In this recipe, we will work with basic data types in Haskell. We will also define our own data types.
stack new
data-types
. Change into the directory data-types
, and build
the new project using using stack build
.
At the command prompt, run stack ghci
. You will see the
prompt. Enter =:type (5 :: Int) =
*Main Lib> :type (5 :: Int) (5 :: Int) :: Int
:type
is a GHCi command to show the type of the expression. (In
this case the expression is 5
). It means that the expression
(5 :: Int)
is an Int. Now enter :type 5
*Main Lib> :type 5 5 :: Num t => t
GHCi will interpret 5 as 5 :: Num t => t which means that
Haskell identified 5 as some numerical type t. Num t => t
shows that the type is t, and that it has an extra qualificiation
that it shows some Num properties. Note that the result of
:type 5 is different than :type (5::Int).
Now enter :type (5 :: Double). You will see (5 :: Double) :: Double. Do the same thing with (5::Float)
*Main Lib> :type (5 :: Double) (5 :: Double) :: Double
Do note the difference between 5, 5::Int, 5::Float and 5::Double. Without qualification type (such as :: Int), Haskell interprets the type as a generic type Num t => t i.e. 5 is some type t, which is a Num t or numerical type.
Boolean Types - Now enter following at the prompt
*Main Lib> :type True True :: Bool *Main Lib> :type False False :: Bool
True
, and False
are valid boolean value, and their type is
Bool
. In fact, True
and False
are the only valid Bool
values in Haskell. If you try 1 :: Bool
, you will see error.
*Main Lib> 1 :: Bool <interactive>:9:1: error: • No instance for (Num Bool) arising from the literal ‘1’ • In the expression: 1 :: Bool In an equation for ‘it’: it = 1 :: Bool
Haskell will complain that 1 is a numerical type, and 'Bool' is not a numerical type which would somehow represent it (value 1).
:type 'C'
at the prompt. GHCi will report its type to
be 'C' :: Char
. Char is another data type and represents a
Unicode character. A character is entered within single quotes.
Get more information about each type. For doing it, you can enter
:info <type>
at the prompt.
*Main Lib> :info Bool data Bool = False | True -- Defined in ‘ghc-prim-<IP_ADDRESS>:GHC.Types’ instance Bounded Bool -- Defined in ‘GHC.Enum’ instance Enum Bool -- Defined in ‘GHC.Enum’ instance Eq Bool -- Defined in ‘ghc-prim-<IP_ADDRESS>:GHC.Classes’ instance Ord Bool -- Defined in ‘ghc-prim-<IP_ADDRESS>:GHC.Classes’ instance Read Bool -- Defined in ‘GHC.Read’ instance Show Bool -- Defined in ‘GHC.Show’
This will show more inforamtion about the type. For Bool, Haskell
shows that that it has two values False | True
, and that it is
defined in `ghc-prim-<IP_ADDRESS>:GHC.Types`. Here ghc-prim is the
package name, which is followed by its version <IP_ADDRESS> and then
Haskell tells that 'GHC.Types' is the module in which it is
defined.
We have seen four basic types, Int, Double, Char and Float. More information about these types is given below.
| Type | Description | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| Int | Fixed precision integer type | Range \([-2^{29} .. (2^{29-1})]\) |
| Float | Single precision (32 bit) floating point number | |
| Double | Double precision (64 bit) floating point number | |
| Char | Character | |
| Bool | Boolean values | True or False. |
You can get more information about type classes by exploring :info
Eq
. GHCi will tell you which types have instances of Eq type
class, GHCi will also tell you which are the methods defined for
Eq.
Created: 2017-04-13 Thu 06:33


Treebank Statistics: UD_Sanskrit-Vedic: Features: Tense
This feature is universal.
It occurs with 4 different values: Fut
, Past
, Pqp
, Pres
.
5319 tokens (20%) have a non-empty value of Tense
.
2418 types (32%) occur at least once with a non-empty value of Tense
.
839 lemmas (25%) occur at least once with a non-empty value of Tense
.
The feature is used with 2 part-of-speech tags: VERB (5018; 19% instances), AUX (301; 1% instances).
VERB
5018 VERB tokens (95% of all VERB
tokens) have a non-empty value of Tense
.
The most frequent other feature values with which VERB
and Tense
co-occurred: Case=EMPTY (4028; 80%), Gender=EMPTY (4028; 80%), VerbForm=EMPTY (3994; 80%), Number=Sing (3747; 75%), Person=3 (3059; 61%), Mood=Ind (2778; 55%).
VERB
tokens may have the following values of Tense
:
Fut
(63; 1% of non-emptyTense
): utsrakṣyāmaḥ, pārayitāsmi, anuvakṣyati, bhaviṣyat, eṣyati, āgantā, abhidhrokṣyan, anuprajñāsyanti, avakalpayiṣyasi, bhavitāPast
(2009; 40% of non-emptyTense
): veda, anvāha, āhuḥ, āha, uvāca, vidvān, anuvyacalat, abhavat, samṛddham, upāsaratPqp
(2; 0% of non-emptyTense
): anannamuḥ, jagrabhamPres
(2944; 59% of non-emptyTense
): bhavati, ālabheta, dadhāti, gacchati, yajati, yajamānaḥ, āśāste, avarunddhe, upahvayate, etuEMPTY
(265): bhūtvā, kṛtvā, āptvā, iṣṭvā, anūcyaḥ, jīvase, anūcyam, paryetya, dṛśe, grāhayitvā
| Paradigm bhū | Pres | Fut | Past |
|---|---|---|---|
| Case=Acc|Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | bhaviṣyat | bhūtam | |
| Case=Ins|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | bhūtayā | ||
| Case=Loc|Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | bhūte | ||
| Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | bhūtaḥ | ||
| Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Dual|VerbForm=Part | bhūtau | ||
| Case=Nom|Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | bhaviṣyat | bhūtam | |
| Mood=Imp|Number=Sing|Person=2 | bhava | ||
| Mood=Imp|Number=Sing|Person=3 | bhavatu | ||
| Mood=Imp|Number=Dual|Person=2 | bhavatam | ||
| Mood=Imp|Number=Plur|Person=3 | bhavantu | ||
| Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=1 | bhavitāsmi | ||
| Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=2 | bhaviṣyasi | babhūvitha, abhavaḥ, abhūḥ | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3 | bhavati | bhavitā | abhavat, bhavat, abhūt, babhūva |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Dual|Person=3 | bhavataḥ | ||
| Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=2 | bhavatha | bhaviṣyatha | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=3 | bhavanti | bhaviṣyanti | abhavan |
| Mood=Jus|Number=Sing|Person=2 | bhūḥ | ||
| Mood=Jus|Number=Plur|Person=1 | bhūma | ||
| Mood=Opt|Number=Sing|Person=1 | bhūyāsam | ||
| Mood=Opt|Number=Sing|Person=3 | bhūyāt | ||
| Mood=Sub|Number=Sing|Person=2 | bhavāsi | ||
| Mood=Sub|Number=Sing|Person=3 | bhavāti |
AUX
301 AUX tokens (100% of all AUX
tokens) have a non-empty value of Tense
.
The most frequent other feature values with which AUX
and Tense
co-occurred: Number=Sing (236; 78%), Mood=Ind (165; 55%), Person=3 (160; 53%).
AUX
tokens may have the following values of Tense
:
Past
(39; 13% of non-emptyTense
): āsīt, āsan, abhūtana, āstām, āsa, āsuḥ, āyan, abhavat, abhūt, abhūvanPres
(262; 87% of non-emptyTense
): asi, bhavati, astu, syāt, asaḥ, san, bhavanti, santu, asat, asmi
| Paradigm as | Pres | Past |
|---|---|---|
| Case=Acc|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | santam | |
| Case=Acc|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | satīm | |
| Case=Gen|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | sataḥ | |
| Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | san | |
| Case=Nom|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|VerbForm=Part | satī | |
| Mood=Imp|Number=Sing|Person=2 | edhi | |
| Mood=Imp|Number=Sing|Person=3 | astu | |
| Mood=Imp|Number=Plur|Person=3 | santu | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=1 | asmi | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=2 | asi | āsitha |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3 | asti | āsīt, āsa |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Dual|Person=3 | āstām | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=1 | smasi | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=2 | stha, sthana, ṣṭha, ṣṭhā | |
| Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=3 | āsan, āsuḥ | |
| Mood=Opt|Number=Sing|Person=1 | syām | |
| Mood=Opt|Number=Sing|Person=2 | syāḥ | |
| Mood=Opt|Number=Sing|Person=3 | syāt | |
| Mood=Opt|Number=Dual|Person=3 | syātām | |
| Mood=Opt|Number=Plur|Person=1 | syāma | |
| Mood=Opt|Number=Plur|Person=3 | syuḥ | |
| Mood=Sub|Number=Sing|Person=1 | asāni | |
| Mood=Sub|Number=Sing|Person=2 | asaḥ, asasi | |
| Mood=Sub|Number=Sing|Person=3 | asat, asati |
Relations with Agreement in Tense
The 10 most frequent relations where parent and child node agree in Tense
:
VERB –[conj]–> VERB (186; 82%),
VERB –[parataxis]–> VERB (59; 54%),
VERB –[nsubj]–> VERB (28; 61%),
VERB –[obl]–> VERB (14; 56%),
VERB –[vocative]–> VERB (2; 100%),
AUX –[conj]–> VERB (1; 100%),
VERB –[amod]–> VERB (1; 100%),
VERB –[flat]–> VERB (1; 100%).


