. | dhīmatīhi, dhīmatībhi, dhīmantīhi, dhīmantībhi. | dhīmantehi, dhīmantebhi. |
| Loc. | dhīmantesu. | dhīmantīsu, dhīmatīsu. | dhīmantesu. |
| Voc. | dhīmantā, dhīmanto, dhīmā. | dhīmatī, dhīmatiyo, dhīmantī, dhīmantiyo. | dhīmantāni, dhīmantā. |
Exercise
Decline like dhimā (stem:
dhīmat, dhīmant), in the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter:
gomā (stem: gomat, gomant) a cattle owner.
puttimā (stem: puttimat, puttimant) having sons.
khānumā (stem: khānumat, khānumant) having
stumps.
ketumā (stem: ketumat, ketumant) glorious, victorious lit.,
having banners.
hetumā (stem: hetumat, hetumant) having a cause.
cakkhumā (stem: cakkhumat cakkhumant) enlightened.
229. Declension of adjectives in vat or vant
Remarks. The declension of Adjectives in vat, vant is the same as that of those in mat, mant; the only difference being that, of course, v replaces m throughout.
230. Declension of Guṇavā, virtuous (stem: guṇavat, guṇavant)
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | guṇavā, guṇavanto. | guṇavatī, guṇavantī. | guṇavaṃ, guṇavantam. |
| Gen. | guṇavato, guṇavantassa. | guṇavatiyā, guṇavantiyā. | guṇavato, guṇavantassa. |
| Dat. | guṇavato, guṇavantassa. | guṇavatiyā, guṇavantiyā. | guṇavato, guṇavantassa. |
| Acc. | guṇavaṃ, guṇavantaṃ. | guṇavatiṃ, guṇavantiṃ. | guṇavaṃ, guṇavantaṃ. |
| Ins. | guṇavatā, guṇavantena. | guṇavatiyā, guṇavantiyā. | guṇavatā, guṇavantena. |
| Abl. | guṇavatā, guṇavantā, guṇavantasmā, guṇavantamhā. | guṇavantiyā, guṇavatiyā. | guṇavatā, guṇavantā, guṇavantasmā, guṇavantamhā. |
| Loc. | guṇavati, guṇavante, guṇavantasmiṃ, guṇavantamhi. | guṇavatiyā, guṇavatiyaṃ, guṇavantiyā, guṇavantiyaṃ. | guṇavati, guṇavante, guṇavantasmiṃ, guṇavantamhi. |
| Voc. | guṇavaṃ, guṇavā, guṇava, guṇavantā, guṇavanta. | guṇavatī, guṇavantī. | guṇavaṃ, guṇavā, guṇava, guṇavanta, guṇavantā. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | guṇavantā, guṇavanto, guṇavā. | guṇavatī, guṇavatiyo, guṇavantī, guṇavantiyo. | guṇavantāni, guṇavantā. |
| Gen. | guṇavataṃ, guṇavantānaṃ. | guṇavatīnaṃ, guṇavantīnaṃ. | guṇavataṃ, guṇavantānaṃ. |
| Dat. | guṇavataṃ, guṇavantānaṃ. | guṇavatīnaṃ, guṇavantīnaṃ. | guṇavataṃ, guṇavantānaṃ. |
| Acc. | guṇavante. | guṇavatī, guṇavatiyo, guṇavantī, guṇavantiyo. | guṇavantāni, guṇavantā. |
| Ins. | guṇavantehi, guṇavantebhi. | guṇavatīhi, guṇavatībhi, guṇavantīhi, guṇavantībhi. | guṇavantehi, guṇavantebhi. |
| Abl. | guṇavantehi, guṇavantebhi. | guṇavatīhi, guṇavatībhi, guṇavantīhi, guṇavantībhi. | guṇavantehi, guṇavantebhi. |
| Loc. | guṇavantesu. | guṇavantīsu, guṇavatīsu. | guṇavantesu. |
| Voc. | guṇavantā, guṇavanto, guṇavā. | guṇavatī, guṇavatiyo, guṇavantī, guṇavantiyo. | guṇavantāni, guṇavantā. |
231. There is another not very numerous class of Adjectives formed from nouns and roots by means of suffixes āvī and vī.
232. The original stem of āvī and vī is āvin and vin and they therefore belong to the Consonantal declension. Vī is used after nouns, and āvī after roots.
