Notebook for
The Psychology of Human Misjudgment
t27.github.io
The Psychology of Human Misjudgment
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I have long been very interested in standard thinking errors. However, I was educated in an era wherein the contributions of non-patient-treating psychology to an understanding of misjudgment met little approval from members of the mainstream elite. Instead, interest in psychology was pretty well confined to a group of professors who talked and published mostly for themselves, with much natural detriment from isolation and groupthink. And so, right after my time at Caltech and Harvard Law School, I possessed a vast ignorance of psychology. Those institutions failed to require knowledge of the subject.
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I was aware that man was a “social animal,” greatly and automatically influenced by behavior he observed in men around him. I also knew that man lived, like barnyard animals and monkeys, in limited size dominance hierarchies, wherein he tended to respect authority and to like and cooperate with his own hierarchy members while displaying considerable distrust and dislike for competing men not in his own hierarchy. But this generalized, evolution-based theory structure was inadequate to enable me to cope properly with the cognition I encountered. I was soon surrounded by much extreme irrationality, displayed in patterns and subpatterns. So surrounded, I could see that I was not going to cope as well as I wished with life unless I could acquire a better theory-structure on which to hang my observations and experiences.
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And, partly. I had found that theory structure was a superpower in helping one get what one wanted. As I had early discovered in school wherein I had excelled without labor, guided by theory, while many others, without mastery of theory, failed despite monstrous effort. Better theory, I thought, had always worked for me and, if now available, could make me acquire capital and independence faster and better assist everything I loved. And so I slowly developed my own system of psychology. More or less in the self-help style of Ben Franklin and with the determination displayed in the refrain of the nursery story: “‘Then I’ll do it myself,’ said the little red hen.”
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found that introductory psychology texts, by and large, didn’t deal appropriately with a fundamental issue: Psychological tendencies tend to be both numerous and inseparably intertwined, now and forever, as they interplay in life. Yet the complex parsing out of effects from intertwined tendencies was usually avoided by the writers of the elementary texts. Possibly the authors did not wish, through complexity, to repel entry of new devotees to their discipline. And, possibly, the cause of their inadequacy was the one given by Samuel Johnson in response to a woman who inquired as to what accounted for his dictionary’s misdefinition of the word “pastern.” “Pure ignorance,” Johnson replied. And, finally, the text writers showed little interest in describing standard antidotes to standard psychology-driven folly, and they thus avoided most discussion of exactly what most interested me.
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academic psychology has some very important merits alongside its defects. I learned this eventually, in the course of general reading, from a book, Influence,aimed at a popular audience, by a distinguished psychology professor, Robert Cialdini,
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The ant learns a little behavior from experiences, but mostly it merely responds to ten or so stimuli with a few simple responses programmed into its nervous system by its genes, sometimes walk round and round until they perish.
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When one thus sees perception so easily fooled by mere contrast, where a simple temperature gauge would make no error, and realizes that cognition mimics perception in being misled by mere contrast, he is well on the way toward understanding, not only how magicians fool one, but also how life will fool one. This can occur, through deliberate human manipulation or otherwise, if one doesn’t take certain precautions.
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Man’s often wrong but generally useful psychological tendencies are quite numerous and quite different. The natural consequence of this profusion of tendencies is the grand general principle of social psychology: cognition is ordinarily situation dependent so that different situations often cause different conclusions, even when the same person is thinking in the same general subject area.
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1. Reward and Punishment Superresponse Tendency
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the system has no integrity for the customers if the night work shift can’t accomplish its assignment fast.
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finally, somebody got the happy thought that it was foolish to pay the night shift by the hour when what the employer wanted was not maximized billable hours of employee service but fault-free, rapid performance of a particular task. Maybe, this person thought, if they paid the employees per shift and let all night shift employees go home when all the planes were loaded, the system would work better. And, lo and behold, that solution worked.
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“If you would persuade, appeal to interest and not to reason.”
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Skinner was right in his main idea: Incentives are superpowers. The outcome of his basic experiments will always remain in high repute in the annals of experimental science.
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I always call the “Johnny-one-note” turn of mind that eventually diminished Skinner’s reputation the man-with-a-hammer tendency, after the folk saying: “To a man with only a hammer every problem looks pretty much like a nail.” Man-with-a-hammer tendency does not exempt smart people like Blanchard and Skinner.
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it won’t exempt you if you don’t watch out. I will return to man-with– a-hammer tendency at various times in this talk because, fortunately, there are effective anti-dotes that reduce the ravages of what pretty much ruined the personal reputation of the brilliant Skinner.
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One of the most important consequences of incentive superpower is what I call “incentive caused bias.”
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A man has an acculturated nature making him a pretty decent fellow, and yet, driven both consciously and sub-consciously by incentives, he drifts into immoral behavior in order to get what he wants, a result he facilitates by rationalizing his bad behavior,
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the cognitive drift of that surgeon is present in every profession and in every human being. And it causes perfectly terrible behavior.
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Widespread incentive-caused bias requires that one should often distrust, or take with a grain of salt, the advice of one’s professional advisor, even if he is an engineer.
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The general antidotes here are: especially fear professional advice when it is especially good for the advisor; learn and use the basic elements of your advisor’s trade as you deal with your advisor; and double check, disbelieve, or replace much of what you’re told, to the degree that seems appropriate after objective thought.
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people who create things like cash registers, which make dishonest behavior hard to accomplish, are some of the effective saints of our civilization because, as Skinner so well knew, bad behavior is intensely habit-forming when it is rewarded.
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The strong tendency of employees to rationalize bad conduct in order to get rewards requires many antidotes in addition to the good cash control promoted by Patterson. Perhaps
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So incentive-caused bias is a huge, important thing, with highly important antidotes, like the cash register and a sound accounting system. But when I came years ago to the psychology texts, I found that, while they were about one thousand pages long, there was as little therein that dealt with incentive-caused bias and no mention of Patterson or sound accounting systems.
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Somehow incentive-caused bias and its antidotes pretty well escaped the standard survey courses in psychology, even though incentive-caused bias had long been dis-played prominently in much of the world’s great literature, and antidotes to it had long existed in standard business routines. In the end, I concluded that when something was obvious in life but not easily demonstrable in certain kinds of easy, repeatable academic experiments, the truffle hounds of psychology very often missed it.
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For instance, economists, speaking from the employer’s point of view, have long had a name for the natural results of incentive-caused bias: “agency cost.”
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economists have typically known that, just as grain is always lost to rats, employers always lose to employees who improperly think of themselves first.
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Employer installed antidotes include: tough internal audit systems, severe public punishment for identified miscreants, as well as misbehavior-preventing routines and such machines as cash registers.
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have a strong incentive to prevent all waste in operations within their ownership. After all, they live on the difference between their competitive prices and their overall costs and their businesses will perish if costs exceed sales.
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man tends to “game” all human systems,
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Antigaming features, therefore, constitute a huge and necessary part of almost all system design.
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avoid as much you can, rewarding people for what can be easily faked.
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money is now the main reward that drives habits. A monkey can be trained to seek and work for an intrinsically worthless token, as if it were a banana, if the token is routinely exchangeable for a banana. So it is also with humans working for money– only more so, because human money is exchangeable for many desired things in addition to food, and one ordinarily gains status from either holding or spending it. Moreover, a rich person will often, through habit, work or connive energetically for more money long after he has almost no real need for more.  Money rewards are also intertwined with other forms of reward. For instance, some people use money to buy status and others use status to get money, while still others sort of do both things at the same time.
 And the business version requires that executives force themselves daily to first do their unpleasant and necessary tasks before rewarding themselves by proceeding to their pleasant tasks. Given reward super-power, this practice is nice and sound. Moreover, the rule can also be used in the nonbusiness part of life. The emphasis on daily use of this practice is not accidental.
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2. Liking/Loving Tendency
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And what will a man naturally come to like and love, apart from his parent, spouse and child? Well, he will like and love being liked and loved. And so many a courtship competition will be won by a person displaying exceptional devotion, and man will generally strive, lifelong, for the affection and approval of many people not related to him.
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One very practical consequence of Liking/Loving Tendency is that it acts as a conditioning device that makes the liker or lover tend: to ignore faults of, and comply with wishes of, the object of his affection, to favor people, products, and actions merely associated with the object of his affection (as we shall see when we get to “Influence-from-Mere-Association Tendency,” and to distort other facts to facilitate love.
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3. Disliking/Hating Tendency
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the dislikings and hatreds never go away completely. Born into man, these driving tendencies remain strong. Thus, we get maxims like the one from England: “Politics is the art of marshalling hatreds.” And we also get the extreme popularity of very negative political advertising in the United States.
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Disliking/Hating Tendency also acts as a conditioning device that makes the disliker/hater tend to: ignore virtues in the object of dislike, dislike people, products, and actions merely associated with the object of his dislike, and distort other facts to facilitate hatred.
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Distortion of that kind is often so extreme that miscognition is shockingly large. When the world Trade Center was destroyed, many Muslims immediately concluded that the Hindus did it, while many Arabs concluded that the Jews did it. Such factual distortions often make mediation between opponents locked in hatred either difficult or impossible. Mediations between Israelis and Palestinians are difficult because facts in one side’s history overlap very little with facts from the other side’s.
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4. Doubt-Avoidance Tendency
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The brain of man is programmed with a tendency to quickly remove doubt by reaching some decision. It is easy to see how evolution would make animals, over the eons, drift toward such quick elimination of doubt. After all, the one thing that is surely counterproductive for a prey animal that is threatened by a predator is to take a long time in deciding what to do. And so man’s Doubt Avoidance Tendency is quite consistent with the history of his ancient, nonhuman ancestors.
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what usually triggers Doubt-Avoidance Tendency is some combination of puzzlement and stress.
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5. Inconsistency-Avoidance Tendency
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The brain of man conserves programming space by being reluctant to change, which is a form of inconsistency avoidance. We see this in all human habits, constructive and destructive. Few people can list a lot of bad habits that they have eliminated, and some people cannot identify even one of these. Instead, practically everyone has a great many bad habits he has long maintained despite their being known as bad. Given this situation, it is not too much in many cases to appraise early-formed habits as destiny.
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The rare life that is wisely lived has in it many good habits maintained and many bad habits avoided or cured.