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1: == FAQ: General Solaris Express Globalization 2: 3: * [[Does this FAQ contains information about globalization in all OpenSolaris community distributions?>>#whatisthis]] 4: * [[Is my language supported in Solaris Express ? >>#ismylanguage]] 5: * [[What about variations of the same language?>>#variants]] 6: * [[I don’t see my language in this list. What can I do?>>#idontseemylanguage]] 7: * [[Yes, I logged in, now tell me how will I input text to an application in my language?>>#howwilliinput]] 8: * [[I logged in, but I can’t see my language in the desktop and applications>>#iloggedinbut]] 9: * [[I see issues with my language in OpenSolaris. What can I do?>>#languageissue]] 10: * [[How will I file an issue I found in the locale I logged into?>>#howtofilebug]] 11: * [[How can I help OpenSolaris with translation issues in my language?>>#howcanihelp]] 12: * [[My application works in one locale. What I need to make sure it works fine on other locales too ?>>#anotherlocale]] 13: 14: **Does this FAQ contains information about globalization in all OpenSolaris community distributions?** 15: 16: No. This FAQ only contains information about Solaris Express distributions of OpenSolaris, which is Sun’s distribution based on OpenSolaris code. 17: 18: **Is my language supported in Solaris Express ? ** 19: 20: The following languages are supported in Solaris Express community distributions of OpenSolaris 21: 22: Albanian 23: 24: Arabic 25: 26: Bengali 27: 28: Bulgarian 29: 30: Catalan 31: 32: Croatian 33: 34: Czech 35: 36: Danish 37: 38: Dutch 39: 40: English 41: 42: Estonian 43: 44: Finnish 45: 46: French 47: 48: German 49: 50: Greek 51: 52: Gujarathi 53: 54: Gurmukhi 55: 56: Hebrew 57: 58: Hindi 59: 60: Hungarian 61: 62: Icelandic 63: 64: Italian 65: 66: Japanese 67: 68: Kannada 69: 70: Korean 71: 72: Latvian 73: 74: Lithuanian 75: 76: Macedonian 77: 78: Maltese 79: 80: Malayalam 81: 82: Norwegian 83: 84: Norwegian Bokmal 85: 86: Norwegian Nynorsk 87: 88: Polish 89: 90: Portuguese 91: 92: Romanian 93: 94: Russian 95: 96: Serbian 97: 98: Serbo-Croatian 99: 100: Simplified Chinese 101: 102: Slovak 103: 104: Slovenian 105: 106: Spanish 107: 108: Swedish 109: 110: Tamil 111: 112: Telugu 113: 114: Thai 115: 116: Traditional Chinese 117: 118: Turkish 119: 120: Pl. download the Solaris Express community version of OpenSolaris from the following link to install Solaris in your machine to login to any of these languages 121: 122: See [[Solaris Express community versions download>>downloads.#use]] for downloading a Solaris Express distribution of OpenSolaris. 123: 124: See [[for installation instructions>>Community Group documentation.chapter1]]if you plan to install Solaris in a dual boot environment 125: 126: **What about variations of the same language?** 127: 128: Solaris Express support regional variations of languages, in a general sense these are referred to as ’locale’s. [[Here>>http://developers.sun.com/dev/gadc/faq/locale.html#1]] is a more stricter defintion of locale. 129: 130: You may be able to see a list of languages and associated region names in the login screen when logging in. 131: 132: We don’t support all the combinations, but eventually planning to (and you can help!) 133: 134: **I logged in, but I can’t see my language in the desktop and applications** 135: 136: The language you’ve logged into may lack translation for applications. Pl. see [[this answer>>http://developers.sun.com/dev/gadc/faq/locale.html#5]] for difference between partially and fully supported locales 137: 138: **I don’t see my language in this list. What can I do?** 139: 140: All the supported languages except the following Indian languges 141: 142: Bengali 143: 144: Gujarathi 145: 146: Gurmukhi 147: 148: Kannada 149: 150: Malayalam 151: 152: Tamil 153: 154: Telugu 155: 156: are given in the login screen. 157: 158: Login to Hindi if you’re using any of these Indic languages and from there you will be able to access the above Indian languages 159: 160: A tool for creating language packages from [[ Unicode CLDR (Common Locale Data Repository)>>http://unicode.org/cldr/]] will be available in the Solaris Express 09/07 version. This will allow you to create and add your own language packages and install in the system. You can also contribute back the packages such created. 161: 162: See information about locale creator tool by "/usr/bin/localectr -h" command 163: 164: **Yes, I logged in, tell me how will I input text to an application in my language?** 165: 166: When logging into Solaris Express desktop, choose the [[Gnome>>http://www.gnome.org]] desktop, option. The other choice, CDE desktop., will be obsoleted in future. 167: 168: In gnome desktop, on the panel, near the speaker icon, we can see a little application names ’Input Method Switcher’ docked in. If this is not there, right click on the gnome-panel and select the ’Add to panel’ option. THen from the list of applications comes up, select ’Input Method Switcher’. 169: 170: After we have ’Input Method Switcher’ in the panel, right click on it’s icon and select ’Preferences’ from the menu which comes up. An input method preference editor will come up. There are tabs for the editor like General, Language/Scripts, Trigger keys, Keyboard and Misc. On the Languages/Scripts tab, you can see various available Languages/Scripts in the system. If your language is not on the Languages/Scripts to input pane, use the ’Add’ key to add it. The ’Trigger Keys’ can be used to control the turning on and turning off the input method. 171: 172: There may be multiple input methods already configured for the locale you log in. Left click on the panel icon for input method switcher and selecting the relevant input method will enable you to input text in the language of your choice. After selecting an input method, pressing the ’Trigger Key’ (Ctrl-Space by default) will enable you to alternate between the selected input method and English. 173: 174: **I see issues with my language in OpenSolaris. What can I do?** 175: 176: Pl. check that the issue is already known by checking the known bugs in the [[bug search page>>http://bugs.opensolaris.org/]] 177: 178: You can use the "Text Search:" option in the above bug filing page with the locale name you’re logged into. 179: 180: Get the locale name you’re in by running ’locale’ command from a terminal 181: 182: For example 183: 184: bash-3.00$ locale 185: 186: LANG=en_US.UTF-8 187: 188: LC_CTYPE="en_US.UTF-8" 189: 190: LC_NUMERIC="en_US.UTF-8" 191: 192: LC_TIME="en_US.UTF-8" 193: 194: LC_COLLATE="en_US.UTF-8" 195: 196: LC_MONETARY="en_US.UTF-8" 197: 198: LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8 199: 200: LC_ALL= 201: 202: The locale in this example is en_US.UTF-8 203: 204: If you are curious about what these locale environment variables mean, pl see [[this document>>http://docs.sun.com/app/docs/doc/816-0220/6m6nkorop?a=view]] for a description 205: 206: Input the locale information thus obtained in the "Text Search:" field in [[bug search page>>http://bugs.opensolaris.org/]] along with other data you have about the bug 207: 208: See [[this document>>http://developers.sun.com/dev/gadc/faq/locale.html]] for more information about Solaris locales 209: 210: See the [[next question>>#howtofilebug]] about how to file a good globalization bug 211: 212: **How will I file an issue I found in the locale I logged into?** 213: 214: This is [[OpenSolaris bug filing>>http://www.opensolaris.org/bug/report.jspa]] form 215: 216: If you see any issue with a specific locale, please consider filing a bug. Following are the main components for correctly filing a bug using the above form 217: 218: [[category>>#bugcategory]] 219: 220: [[subcategory>>#bugsubcategory]] 221: 222: [[release>>#buginrelease]] 223: 224: [[hardware>>#righthardware]] 225: 226: [[synopsis>>#correctsynopsis]] 227: 228: How to find the right category? 229: 230: Bugs relating to Solaris Express globalization fall in to following main categories 231: 232: * Bugs in the libraries 233: Select the category as ’library’ from the pulldown list of categories if the following are true 234: ** An issue happening in more than one application 235: ** A font issue 236: 237: * Bugs in utilities 238: Select the category as ’utility’ from the pulldown list of categories if the following are true 239: ** An issue happening in one specific non-gnome application or commmand line utility 240: 241: * Bugs in other desktop applications 242: Select the category "Java Desktop System" for important applications like Firefox, Thunderbird, Evolution and select category Gnome for all other gnome applications. 243: 244: How to find the right sub-category? 245: 246: * Desktop applications subcegories 247: Select the sub-category from 248: ** Firefox 249: ** Thunderbird 250: ** Evolution 251: ** Gnome 252: 253: * Bugs in translation in other applications, utilities and libraries 254: Select the sub-category as ’l10n-messages’ if the issue is one of 255: ** no translation for messages is displayed. 256: ** incorrect translation for messages. 257: 258: * Bugs in internationalization applications, utilities and libraries 259: Select the sub-category as ’l10n-common’ if the issue is one of 260: ** Not able to input, copy and paste non English text (if text input is supported in application) 261: 262: How to find the right release? 263: 264: * Type ’uname -v’ in a terminal, the output is the release name 265: 266: How to find the right hardware? 267: 268: * Command ’arch’ will help you determine the type of the system. Give generic if not sure 269: 270: How to write the correct synopsis? 