233. The Feminine is formed by adding the Feminine suffix nī, before which final long ī is shortened.
234. In the Neuter, final i is shortened in the Nom. and Voc. singular; in the plural, before Neuter suffix ni final ī remains unchanged.
235. vī, like mā and vā, expresses possession.
| Examples | ||||
| Neuter | ||||
| Noun | Adj. Masc. | Adj. Fem. | Singular | Plural |
| medhā, wisdom. | medhāvī. | medhāvinī. | medhāvi. | medhāvīnī. |
| √pass, to see. | passāvī. | passāvinī. | passāvi. | passāvīnī. |
The declension of these Adjectives presents no difficulty. They are declined in the Masculine like daṇḍī, in the Feminine like nadī and in the Neuter like vāri.
236. Negative Adjectives
237. Negative Adjectives are obtained by prefixing to affirmative Adjectives the prefix a and ana.
Remarks. a is used before a consonant, and ana before a vowel.
| Examples | |
| dīgha, long. | adīgha, not long. |
| ākula, turbid. | anākula, not turbid, clear. |
Comparison
238. The
Comparison of Adjectives is formed in two ways:
(1) by adding tara for the comparative and tama for the
Superlative, to the Masculine bases of the Positive.
(2) by adding iya or iyya for the comparative, and iṭṭha,
issika for the Superlative, to the Masculine bases of the
Positive.
239. The Comparative and Superlative are declined in the Masculine like deva, in the Feminine like kañña and in the Neuter like rūpaṃ.
Examples
| (1) tara, tama. | ||
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| suci, pure. | sucitara, purer. | sucitama, purest. |
| pāpa, evil. | pāpatara, more evil. | pāpatama, most evil. |
| omaka, vile. | omakatara, viler. | omakatama, vilest. |
| hari, green. | haritara, greener. | haritama, greenest. |
Remarks. Of the above Comparative and Superlative bases, the Masculine is, sucitaro, sucitamo; the Feminine, sucitarā, sucitamā, and the Neuter, sucitaraṃ, etc., etc.
| (2) iya (iyya), iṭṭha, issika. | ||
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| pāpa, evil. | pāpīya, more evil. | pāpiṭṭha, most evil. |
| pāpiyya more evil. | pāpissika, most evil. | |
| khippa, quick. | khippiya, quicker. | khippiṭṭha, quickest. |
| khippiyya, quicker. | khippissika, quickest. | |
| kaṭṭha, bad. | kaṭṭhiya, worse. | kaṭṭhiṭṭha, worst. |
| kaṭṭhiyya, worse. | kaṭṭhissika, worst. |
240. With many, we should say most, adjectives, the suffixes of (238-1) tara, tama or of (2) iya, iyya, iṭṭha, issika, may be used interchangeably.
Examples
pāpatara or pāpiya.
khippatara or khippiya.
pāpatama or pāpiṭṭha or pāpissika, etc.
241. The comparatives in iya, iyya, are declined like mano (159).
It will be remarked that, before iya, iyya, iṭṭha and issika, the final vowel of the Positive Adjective is dropped.
243. Adjectives formed by means of the possessive suffixes, ma (mat), vā (vat) (221), and vī, vin (231), drop these suffixes and the vowel which precedes them, before iya, iyya, iṭṭha and issika.
Examples
(a) guṇavā+iyo = guṇa+iyo = guṇ+iyo = guṇiyo.
Similarly: guṇ+iyyo, guṇiyyo: guṇ-iṭṭha, etc.