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“An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” What Franklin is here indicating, in part, is that Inconsistency-Avoidance Tendency makes it much easier to prevent a habit than to change it.
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Also tending to be maintained in place by the anti-change tendency of the brain are one’s previous conclusions, human loyalties, reputational identity, commitments, accepted role in a civilization,
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My guess is the anti-change mode was significantly caused by a combination of the following factors: It facilitated faster decisions when speed of decision was an important contribution to the survival of nonhuman ancestors that were prey. It facilitated the survival advantage that our ancestors gained by cooperating in groups, which would have been more difficult to do if everyone was always changing responses. It was the best form of solution that evolution could get to in the limited number of generations between the start of literacy and today’s complex modern life.
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It is easy to see that a quickly reached conclusion, triggered by Doubt-Avoidance Tendency, when combined with a tendency to resist any change in that conclusion, will naturally cause a lot of errors in cognition for modern man.
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What Keynes was reporting is that the human mind works a lot like the human egg. When one sperm gets into a human egg, there’s an automatic shut-off device that bars any other sperm from getting in. The human mind tends strongly toward the same sort of result. And so, people tend to accumulate large mental holdings of fixed conclusions and attitudes that are not often reexamined or changed, even though there is plenty of good evidence that they are wrong.
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One of the most successful users of an antidote to first conclusion bias was Charles Darwin. He trained himself, early, to intensively consider any evidence tending to disconfirm any hypothesis of his, more so if he thought his hypothesis was a particularly good one.
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Moreover, the tendency will often make man a “patsy” of manipulative “compliance-practitioners,” who gain advantage from triggering his subconscious Inconsistency-Avoidance Tendency. Few people demonstrated this process better than Ben Franklin. As he was rising from obscurity in Philadelphia and wanted the approval of some important man, Franklin would often maneuver that man into doing Franklin some unimportant favor, like lending Franklin a book. Thereafter, the man would admire and trust Franklin more because a nonadmired and nontrusted Franklin would be inconsistent with the appraisal implicit in lending Franklin the book.
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6. Curiosity Tendency
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Curiosity, enhanced by the best of modern education (which is by definition a minority part in many places), much helps man to prevent or reduce bad consequences arising from other psychological tendencies. The curious are also provided with much fun and wisdom long after formal education has ended.
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7. Kantian Fairness Tendency
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a “golden rule” that required humans to follow those behavior patterns that, if followed by all others, would make the surrounding human system work best for everybody. And it is not too much to say that modern acculturated man displays, and expects from others, a lot of fairness as thus defined by Kant.
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many freeway drivers, including myself, will often let other drivers come in front of them, in lane changes or the like, because that is the courtesy they desire when roles are reversed.
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8. Envy/Jealousy Tendency
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As I have shared the observation of life with Warren Buffett over decades, I have heard him wisely say on several occasions: “It is not greed that drives the world, but envy.”
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My guess is that people widely and generally sense that labeling some position as driven by envy/jealousy will be regarded as extremely insulting to the position taker, possibly more so when the diagnosis is correct than when it is wrong. And if calling a position “envy-driven” is perceived as the equivalent of describing its holder as a childish mental basket case, then it is quite understandable how a general taboo has arisen. But should this general taboo extend to psychology texts when it creates such a large gap in the correct, psychological explanation of what is widespread and important? My answer is no.
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9. Reciprocation Tendency
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The automatic tendency of humans to reciprocate both favors and disfavors has long been noticed as it is in apes, monkeys, dogs, and many less cognitively gifted animals. The tendency facilitates group cooperation for the benefit of members.
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What both human and ant history suggest is that nature has no general algorithm making intra-species, turn-the-other-cheek behavior a booster of species survival; that it is not clear that a country would have good prospects were it to abandon all reciprocate-disfavor tendency directed at outsiders; and if turn-the-other-cheek behavior is a good idea for a country as it deals with outsiders, man’s culture is going to have to do a lot of heavy lifting because his genes won’t be of much help.
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The standard antidote to one’s overactive hostility is to train oneself to defer reaction. As my smart friend Tom Murphy so frequently says, “You can always tell the man off tomorrow, if it is such a good idea.”
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Of course, the tendency to reciprocate favor for favor is also very intense, so much so that it occasionally reverses the course of reciprocated hostility. Weird pauses in fighting have sometimes occurred right in the middle of wars, triggered by some minor courtesy or favor on the part of one side, followed by favor reciprocation from the other side, and so on, until fighting stopped for a considerable period. This happened more than once in the trench warfare of World War I, over big stretches of the front and much to the dismay of the generals.
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Like other psychological tendencies, and also man’s ability to turn somersaults, reciprocate-favor tendency operates to a very considerable degree at a subconscious level. This helps make the tendency a strong force that can sometimes be used by some men to mislead others, which happens all the time.
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For instance, when an automobile salesman graciously steers you into a comfortable place to sit and gives you a cup of coffee, you are very likely being tricked, by this small courtesy alone, into parting with an extra five hundred dollars. This is far from the most extreme case of sales success that is rooted in a salesman dispensing minor favors. However, in this scenario of buying a car, you are going to be disadvantaged by parting with an extra five hundred dollars of your own money. This potential loss will protect you to some extent. But suppose you are the purchasing agent of someone else– a rich employer, for instance. Now the minor favor you receive from the salesman is less opposed by the threat of extra cost to you because someone else is paying the extra cost. Under such circumstances, the salesman is often able to maximize his advantage, particularly when government is the purchaser.
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Wise employers, therefore, try to oppose reciprocate-favor tendencies of employees engaged in purchasing. The simplest antidote works best: Don’t let them accept any favors from vendors. Sam Walton agreed with this idea of absolute prohibition. He wouldn’t let purchasing agents accept so much as a hot dog from a vendor. Given the subconscious level at which much Reciprocation Tendency operates, this policy of Walton’s was profoundly correct. If I controlled the Defense Department, its policies would mimic Walton’s.
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After accumulating this one-in-six statistic, Cialdini changed his procedure. His practitioners next wandered around the campus asking strangers to devote a big chunk of time every week for two years to the supervision of juvenile delinquents. This ridiculous request got him a one hundred percent rejection rate. But the practitioner had a follow-up question: “Will you at least spend one afternoon taking juvenile delinquents to a zoo?” This raised Cialdini’s former acceptance rate of 1/6 to ½– a tripling.
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The importance and power of reciprocate-favor tendency was also demonstrated in Cialdini’s explanation of the foolish decision of the attorney general of the United States to authorize the Watergate burglary.
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There, an aggressive subordinate made some extreme proposal for advancing Republican interests through use of some combination of whores and a gigantic yacht. When this ridiculous request was rejected, the subordinate backed off, in gracious concession, to merely asking for consent to a burglary, and the attorney general went along. Cialdini believes that subconscious Reciprocation Tendency thus became one important cause of the resignation of a United States president in the Watergate debacle, and so do I. Reciprocation Tendency subtly causes many extreme and dangerous consequences, not just on rare occasions but pretty much all the time.
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To the extent the feeling of guilt has an evolutionary base, I believe the most plausible cause is the mental conflict triggered in one direction by reciprocate favor tendency and in the opposite direction by Reward Superresponse Tendency pushing one to enjoy one hundred percent of some good thing.
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10. Influence-from-Mere Association
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there is another type of conditioned reflex wherein mere association triggers a response. For instance, consider the case of many men who have been trained by their previous experience in life to believe that when several similar items are presented for purchase, the one with the highest price will have the highest quality. Knowing this, some seller of an ordinary industrial product will often change his product’s trade dress and raise its price significantly hoping that quality-seeking buyers will be tricked into becoming purchasers by mere association of his product and its high price.
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With luxury goods, the process works with a special boost because buyers who pay high prices often gain extra status from thus demonstrating both their good taste and their ability to pay. Even association that appears to be trivial, if care-fully planned, can have extreme and peculiar effects on purchasers of products. The target purchaser of shoe polish may like pretty girls. And so he chooses the polish with the pretty girl on the can or the one with the pretty girl in the last ad for shoe polish that he saw.
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the most damaging miscalculations from mere association do not ordinarily come from advertisers and music providers. Some of the most important miscalculations come from what is accidentally associated with one’s past success, or one’s liking and loving, or one’s disliking and hating, which includes a natural hatred for bad news.
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For instance, a man foolishly gambles in a casino and yet wins. This unlikely correlation causes him to try the casino again, or again and again, to his horrid detriment. Or a man gets lucky in an odds-against venture headed by an untalented friend. So influenced, he tries again what worked before– with terrible results.
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The proper antidotes to being made such a patsy by past success are: to carefully examine each past success, looking for accidental, noncausative factors associated with such success that will tend to mislead as one appraises odds implicit in a proposed new undertaking, and to look for dangerous aspects of the new undertaking that were not present when past success occurred.
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People disagree about how much blindness should accompany the association called love.  Perhaps this “eyes-half-shut” solution is about right, but I favor a tougher prescription: “See it like it is and love anyway.”
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Hating and disliking also cause miscalculation triggered by mere association. In business, I commonly see people underappraise both the competency and morals of competitors they dislike. This is a dangerous practice, usually disguised because it occurs on a subconscious basis.
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“Persian Messenger Syndrome.” Ancient Persians actually killed some messengers whose sole fault was that they brought home truthful bad news, say, of a battle lost. It was actually safer for the messenger to run away and hide, instead of doing his job
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Sometimes lawyers, knowing their clients will hate them if they recommend an unwelcome but wise settlement, will carry on to disaster. Even in places well known for high cognition, one will sometimes find Persian Messenger Syndrome.
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The proper antidote to creating Persian Messenger Syndrome and its bad effects, like those at CBS, is to develop, through exercise of will, a habit of welcoming bad news. At Berkshire, there is a common injunction: “Always tell us the bad news promptly. It is only the good news that can wait.” It also helps to be so wise and informed that people fear not telling you bad news be-cause you are so likely to get it elsewhere.
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Influence-from-Mere-Association Tendency often has a shocking effect that helps swamp the normal tendency to return favor for favor, [especially when the favor recipient’s] condition is unpleasant, due to poverty, sickness, subjugation, or something else. Sometimes, when one receives a favor, the favor may trigger an envy-driven dislike for the person who was in so favorable a state that he could easily be a favor giver. Under such circumstances, the favor receiver, prompted partly by mere association of the favor giver with past pain, will not only dislike the man who helped him but also try to injure him. This accounts for a famous response, sometimes dubiously attributed to Henry Ford: “Why does that man hate me so? I never did anything for him.”