271: 272: * Just write in the abbreviated symptom of the issue in a line 273: 274: If need any help, pl. send a mail to [[i18n-discuss mailing list at opensolaris.org>>mailto:i18n-discuss/AT/opensolaris.org]] 275: 276: **How can I help with issues in my language?** 277: 278: You can help by contributing translations or trying to fix internationalization issues 279: 280: [[This document>>Community Group int_localization.solaris_express_gnome_l10n]] explains how to help with translations in Gnome applications 281: 282: [[This document>>Community Group int_localization.ON_translation_faq]] explains how to help with translations in Solaris ON (OS/Net) components 283: 284: If you want to fix any i18n issues, pl. send a mail to [[i18n-discuss mailing list at opensolaris.org>>mailto:i18n-discuss/AT/opensolaris.org]] somebody will happy to get you upto speed about what to do 285: 286: **My application works on one locale. How I can make sure it works on another locales too ?** 287: 288: If your application is coded in a Code Set Independent way, it should be able to handle any codeset. It’s always a good idea to test the application in the target locales to make sure your application works fine in those locales. We can try to run the test cases for application in other target locales after adapting the test cases from the working locale to the target locale 289: 290: There are generally 2 kinds of testing, the application messages translation testing in the new locale and application functionality testing in new locale 291: 292: If the applications message interface is fine in Japanese and not in Korean, then the issue will be in Korean message files. Wrong translations cause incorrect messages, no translation causes the interface to display using the built in messages in the application. 293: 294: [[This document>>Community Group int_localization.solaris_express_gnome_l10n]] helps with translations in Gnome applications 295: 296: [[This document>>Community Group int_localization.ON_translation_faq]] helps with translations in Solaris ON (OS/Net) components 297: 298: As an example of functional testing., if my app behaves well in ja_JP.UTF-8 locale, and I would like to see how it works for ja_JP.eucJP locale, convert the test input to eucJP encoding and run the tests for in ja_JP.eucJP locale. In the case of UTF-8 locales, we will be able to convert the test input used to any other encoding provided we cover the same language. So convert the input from utf-8 to eucJP like this 299: 300: iconv -f utf-8 -t eucJP utf-8_file > eucJP_file 301: 302: then use that as the input test case for application running in UTF-8 locale. 303: 304: In cases where a different language is involved new test inputs and/or test cases needs to be created 305: 306: In case your app does not behave well in a locale, you need to examine the source code for incorrect API usage and will have to replace or augment the API calls with the right CodeSet Indepent API’s. Depending on the application complexity, the language used for coding and the libraries available the extend of this effort will vary... 307: 308: Happy hacking!
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Shell: bourne shell, korn shell, C shell, etc.
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Classification Trees¶
Building a classification tree is essentially identical to building a regression tree but optimizing a different loss function—one fitting for a categorical target variable. For that reason, this section only covers the details unique to classification trees, rather than demonstrating how one is built from scratch. To understand the tree-building process in general, see the previous section.
Suppose for the following that we have data \(\{\bx_n, y_n\}_{n = 1}^N\) with predictor variables \(\bx_n \in \R^D\) and a categorical target variable \(y_n \in \{1, \dots, K\}\) .
Building a Tree¶
The Objective¶
Two common loss functions for a classification are the Gini index and the cross-entropy. Let \(n \in \mathcal{N}_m\) be the collection of training observations that pass through node \(m\) and let \(\hat{y}_{mk}\) be the fraction of these observations in class \(k\) for \(k = 1, \dots, K\). The Gini index for \(\mathcal{N}_m\) is defined as
and the cross-entropy is defined as
The Gini index and cross-entropy are measures of impurity—they are higher for nodes with more equal representation of different classes and lower for nodes represented largely by a single class. As a node becomes more pure, these loss measures tend toward zero.
In order to evaluate the purity of a split (rather than that of a node), we use the weighted Gini index or weighted cross-entropy. Consider a split \(S_m\) of bud \(\mathcal{N}_m\) which creates children \(\mathcal{C}_m^L\) and \(\mathcal{C}_m^R\). Let the fraction of training observations going to \(\mathcal{C}_m^L\) be \(f_L\) and the fraction going to \(\mathcal{C}_m^R\) be \(f_R\). The weighted loss (whether with the Gini index or the cross-entropy) is defined as
The lower the weighted loss the better.
Making Splits¶
As with regression trees, we will make splits one layer at a time. When splitting bud \(m\), we use the same procedure as in regression trees: we calculate the loss from splitting the node at each value of each predictor and make the split with the lowest loss.
For quantitative predictors, the procedure is identical to the regression tree procedure except we aim to minimize \(\mathcal{L}(S_m)\) rather than maximally reducing \(RSS_m\). For categorical predictors, we cannot rank the categories according to the average value of the target variable as we did for regression trees because the target is not continuous! If our target is binary, we can rank the predictor’s categories according to the fraction of the corresponding target variables in class \(1\) versus class \(0\) and proceed in the same was as we did for regression trees.
If the target is not binary, we are out of luck. One (potentially computationally-intensive) method is to try all possible binary groupings of the categorical value and see what grouping minimizes \(\mathcal{L}(S_m)\). Another would be a one-versus-rest approach where we only consider isolating one category at a time from the rest. Suppose we had a predictor with four categories, \(A, B, C,\) and \(D\). The first method requires the following 7 splits while the second method requires only the first four splits.
Making Predictions¶
Classifying test observations with a fully-grown tree is very straightforward. First, run an observation through the tree and observe which leaf it lands in. Then classify it according to the most common class in that leaf.
For large enough leaves, we can also estimate the probability that the test observation belongs to any given class: if test observation \(j\) lands in leaf \(m\), we can estimate \(p(y_j = k)\) with \(\hat{p}_{mk}\) for each \(k\).
Choosing Hyperparameters¶
In the regression tree section, we discussed three methods for managing a tree’s size to balance the bias-variance tradeoff. The same three methods can be used for classification trees with slight modifications, which we cover next. For a full overview on these methods, please review the regression tree section.
Size Regulation¶
We can again use cross validation to fix the maximum depth of a tree or the minimum size of its terminal nodes. Unlike with regression trees, however, it is common to use a different loss function for cross validation than we do for building the tree. Specifically, we typically build classification trees with the Gini index or cross-entropy but use the misclassification rate to determine the hyperparameters with cross validation. The misclassification rate is simply the percent of observations we incorrectly classify. This is typically a more desirable metric to minimize than the Gini index or cross-entropy since it tells us more about our ultimate goal of correctly classifying test observations.
To conduct cross validation, then, we would build the tree using the Gini index or cross-entropy for a set of hyperparameters, then pick the tree with the lowest misclassification rate on validation samples.
Maximum Split Loss¶
Another regularization method for regression trees was to require that each split reduce the \(RSS\) by a certain amount. An equivalent approach for classification trees is to require that each split have a weighted loss below some minimum threshold. This threshold should be chosen through cross validation, again likely with the misclassification rate as the loss function.
Pruning¶
To prune a regression tree, we first fit a large tree, then searched for a sub-tree that could achieve a low \(RSS\) without growing too large and possibly overfitting. Specifically, we looked for the sub-tree \(T\) that minimized the following loss function, where \(|T|\) gives the number of terminal leaves and \(\lambda\) is a regularization parameter:
We prune a classification tree in a nearly identical fashion. First, we grow an intentionally overfit tree, \(T_0\). We then consider all splits leading to terminal nodes and undo the one with the greatest loss by re-joining its child nodes. I.e. we undo the split at the node \(m\) with the greatest \(\mathcal{L}(S_m)\) among nodes leading to leaves. We then repeat this process iteratively until we are left with the tree containing only the initial node. For each tree, we record its size (the number of terminal leaves) and its misclassification rate, \(\mathcal{M}_T\). We then choose the tree that minimizes
where again \(\lambda\) is chosen through cross validation. For a fuller overview of how we use cross validation to choose \(\lambda\), see the pruning section in the regression tree page.