(b) medhāvī+iyo = medhā+iyo = medh+iyo = medhiyo
Similarly: medh-iyyo, medhiyyo; medh-iṭṭha, medhiṭṭha, etc.
(c) satimā+iyo = sati+iyo = sat+iyo = satiyo
Similarly: sat-iyyo = satiyyo; sat-iṭṭha = satiṭṭha, etc.
244. Tara may be superadded to the Superlative iṭṭha, as, pāpiṭṭhatara.
245. The Acc. sing. of most Adjectives is used adverbially.
| Examples | |
| Adjective | Adverb |
| khippa, quick. | khippaṃ, quickly. |
| sukha, happy. | sukhaṃ, happily. |
| sīgha, swift. | sīghaṃ, swiftly. |
| manda, stupid. | mandaṃ, stupidly. |
246. The Absolute Superlative is formed by prefixing ati to the Positive adjective:
atikhippa, very quick,
extremely quick, too quick.
atippasattha, very excellent.
atithoka, very little, too little, excessively little.
247. Some Adjectives form their Comparison irregularly.
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| antika, near. | nediya, nearer. | nediṭṭha, nearest. |
| bāḷha, strong. | sādhiya, stronger. | sādhiṭṭha, strongest. |
| sādhiyya, stronger. | ||
| appa, few. | kaṇiya, fewer. | kaniṭṭha, fewest. |
| yuva, young. | kaṇiya, younger. | kaniṭṭha, youngest. |
| vuḍḍha, old. | jeyya, older. | jeṭṭha, oldest. |
| pasattha, excellent, good. | seyya, better. | seṭṭha, most excellent, best. |
| garu, heavy. | gariya, heavier. | gariṭṭha, heaviest. |
248. Any substantive is used in the sense of an adjective when it is the last member of a bahubbihi compound (see chapter on compounds, bahubbihi) qualifying a noun or a pronoun expressed or understood.
249. The noun thus used, whether Feminine or Neuter, assumes the form of the Masculine.
| Examples | |
| Noun | as Adjective. |
| (i) dassanaṃ (neut.) looking. | ruddadassano kumbhīlo a fierce-looking crocodile. |
| (ii) jaṅghā (fem.) leg. | dīghajaṅgho puriso, a long-legged man. |
| (iii) paññā (fem.) wisdom. | mahāpañño, having great wisdom, very wise. |
| (iv) sīlaṃ (neut.) morality. | sampannasīlo, one who is full of morality: moral, virtuous. |
| (v) hattho (masc.) hand. | chinnahatthena purisena kato, done by a man whose hands have been cut off. |
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 8
250. Numerals
The Numerals are as follows:
| Cardinals | Ordinals |
| 1. eka, one. | paṭhama, first. |
| 2. dve, two. | dutiya, second. |
| 3. tayo, three. | tatiya, third. |
| 4. cattāro. | catuttha, turīya. |
| 5. pañca. | pañcatha, pañcama. |
| 6. cha. | chaṭṭha, chatthama. |
| 7. satta. | sattha, sattama. |
| 8. aṭṭha. | aṭṭhama. |
| 9. nava. | navama. |
| 10. dasa, rasa, lasa, ḷasa. | dasama. |
| 11. ekārasa, ekādasa. | ekarasama. |
| 12. bārasa, dvārasa. | bārasama. |
| 13. tedasa, terasa, telasa. | tedasama. |
| 14. catuddasa, cuddasa, coddasa. | catuddasama. |
| 15. pañcadasa, paṇṇarasa, pannarasa. | pañcadasama. |
| 16. soḷasa, sorasa. | soḷasama. |
| 17. sattadasa, sattarasa. | sattadasama. |
| 18. aṭṭhādasa aṭṭhārasa. | aṭṭhādasama. |
| 19. ekūnavīsati, ekūnavīsaṃ. | ekūnavīsatima. |
| 20. vīsati, vīsaṃ. | vīsatima. |
| 21. ekavīsati, ekavīsaṃ. | ekavīsatima. |
| 22. dvāvīsati. | dvāvīsatima. |
| 23. tevīsati. | tevīsatima. |
| 24. catuvīsati. | catuvīsatima. |
| 25. pañcavīsati. | pañcavīsatima. |