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A final serious clump of bad thinking caused by mere association lies in the common use of classification stereotypes. Because Pete knows that Joe is ninety years old and that most ninety-year-old persons don’t think very well, Pete appraises old Joe as a thinking klutz even if old Joe still thinks very well. Or, because Jane is a white-haired woman, and Pete knows no old women good at higher math, Pete appraises Jane as no good at it even if Jane is a whiz. This sort of wrong thinking is both natural and common.
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Pete’s antidote is not to believe that, on average, ninety-year-olds think as well as forty year-olds or that there are as many females as males among Ph.D.’s in math. Instead, just as he must learn that trend does not always correctly predict destiny, he must learn that the average dimension in some group will not reliably guide him to the dimension of some specific item.
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11. Simple, Pain-Avoiding Psychological Denial
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That’s Simple, Pain-Avoiding Psychological Denial. The reality is too painful to bear, so one distorts the facts until they become bearable. We all do that to some extent, often causing terrible problems. The tendency’s most extreme outcomes are usually mixed up with love, death, and chemical dependency.
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In chemical dependency, wherein morals usually break down horribly, addicted persons tend to believe that they remain in respectable condition, with respectable prospects. They thus display an extremely unrealistic denial of reality as they go deeper and deeper into deterioration.
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12. Excessive Self-Regard Tendency
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We all commonly observe the excessive self–regard of man. He mostly misappraises himself on the high side,
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Such misappraisals also apply to a person’s major “possessions.” One spouse usually overappraises the other spouse. And a man’s children are likewise appraised higher by him than they are likely to be in a more objective view. Even man’s minor possessions tend to be overappraised. Once owned, they suddenly become worth more to him than he would pay if they were offered for sale to him and he didn’t already own them.
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There is a name in psychology for this overappraisal-of-our-own-possessions phenomenon: the “endowment effect.” And all man’s decisions are suddenly regarded by him as better than would have been the case just before he made them.
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Man’s excess of self-regard typically makes him strongly prefer people like himself.
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cliquish
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Some of the worst consequences in modern life come when dysfunctional groups of cliquish persons, dominated by Excessive Self-Regard Tendency, select as new members of their organizations persons who are very much like themselves.
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In lotteries, the play is much lower when numbers are distributed randomly than it is when the player picks his own number. This is quite irrational. The odds are almost exactly the same and much against the player. Because state lotteries take advantage of man’s irrational love of self-picked numbers, modern man buys more lottery tickets than he otherwise would have, with each purchase foolish.
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Excesses of self-regard often cause bad hiring decisions because employers grossly overappraise the worth of their own conclusions that rely on impressions in face-to-face contact. The correct antidote to this sort of folly is to underweigh face-to-face impressions and overweigh the applicant’s past record.
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Because man is likely to be overinfluenced by face-to-face impressions that by definition involve his active participation, a job candidate who is a marvelous “presenter” often causes great danger under modern executive-search practice.
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According to Tolstoy, the worst criminals don’t appraise themselves as all that bad. They come to believe either (1) that they didn’t commit their crimes or (2) that, considering the pressures and disadvantages of their lives, it is understandable and forgivable that they behaved as they did and became what they became.
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On the personal level a man should try to face the two simple facts: fixable but unfixed bad performance is bad character and tends to create more of itself, causing more damage to the excuse giver with each tolerated instance, and in demanding places, like athletic teams and General Electric, you are almost sure to be discarded in due course if you keep giving excuses instead of behaving as you should.
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The main institutional antidotes to this part of the “Tolstoy effect” are: a fair, meritocratic, demanding culture plus personnel handling methods that build up morale, and severance of the worst offenders.
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Of course, when you can’t sever– as in the case of your own child– you must try to fix the child as best you can. I once heard of child-teaching method so effective that the child remembered the learning experience over fifty years later. The child later became Dean of the USC School of Music and then related to me what father said when he saw his child taking candy from the stock of his employer with the excuse that he intended to replace it later. The father said, “Son, it would be better for you to simply take all you want and call yourself a thief every time you do it.”
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excess of self-regard is often counterproductive in its effects on cognition, it can cause some weird successes from overconfidence that happens to cause success. This factor accounts for the adage: “Never underestimate the man who overestimates himself.”
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Of all forms of useful pride, perhaps the most desirable is a justified pride in being trustworthy. Moreover, the trustworthy man, even after allowing for the inconveniences of his chosen course, ordinarily has a life that averages out better than he would have if he provided less reliability.
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13. Overoptimism Tendency
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“What a man wishes, that also will he believe.”
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One standard antidote to foolish optimism is trained, habitual use of the simple probability math
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The mental rules of thumb that evolution gives you to deal with risk are not adequate. They resemble the dysfunctional golf grip you would have if you relied on a grip driven by evolution instead of golf lessons.
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14. Deprival Superreaction Tendency
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The quantity of man’s pleasure from a ten dollar gain does not exactly match the quantity of his displeasure from a ten-dollar loss. That is, the loss seems to hurt much more than the gain seems to help.
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He will often compare what is near instead of what really matters. For instance, a man with $10 million in his brokerage account will often be extremely irritated by the accidental loss of $100 out of the $300 in his wallet.
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Deprival Superreaction Tendency and Inconsistency-Avoidance Tendency often join to cause one form of business failure. In this form of ruin, a man gradually uses up all his good assets in a fruitless attempt to rescue a big venture going bad. One of the best antidotes to this folly is good poker skill learned young. The teaching value of poker demonstrates that not all effective teaching occurs on a standard academic path.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 781
it causes the gambler to have a passion to get even once he has suffered loss, and the passion grows with the loss.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 782
the most addictive forms of gambling provide a lot of near misses and each one triggers Deprival Superreaction Tendency.
Highlight (orange) - Location 785
Deprival Superreaction Tendency often does much damage to man in open-outcry auctions. The “social proof” that we will next consider tends to convince man that the last price from another bidder was reasonable, and then Deprival Superreaction Tendency prompts him strongly to top the last bid. The best antidote to being thus triggered into paying foolish prices at open-outcry auctions is the simple Buffett practice: Don’t go to such auctions.
Highlight (pink) - Location 802
15. Social-Proof Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 803
The otherwise complex behavior of man is much simplified when he automatically thinks and does what he observes to be thought and done around him.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 805
man’s evolution left him with Social-Proof Tendency, an automatic tendency to think and act as he sees others around him thinking and acting.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 815
And in the highest reaches of business, it is not all uncommon to find leaders who display followership akin to that of teenagers. If one oil company foolishly buys a mine, other oil companies often quickly join in buying mines. So also if the purchased company makes fertilizer. Both of these oil company buying fads actually bloomed, with bad results.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 829
A South Dakota hunting license was, say, $2 for South Dakota residents and $5 for nonresidents. All the Nebraska residents, one by one, signed up for South Dakota licenses with phony South Dakota addresses until it was my father’s turn. Then, according to him, he barely prevented himself from doing what the others were doing, which was some sort of criminal offense.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 836
In social proof, it is not only action by others that misleads but also their inaction. In the presence of doubt, inaction by others becomes social proof that inaction is the right course.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 858
Learn how to ignore the examples from others when they are wrong, because few skills are more worth having.
Highlight (pink) - Location 859
16. Contrast-Misreaction Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 860
Because the nervous system of man does not naturally measure in absolute scientific units, it must instead rely on something simpler. The eyes have a solution that limits their programming needs: the contrast in what is seen is registered. And as in sight, so does it go, largely, in the other senses. Moreover, as perception goes, so goes cognition. The result is man’s Contrast-Misreaction Tendency.
Note - Location 862
Anchoring bias
Highlight (yellow) - Location 869
Contrast-Misreaction Tendency is routinely used to cause disadvantage for customers buying merchandise and services. To make an ordinary price seem low, the vendor will very frequently create a highly artificial price that is much higher than the price always sought, then advertise his standard price as a big reduction from his phony price.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 876
a frog tossed into very hot water would jump out, but that the same frog would end up dying if placed in room-temperature water that was later treated at a very slow rate. My few shreds of physiological knowledge make me doubt this account. But no matter, because many businesses die in just the manner claimed by my friend for the frog. Cognition, misled by tiny changes involving low contrast, will often miss a trend that is destiny. One of Ben Franklin’s best-remembered and most useful aphorisms is “A small leak will sink great ship.” The utility of the aphorism is large precisely because the brain so often misses the functional equivalent of a small leak in a great ship.
Highlight (pink) - Location 881
17. Stress-Influence Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 882
Everyone recognizes that sudden stress, for instance from a threat, will cause a rush of adrenaline in the human body, prompting faster and more extreme reaction.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 883
And everyone who has taken Psych 101 knows that stress makes Social-Proof Tendency more powerful.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 884
a phenomenon less well recognized, but still widely known, light stress can slightly improve performance– say, in examinations– whereas heavy stress causes dysfunction. But few people know more about really heavy stress than that it can cause depression. For instance, most people know that an “acute stress depression” makes thinking dysfunctional because it causes an extreme of pessimism, often extended in length and usually accompanied by activity stopping fatigue. Fortunately, as most people also know, such a depression is one of mankind’s more reversible ailments. Even before modern drugs were available, many people afflicted by depression, such as Winston Churchill and Samuel Johnson, gained great achievement in life.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 892
– so much so that changes in behavior triggered by mere-association, like those caused by much modern advertisement, are today often said to come from “Pavlovian” conditioning.
Highlight (pink) - Location 919
18. Availability-Misweighing Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 919
This mental tendency echoes the words of the song: “When I’m not near the girl I love, I love the girl I’m near.” Man’s imperfect, limited-capacity brain easily drifts into working with what’s easily available to it. And the brain can’t use what it can’t remember or what it is blocked from recognizing because it is heavily influenced by one or more psychological tendencies bearing strongly on it, as the fellow is influenced by the nearby girl in the song. And so the mind overweighs what is easily available and thus displays Availability-Misweighing Tendency.
Highlight (blue) - Location 923
The main antidotes to miscues from Availability-Misweighing Tendency often involve procedures, including use of checklists, which are almost always helpful.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 935
The great algorithm to remember in dealing with this tendency is simple: An idea or a fact is not worth more merely because it is easily available to you.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 936
19. Use-It-or-Lose-It Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 936
All skills attenuate with disuse.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 939
Throughout his life, a wise man engages in practice of all his useful, rarely used skills, many of them outside his discipline, as a sort of duty to his better self. If he reduces the number of skills he practices and, therefore, the number of skills he retains, he will naturally drift into error from man with a hammer tendency. His learning capacity will also shrink as he creates gaps in the lattice-work of theory he needs as a framework for understanding new experience. It is also essential for a thinking man to assemble his skills into a checklist that he routinely uses. Any other mode of operation will cause him to miss much that is important.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 944
Skills of a very high order can be maintained only with daily practice.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 949
20. Drug-Misinfluence Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 952
21. Senescence-Misinfluence Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 953
Practically no one is good at learning complex new skills when very old. But some people remain pretty good in maintaining intensely practiced old skills until late in life, as one can notice in many a bridge tournament.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 955
Old people like me get pretty skilled, without working at it, at disguising age-related deterioration because social convention, like clothing, hides much decline. Continuous thinking and learning, done with joy, can somewhat help delay what is inevitable.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 957
22.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 999
23. Twaddle Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 999
Man, as a social animal who has the gift of language, is born to prattle and to pour out twaddle that does much damage when serious work is being attempted. Some people produce copious amounts of twaddle and others very little.
Highlight (yellow) - Location 1009
“The principal job of an academic administration is to keep the people who don’t matter from interfering with the work of the people that do.”
Highlight (yellow) - Location 1012
24. Reason-Respecting Tendency
Highlight (yellow) - Location 1022
In general, learning is most easily assimilated and used when, life long, people consistently hang their experience, actual and vicarious, on a latticework of theory answering the question: Why?
Highlight (yellow) - Location 1024
Unfortunately, Reason-Respecting Tendency is so strong that even a person’s giving of meaningless or incorrect reasons will increase compliance with his orders and requests. This has been demonstrated in psychology experiments wherein “compliance practitioners” successfully jump to the head of the lines in front of copying machines by explaining their reason: “I have to make some copies.”
Note - Location 1026
from Influence


