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Hot Porsche Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid Coupe Spied Testing
It could pack more than 800 horsepower.
by Anthony KarrIf you are in the market for a performance SUV and the 541-horsepower (404-kilowatt) Porsche Cayenne Coupe Turbo doesn’t satisfy your taste, then we have some good news. What you see in the gallery below are the first spy photos of a hot hybrid version of the coupe-inspired luxury crossover. All the preliminary details seem pretty intriguing so let’s take a closer look.
At first, this might look like a regular Cayenne Coupe Turbo S prototype but if you take a closer look at the rear bumper, you’ll definitely notice there’s something weird going on there. Our spies managed to take a few shots showing what’s underneath the bumper and, as you can see, there are two round pipes hiding there. Mind you, the two side squared pipes are fake.
Gallery: Porsche Cayenne Turbo S E-Hybrid RS Coupe spy photos
According to unofficial information, this exhaust layout hints that there’s a new powertrain under the hood. More precisely, word on the street is this Cayenne trial car features the upgraded hybrid mill that’s also currently being tested in the "Über-Panamera."
As a reminder, the current range-topper in the Cayenne family is the Turbo S E-Hybrid, which packs a peak output of 670 hp (500 kW) from its gas-electric hybrid powertrain. It combines a 541-hp (403 kW) twin-turbocharged 4.0-liter V8 and a 134-hp (100 kW) electric motor. If the rumored numbers of the upgraded version turn out to be true, this will represent a healthy boost of 150 hp (112 kW) over the current flagship variant.
See The Corresponding Panamera Testing:
Of course, nothing is confirmed at the moment and the only evidence of a hotter Cayenne Coupe so far are these spy shots. Whether Porsche is just experimenting or is indeed planning a production super-hybrid, only time will tell. Until the moment of truth arrives, take a better look at the photos and tell us in the comment section below – do you think the Stuttgart-based firm is developing a 800+ horsepower coupe-SUV?
Photos: CarPix


Calcium Copper Acetate
Formula: CaCu(CH3COO)4·6H2O. Calcium copper acetate is on the left; crystal on the righs is copper sulfate.
Properties
- Crystal system: tetragonal
- Crystal shape: straight octagonal prism
- Stability on air: stable
- Color: blue
Preparation
The chemicals to grow the above crystals can be prepared from widely available compounds: vinegar, chalk and copper sulphate.
The easiest one is calcium acetate Ca(CH3COO)2. I have obtained it by treating white chalk (main component is calcium carbonate CaCO3) with acetic acid. In this reaction, large amount of CO2 gas is released, so don't put all chalk at once, or the foam will spill from the flask. The equation of this reaction is:
CaCO3 + 2CH3COOH → Ca(CH3COO)2 + H2O + CO2(g)
Copper II acetate Cu(CH3COO)2 is a bit harder to make. I've made it electrochemically, by dissolving copper anode in acetic acid. An easier way would be the following 2-step reaction, starting from copper (II) sulphate CuSO4.
First, dissolve some CuSO4 in water and add baking soda NaHCO3. Sodium carbonate or hydroxide are fine too. Again, CO2 gas will release (beware of foam), and green-blue sediment of the basic copper (II) carbonate will form:
2CuSO4 + 2NaHCO3 → CuCO3·Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4 + CO2(g)
Let the sediment to precipitate, remove excess of the liquid, then dissolve the sediment it in the acetic acid:
CuCO3·Cu(OH)2 + 4CH3COOH → 2Cu(CH3COO)2 + 2H2O + CO2(g)
You will obtain blue solution of the copper (II) acetate. Again, carbon dioxide gas would form, so don't add a lot of acid at once. In case you are getting dark-blue precipitate, add more water: copper acetate has relatively low solubility in water.
Growing
Important point on this compound: it won't crystallize from a solution, containing stoichiometric amounts of Ca and Cu acetates. From such solution, copper acetate will crystallize first. This is probably caused by very low solubility of the latter.
Double copper-calcium acetate will crystallize, if solution contain Ca and Cu ions in at least 4:1 ratio.
I've made the solution by dissolving dried acetates of copper and calcium in hot water, in proportion 7.2g of calcium acetate per 2g of copper acetate. If the solution was concentrated enough, then after cooling it, light blue crystals of double salt copper-calcium acetate will form spontaneously. If you instead see dark-blue crystals of copper acetate, the, calcium is probably not enough. If you don't have any crystals, then there is too much water, let it evaporate in the warm place.
Growing method was the usual slow evaporation.
Safety
Copper compounds are mildly toxic.