| 26. chabbīsati. | chabbīsatima. |
| 27. sattabīsati, sattavīsati. | sattabīsatima. |
| 28. aṭṭhavīsaṃ. | aṭṭhavīsatima. |
| 29. ekūnatiṃsati, ekūnatiṃsaṃ. | ekūnatiṃsatima. |
| 30. tiṃsati, tiṃsaṃ. | tiṃsatima. |
| 31. ekatiṃsati. | ekatiṃsatima. |
| 32. dvattiṃsati. | dvattiṃsatima. |
| 40. cattālīsaṃ, cattārīsaṃ. | cattālisatīma. |
| 50. paññāsa, paññāsaṃ. | paññāsama. |
| 60. saṭṭhi. | saṭṭhima. |
| 70. sattati. | sattatima. |
| 80. asīti. | asītima. |
| 90. navuti. | navutima. |
| 100. sataṃ. | satama. |
| 200. bāsataṃ, dvāsataṃ. | bāsatama. |
| 1000. sahassaṃ. | sahassama. |
| 10,000. dasasahassaṃ. | dasasahassama. |
| 10,000,000 koṭi. | koṭima. |
252. (I) Cardinals
253. Eka, one, is in the singular very often used in an indefinite sense, meaning: a certain, a; as,
eko nāviko, a boatman, a
certain boatman.
ekā kumārikā, a princess, a certain princess.
In the plural, it means: some,
as,
eke purisā, some men...
ekā mānusini, some women...
254. The Cardinals, eka, taya and cattāro are declined in the plural in the three genders; eka, alone of course, having singular forms.
255. Declension of Eka, One
| Singular | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | eko. | ekā. | ekaṃ. |
| Gen. | ekassa. | ekissā, ekissāya. | ekassa. |
| Dat. | ekassa. | ekissā, ekissāya. | ekassa. |
| Acc. | ekaṃ. | ekaṃ. | ekaṃ. |
| Ins. | ekena. | ekāya. | ekena. |
| Abl. | ekasmā, ekamhā. | ekāya. | ekasmā, ekamhā. |
| Loc. | ekasmiṃ, ekamhi. | ekāya, ekissaṃ. | ekasmiṃ, ekamhi. |
| Voc. | eka. | eke. | eka. |
| Plural | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | eke. | ekā, ekāyo. | ekāni. |
| Gen. | ekesaṃ. | ekāsaṃ. | ekesaṃ. |
| Dat. | ekesaṃ. | ekāsaṃ. | ekesaṃ. |
| Acc. | eke. | ekā, ekāyo. | ekāni. |
| Ins. | ekehi, ekebhi. | ekāhi, ekhābhi. | ekehi, ekebhi. |
| Abl. | ekehi, ekebhi. | ekāhi, ekhābhi. | ekehi, ekebhi. |
| Loc. | ekesu. | ekāsu. | ekesu. |
| Voc. | eke. | ekā, ekāyo. | ekāni. |
Remark. The above declension is chiefly pronominal. (See Pronouns, Chapter IX)
256. Declension of Tayo, Three
| Plural (No Singular) | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | tayo. | tisso. | tiṇi. |
| Gen. | tiṇṇaṃ, tiṇṇannaṃ. | tissannaṃ, tissaṃ. | tiṇṇaṃ, tiṇṇannaṃ. |
| Dat. | tiṇṇaṃ, tiṇṇannaṃ. | tissannaṃ, tissaṃ. | tiṇṇaṃ, tiṇṇannaṃ. |
| Acc. | tayo. | tisso. | tīṇi. |
| Ins. | tīhi, tībhi. | tīhi, tībhi. | tīhi, tībhi. |
| Abl. | tīhi, tībhi. | tīhi, tībhi. | tīhi, tībhi. |
| Loc. | tīsu. | tīsu. | tīsu. |
257. Declension of Cattāro, Caturo, Four
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nom. | cattāro, caturo. | catasso. | cattāri. |
| Gen. | catunnaṃ. | catassannaṃ, cattassaṃ. | catunnaṃ. |
| Dat. | catunnaṃ. | catassannaṃ, cattassaṃ. | catunnaṃ. |
| Acc. | cattāro, caturo. | catasso. | cattāri. |
| Ins. | catubbhi, catūhi, catūbhi. | catubbhi, catūhi, catūbhi. | catubbhi, catūhi, catūbhi. |
| Abl. | catubbhi, catūhi, catūbhi. | catubbhi, catūhi, catūbhi. | catubbhi, catūhi, catūbhi. |
| Loc. | catūsu. | catūsu. | catūsu. |
258. (a) In
composition, the base of tayo, is ti, as, tilokahitada, bestowing
benefits on the three worlds.