Use the following code to create a basic inputEx SelectField.
new Y.inputEx.RatingStars({ name: 'star1', averageValue: 4.5, parentEl: 'container1' });
Use the following code to change the number of stars
new Y.inputEx.RatingStars({ label: 'Rate this one !', name: 'star1bis', averageValue: 2.3, nStars: 8, nRates: 25, parentEl: 'container1bis' });
Use the following code to change the message field
new Y.inputEx.RatingStars({ name: 'star2', averageValue: 2.3, nRates: 30, parentEl: 'container2', message : 'Yo!, average Rate is %, % ratings have been made' });
Use the following code to change the message field
new Y.inputEx.RatingStars({ name: 'star2', averageValue: 2.3, nStars: ["Not Cool","Half-Cool","Cool","Super Cool","Coolest Ever"], nRates: 30, parentEl: 'container3' });
Use the following code to make a configurable form that send rates with ajax
new Y.inputEx.RatingStarsForm({ ratingStarsOptions: { name: 'star', averageValue: 2.3, nStars: ["Not Cool","Half-Cool","Cool","Super Cool","Coolest Ever"], nRates: 30 }, parentEl: 'container4', ajax: { method: 'POST', uri: 'default.php' } });
Use the following code to display a disable Message
new Y.inputEx.RatingStars({ name: 'star3', averageValue: 2.3, disabled: true, disableMessage: "sorry the stars are disabled", nRates: 30, parentEl: 'container5' });