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Automate Your Own App
Ready to add Habitat to your application? Unleash all the great features of Habitat by simply adding a plan.sh file and optional configuration files to your source code repo.
Packaging a node or ruby app? It's even easier. With a very minimal plan.sh file, you can use scaffolding to generate common, pre-configured hook and config files.


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Web Development On An iPad


Nowhere in manufacturing has the technology moved faster than in the world of CNC Machining. As computing power has increased so has the machines ability to produce more complex geometries. Advances in metallurgy have spawned new technology in the world of cutting tools, allowing feeds and speeds to be increased. Very much like computers and plasma televisions, the technology available in machine tools has increased and the prices have decreased.
Nowhere does the old term “time is money” ring more true than in a CNC shop. Maybe we should change that to time and tolerance is money. The following tips are all about saving you money.
Design Considerations
Specify the surface finish you are looking for. If a fine finish is required in a specific area, label it. Some shops may tumble parts as a matter of course. This may not be the appearance you are looking for. Geometry issues are usually easily corrected appearance criteria not always so.
Never underestimate the importance of a 2-D dimensioned drawing. Even if you have a state of the art CAD system, and the shop has the latest in CAM which is fully integrated into their inspection system, a clean concise 2-D print in the shop floor traveler answers questions quickly and easily.
Tight tolerance is money. Specify it only where you need it. Avoid default tolerance settings on CAD programs. They can cost time and therefore money. On turned parts unless the ends of the part are functional, allow the shop some flexibility on the end geometry so they may cut off the part in the most effective manner.
Avoid square corners on inside pockets. The more generous radii, the larger end mill can be used allowing for metal to be removed faster. Again, time is money.
Deep tapped holes and deep pockets add cost. Deep pockets often have to be “pecked” requiring multiple plunges of the cutting tool. Deep tapped holes always run the risk of a broken tap, requiring extensive rework or scrapping the part altogether.
Economic/Purchasing Considerations
Set ups cost money. Most shops charge a higher hourly rate to set up their machines than they do to run them. A good shop will always strive to reduce set up times; however in many cases buying a higher quantity will outweigh carrying charges.
Birds of a feather flock together. When visiting a shop look at the parts that they currently produce. Do they produce parts of similar size, configuration, level of sophistication, and volume as the ones you are looking to source? If so chances are they will be competitive.
Look for a shop with the resources necessary to support your production. Smaller shops do tend to be very responsive; however CNC machinery is very sophisticated and can be subject to downtime. If you are in a JIT environment, a one machine shop may not be the answer.
How We Can Help
First, we can analyze your part to determine if perhaps an extrusion or casting may save machine time and therefore cost. We have access to…
CNC Milling – Up to 80×40 bed size vertical as well 600mm Horizontal capacity. 5 axis capability.
CNC Turning – Up to 20” diameter swing, 30” work piece length.
Swiss Screw Machining – Perfect for connector pin and precise ordinance components. From .015” to 1.125” diameter. Tolerances routinely held to +/- .00002”
Conventional Screw Machining – Single and Multiple spindle as well as Hydromat equipment.
A reference glossary of machining terminology
Accuracy The exactness of a measurement compared to the desired result.
Axis The line, real or imaginary, passing through the center of an object about which it could rotate; a point of reference.
Bar Stock Material purchased from manufacturers In the form of long bars. Bar stock may be round, square, or hexagonal.
Blind Hole A hole made in a workpiece that does not pass through it.
Boring The Process of using a single-point tool to enlarge a preexisting hole.
Broach A long, tapered cutting tool with serration’s which, when forced through a hole or across a surface, cuts a desired shape or size.
Chucking Machine A any lathe that uses a chuck to hold the part. The operator must load and unload each workpiece.
Chatter The occasional vibration between a workpiece and a cutting tool. Chatter decreases productivity, negatively impacts surface quality, and increases tool wear.
Chamfer The bevel or angular surface cut on the edge or a corner of a machined part.
Chip An unwanted piece of metal that is removed from a workpiece. Chips are formed when a tool cuts or grinds metal.
Chuck A Device that holds a work piece in place as it rotates. The chuck commonly has three or four jaws that can be adjusted to fit various sizes of parts.
CNC Turning Center A sophisticated CNC machine that specializes in turning, boring, drilling, and threading operations.
Counterbore To enlarge the top part of a hole to a specific size, as for the head of a socket-head or cap screw. Also, the tool that is used.
Countersink To enlarge the top part of a hole at an angle for a flat-head screw. Also, the tool that is used.
Cutting Tool A hardened piece of metal (tool steel) that is machined and ground so that it has the shape and cutting edges appropriate for the operation for which it is to be used.
Cycle Time The time during which a machine works on a single part.
Deburr To remove sharp edges.
Drill A pointed tool that is rotated to cut holes in material.
Ductility The property of a metal that permits it to be drawn. rolled, or hammered without fracturing or breaking.
Extruded Metal which had been shaped by forcing through a die.
Facing An operation performed on a lathe that feeds a single-point tool into the end of a cylindrical workpiece to create a flat surface.
Feed The linear movement of a cutting tool into a part to remove material.
Forming Tool – Tool ground to a desired shape to reproduce this shape on the workpiece.
Fillet – A curved surface connecting two surfaces that form an angle.
G-Code – The industry standard programming language that instructs a CNC machine what to do.
Hardening – A heat-treating process for steel which increases its hardness and tensile strength and reduces its ductility.
Heat Treatment – The process of heating and cooling a solid metal or alloy to obtain certain desired properties or characteristics.
Honing – The process of finishing ground surfaces to a high degree of accuracy and smoothness with abrasive blocks applied to the surface under a light controlled pressure with a combination of rotary and reciprocating motions.
Jig – A production work holding device that locates the workpiece and guides the cutting tool.
Kerf – The width of cut made by a saw.
Knurling – The process of finishing a part by scoring (pressing) patterns on the surface of the work.
Live Tool A cutting tool mounted in its own powered spindle on a CNC lathe. Live tooling allows tools to cut off center, perform milling operations, or create holes on the parts outer diameter while the part is held in the spindle.
Machinability – The degree of difficulty with which a metal may be machined
Milling A machining operation that uses a multi-point horizontal or vertical cutter to remove metal from the surface of a workpiece.
Normalizing – Process of heating a ferrous metal or alloy to above its critical temperature and cooling in still air to room temperature to relieve internal stresses.
Pitch The nominal distance between centers of repetitive shapes.
Precision The degree to which an instrument will repeat the same measurement over a period of time.
Roughing The fast removal of stock to reduce a workpiece to approximate dimensions leaving only enough material to finish the part to specifications.
Roughness A measurable degree of non-smoothness of the surface related to the height of the peaks and valleys.
Screw Machine An automated turning machine that continuously creates a number of finished parts from bar stock. Bar stock advances through the spindle and is held by a collet. Screw machines often have multiple spindles performing serveral different operations simultainiously.
Secondary Operation An additional operation required to finish a part that is performed on a separate machine from the machine that made the primary cuts.
Setup The total amount of time that is spent completing all tasks that are required to produce the first accurate part.
Slotting A milling operation that cuts a long groove in the surface of a workpiece
Stress The internal force or resistance developed in steel which was hardened, extensively machined, or cold worked.
Tapping The process of cutting screw threads in a round hole with a tap (an internal thread cutting tool).
Tensile Strength The property of a metal which resists force applied to pull it apart.
Toolpath The path that a cutting tool traverses in order to remove material to create a shape.
Workpiece A part that is being worked on. It may be subject to cutting, welding, forming, or other operations.
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High Summoner Galatea:
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Data Science | Machine Learning | Deep Learning | Natural Language Processing | Software Engineering
I am currently a final year student pursuing B.Tech with majors in Computer Science and Engineering. I have been working in Data Science field for quite a while now. Primarily my focus has been in the healthcare domain. I have exposure in other fields like Software Enginerring and other data related fields. I am quite enthusiastic about learning new and emerging technologies, and always looks for something new to try out. I mainly work with data and its analysis realted work. I have been able to complete a lot of diverse set of projects in the fiels as well. I am a team player and always look for result oriented work.
During my leisure time I always look for sharing knowledge through my writing, along with that playing cricket and listening to music tempts me a lot.


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NIGHT TRAIN (United Kingdom) A review by Mark R. Leeper in bullet-list form from the Toronto Internation Film Festival
CAPSULE: A released ex-convict on the run from criminals rents a flat and slowly falls in love with his middle-aged landlady. This brings on the ire of the landlady's autocratic mother. Rating: 7 (0 to 10), low +2 (-4 to +4)
- Directed by John Lynch. - Michael Poole (John Hurt) is released from prison and immediately has people chasing him wanting to get back money he embezzled from a local crime figure. Deciding very quickly he cannot live at his flat, he rents another flat from an elderly woman living with her daughter Alice.  - Poole brings with him his hobby, a model train set. Alice's mother immediately attributes many of her pains and stiffness to Poole's trains. When Alice expresses some interest in the new tenant, Alice's mother determines to break up the relationship. - This is the first feature film of John Lynch, who previously made films for Irish television. - Alice's mother is terrified of the trains but they are photographed to we are captured by the charm. - Poole's day job is in an abattoir. It is shown in disturbing detail. Violent crime by the gangsters is also shown in equally disturbing detail.  - People have to make difficult choices. - In an odd parallel Poole removes offal from cattle, the gangster removes similar looking balloons of drugs from Teddy Bears. - Poole does not feel he can be honest with Alice.
Mark R. Leeper<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Copyright 1998 Mark R. Leeper
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
review and has no editorial control. Unless stated otherwise, the copyright
belongs to the author.
Please direct comments/criticisms of the review to relevant newsgroups.
Broken URLs inthe reviews are the responsibility of the author.
The formatting of the review is likely to differ from the original due
to ASCII to HTML conversion.
Related links: index of all rec.arts.movies.reviews reviews