(b) Not seldom, tri also is met with: trikumbhanagaraṃ, the
"three-Hillock-City" (Rangoon)
(c) The base of cattāro in composition is catu before a
consonant, the consonant being often reduplicated; and catur
before a vowel:
catumukho, having four faces.
catuppado, a quadruped.
catuparisaṃ, the four assemblies.
caturaṅgī (catu . r. aṅgī), having four divisions.
caturasso (catu . r. asso), having four corners, quadrangular.
259. The Dual has completely disappeared in Pāli; the only two vestiges that have come down to us being dve or duve, two, and ubho, both. But even in these two words, the student will remark that the inflection of the plural has almost entirely superseded that of the dual.
260. Dve or duve and ubho, are of the three genders, and used in the plural only.
| Dve, Two | Ubho, Both | |
| Nom. | dve, duve. | ubho, ubhe. |
| Gen. | dvinnaṃ, duvinnaṃ. | ubhinnaṃ. |
| Dat. | dvinnaṃ, duvinnaṃ. | ubhinnaṃ. |
| Acc. | dve, duve. | ubho, ubhe. |
| Ins. | dvīhi, dvībhi. | ubhohi, ubhobhi. ubhehi, ubhebhi. |
| Abl. | dvīhi, dvībhi. | ubhohi, ubhobhi. ubhehi, ubhebhi. |
| Loc. | dvīsu. | ubhosu, ubhesu. |
261. (a) The
base of dve, duve in composition is dvi and also di, du and dve:
dvijo, twice born, a brahmin.
dvijivho, double-tongued, a snake.
dvipo, drinking twice, an elephant.
dipado, two-legged, a biped.
diguṇo, two-fold.
duvidho, of two kinds.
dvebhūmako, having two stories.
dvepakkho, two factions or parties.
(b) dva, dvā are also used
as the bases of dve, but chiefly in composition with other
numbers:
dvattikkhatuṃ (dva-ti-khattuṃ), two or three times.
dvatiṃsati, thirty two.
dvāsaṭṭhi, sixty-two.
dvāvīsati, twenty-two.
(c) bā is similarly used
as a base.
bārasa, bādasa, twelve.
bāvīsati, twenty-two.
262.
Pañca, five, is, like dve, of the three genders. It is
declined as follows:
Nom. pañca.
Gen. pañcannaṃ.
Dat. pañcannaṃ.
Acc. pañca.
Ins. pañcahi.
Abl. pañcahi.
Loc. pañcasu.
263. The other numbers up to 18 included, are also of the three genders, and are declined as follows:
| Nom., Acc. & Voc. | Gen. & Dat. | Ins. & Abl. | Loc. |
| six, cha. seven, satta. eight, aṭṭha. nine, nava. ten, dasa. |
channaṃ. sattannaṃ. aṭṭhannaṃ. navannaṃ. dasannaṃ. |
chahi. sattahi. aṭṭhahi. navahi. dasahi. |
chasu. sattasu. aṭṭhasu. navasu. dasasu. |
264. The numerals from 11 to 18 are declined in exactly the same way.
265. Here it must be observed that 10 has three forms: dasa, rasa, lasa, the last two being used only in composition with other numerals; ḷasa is also found.