Maybe try something newer which supports WebAssembly?
The error message is as follows:
Sorry about that!


% include ../partials/head.html %>
Page Title
Page Title
<% include ../partials/head.html %>
Page subhead in sentence form
start writing your blah blah... <% include ../partials/foot.html %> <% include ../partials/footerScripts.html %>


Due in 5 days.
Due 08/07/2020.
Marica Ivkovic gave Praise to Pero Peric
45 hours ago
Liberty Howard
Go to Praise


SPICE WORLD (1998) A Film Review by Ted Prigge Copyright 1998 Ted Prigge
Director: Bob Spiers Writer: Kim Fuller Starring: Melanie Brown, Victoria Addams, Melanie Chisholm, Emma Bunton, Geri Haliwell, Richard E. Grant, Claire Rushbrook, Naoko Mori, Roger Moore, Alan Cumming, George Wendt, Mark McKinney, Richard O'Brien, Meat Loaf, Barry Humphries, Richard Briers, Elvis Costello, Stephen Fry, Bob Geldof, Hugh Laurie, Bob Hoskins, Elton John, Jennifer Saunders, Kevin Allen
I hate the Spice Girls.    Why I saw this movie is a really, really, really long story, but I did, and one would think I'd despise every minute of it. But...
Okay, I'm really ashamed of it, but I enjoyed it.  The plot is such a mess that it's terrible. But I loved it. Why? Well...
For those of you who still don't know, the Spice Girls are a quintet of british bimbos who were recruited to be the next "big thing" in the pop scene world, and therefore sing really iritating songs that are nevertheless catchy (after I first heard "Wannabe," I tried to get a labotomy to remove the section of my brain that remembers every painful note). About a year after conquering America, releasing the number one album of last year, they have a movie in an effort to make them the faux-Beatles.
But their first movie is hardly "A Hard Day's Night," even if it lifts a lot from it and drops it into their movie. Here's a basic sketch of the plot and see if it sounds familiar: the girls o' spice have a big concert at Albert Hall, and the film chronicles a wacky week in their life prior to this gig, including press conferences filled with boring people, boisterous escapes from their schedule, a big cliff-hanger over whether they'll make their concert or not, and bitching from their nervous manager Clifford (Richard E. Grant). Now, the plot of "A Hard Day's Night:" the Beatles have a big concert and the film chronicles a wacky couple days in their life prior to this gig, including press conferences filled with boring people, boisterous escapes from their schedule, a big cliff-hanger over whether they'll make their concert or not, and a lot of bitching from a nervous TV manager, played by Victor Spinetti.
Of course, "Spice World" also lifts a lot from the second, wackier (and funnier) film, "Help!," which was so weirdly comical, and so incoherent that it was almost more enjoyable but hardly artier. "Spice World" lifts a lot from this one, including some wacky sub plots (one includes a sneaky photographer played by Riff Raff himself, Richard O'Brien, trying to dig up anything bad about them for a newspaper who wants to print bad news about them), a surreal living style (how big is the inside of their bus?), and some really weirdly funny sequences that may go way over the head of its target audience (how many Spice Girls fans will understand the dream sequence starring Hugh Laurie as a faux-Poirot?).
But what the film forgets is that "A Hard Day's Night" was deceptively brilliant, and wonderfully organized, while "Help!" found the Beatles after this more artier film and gave them the liscence to just go completely wacky (Paul McCartney confessed that the plot of the film was determined by which foreign places they wanted to visit). "Spice World" tries to combine these two elements, and comes out snake eyes with both of them.
This doesn't mean that this film is a disaster. I, who hate the Spice Girls, do confess that their best quality is their energy, and second is their sense of humor. They may suck musically and all, but at least they don't take themselves seriously, and do what it is they do with a lot of energy placed into it. Songs like "Wannabe" and "Spice Up Your Life" are awful tunes, but when seeing them performed they seem better due to what the girls put into the act. In this film, they do the same thing.
The film is really just a series of comic skits, some which are pretty bad, and a lot which are pretty hilarious and admittingly joyful. I couldn't get into a bit where they escaped on a boat, or another one where they were getting dance lessons from a hard-assed fruity army man (nice idea, though), but bits like a movie idea proposed by the hilarious ex-"Kid in the Hall" man Mark McKinney (currently rotting on "SNL") about a film called "Spice Force Five" left me in stitches. And the finale where they try to make it to their concert is hilarious, only because as they're doing this it is being narrated by McKinney to a suicidial Clifford.
Also, I found myself liking each of the Spice Girls. I might hate their act, but I couldn't help kinda loving all of them. They're very likable people, and each of them is presented with a distinct personality. They command the film nicely, making up for any really big problems with the film itself. And, my god, the cameos in this film! This is fun just to spot all the celebrity turn-ups, including Meat Loaf as a bus driver, Shakespearean actor Richard Briers as a bishop, british comic actor Stephen Fry as a condemning lawyer (getting the film's funniest line), Elvis Costello as a bartender, and Roger Moore as "The Chief," the omniscent man upstairs who strokes a pig, and spouts out numerous aphorisms to comic effect (I think I'm the only critic who liked him). And I can't be the only one who just didn't recognize Bob Geldof at first, can I? Or the one who didn't automatically realize that the fat head of the villainous newspaper (Barry Humphries) is really Dane Edna sans dress?
When I left "Spice World" it was the exact opposite of what happened when I went in - which was "I cannot fucking believe I paid $7.50 to see 'Spice World!'"  Though I'm really not sure I'd ever see it again (at least for any amount of cash - I mean, for $7.50 I coulda seen it thrice at a suburbanite theater), it held my attention span for its full lenght, and entertained me. I know I'll be figuritively crucified for giving this film a positive review, but it did manage to entertain me and by the finale, I did like the Spice Girls a lot more than I did when I went in. And that's probably all those girls really really wanted (sorry for the bad joke).
MY RATING (out of 4): ***
Homepage at: http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Hills/8335/
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
review and has no editorial control. Unless stated otherwise, the copyright
belongs to the author.
Please direct comments/criticisms of the review to relevant newsgroups.
Broken URLs inthe reviews are the responsibility of the author.
The formatting of the review is likely to differ from the original due
to ASCII to HTML conversion.
Related links: index of all rec.arts.movies.reviews reviews


|
| Value |
Description |
Notes |
|
| 01 |
WCO Harmonized System |
World Customs Organization Harmonized Commodity Coding and Description System. |
| 02 |
UNSPSC |
UN Standard Product and Service Classification. |
| 03 |
HMRC |
UK Revenue and Customs classifications, based on the Harmonized System. |
| 04 |
Warenverzeichnis für die Außenhandelsstatistik |
German export trade classification, based on the Harmonised System. |
| 05 |
TARIC |
EU TARIC codes, an extended version of the Harmonized System. |
| 06 |
Fondsgroep |
Centraal Boekhuis free classification field for publishers. |
| 07 |
Sender’s product category |
A product category (not a subject classification) assigned by the sender. |
| 08 |
GAPP Product Class |
Product classification maintained by the Chinese General Administration of Press and Publication (http://www.gapp.gov.cn). |
| 09 |
CPA |
Statistical Classification of Products by Activity in the European Economic Community, see http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/nomenclatures/index.cfm?TargetUrl=LST_NOM_DTL&StrNom=CPA_2008.
Up to six digits, with one or two periods. For example, printed children’s books are “58.11.13”.
|
|


Chapter 1: I was born
Chapter 2: School
Chapter 3: University
Chapter 4: Rock and roll
Chapter 5: Fell in love
Chapter 6: Children
Chapter 7: Tired!


WA State Policy #188
August 11th, 2016
Washington State Chief Information Officer
OCIO Policy #188
ALL TECH MUST MEET WCAG 2.0 AA
Resources to support #188
- Agencies don't have accessibility experts
- Agencies look to Central IT for help
- Resources are slim
- Agencies at different maturity levels
- Small Agency Support
Training
Training on Policy requirements
Procurement training
Accessibility 101 training
Design, Publishing, Development, Testing
Design
Consult on Inclusive Product Design
Facilitate a design sprint
Design from the edge
Development
Web Platform
- Drupal sites with our custom base theme
- Module library
- Using GitHub for versioning
Testing
Who?
Existing User Experience Team with a passion and interest in Accessibility
Using current UX Lab.
Multiple layer approach to testing
- Code Validation & Automatic Testing
- Functional Testing
- Real User/UX Testing
Code Validation & Automatic Testing - Functional Testing - Real User Testing
Code Validation
Run DOM against WCAG 2.0 AA code validation service.
- In browser
- Manually submit page
- Service
Simple or complex
Chrome plugin or automated testing in continuous integration system (Git Flow, CircleCI & Pa11y)
Zero errors does not mean the site is accessible, it mean go to the next step.
Deliverable
Errors & Warnings
Referenced back to standard
Recommended action
1.1.1 Non-text Content (Level A)
2.4.4 Link Purpose (In Context) (Level A)
Recommendation: Add screenreader available only text to button
Code Validation & Automatic Testing - Functional Testing - Real User Testing
Functional Test
Test of predetermined criteria against a site or app, including using assisted technology (screen reader) & input methods that parallel those of people with disabilities (keyboard only navigation).
Deliverable
Checklist results - Pass/Fail & Comment
Referenced back to standard
Recommended action
Document AT used including version and setting
Code Validation & Automatic Testing - Functional Testing - Real User Testing
Real User Test
Actual users doing real things
Facilitation is important
Power users not always best testers
Deliverable
Multi page report on all user's experience
Section that compares/contrasts AT user's experience
Generally less techinical recommendations
What we've noticed
- Too much text
- Not all accessibility errors are equal
- Don't rely on main nav
- Focus on forms
- Documents are an issue
- Product owners and devs should attend
- Record your sessions


This site helps making football bets using Bitcoin. Like, real Bitcoin bets. True to the spirit: decentralized, oracle-driven MULTISIGS, stored in the Bitcoin blockchain. 100% trust-less, but for the oracle.
continue


© 2019
| fulgens fulgens fulgens | shining | |||
| fulgens | fulgent | adj | shining, bright, glittering | |
| Arnica fulgens Pursh | ||||
| fulgidus fulgida fulgidum | shining | |||
| fulgidus | fulgid | adj | shining, gleaming, glittering | |
| Rudbeckia fulgida Ait. Panicum fulgidum (R. Br.) Hughes | ||||
| fullonus fullona fullonum | of fullers (full = tease cloth) | |||
| fullo | fullon | noun/m | a fuller, teaser of cloth | |
| us | adj | Latinizing suffix | ||
| Dipsacus fullonum L. | ||||
| fulvescens fulvescens fulvescens | somewhat tawny | |||
| fulvus | fulv | adj | deep yellow, reddish yellow, golden, tawny | |
| escens | escent | adj | adjective suffix for nouns or adjectives: becoming like, incomplete resemblance -ish | |
| Bidens fulvescens Sherff | ||||
| fulvicaulis fulvicaulis fulvicaule | tawny stemmed | |||
| fulvus | fulv | adj | deep yellow, reddish yellow, golden, tawny | |
| i | i | cnct | connective vowel used by botanical Latin | |
| caulis | caul | adj/ | καυλοϛ stem of a plant; usual spelling was colis or coles | |
| fulvidus fulvida fulvidum | slightly tawny | |||
| fulvus | fulv | adj | deep yellow, reddish yellow, golden, tawny | |
| idus | id | adj | adjective suffix for verbs, nouns or adjectives: condition or progression | |
| Cassinia fulvida Hook. f. | ||||
| fulvinervis fulvinervis fulvinerve | tawny veined | |||
| fulvus | fulv | adj | deep yellow, reddish yellow, golden, tawny | |
| i | i | cnct | connective vowel used by botanical Latin | |
| nervus | nerv | noun/m | νευρον a sinew, tendon, nerve | |
| is | adj | adjectival suffix | ||
| fulvus fulva fulvum | tawny | |||
| fulvus | fulv | adj | deep yellow, reddish yellow, golden, tawny | |
| Geissorhiza fulva Ker-Gawl. ex Bak Colpodium fulvum (Trin.) Griseb. Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. | ||||
| fungosus fungosa fungosum | spongy | |||
| fungus | fung | noun/m | σφογγοϛ, σπογγοϛ mushroom; (Gk: sponge) | |
| osus | os | adj | adjective suffix for nouns: plenitude or notable development | |
| Adlumia fungosa (Ait.) Greene ex B.S.P. | ||||
| furcatipilis furcatipilis furcatipile | forked hairs | |||
| furca | furc | noun/f | a fork | |
| atus | at | adj | adjectival suffix for nouns: possessive of or likeness of something (with, shaped, made)/ for verb participles: a completed action, -ed | |
| i | i | cnct | connective vowel used by botanical Latin | |
| pilus | pil | noun/m | a hair; a trifle | |
| is | adj | adjectival suffix | ||
| furcatus furcata furcatum | cleft | |||
| furca | furc | noun/f | a fork | |
| atus | at | adj | adjectival suffix for nouns: possessive of or likeness of something (with, shaped, made)/ for verb participles: a completed action, -ed | |
| Silene furcata Raf. Viburnum furcatum Blume ex Maxim. Anastrophus furcatus (Fluegge) Nash | ||||
| furvus furva furvum | dark | |||
| furvus | furv | adj | dark, swarthy, black, gloomy, dusky | |
| Lecidea furva Lowe Collema furvum (Ach.) Ach. | ||||
| fuscopunctatus fuscopunctata fuscopunctatum | dark spots | |||
| fuscus | fusc | adj | dark, dusky, swarthy | |
| o | o | cnct | connective vowel in botanical Latin, usually for Greek words but in some cases, such as color tingeing, for Latin words | |
| punctum | punct | noun/n | something that is pricked; a puncture; a spot; a small portion | |
| atus | at | adj | adjectival suffix for nouns: possessive of or likeness of something (with, shaped, made)/ for verb participles: a completed action, -ed | |
| Aphelandra fuscopunctata Markgr. | ||||
| fuscorubellus fuscorubella fuscorubellum | dark reddish | |||
| fuscus | fusc | adj | dark, dusky, swarthy | |
| o | o | cnct | connective vowel in botanical Latin, usually for Greek words but in some cases, such as color tingeing, for Latin words | |
| rubellus | rubell | adj | reddish | |
| Bacidia fuscorubella (Ach.) Bausch | ||||
| fuscus fusca fuscum | dark | |||
| fuscus | fusc | adj | dark, dusky, swarthy | |
| Achillea fusca Rydb. Lopadium fuscum Mull. Arg. Cyperus fuscus L. |