Class HalfEdgeTriangulation¶
Defined in File MeshHelper.hpp
Inheritance Relationships¶
Derived Type¶
public Polylidar::Delaunator::Delaunator
(Class Delaunator)
Class Documentation¶
-
class
HalfEdgeTriangulation
¶ This class hold all the datastructures in our meshes (vertices, triangles, halfedges, etc.).
Subclassed by Polylidar::Delaunator::Delaunator
Public Functions
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
()¶ Construct an empty HalfEdgeTriangulation object.
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation &
operator=
(const HalfEdgeTriangulation &other)¶ Copy an existing HalfEdgeTriangulation object.
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
(HalfEdgeTriangulation &&other)¶ Move (no copy) an existing HalfEdgeTriangulation object to another.
- Parameters
other
:
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
(const Matrix<double> &in_vertices)¶ Create a new HalfEdgeTriangulation object with only vertices (copied). Will be triangulated later.
- Parameters
in_vertices
:
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
(Matrix<double> &&in_vertices)¶ Create a new HalfEdgeTriangulation object with only vertices (moved/no copy). Will be triangulated later.
- Parameters
in_vertices
:
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
(Matrix<double> &&in_vertices, Matrix<size_t> &&in_triangles)¶ Create a new HalfEdgeTriangulation object with vertices and triangles (moved/no copy).
- Parameters
in_vertices
:in_triangles
:
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
(Matrix<double> &&in_vertices, Matrix<size_t> &&in_triangles, Matrix<size_t> &&in_halfedges)¶ Create a new HalfEdgeTriangulation object with vertices, triangles, halfedges (moved/no copy).
- Parameters
in_vertices
:in_triangles
:in_halfedges
:
-
HalfEdgeTriangulation
(Matrix<double> &&in_vertices, Matrix<size_t> &&in_triangles, Matrix<size_t> &&in_halfedges, Matrix<double> &&in_triangle_normals)¶ Create a new HalfEdgeTriangulation object with vertices, triangles, halfedges, and triangle normals (moved/no copy).
- Parameters
in_vertices
:in_triangles
:in_halfedges
:in_triangle_normals
:
-
void
SetTriangleNormals
(const Matrix<double> &in_triangle_normals)¶ Set the Triangle Normals of the mesh.
- Parameters
in_triangle_normals
:
-
void
SetVertexClasses
(const Matrix<uint8_t> &in_vertex_classes, bool copy = true)¶ Set the Vertex classes of the mesh.
- Parameters
in_vertex_classes
:
-
void
ComputeTriangleNormals
()¶ Compute triangle normals using vertex and triangle datastructures.
Public Members
-
Matrix<double>
vertices
¶ Vertices in the mesh, N X 2 or N X 3.
-
Matrix<size_t>
triangles
¶ Triangles in the mesh, K X 3.
-
Matrix<size_t>
halfedges
¶ Half-edge mapping in the mesh, K X 3. Every triangle has three oriented half-edges. Each half-edge has unique id which is mapped to the 2D index of all triangles, e.g. the half-edges of triangle k are [3*k, 3*k + 1, 3*k + 2]. Halfedges array provides the twin/opposite/shared half-edge id. e.g., The twin half-edge of first edge for the triangle k is halfedges(k, 0)
-
Matrix<double>
triangle_normals
¶ Triangle normals in the mesh (normalized), K X 3.
-
Matrix<uint8_t>
vertex_classes
¶ Class ids for each vertex in mesh (normalized), K X 3.
-
bool
counter_clock_wise
¶ Direction of travel for oriented half-edges around a triangle.
-


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oxD Python Library Documentation¶
Welcome to the oxD Python API reference page. If you are looking for docs on how to use the library go here.
-
class
oxdpython.client.
Client
(config_location)[source]¶ Client is the main class that carries out the task of talking with the oxD server. The oxD commands are provided as class methods that are called to send the command to the oxD server via socket.
-
__init__
(config_location)[source]¶ Constructor of class Client
Parameters: config_location (string) – The complete path of the location of the config file. Sample config at (https://github.com/GluuFederation/oxd-python/blob/master/sample.cfg)
Function to get the authorization url that can be opened in the browser for the user to provide authorization and authentication
Parameters: - acr_values (list, optional) – acr values in the order of priority
- prompt (string, optional) – prompt=login is required if you want to force alter current user session (in case user is already logged in from site1 and site2 construsts authorization request and want to force alter current user session)
- scope (list, optional) – scopes required, takes the one provided during site registrations by default
- hd (string, optional) – hosted domain Google OP parameter if you are using Google as your OpenID Provider. https://developers.google.com/identity/protocols/OpenIDConnect#hd-param
Returns: The authorization url that the user must access for authentication and authorization
Return type: string
Raises: RuntimeError
– If the oxD throws an error for any reason.
-
get_logout_uri
(id_token_hint=None, post_logout_redirect_uri=None, state=None, session_state=None)[source]¶ Function to logout the user.
Parameters: - id_token_hint (string, optional) – oxd server will use last used ID Token, if not provided
- post_logout_redirect_uri (string, optional) – URI to redirect, this uri would override the value given in the site-config
- state (string, optional) – site state
- session_state (string, optional) – session state
Returns: The URI to which the user must be directed in order to perform the logout
Return type: string
-
get_tokens_by_code
(code, state)[source]¶ Function to get access code for getting the user details from the OP. It is called after the user authorizies by visiting the auth URL.
Parameters: - code (string) – code, parse from the callback URL querystring
- state (string) – state value parsed from the callback URL
Returns: The tokens object with the following data structure:
{ "access_token": "<token string>", "expires_in": 3600, "refresh_token": "<token string>", "id_token": "<token string>", "id_token_claims": { "iss": "https://server.example.com", "sub": "24400320", "aud": "s6BhdRkqt3", "nonce": "n-0S6_WzA2Mj", "exp":<PHONE_NUMBER>, "iat":<PHONE_NUMBER>, "at_hash": "MTIzNDU2Nzg5MDEyMzQ1Ng" } }
Since this would be returned as a NamedTuple, it can be accessed using the dot notation as
data.access_token
,data.refresh_token
,data.id_token
...etc.,Return type: NamedTuple
Raises: RuntimeError
– If oxD server throws an error OR if the params code and scopes are of improper datatype.
-
get_user_info
(access_token)[source]¶ Function to get the information about the user using the access code obtained from the OP
Parameters: access_token (string) – access token from the get_tokens_by_code function Returns: The user data claims that are returned by the OP. Refer to the /.well-known/openid-configuration URL of your OP for the complete list of the claims for different scopes. Return type: NamedTuple Raises: RuntimeError
– If the param access_token is empty OR if the oxD Server returns an error.
-
register_site
()[source]¶ Function to register the site and generate a unique ID for the site
Returns: The ID of the site (also called client id) if the registration is sucessful Return type: string Raises: RuntimeError
– If the site registration fails.
Function to be used by UMA Requesting Party to authorize a RPT token.
Parameters: - rpt (string) – the RPT token to be authorized
- ticket (string) – the ticket to authorize the token
Returns: The server response as an named tuple. Authorized Response (Success):
{ "status":"ok" }
Not authorized error:
{ "status": "error", "data": { "code": "not_authorized", "description": "RPT is not authorized" } }
Invalid ticket error:
{ "status": "error", "data": { "code": "invalid_ticket", "description": "Ticket is not valid (outdated or not present on Authorization Server)." } }
Invalid rpt error:
{ "status": "error", "data": { "code": "invalid_rpt", "description": "RPT isn't valid (outdated or not present on Authorization Server)." } }
Return type: NamedTuple
-
uma_rp_get_gat
(scopes)[source]¶ Function to be used by UMA Requesting Party to get a GAT.
GAT stands for Gluu Access Token. It is invented by Gluu and is described here: https://ox.gluu.org/doku.php?id=uma:oauth2_access_management
Parameters: scopes (list) – list of strings which describe the scopes Returns: The GAT token. If error, returns None. Return type: string
-
uma_rp_get_rpt
(force_new=False)[source]¶ Function to be used by a UMA Requesting Party to get RPT token.
Parameters: force_new (boolean) – indicates whether return new RPT, defaults to false, so oxd server can cache/reuse same RPT Returns: The RPT token (if recived) or None Return type: String
-
uma_rs_check_access
(rpt, path, http_method)[source]¶ Function to be used in a UMA Resource Server to check access.
Parameters: - rpt (string) – RPT or blank value if absent (not send by RP)
- path (string) – Path of resource (e.g. for http://rs.com/phones, /phones should be passed)
- http_method (string) – DELETE)
Returns: The access information recieved in the format below. If the access is granted:
{ "access": "granted" }
If the access is denied with ticket response:
{ "access": "denied", "www-authenticate_header": "UMA realm='example', as_uri='https://as.example.com', error='insufficient_scope', ticket='016f84e8-f9b9-11e0-bd6f-0021cc6004de'", "ticket": "016f84e8-f9b9-11e0-bd6f-0021cc6004de" }
If the access is denied without ticket response:
{ "access": "denied" }
If the resource is not Protected:
{ "error": "invalid_request", "error_description": "Resource is not protected. Please protect your resource first with uma_rs_protect command." }
Return type: NamedTuple
-