"NAIN "(from Hebrews nain, “green pastures,” “lovely”), the name of a town near the gate of which Jesus raised to life a widow’s son (Luke 7:11-17). It is identified with the village called Nein, standing on the north-western slope of Jebel ed-Duhy (=the “hill Moreh” = “Little hermon”), about 4 miles from Tabor and 25 southwest of Capernaum. At the foot of the slope on which it stands is the great plain of Esdraelon. This was the first miracle of raising the dead our Lord had wrought, and it excited great awe and astonishment among the people.
"NAIN "(from Hebrews nain, “green pastures,” “lovely”), the name of a town near the gate of which Jesus raised to life a widow’s son (Luke 7:11-17). It is identified with the village called Nein, standing on the north-western slope of Jebel ed-Duhy (=the “hill Moreh” = “Little hermon”), about 4 miles from Tabor and 25 southwest of Capernaum. At the foot of the slope on which it stands is the great plain of Esdraelon.
This was the first miracle of raising the dead our Lord had wrought, and it excited great awe and astonishment among the people.


Get your State Pension
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To begin the process, please input the Unique Number found on your Pension Activation letter you received in the post.


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 Big Daddy gives us an impression of what the spawn of Sandler may appear as, and the result is much sweeter than suspected.
As his newest character, Sandler plays an incomparable slob named Sonny Koufax, a law-school graduate who works one day a week at a toll booth and spends the other six on the couch. That's when a five-year old problem walks up to his door, in the form of a child who claims to be his roommate's long-lost son. Unfortunately, the lucky father (Jon Stewart) is on his way to China for a business trip. Sonny, for reasons unknown at the time, takes the kid into open arms and decides to give him a dose of the real world.
Young Julian is played by the tag-team acting duo of Cole and Dylan Sprouse, two irresistibly cute twins who show a minimal stretch in acting talents, but constitute perfectly for the demands of the role. Sonny gives Julian a taste of his regular afternoon schedule, which consists of going to the park and watching the roller bladers tumble to their doom. Of course, the two lonely souls become attached to each other, and Sonny begins to raise the little demon as his own.
But Sonny insists on teaching Julian the basics of being a proper, well-mannered young lad. He shows him that any and all spills can be soaked up by a well-placed sheet of newspaper. He instructs him to dent their cans of Alpha-Getti at the supermarket so that they can get the discount price.  But despite the fact that Sonny is offering Julian a completely misguided view on growing up, it's obvious that he cares about the kid. And Sandler, the king of naughty toilet humor, appears to be showcasing some charm here, much the way he did in The Wedding Singer. Big Daddy does have a wider range than something like The Waterboy, which appealed to only 13-25 year-old males in dire need of physical humor. But don't misread, this is not his Truman Show. Big Daddy has the regular quotient of pee-pee jokes and Sandler-orientated vulgarity, only toned down with sprinkles of sweetness carefully mixed into the solution.
And he never did have a better chance of getting the girl either. There are three respectable leading ladies in Big Daddy. Kristy Swanson plays Sonny's original girlfriend Vanessa, until she runs off with a man twice her age (or `Old Man River' as Sonny so eloquently puts it). Leslie Mann plays Jon Stewart's stressed out fiancee, who is unable to socialize because she once worked as a waitress at Hooters restaurant. The most shimmering performance of all comes from Joey Lauren Adams (Chasing Amy) as Mann's sister Layla, who falls head over heels for Sonny. Well, mostly because of the cute child he's dragging around.
Big Daddy has plenty of funny moments; no gargantuan laughs, but a few dozen hearty chuckles spaced evenly throughout. The finale in a courtroom is played too seriously, and the premise gets drowned in sentimental goo as it goes along, but the result is still rather charming and entertaining. Adam Sandler movies are not intended to be art. They exist to give people a good laugh, and Big Daddy manages just fine.
It's also nice to see a jump in maturity for Sandler and company here, even if it's just a marginal one. There are still bizarre supporting characters, but no one truly annoying. Rob Schneider is funny as an illiterate delivery man, as is Steve Buscemi in a small role as an Egg McMuffin craving homeless man. Watch for some of Sandler's Waterboy co-stars to appear as a few of his business partners and beer-guzzling friends. But sorry, no Farmer Frau.
It's commendable of Adam Sandler to be attempting a change of pace. But, fans of the big goof aren't going to be disappointed with Big Daddy. Perhaps Sandler isn't so much an embarrassment to Hollywood as he is a savior to the movie-going public. I feel I'm ready to finally accept the comedian for what he is. And after this makes 200 million at the box office, I'd bet your money on more projects to come.
(C) 1999, Jamey Hughton
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{% extends "organizations/onboard/base.html" %} {% load i18n %} {% block title %}{% trans "Create an Organization" %}{% endblock %} {% block content %}
{% blocktrans %} Before you can add a project or build documentation, we will help you create an organization. Access to your documentation is limited to only those inside your organization, or inside a team with access. We'll help set up a team shortly, start by entering your organization details. {% endblocktrans %}
{% endif %} {{ block.super }} {% endblock %}