NamespaceJS Class Reference
| Inherits from | JavaScript Object |
| Location | aphid.js |
Overview of Tasks
Attributes
- Name
-
gcFrequency
Controls the frequency of the explicit garbage collection which is invoked internally.
-
onload
An event handler for the load event of the main JavaScript file
- Type
-
int
-
function
- Writability
-
readwrite
-
readwrite
Functions
- Signature
-
gc()
Prompts an explicit garbage collection.
-
includeFile(filename)
Includes and evaluates a JavaScript file
-
includeScript(script)
- Return Type
-
bool
-
object
-
object
Attributes
gcFrequency
Controls the frequency of the explicit garbage collection which is invoked internally.
readwrite
int
gcFrequencyDiscussion
Default value is 1
, which means garbage collection is invoked after rendering one frame. Increasing it can reduce the invocation count of explicit GC, which may increase the overall performance a bit.
onload
An event handler for the load event of the main JavaScript file
readwrite
function
onloadDiscussion
It’s recommended to put the game initialization logic inside this event handler, which guarantees the whole JavaScript file has been evaluated completely.
Notes: Although it works fine in current release of OpenAphid if the initialization logic is inside the global scope, it may break in a future release as it’s planned to put the evaluation process in a separate thread.
Functions
gc()
Prompts an explicit garbage collection.
bool
gc()Return Value: bool
Returns true
if a GC is performed.
includeFile(filename)
Includes and evaluates a JavaScript file
object
includeFile(string
filename)Parameters
string
filename
Return Value: object
Discussion
The behavior of this function is similiar to the <script>
tag of HTML.
The evaluation is performed on the global scope; and it’s a synchronized process which blocks the execution of the file contains it.
If the Develop Mode
of OpenAphid is enabled, the specified file will always be fecthed from remote web server.


{% extends 'layouts/error.html' %} {% set title = 'Not Found' %} {% block content %}
we couldn't find the page you are looking for


As a taster, we will show you two simple examples programs that use SICStus Prolog with the Tcl/Tk extensions: the ubiquitous “hello world” example; and a very simple telephone book look up example.
You are not expected to understand how these examples work at this stage. They are something for you to quickly type in to see how easy it is to add GUIs to Prolog programs through Tcl/Tk. After reading through the rest of this tutorial you will fully understand these examples and be able to write your own GUIs.
Here is the “Hello World” program; also in
library('tcltk/examples/ex1.pl')
:
:- use_module(library(tcltk)). go :- tk_new([name('Example 1')], Interp), tcl_eval(Interp, 'button .fred -text "hello world" -command { puts "hello world"}', _), tcl_eval(Interp, 'pack .fred', _), tk_main_loop.
To run it just start up SICStus (under Windows use sicstus, not
spwin), load the program, and evaluate the Prolog
goal go
. The first line of the go
clause calls
tk_new/2
, which creates a Tcl/Tk interpreter and returns a handle
Interp
through which Prolog will interact with the interpreter.
Next a call to tcl_eval/3
is made, which creates a button
displaying the `hello world' text. Next a call is made to
tcl_eval/3
that causes the button to be displayed in the main
application window. Finally, a call is make to tk_main_loop/0
that passes control to Tcl/Tk, making sure that window events are
serviced.
See how simple it is with just a three line Prolog program to create an application window and display a button in it. Click on the button and see what it does.
The reason you should use sicstus under Windows instead of
spwin is that the latter does not have the C standard
streams (stdin
,stdout
,stderr
) and the Tcl
command puts
will give an error if there is no stdout
.
The previous example showed us how to create a button and display some text in it. It was basically pure Tcl/Tk generated from within Prolog but did not have any interaction with Prolog. The following example demonstrates a simple callback mechanism. A name is typed into a text entry box, a button is pressed, which looks up the telephone number corresponding to the name in a Prolog database, and the telephone number is then displayed.
Here is the code; also in library('tcltk/examples/ex2.pl')
:
:- use_module(library(tcltk)). telephone(fred, '123-456'). telephone(wilbert, '222-2222'). telephone(taxi, '200-0000'). telephone(mary, '00-36-1-666-6666'). go :- tk_new([name('Example 2')], T), tcl_eval(T, 'entry .name -textvariable name',_), tcl_eval(T, 'button .search -text search -command { prolog telephone($name,X); set result $prolog_variables(X) }', _), tcl_eval(T, 'label .result -relief raised -textvariable result', _), tcl_eval(T, 'pack .name .search .result -side top -fill x', _), tk_main_loop.
Again, to run the example, start up SICStus Prolog, load the code,
and run the goal go
.
You will notice that three widgets will appear in a window: one is for entering the name of the person or thing that you want to find the telephone number for, the button is for initiating the search, and the text box at the bottom is for displaying the result.
Type fred into the entry box, hit the search button and you should see the phone number displayed. You can then try the same thing but with wilbert, taxi or mary typed into the text entry box.
What is happening is that when the button is pressed, the value in the
entry box is retrieved, then the telephone/2
predicate is
called in Prolog with the entry box value as first argument, then
the second argument of telephone is retrieved (by this time
bound to the number) and is displayed below the button.
This is a very crude example of what can be done with the Tcl/Tk module in Prolog. For example, this program does not handle cases where there is no corresponding phone number or where there is more than one corresponding phone number. The example is just supposed to wet your appetite, but all these problems can be handled by Prolog + Tcl/Tk, although with a more sophisticated program. You will learn how to do this in the subsequent chapters.


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The cloud empowers all of today's mobile and web applications. We specialize in creating custom Java enterprise cloud solutions with hosting in Amazon Web Services.
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I came to Sean with a plan. Not only did he help me with my plan, he suggested ways to build on my plan in ways I never even imagined. With Sean's knowledge and expertise I now have a modern system that will allow me to grow my business in ways I would never have been able to before.
Founder
Sean is a full stack developer with an emphasis on native mobile, cloud, and web applications. Sean has spoken at ModevCon - the east coast's premier mobile development event - and has been published on a variety of technology outlets regarding development.
Want to learn more about our services or start a conversation about your next project? Contact Sean Kosanovich at sean@kovelo.com.


Ocean [al42], ocean, in The Inner Sea
Last updated Turn #107
Ocean [al42], ocean, in The Inner Sea
------------------------------------------------------------------------
23: Whalebone [fe4m], ship, 6 hulls, 1 rowing port, 18 sails, arrived from
23: Unnamed Plains [am42], owner:
23: Toulouse [h1q], Pen, with 20 sailors, 15 lt. xbowmen
23: Jonathan [h9k], Pen, duke, with 39 pikemen, accompanied by:
23: Halmary [f9m], Pen, with one worker, 15 lt. xbowmen
24: Whalebone [fe4m], ship, 6 hulls, 1 rowing port, 18 sails, departed for
24: Ocean [ak42].
Routes leaving Ocean:
North, to Ocean [ak42], 6 days
East, plain, to Unnamed Plains [al43], Catarack Island, 2 days
South, plain, to Unnamed Plains [am42], Catarack Island, 2 days
West, to Ocean [al41], 6 days
Inner locations:
Island [ac0f], island, 1 day, owner:
Pirate [jh2r], pirates, number: 14
The province is blanketed in fog.
No one can be seen through the fog.