Created by Luis Ibanez / @luisibanez
by Robert Axelrod, 1984
“ Under what conditions
will cooperation emerge
in a world of egoists
without central authority? ”
“ The players can
communicate with each other
only through the sequence
of their own behavior. ”
“ Words no backed by actions
are so cheap
as to be meaningless. ”
“ ...even strategists
do not give sufficient weight
to the importance
of forgiveness. ”
“ Not being nice
may look promising at first,
but in the long run it can destroy
the very environment it needs
for its own success. ”
“ No one can do better
using any strategy
providing that the future casts
a large enough shadow
onto the present. ”
“ If the other player is unlikely
to be around much longer,
the shadow of the future falls
and reciprocity is
no longer stable. ”
“ If the newcomers
arrive in small clusters,
they will have a chance
to get cooperation started. ”
“ So mutual cooperation
can emerge in a world of egoists
without central control
by starting with a cluster of individuals
who rely on reciprocity. ”
“ We are very sorry about that;
we hope no one was hurt.
It is not our fault,
it is that damned Prussian Artillery! ”
“An organism
does not need a brain
to employ a strategy. ”
“ When the probability
of meeting each other again
is sufficiently high,
cooperation based on reciprocity
can thrive. ”
“ While foresight is not necessary
for the evolution of cooperation
it can certainly be helpful. ”
Could someone else
have done better
with this other player?
TIT FOR TAT
never scores better
than the other player
“ Too much complexity
can appear to be
total chaos. ”
“ Being so complex
as to be incomprehensible
is very dangerous. ”
“ If you are unresponsive,
then the other player
has no incentive
to cooperate with you. ”
“ An important way
to promote cooperation
is to arrange that the same individuals
will meet each other again. ”
“ Mutual cooperation can be stable
if the future is sufficiently important
relative to the present. ”
Making the interactions
A player's reputation
is embodied in the belief of others
about the strategy
that this player will use.
You have to get the other player to help
even though the other player
is better off in the short run
by not helping.
Cooperation can emerge
from small clusters of cooperating individuals
as long as they have a small portion
of their interactions with each other.
Never be the first to defect.
Prevents it from getting into
unnecessary trouble.
Discourages the other side
from persisting
whenever defection is tried
Prevents Abuse
Helps restore mutual cooperation.
Makes its behavioral pattern
easy to recognize.
Makes easy to perceive
that the best way
to deal with it
is to cooperate.
Becomes self-reinforcing
Once it gets going,
it gets stronger and stronger.


{% extends 'layout.html' %} {% block pageTitle %} Question page {% endblock %} {% block content %}
A service for users to find something
Description on what the post will include
This post includes information on:


{{'TiDB (The pronunciation is: /‘taɪdiːbi:/ tai-D-B, etymology: titanium)
is a Hybrid Transactional/Analytical Processing (HTAP) database. Inspired by the design of Google F1 and Google Spanner,
TiDB features infinite horizontal scalability, strong consistency, and high availability.
The goal of TiDB is to serve as a one-stop solution for online transactions and analyses. '|translate}}


Bona Fide DEXA Phantom
| Stock # | Description | Price | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 026 | Bona Fide DEXA Phantom (BFP) | $5,842.46 |
Bio-Imaging's "Bona Fide Phantom" (BFP), is a quality control tool for Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) instruments, which features an acrylic-embedded calcium hydroxyapatite (CHA) step-wedge. Advanced design features make it the best choice for assessing DEXA instrument stability. You can successfully use the BFP on all mainstream DEXA instruments.
The BFP offers a range of densities (0.7 - 1.5 g/cm2), to verify instrument function over the clinically relevant range, not just at a single, "healthy" BMD. Linearity of BMD over the clinically range is critical for full instrument evaluation. The phantom uses a CHA insert for direct assessment of bone density accuracy. The CHA insert is compliant with FDA guidelines for cross-calibration phantoms for clinical trials. Each insert is machine processed, guaranteeing manufacturing precision.
The BFP is cast in acrylic and comes with its own carrying case for easy handling. The tote remains on the phantom during scanning and does not affect BMD readings, allowing rapid placement and removal for the phantom from the bed.
The BFP offers a range of densities (0.7 - 1.5 g/cm2), to verify instrument function over the clinically relevant range, not just at a single, "healthy" BMD. Linearity of BMD over the clinically range is critical for full instrument evaluation. The phantom uses a CHA insert for direct assessment of bone density accuracy. The CHA insert is compliant with FDA guidelines for cross-calibration phantoms for clinical trials. Each insert is machine processed, guaranteeing manufacturing precision.
The BFP is cast in acrylic and comes with its own carrying case for easy handling. The tote remains on the phantom during scanning and does not affect BMD readings, allowing rapid placement and removal for the phantom from the bed.


This page is full of violations of the DRY principle (Don't Repeat Yourself) along with a number of other violations of HTML markup best practices.
Your goal is to refactor the HTML, CSS and JavaScript on this page so that you have a clear separation of concerns between this technologies.
Click here to see suggested refactoring path!


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JXTA Technology Awards
| 2006 Duke's Choice Award for JXTA community member, Genius Bytes for it's Pure Print Flexibility PKI implentation on Ricoh printers | |
| 2005 Duke's Choice Award for "Java Network Sensors Go to Sea". JXTA technology delivered and relayed the data between the sensors. | |
| Nominee/Finalist: LinuxWorld 2004 Product Excellence Awards - the Open Source category. | |
| JavaWorld 2002 Editor's Choice Award for Most Innovative Java Product or Technology. |
|
|
Nominee/Finalist: 2nd Annual PC Magazine and eWEEK i3 Innovation in Infrastructure Award - the Internet Software Category. |
| JavaPro Technology Achievement Award for Outstanding Group Contribution to Java Technology. |
| 'Most Likely to Win Top Trend in a Future Year' award by the Hurwitz Group, December 14, 2001 |