266. The numerals from 19 to 99 are Feminine; as they are formed by prefixing the numerals from 1 to 9 to the decades, the decades are here given separately.
| 20, | vīsati, vīsa. | 50, | paññāsa, paṇṇāsa. |
| 30, | tiṃsati, tiṃsa. | 60, | saṭṭhi. |
| 40, | cattālīsa, cattālisa | 70, | sattati. |
| cattārisa, | 80, | asiti. | |
| tālisa, tālisa. | 90, | navuti. |
267. The numerals ending in i are declined like the Feminines in i (jāti, ratti).
268. Those in a take in the Nom. sometimes the form in ā, like kaññā, but usually they assume in the Nom. Neuter form in aṃ.
269. The following will serve as a model for the declension of numerals from 20 to 99:
Declension of Vīsati, 20
| Nom. & Voc. | Acc. | Gen. & Dat. | Ins. & Abl. | Loc. |
| 1st form: vīsaṃ, vīsa. | visaṃ. | visāya. | visāya. | visāya, visāyaṃ. |
| 2nd form: vīsati. | vīsatiṃ. | visatiyā. | visatiyā. | visatiyā, visatiyaṃ. |
Remark. Numerals in i follow the 2nd form and those in a the 1st form.
270. To express full decades but one, as 19, 29, 39, etc: ekūna (eka, one + ūna, deficient by) is prefixed to the decades, as:
ekūnavīsati, 19, viz., 20 deficient by
one.
ekūnatiṃsa, 29 viz. 30 deficient by one, etc.
271. The very high numerals as, koṭi, ten millions, pakoṭi, one hundred billions, etc., are declined like vīsati.
272. Sataṃ 100, sahassaṃ 1000, lakhaṃ l00,000, are Neuter substantives, and therefore declined as such on the model of rūpaṃ (124).
273. (II) Ordinals
274. The Ordinals are formed from the Cardinals, from 5 upwards, by means of the suffix ma:
| Cardinal | Ordinal |
| 5, pañca, | pañcama 5th. |
| 6, cha, | chama, 6th. |
| 7, satta, | sattama, 7th. |
| 8, aṭṭha, | aṭṭhama, 8th, etc. |
275. Ordinals 5th, 6th and 7th, have two forms:
5th, pañcatha,
pañcama.
6th, chaṭṭha, chaṭṭhama.
7th, satta, sattama.
276. From 5 upwards, the Ordinals form their Feminine by means of suffix ī (181, 2) and their Neuter is formed in aṃ. They are therefore declined like devo, nadī and rūpaṃ.
| Examples | ||
| Masc. Nom. | Fem. Nom. | Neut. Nom. |
| pañcamo | pañcamī | pañcamaṃ |
| chaṭṭhamo | chaṭṭhamī | chaṭṭhamaṃ |
| sattamo | sattamī | sattamaṃ |
| aṭṭhamo | aṭṭhamī | aṭṭhamaṃ, etc. |
277. From 11 upwards, however, the Cardinals themselves are not seldom used as Ordinals; so that we have the choice of two forms, and can say either,
ekārasa, 11th, or
ekārasama, 11th.
pañcadasa, 15th, or pañcadasama, 15th.
catuvīsati 24th, or catuvīsatima, 24th, etc.
278. The first four Ordinals are as follows:
| Masc. Nom. | Fem. Nom. | Neut. Nom. |
| paṭhamo | paṭhamā | paṭhamaṃ |
| dutiyo | dutiyā | dutiyaṃ |
| tatiyo | tatiyā | tatiyaṃ |
| catuttho | catutthā | catutthaṃ |