Watch Chun-Li morph into a Power Ranger in Power Rangers: Legacy Wars
by Emily GeraStreet Fighter’s Chun-Li joins the mobile game Power Rangers: Legacy Wars.
A new Power Ranger has been revealed for mobile fighting game Power Rangers: Legacy Wars – Street Fighter’s Chun-Li is making her debut in full ranger form, developer nWay Games announced in a new gameplay trailer which shows off her moves.
Chun-Li has in fact been in the game since early 2018, along with her fellow Street Fighter alumni Ryu, Guile, M. Bison, Cammy, and Akuma. Now fitted with an alternative Morphin’ look, Chun-Li is shown kicking things off by setting baddies alight with blue Phoenix fire, using abilities like Volcano Kick, Phoenix Dance, and the mega powerful Thousand Phoenix Kicks.
Power Rangers: Legacy Wars, which originally launched back in 2017, is available on Android and iOS devices.
Games featured in this article


WITNESS LIST Appropriations-S/C on Health & Human Services Committee August 22, 2000-9:00A Interim On: Adams, Chris (Dept. of Mental Health and Mental Retardation) Cooke, Jason (Health and Human Services Commission) Foucher, Diane (Dept. of Mental Health and Mental Retardation) Gilbert, Don (Health and Human Services Commission) Hale, Karen (Dept. of Mental Health and Mental Retardation) Henderson, Marina (Health and Human Services Commission) Hine, Jim (Protective and Regulatory Services) Wertz, Linda (Health and Human Services Commission)


Id -> 20
Name -> Look Who's Purging Now
Air_Date -> September 27, 2015
Episode -> S02E09
Characters -> ['https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/1', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/2', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/3', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/4', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/5', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/26', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/139', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/202', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/273', 'https://rickandmortyapi.com/api/character/341']


---
layout: default
hero-image: url(../assets/images/stock-images/blog.jpg)
title: Projects
hero-message: Projects
2017-2018
---
{% for department in site.data.project_departments %}
{{ department.name }}
{% for project in site.data.projects%}
{% if project.department == department.name %}
{{ project.project }}
{% if project.department == 'Kit Engineering Projects' %}
{{ project.subdepartment }}
{% endif %}
{% if project.manager %}
PM: {{ project.manager }}
{% endif %}
{{ project.description }}
{% endif %}
{% endfor %}
{% endfor %}


Class ContainerBase
Starting point for implementations of IContainer - only creatable through inheritance.
Inherited Members
Namespace:Rezolver
Assembly:Rezolver.dll
Syntax
public class ContainerBase : IContainer, IServiceProvider, IScopeFactory, ITargetContainer
Remarks
This class also implements ITargetContainer by proxying the Targets that are provided to it on construction (or created anew if not supplied). All of those interface methods are implemented explicitly except the Register(ITarget, Type) method, which is available through the class' public API.
Note: IContainers are generally not expected to implement ITargetContainer, and the framework will never assume they do.
The reason this class does is to make it easier to create a new container and to register targets into it without having to worry about managing a separate ITargetContainer instance in your application root - because all the registration extension methods defined in classes like RegisterTypeTargetContainerExtensions, SingletonTargetContainerExtensions plus many more will be available to developers in code which has a reference to this class, or one derived from it.
Note also that calling CombineWith(ITargetContainer, Type) on an instance of this type will always cause a NotSupportedException to be thrown.
Constructors
| Improve this Doc View SourceContainerBase(ITargetContainer, ICompilerConfigurationProvider)
Constructs a new instance of the ContainerBase, optionally initialising it with the given targets and compilerConfig
Declaration
protected ContainerBase(ITargetContainer targets = null, ICompilerConfigurationProvider compilerConfig = null)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ITargetContainer | targets | Optional. The target container whose registrations will be used for dependency lookup when Resolve(ResolveContext) (and other operations) is called. If not provided, a new TargetContainer instance is constructed. This will ultimately be available to inherited types, after construction, through the Targets property. |
| ICompilerConfigurationProvider | compilerConfig | Optional. An object which will be used to configure this container and its targets to use a specific compilation
strategy. If |
Properties
| Improve this Doc View SourceNoChangeCompilerConfiguration
Gets the compiler configuration provider to be passed when a derived container does not want the DefaultProvider provider to be used if one is not passed on construction.
This provider is guaranteed not to add/modify any registrations in the underlying target container which are connected with compilation.
Declaration
protected static ICompilerConfigurationProvider NoChangeCompilerConfiguration { get; }
Property Value
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ICompilerConfigurationProvider |
Targets
Provides the ITarget instances that will be compiled into ICompiledTarget instances.
Declaration
protected ITargetContainer Targets { get; }
Property Value
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ITargetContainer |
Remarks
Notes to implementers: This property must NEVER be null.
This class implements the ITargetContainer interface by wrapping around this instance so that an application can create an instance of ContainerBase and directly register targets into it; rather than having to create and setup the target container first.
You can add registrations to this target container at any point in the lifetime of any ContainerBase instances which are attached to it. In reality, however, if any Resolve(ResolveContext) operations have been performed prior to adding more registrations, then there's no guarantee that new dependencies will be picked up - especially if the CachingContainerBase is being used as your application's container (which it nearly always will be).
Methods
| Improve this Doc View SourceCanResolve(ResolveContext)
Implementation of the CanResolve(ResolveContext) method. Returns true if, and only if, the Targets ITargetContainer returns a non-null ITarget when the RequestedType is passed to its Fetch(Type) method.
Declaration
public virtual bool CanResolve(ResolveContext context)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ResolveContext | context | The resolve context containing the requested type. |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Boolean |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceCreateScope()
Implementation of the CreateScope() method.
The base definition creates a ContainerScope with this container passed as the scope's container.
Thus, the new scope is a 'root' scope.
Declaration
public virtual IContainerScope CreateScope()
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| IContainerScope |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceFetchCompiled(ResolveContext)
Base implementation of FetchCompiled(ResolveContext). Note that any container already defined in the Container is ignored in favour of this container.
Declaration
public virtual ICompiledTarget FetchCompiled(ResolveContext context)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ResolveContext | context | The context containing the requested type and any scope which is currently in force. |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ICompiledTarget | Always returns a reference to a compiled target - but note that if CanResolve(ResolveContext) returns false for the same context, then the target's GetObject(ResolveContext) method will likely throw an exception - in line with the behaviour of the ContainerBase.MissingCompiledTarget class' behaviour. |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceGetCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext)
The main workhorse of the resolve process - obtains an ICompiledTarget for the given context by looking up an ITarget from the Targets target container, then compiling it.
Declaration
protected virtual ICompiledTarget GetCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext context)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ResolveContext | context | The current resolve context |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ICompiledTarget |
Remarks
The specifics of how this process works are not important if you simply want to use the container, but if you are looking to extend it, then it's essential you understand the different steps that the process goes through.
If the Fetch(Type) method of the Targets target container
returns a null
ITarget, or one which has its UseFallback set to
true
, then the method gets an alternative compiled target by calling the
GetFallbackCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext) method. This fallback compiled target will be
used instead of compiling the target unless the target was not null and its UseFallback is true
AND the compiled target returned by the fallback method is a ContainerBase.MissingCompiledTarget - in which case
the fallback target will be compiled as normal.
Before proceeding with compilation, the container checks whether the target can resolve the required object directly.
This means that the target either implements the ICompiledTarget interface (in which case it is immediately returned) or the RequestedType is not Object and the target's type is compatible with it (in which case the target is simply embedded in a new ContainerBase.DirectResolveCompiledTarget, which will later just return the target when its GetObject(ResolveContext) is called).
The ObjectTarget supports the ICompiledTarget interface, therefore any objects which are directly registered through this target will always use that class' implementation of ICompiledTarget if requested through the Resolve(ResolveContext) method.
Once the decision has been taken to compile the target, the container first needs a compiler (ITargetCompiler) and a compile context provider (ICompileContextProvider).
Note that classes which implement the ITargetCompiler interface also frequently implement the ICompileContextProvider interface so that any additional state they require is correctly attached to the ICompileContext which will be fed to their CompileTarget(ITarget, ICompileContext) implementation.
These are both obtained by resolving them directly from the Container of the context (since a container can be delegated to from another container which originally received the Resolve(ResolveContext) call). Attentive readers will realise at this point that this could lead to an infinite recursion - i.e. since compiling a target means resolving a compiler, which in turn must mean compiling that target.
The class sidesteps this potential pitfall by requiring that the targets registered for these types support direct resolving, as per the description a couple of paragraphs back. Therefore, compilers and context providers are typically registered as objects via the ObjectTarget target.
Finally, a new ICompileContext is created via the CreateContext(ResolveContext, ITargetContainer, IContainer) method of the resolved context provider, and then passed to the CompileTarget(ITarget, ICompileContext) method of the resolved compiler. The result of that operation is then returned to the caller.
GetFallbackCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext)
Called by GetCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext) if no valid ITarget can be
found for the context or if the one found has its UseFallback property
set to true
.
Declaration
protected virtual ICompiledTarget GetFallbackCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext context)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ResolveContext | context |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ICompiledTarget | An ICompiledTarget to be used as the result of a Resolve(ResolveContext) operation where the search for a valid target either fails or is inconclusive (e.g. - empty enumerables). |
Remarks
The base implementation always returns an instance of the ContainerBase.MissingCompiledTarget via the GetMissingTarget(Type) static method.
GetMissingTarget(Type)
Gets an ICompiledTarget for the given type which will always throw an InvalidOperationException whenever its GetObject(ResolveContext) method is called. Use this when you can't resolve a target for a type.
Declaration
protected static ICompiledTarget GetMissingTarget(Type type)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Type | type | The type for which you wish to create a missing target. |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ICompiledTarget |
GetService(Type)
Protected virtual implementation of GetService(Type).
Uses the TryResolve(ResolveContext, out Object) method to resolve the service, returning
null
if the operation fails.
Declaration
protected virtual object GetService(Type serviceType)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Type | serviceType | Type of service to be resolved. |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Object |
IsMissingTarget(ICompiledTarget)
Determines whether the given target is an instance of ContainerBase.MissingCompiledTarget.
Declaration
protected static bool IsMissingTarget(ICompiledTarget target)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ICompiledTarget | target | The target. |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Boolean |
Register(ITarget, Type)
Implementation of Register(ITarget, Type) - simply proxies the call to the target container referenced by the Targets property.
Declaration
public void Register(ITarget target, Type serviceType = null)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ITarget | target | |
| Type | serviceType |
Implements
Remarks
Remember: registering new targets into an ITargetContainer after an IContainer has started compiling targets within it can yield unpredictable results.
If you create a new container and perform all your registrations before you use it, however, then everything will work as expected.
Note also the other ITargetContainer interface methods are implemented explicitly so as to hide them from the list of class members.
Resolve(ResolveContext)
Implementation of the Resolve(ResolveContext) method.
Obtains an ICompiledTarget by calling the GetCompiledRezolveTarget(ResolveContext) method, and then immediately calls its GetObject(ResolveContext) method, returning the result.
Declaration
public virtual object Resolve(ResolveContext context)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ResolveContext | context | The context containing the type that's requested, any active scope and so on. |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Object |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceTryResolve(ResolveContext, out Object)
Implementation of the TryResolve(ResolveContext, out Object) method.
Attempts to resolve the requested type (given on the context, returning a boolean indicating whether the operation was successful. If successful, then result receives a reference to the resolved object.
Declaration
public virtual bool TryResolve(ResolveContext context, out object result)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ResolveContext | context | The context containing the type that's requested, any active scope and so on. |
| Object | result | Receives a reference to the object that was resolved, if successful, or |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Boolean | A boolean indicating whether the operation completed successfully. |
Implements
Explicit Interface Implementations
| Improve this Doc View SourceITargetContainer.CombineWith(ITargetContainer, Type)
Declaration
ITargetContainer ITargetContainer.CombineWith(ITargetContainer existing, Type type)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ITargetContainer | existing | |
| Type | type |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ITargetContainer |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceITargetContainer.Fetch(Type)
Declaration
ITarget ITargetContainer.Fetch(Type type)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Type | type |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| ITarget |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceITargetContainer.FetchAll(Type)
Declaration
IEnumerable<ITarget> ITargetContainer.FetchAll(Type type)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Type | type |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| IEnumerable<ITarget> |
Implements
| Improve this Doc View SourceIServiceProvider.GetService(Type)
Declaration
object IServiceProvider.GetService(Type serviceType)
Parameters
| Type | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Type | serviceType |
Returns
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Object |