|
This document describes the Quake 3 BSP file format. This is an unofficial document. Quake 3 is a registered trademark of id Software, which does not sponsor, authorize, or endorse this document.
This document describes the Quake 3 BSP file format as the author understands it. While every effort has been made to ensure that the contents of this document are accurate, the author does not guarantee that any portion of this document is actually correct. In addition, the author cannot be held responsible the consequences of the any use or misuse of the information contained in this document.
Copyright © 2000 Kekoa Proudfoot. All rights
reserved.
|
File structure
Quake 3 BSP files are IBSP files, and therefore have a structure similar to previous BSP files from id Software. Every IBSP file begins with a header, which in turn contains a lump directory. The lump directory describes the layout of the rest of the file, which contains some number of lumps. Each lump stores a particular kind of map data.
| ||||||
| The layout of an IBSP file. An IBSP file consists of a header followed by a number of lumps. The header contains a directory which identifies the locations and sizes of the lumps. |
Data types
Quake 3 BSP files contains only four basic data types. They are:
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ubyte | unsigned byte |
| int | 4-byte integer, little-endian |
| float | 4-byte IEEE float, little-endian |
| string[n] | string of n ASCII bytes, not necessarily null-terminated |
All data in a BSP file is organized into records composed of these four data
types.
Header and Directory
The header record looks like this:
header
Each direntry locates a single lump in the BSP file:
direntry
Lumps
There are 17 lumps in a Quake 3 BSP file. In the order that they
appear in the lump directory, they are:
string[4] magic
Magic number. Always "IBSP".
int version
Version number. 0x2e for the BSP files distributed with Quake 3.
direntry[17] direntries
Lump directory, seventeen entries.
int offset
Offset to start of lump, relative to beginning of file.
int length
Length of lump. Always a multiple of 4.
| Index | Lump Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | Entities | Game-related object descriptions. |
| 1 | Textures | Surface descriptions. |
| 2 | Planes | Planes used by map geometry. |
| 3 | Nodes | BSP tree nodes. |
| 4 | Leafs | BSP tree leaves. |
| 5 | Leaffaces | Lists of face indices, one list per leaf. |
| 6 | Leafbrushes | Lists of brush indices, one list per leaf. |
| 7 | Models | Descriptions of rigid world geometry in map. |
| 8 | Brushes | Convex polyhedra used to describe solid space. |
| 9 | Brushsides | Brush surfaces. |
| 10 | Vertexes | Vertices used to describe faces. |
| 11 | Meshverts | Lists of offsets, one list per mesh. |
| 12 | Effects | List of special map effects. |
| 13 | Faces | Surface geometry. |
| 14 | Lightmaps | Packed lightmap data. |
| 15 | Lightvols | Local illumination data. |
| 16 | Visdata | Cluster-cluster visibility data. |
Entities
The entities lump stores game-related map information, including information about the map name, weapons, health, armor, triggers, spawn points, lights, and .md3 models to be placed in the map. The lump contains only one record, a string that describes all of the entities:
entities
string[length] ents Entity descriptions, stored as a string.
The length of the entity string is given by the size of the lump itself, as specified in the lump directory.
The meanings, formats, and parameters of the various entity descriptions
are currently outside the scope of this document. For more information
about entity descriptions, see the documentation to Q3Radiant, the Quake 3
level editor.
Textures
The textures lump stores information about surfaces and volumes, which are
in turn associated with faces, brushes, and brushsides. There are a total
of length / sizeof(texture) records in the lump, where
length is the size of the lump itself, as specified in the lump
directory.
texture
Planes
The planes lump stores a generic set of planes that are in turn referenced
by nodes and brushsides. There are a total of length /
sizeof(plane) records in the lump, where length is the size
of the lump itself, as specified in the lump directory.
plane
Note that planes are paired. The pair of planes with
indices i and i ^ 1 are coincident planes with opposing normals.
Nodes
The nodes lump stores all of the nodes in the map's BSP tree. The BSP tree
is used primarily as a spatial subdivision scheme, dividing the world into
convex regions called leafs. The first node in the lump is the tree's root
node. There are a total of length / sizeof(node) records
in the lump, where length is the size of the lump itself, as
specified in the lump directory.
node
Leafs
The leafs lump stores the leaves of the map's BSP tree. Each leaf is a
convex region that contains, among other things, a cluster index (for
determining the other leafs potentially visible from within the leaf), a
list of faces (for rendering), and a list of brushes (for collision
detection). There are a total of length / sizeof(leaf)
records in the lump, where length is the size of the lump itself,
as specified in the lump directory.
leaf
If cluster is negative, the leaf is outside the map or otherwise
invalid.
Leaffaces
The leaffaces lump stores lists of face indices, with one list per leaf.
There are a total of length / sizeof(leafface) records in
the lump, where length is the size of the lump itself, as
specified in the lump directory.
leafface
Leafbrushes
The leafbrushes lump stores lists of brush indices, with one list per leaf.
There are a total of length / sizeof(leafbrush) records in
the lump, where length is the size of the lump itself, as
specified in the lump directory.
leafbrush
Models
The models lump describes rigid groups of world geometry. The first model
correponds to the base portion of the map while the remaining models
correspond to movable portions of the map, such as the map's doors,
platforms, and buttons. Each model has a list of faces and list of
brushes; these are especially important for the movable parts of the map,
which (unlike the base portion of the map) do not have BSP trees associated
with them. There are a total of length / sizeof(models)
records in the lump, where length is the size of the lump itself,
as specified in the lump directory.
model
Brushes
The brushes lump stores a set of brushes, which are in turn used for
collision detection. Each brush describes a convex volume as defined by
its surrounding surfaces. There are a total of length /
sizeof(brushes) records in the lump, where length is the
size of the lump itself, as specified in the lump directory.
brush
Brushsides
The brushsides lump stores descriptions of brush bounding surfaces. There
are a total of length / sizeof(brushsides) records in the
lump, where length is the size of the lump itself, as specified in
the lump directory.
brushside
Vertexes
The vertexes lump stores lists of vertices used to describe faces. There
are a total of length / sizeof(vertex) records in the lump,
where length is the size of the lump itself, as specified in the
lump directory.
vertex
Meshverts
The meshverts lump stores lists of vertex offsets, used to describe
generalized triangle meshes. There are a total of length /
sizeof(meshvert) records in the lump, where length is the
size of the lump itself, as specified in the lump directory.
meshvert
Effects
The effects lump stores references to volumetric shaders (typically fog)
which affect the rendering of a particular group of faces. There are a
total of length / sizeof(effect) records in the lump,
where length is the size of the lump itself, as specified in the
lump directory.
effect
Faces
The faces lump stores information used to render the surfaces of the map.
There are a total of length / sizeof(faces) records in the
lump, where length is the size of the lump itself, as specified in
the lump directory.
face
There are four types of faces: polygons, patches, meshes, and billboards.
Several components have different meanings depending on the face type.
For type 1 faces (polygons), vertex and n_vertexes
describe a set of vertices that form a polygon. The set always contains a
loop of vertices, and sometimes also includes an additional vertex near the
center of the polygon. For these faces, meshvert and
n_meshverts describe a valid polygon triangulation. Every three
meshverts describe a triangle. Each meshvert is an offset from the first
vertex of the face, given by vertex.
For type 2 faces (patches), vertex and n_vertexes
describe a 2D rectangular grid of control vertices with dimensions given by
size. Within this rectangular grid, regions of 3×3 vertices
represent biquadratic Bezier patches. Adjacent patches share a line of
three vertices. There are a total of
(size[0] - 1) / 2 by
(size[1] - 1) / 2 patches. Patches in the grid start at (i, j) given by:
For type 3 faces (meshes), meshvert and n_meshverts are
used to describe the independent triangles that form the mesh. As with
type 1 faces, every three meshverts describe a triangle, and each meshvert
is an offset from the first vertex of the face, given by vertex.
For type 4 faces (billboards), vertex describes the single vertex
that determines the location of the billboard. Billboards are used for
effects such as flares. Exactly how each billboard vertex is to be
interpreted has not been investigated.
The lm_ variables are primarily used to deal with lightmap data.
A face that has a lightmap has a non-negative lm_index. For such
a face, lm_index is the index of the image in the lightmaps lump
that contains the lighting data for the face. The data in the lightmap
image can be located using the rectangle specified by lm_start and
lm_size.
For type 1 faces (polygons) only, lm_origin and lm_vecs
can be used to compute the world-space positions corresponding to lightmap
samples. These positions can in turn be used to compute dynamic lighting
across the face.
None of the lm_ variables are used to compute texture coordinates
for indexing into lightmaps. In fact, lightmap coordinates need not be
computed. Instead, lightmap coordinates are simply stored with the
vertices used to describe each face.
Lightmaps
The lightmaps lump stores the light map textures used make surface lighting
look more realistic. There are a total of length /
sizeof(lightmap) records in the lump, where length is the
size of the lump itself, as specified in the lump directory.
lightmap
Lightvols
The lightvols lump stores a uniform grid of lighting information used to
illuminate non-map objects. There are a total of length /
sizeof(lightvol) records in the lump, where length is the
size of the lump itself, as specified in the lump directory.
Lightvols make up a 3D grid whose dimensions are:
lightvol
Visdata
The visdata lump stores bit vectors that provide cluster-to-cluster
visibility information. There is exactly one visdata record, with a
length equal to that specified in the lump directory.
visdata
Cluster x is visible from cluster y if the (1 << y % 8) bit of
vecs[x * sz_vecs + y / 8] is set.
string[64] name
Texture name.
int flags
Surface flags.
int contents
Content flags.
float[3] normal
Plane normal.
float dist
Distance from origin to plane along normal.
int plane
Plane index.
int[2] children
Children indices. Negative numbers are leaf indices: -(leaf+1).
int[3] mins
Integer bounding box min coord.
int[3] maxs
Integer bounding box max coord.
int cluster
Visdata cluster index.
int area
Areaportal area.
int[3] mins
Integer bounding box min coord.
int[3] maxs
Integer bounding box max coord.
int leafface
First leafface for leaf.
int n_leaffaces
Number of leaffaces for leaf.
int leafbrush
First leafbrush for leaf.
int n_leafbrushes
Number of leafbrushes for leaf.
int face
Face index.
int brush
Brush index.
float[3] mins
Bounding box min coord.
float[3] maxs
Bounding box max coord.
int face
First face for model.
int n_faces
Number of faces for model.
int brush
First brush for model.
int n_brushes
Number of brushes for model.
int brushside
First brushside for brush.
int n_brushsides
Number of brushsides for brush.
int texture
Texture index.
int plane
Plane index.
int texture
Texture index.
float[3] position
Vertex position.
float[2][2] texcoord
Vertex texture coordinates. 0=surface, 1=lightmap.
float[3] normal
Vertex normal.
ubyte[4] color
Vertex color. RGBA.
int offset
Vertex index offset, relative to first vertex of
corresponding face.
string[64] name
Effect shader.
int brush
Brush that generated this effect.
int unknown
Always 5, except in q3dm8, which has one effect with -1.
int texture
Texture index.
int effect
Index into lump 12 (Effects), or -1.
int type
Face type. 1=polygon, 2=patch, 3=mesh, 4=billboard
int vertex
Index of first vertex.
int n_vertexes
Number of vertices.
int meshvert
Index of first meshvert.
int n_meshverts
Number of meshverts.
int lm_index
Lightmap index.
int[2] lm_start
Corner of this face's lightmap image in lightmap.
int[2] lm_size
Size of this face's lightmap image in lightmap.
float[3] lm_origin
World space origin of lightmap.
float[2][3] lm_vecs
World space lightmap s and t unit vectors.
float[3] normal
Surface normal.
int[2] size
Patch dimensions.
i = 2n, n in [ 0 .. (size[0] - 1) / 2 ), and
j = 2m, m in [ 0 .. (size[1] - 1) / 2 ).
ubyte[128][128][3] map
Lightmap color data. RGB.
nx = floor(models[0].maxs[0] / 64) - ceil(models[0].mins[0] / 64) + 1
ny = floor(models[0].maxs[1] / 64) - ceil(models[0].mins[1] / 64) + 1
nz = floor(models[0].maxs[2] / 128) - ceil(models[0].mins[2] / 128) + 1
ubyte[3] ambient
Ambient color component. RGB.
ubyte[3] directional
Directional color component. RGB.
ubyte[2] dir
Direction to light. 0=phi, 1=theta.
int n_vecs
Number of vectors.
int sz_vecs
Size of each vector, in bytes.
ubyte[n_vecs * sz_vecs] vecs
Visibility data. One bit per cluster per vector.
|
This document is very brief. I have gathered more information, but have not had time to write it up. Occasionally, I add more information to this document.
At some point I put together a page that describes triangle meshes and other q3 leaf elements. I forget the exact reason I created that page, but you might find it interesting.
Feel free to ask for clarification, but please accept my apologies if I can't find the time to answer.
Keywords: quake 3 quake3 q3 arena quake3arena q3arena map bsp file spec specs format


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CHAPTER 191
BIRDS AND MAMMALS
REPEALED. L 1985, c 174, §5.
Cross References
For present provisions, see chapter 183D.