#!/usr/bin/perl use Something qw(func1 func2); # strings my $s1 = qq’single line’; our $s2 = q(multi- line); =item Something Example. =cut my $html=<<‘HTML’
hi!
HTML print “first,”.join(‘,’, ‘second’, qqthird); if($s1 =~ m[(?{$1}=$$.’ predefined variables’; $s2 =~ s/\-line//ox; $s1 =~ s[ line ] [ block ]ox; } 1; # numbers and comments __END__ something…
MIME types defined: text/x-perl
.


Use ChronoZoom to get a perspective of the extensive scale of time and historical events relative to what happened around the world. Become an author yourself! Simply log on with your social networking credentials to record your unique perspective or tell a story that needs to be told.
Introductory Tour Explore Big HistoryChronoZoom is an educational tool for teachers and students who want to put historical events in perspective. A great many resources have already been created in ChronoZoom for your enjoyment and enlightenment.
Resources & CurriculumWhen viewing timelines, please click the star icon () on any timeline to add it as a favorite.
When logged in, you'll find this icon on the bottom right of all timelines.
Want to see your recent work here?
Try checking the “Publish” box. You can find this in the Customize Collection panel, when you edit your collection.


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"There is a lot of pressure having the last name Cook. I come from a long line of amazing cooks but the only problem was I didn't know how to make any of my family's famous dishes because all the recipes were just memorized. Recipe vault has allowed us to share generations old recipes, so we can carry on the traditions. Thanks recipe vault for helping preserve my family's memories and for helping me live up to my last name."
"Gone are the days of having all of my granny's recipes written on old stained pieces of paper. Recipe Vault has allowed me to catalogue my favorite recipes and share them with our family and friends. I am able to document my personal changes from the original recipes and also upload photos."
"After my house burnt down, I lost all of my favorite family recipes I had written down on paper. Luckily my family got together and with the help of Recipe Vault we were able to write down and create a place where we would get to keep these recipes for generations to come."
"My friends and I love having potlucks, this normally involves some recipe swaps. In the past we would just write down recipes on whatever paper we had on hand but with recipe vault we are able to upload and share with everyone. It also allows us to share modifications we have made which has been fun for us to try new variations of our old favorites. "


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Out of the current 426 people in Zalando organisations on GitHub, nearly half of them have made an accepted code contribution to a Zalando open source project.
For all current projects, there has been made a total of 12.308 contributions, there are currently 200 open requests which are awaiting a review from project owners
Zalandos contribute to projects on the Techradar "Adopt" tier, which are part of our tech stack and have a high strategic value to Zalando
The average merge time is low compared to the wider open source community. It is a strong indicator our maintainers are responsive and available to contributors.