hdu6583
nexthexonextbutterflyvolantisyearnyiliashokaindigoapollolandscapecactusmateryicarusfluidmaterial
###nameTypewriter
###descirptionOne day, Jerry found a strange typewriter. This typewriter has 2 input modes: pay p coins to append an arbitrary single letter to the back, or q coins to copy a substring...
more...


Unfold your plans, Senate tells ministers
by Sunday AborisadeSunday Aborisade, Abuja
The Senate on Thursday asked the ministers of agriculture and solid minerals to come up with their four-year plans aimed at diversifying the nation’s economy.
The upper chamber noted that both ministries should unveil their road maps at roundtable conferences with critical stakeholders in the sectors which must hold in the first week of December this year.
The senate’s request for the four-year plans from both ministries on diversification followed a motion sponsored by Senator Ibikunle Amosun.
Amosun’s motion was titled, “The need for continuous implementation of policy reforms for the diversification of the Nigerian economy through the agricultural and solid minerals sectors.”
The senator said the two sectors held the secret to the current efforts by the Federal Government to diversify the Nigerian economy and also lift 100 million Nigerians out of poverty in the next 10 years.
Virtually all the senators who contributed to debate on the motion, supported the need for the Federal Government to expedite action on its diversification policy using the two sectors as the driving force.
The President of the Senate, Ahmad Lawan, said heads of agriculture and solid minerals ministries should come up with road maps on what they wanted to achieve within the next four years on the diversification policy.
Copyright PUNCH.
All rights reserved. This material, and other digital content on this website, may not be reproduced, published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or in part without prior express written permission from PUNCH.
Contact: theeditor@punchng.com


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Numbers 33:36
And they removed from Eziongaber, and pitched in the wilderness of Zin, which is Kadesh.


This is a transition from the right!
This is a transition from the top right!
This is a transition from the top!
This is a transition from the top left!
This is a transition from the left!
This is a transiton from the bottom left!
This is a transition from the bottom!
This is a transition from the bottom right!


{% block title %}{% trans "Indie Games for Good Marathon" %}{% endblock %}
{% block head %}{% endblock %}
{% include "navbar.html" %}
{% block content %}{% endblock %}
{% comment %}
We probably don't need all of these Twitter Bootstrap plugins, but I'm just adding them all for now.
If we do need one or more of them, we should obviously consolidate them into one JS file.
http://twitter.github.com/bootstrap/javascript.html
{% endcomment %}


Aly University Lab Experiment Tracker Login/logout, userid info will go here
Projects
Effects of alcohol and cigarettes on lonely 19-year-olds
Author: Dr. John Smith
2 experiments posted
Effects of alcohol and cigarettes on lonely 19-year-olds
Author: Dr. John Smith
2 experiments posted
Effects of alcohol and cigarettes on lonely 19-year-olds
Author: Dr. John Smith
2 experiments posted
Effects of alcohol and cigarettes on lonely 19-year-olds
Author: Dr. John Smith
2 experiments posted
Effects of alcohol and cigarettes on lonely 19-year-olds
Author: Dr. John Smith
2 experiments posted


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Independent review focusing on style, responsiveness, functionality, and usability. We focus on not only the "does it", but also "was it intuitive".
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Downstream changes in firing regularity following damage to the early auditory system
Abstract
We demonstrate how an abstract mathematical model that approximates a wide range of more detailed models can be used to make predictions about hearing loss-related changes in neural behaviour.
One consequence of neurosensory hearing loss (noise-induced and aging-related) is a reduced ability to understand speech, particularly in noisy environments, and sometimes beyond what would be predicted from reduced audibility. Indeed, this type of speech deficit can occur in listeners with near-normal hearing thresholds [1]. A promising avenue of investigation to explain this comes from experimental results in mice showing that there can be a permanent loss of auditory nerve fibres (ANFs) following "temporary" noise-induced hearing loss (i.e. when thresholds return to normal after a few weeks) [2]. The downstream consequences of this loss of fibres has not yet been systematically investigated (although see [3]). We predict, using a theoretical analysis that applies to a wide range of neural models, that the regularity of the spike trains of many neurons in the cochlear nucleus (the next structure after the auditory nerve) will decrease following a reduction in the number of input cells.
We present a mathematical analysis of the stationary behaviour of "chopper" cells in the ventral cochlear nucleus, approximating them by a stochastic process that is entirely characterised by its mean, standard deviation and time constants. Furthermore, these constants can be straightforwardly related to physiologically significant parameters including the number of inputs and their average firing rates. From this approximation, we can compute the regularity of the chopper cell spike trains measured as the coefficient of variation of their interspike intervals (CV).
One simple prediction of this model is that when the intensity of a stimulus changes, leading to a change in the average firing rate of the ANF inputs, there will be a corresponding change in the regularity of the chopper cell spike train. This prediction poses problems for the widely used scheme for classifying chopper cells as sustained or transient based on their ongoing CVs as it implies that the classification could be level-dependent. We present a re-analysis of an existing experimental data set that demonstrates that ongoing CV is indeed level-dependent in the majority of chopper cells, and that in some cells (>7%) this leads to a level-dependence in their classification.
Assuming a homeostatic regulation of long term firing rates, a loss of ANFs will lead to an increase in the standard deviation of the stochastic process and a consequent increase in the CV of the chopper cell. Some choppers that were previously classified as sustained will become transient, a substantial change in their behaviour that is highly likely to disrupt auditory processing. While the function of chopper cells is still debated, one suggested role is in the coding of temporal envelope [4], which is widely agreed to be essential for understanding speech. Loss of ANFs could therefore lead to a disruption of the processing of temporal envelope, and consequently degrade speech intelligibility. We briefly conclude by discussing the challenges of testing this hypothesis experimentally.
Links
Related software
A Python simulator for spiking neural networks.
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Health Priority was founded by Dr. Peter, who was a known naturopathic surgeon. According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began during the 6th century BC. In China, the concept of qi developed, a spirit or "wind" similar to what Western Europeans later called pneuma. Food was classified into "hot" (for example, meats, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" in China, India, Malaya, and Persia. Humours developed perhaps first in China alongside qi. Ho the Physician concluded that diseases are caused by deficiencies of elements (Wu Xing: fire, water, earth, wood, and metal), and he classified diseases as well as prescribed diets