5.4. Assignment OperatorsThe left-hand operand of an assignment operator must be a nonconst lvalue. Each of these assignments is illegal: int i, j, ival; const int ci = i; // ok: initialization not assignment 1024 = ival; // error: literals are rvalues i + j = ival; // error: arithmetic expressions are rvalues ci = ival; // error: can't write to ci Array names are nonmodifiable lvalues: An array cannot be the target of an assignment. Both the subscript and dereference operators return lvalues. The result of dereference or subscript, when applied to a nonconst array, can be the left-hand operand of an assignment: int ia[10]; ia[0] = 0; // ok: subscript is an lvalue *ia = 0; // ok: dereference also is an lvalue The result of an assignment is the left-hand operand; the type of the result is the type of the left-hand operand. The value assigned to the left-hand operand ordinarily is the value that is in the right-hand operand. However, assignments where the types of the left and right operands differ may require conversions that might change the value being assigned. In such cases, the value stored in the left-hand operand might differ from the value of the right-hand operand: ival = 0; // result: type int value 0 ival = 3.14159; // result: type int value 3 Both these assignments yield values of type int. In the first case the value stored in ival is the same value as in its right-hand operand. In the second case the value stored in ival is different from the right-hand operand. 5.4.1. Assignment Is Right AssociativeLike the subscript and dereference operators, assignment returns an lvalue. As such, we can perform multiple assignments in a single expression, provided that each of the operands being assigned is of the same general type:
int ival, jval;
ival = jval = 0; // ok: each assigned 0
Unlike the other binary operators, the assignment operators are right associative. We group an expression with multiple assignment operators from right to left. In this expression, the result of the rightmost assignment (i.e., jval) is assigned to ival. The types of the objects in a multiple assignment either must be the same type or of types that can be converted (Section 5.12, p. 178) to one another: int ival; int *pval; ival = pval = 0; // error: cannot assign the value of a pointer to an int string s1, s2; s1 = s2 = "OK"; // ok: "OK" converted to string The first assignment is illegal because ival and pval are objects of different types. It is illegal even though zero happens to be a value that could be assigned to either object. The problem is that the result of the assignment to pval is a value of type int*, which cannot be assigned to an object of type int. On the other hand, the second assignment is fine. The string literal is converted to string, and that string is assigned to s2. The result of that assignment is s2, which is then assigned to s1. 5.4.2. Assignment Has Low PrecedenceInside a condition is another common place where assignment is used as a part of a larger expression. Writing an assignment in a condition can shorten programs and clarify the programmer's intent. For example, the following loop uses a function named get_value, which we assume returns int values. We can test those values until we obtain some desired valuesay, 42: int i = get_value(); // get_value returns an int while (i != 42) { // do something ... i = get_value(); } The program begins by getting the first value and storing it in i. Then it establishes the loop, which tests whether i is 42, and if not, does some processing. The last statement in the loop gets a value from get_value(), and the loop repeats. We can write this loop more succinctly as
int i;
while ((i = get_value()) != 42) {
// do something ...
}
The condition now more clearly expresses our intent: We want to continue until get_value returns 42. The condition executes by assigning the result returned by get_value to i and then comparing the result of that assignment with 42.
Without the parentheses, the operands to != would be the value returned from calling get_value and 42. The true or false result of that test would be assigned to iclearly not what we intended! Beware of Confusing Equality and Assignment OperatorsThe fact that we can use assignment in a condition can have surprising effects: if (i = 42) This code is legal: What happens is that 42 is assigned to i and then the result of the assignment is tested. In this case, 42 is nonzero, which is interpreted as a true value. The author of this code almost surely intended to test whether i was 42: if (i == 42) Bugs of this sort are notoriously difficult to find. Some, but not all, compilers are kind enough to warn about code such as this example. 5.4.3. Compound Assignment OperatorsWe often apply an operator to an object and then reassign the result to that same object. As an example, consider the sum program from page 14: int sum = 0; // sum values from 1 up to 10 inclusive for (int val = 1; val <= 10; ++val) sum += val; // equivalent to sum = sum + val This kind of operation is common not just for addition but for the other arithmetic operators and the bitwise operators. There are compound assignments for each of these operators. The general syntactic form of a compound assignment operator is
a op= b;
where op= may be one of the following ten operators: += -= *= /= %= // arithmetic operators <<= >>= &= ^= |= // bitwise operators Each compound operator is essentially equivalent to
a = a op b;
There is one important difference: When we use the compound assignment, the left-hand operand is evaluated only once. If we write the similar longer version, that operand is evaluated twice: once as the right-hand operand and again as the left. In many, perhaps most, contexts this difference is immaterial aside from possible performance consequences.
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Fabian Steels - Software and Systems Technologies
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Practical-4:   Create a website having list of all practical and their individual practical Page links .
Output
Welcome to FullStack Course
About Course
Front-end web development is everything involved in programming the user interface of a web application. Typically it refers to the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and JavaScript portion of web site production as opposed
to the database or server-side programming. It encompasses everything from building a simple page of HTML text to creating complex, responsive HTML5 websites designed to be accessed via various different browsers, devices and screen sizes.
List of Practicals
- Create a Web page including HTML basic skeleton using HTML Editor and Online Sandbox Environment
practical-1
- Live your First Web-Page on Git-Hub
practical-2
- Create a web page showing a basic html structure using character Entities and span Tag.
practical-3
- Create a website having list of all practical and their individual practical Page links .
practical-4


Statistics release announcement
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This bulletin covers qualifications of all types at Level 4 and above (equivalent to post-A level), excluding university degrees, which are regulated by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) rather than Ofqual. There is some overlap between the figures in this bulletin and the Vocational Qualifications Quarterly which covers NVQ, VRQ, QCF and Occupational Qualifications at all levels. Produced using data submitted by awarding organisations.


WITNESS LIST Intergovernmental Relations Committee March 24, 2004 -10:00A IGR Interim Charge 2 ON: Barbolla, Patrick Developer (Texas Affordable Housing Congress) Carrington, Edwina Executive Director (Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs), Austin, TX Chatham, Donna Executive Director (Association of Rural Communities in Texas), Austin, TX Cogburn, Brian (Texas Affordable Housing Congress), Austin, TX Henneberger, John Co Director (Texas Low Income Housing Information Service), Austin, TX


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--- layout: post status: publish published: true title: 6/2 Notes author: display_name: Corey Fineran login: Corey email<EMAIL_ADDRESS>url: '' author_login: Corey author_email<EMAIL_ADDRESS>excerpt: "* What a homestand! The Cubs went 7-0. What impresses me most about the Cubs sweeping the Dodgers and the Rockies is that all 7 games were tight baseball games. This team continues " wordpress_id: 92 wordpress_url: http://ivyenvy.wordpress.com/?p=92 date: '2008-06-02 16:11:58 +0000' date_gmt: '2008-06-02 16:11:58 +0000' categories: - Offense - Outfield - The Cubs tags: - Dodgers - Jim Edmonds - Road Games - Rockies - Wrigley Field comments: [] ---
* What a homestand! The Cubs went 7-0. What impresses me most about the Cubs sweeping the Dodgers and the Rockies is that all 7 games were tight baseball games. This team continues to show that they can win close games and come from behind.
* Jim Edmonds came alive for a few games. For the Rockies series, Edmonds went 5-7 with a double, a triple and a homerun. He knocked in 5 RBI's. What is more impressive is that he drew a walk and did not strikeout. He has raised his season batting average about 45 points and is actually near .200. Since joining the Cubs, his batting average is .258 and his on-base percentage is .303.
* I'm glad the Cubs are hitting the road. They have obviously proven they can win at home, going 26-8 at Wrigley. They are 10-13 on the road and I'd like to see if they can remedy that. I won't be looking forward to games starting at 9pm, but with a 3 week old baby, staying up late shouldn't be a problem.


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