Dr. Karen Kuo is a board-certified internist and wound care specialist with fifteen years of
clinical experience. She actively educates and advises students who aspire to become physicians,
physician assistants, dentists, and nurses. Their testimonials can be found at
Her elite academic training has opened a world of career opportunities in medicine and beyond.
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Kuorageous’ proud network of successful elites adds real world insight and serves as invaluable resource for our students. The access to working professionals of varied industries affords unique opportunities and practical wisdom beyond that typically provided by an advisor whose experience is rooted solely in the admissions process. Whatever your interest, we will attempt to find a real working professional in that industry willing to offer “big sister/brother” insight.
Mr. Carra graduated with cum laude honors from Bocconi University in Milan, Italy for both his Bachelor of Law and his Master of Science in Law. He also studied at the University of Texas School of Law in Austin, University of Babson College in Boston, and earned a LLM from NYU School of Law. Currently, he is an Associate at a major law firm in Italy, Gianni-Origoni , Grippo-Cappelli Partners.
Catherine Owens graduated Magna Cum Laude from Bryn Mawr College with honors in mathematics. She served as the teacher’s assistant for Calculus II, published an original theorem in Integers: Electronic Journal of Combinatorial Number Theory, and won the Anna Pell Wheeler Award for Excellence in Mathematics. Ms. Owens earned her law degree from NYU Law School, where she also served as the editor of a law journal in law and politics and a mock trial teacher for high school students interested in the law. Ms. Owens has worked in the Criminal Division at the United States Attorney's Office for the Eastern District of New York and also at the Liberty and National Security program (Brennan Center). She now works as a litigation lawyer at WilmerHale.
Darien earned his BBA in finance with a minor in mathematics from the University of Miami and his JD from NYU Law. Having worked in Goldman Sachs, Stroock & Stroock & Lavan, and currently at a major New York law firm, Mr. Smith possesses a wealth of experience in international law and business, mergers and acquisitions, and economics.
In 2011, Ms. Hyun graduated from Cornell University with a B.S. in Industrial and Labor Relations. Ms. Hyun then received a J.D. from New York University School of Law in 2016, where she served as the Articles Editor for the Annual Survey of American Law and as Alumni Chair for the Asian-Pacific American Law Students Association. Ms. Hyun is currently an Associate in the corporate department of a large law firm in New York.
Dr. Gordon is a triple-boarded physician in internal medicine, neurology, and intensive care medicine. He is a Clinical Professor at Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, while serving as the Medical Director of the Department of Neurosurgery at Mt. Sinai Hospital. His rich experience in medical institutions across the nation includes academic and clinical appointments at Columbia University Medical Center, Downstate Hospital, Froedtert Memorial Hospital, and Wisconsin Medical College.
Eva Chmielnicki is the Executive Director of the Institute for Computational Medicine at NYU School of Medicine. She has a Bachelor’s in neuroscience from the University of Pennsylvania, a PhD in neuroscience from Weill Cornell Medical Center, where she studied neurogenesis in adult brains. After her post-doc at Mt Sinai School of Medicine, she joined Nature Medicine as the neuroscience manuscript editor. Most recently, she was an Academic Research Manager at Roche Pharmaceutical Company, where she identified, orchestrated, and managed scientific collaborations between Roche scientists and academic researchers.
Mr. Cardona completed his BBA from Florida International University. After earning his JD from NYU School of Law, he earned a place as an Associate among the elites of the prestigious law firm of Cleary Gottlieb.
Dr. Celestin graduated from a BS/MD program from CUNY Biomedical Education and NYU School of Medicine. He was distinguished with a National Health Service Corps scholarship for his commitment to the underserved medical community. During his training at Mt. Sinai/Jamaica Hospital Family Practice Residency Program, he won the Planetree Employee of Year Award. He is now the Medical Director at the Braselton office of the North Atlanta Primary Care Center.
In 2011, Ms. Dorvel graduated from the University of Florida with a B.A. in English, where she was a member of Phi Beta Kappa. Ms. Dorvel received a J.D. from the New York University School of Law in 2015, where she served as a staff editor on the New York University Environmental Law Journal and as Communications Chair for the Environmental Law Society.
Ms. Xue graduated from Tsinghua University with Bachelor of Science and a Master of Science in automotive engineering. She then earned a JD from NYU School of Law, graduating with the distinguished honor of magnum cum laude. She served as the Senior Articles Editor for the NYU Journal of Intellectual Property and Entertainment Law. She also distinguished herself as a Furman Academic scholar; this is a highly competitive program for students of arts and sciences who show particular promise in legal academia.


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In the NAR plugin we follow Maven's main principles:
below we explain how:
The NAR Plugin enables a cross-platform build technology for native artifacts using Maven. Though the user has full flexibility in the choice of compiler/linker and their options, sensible defaults are provided by the NAR Plugin. The three primary conventions for the NAR Plugin are:
and are detailed below:
The NAR Plugin assumes to find its native sources and resources in a directory structure parallel to the java sources. Test sources and test resources are organized the same way.
/yourproject /src /main /java /resources /include /c++ /c /fortran /test /java /resources /include /c++ /c /fortran
Organizing the information this way means that it is easy to find, for both people and the plugins that need to work with them.
Maven produces one primary output (jar, war, ...) per project. For the NAR Plugin the produced nar files are secondary outputs or artifacts attached to the primary output. There are several reasons why the native artifacts are not primary outputs:
When maven produces a jar file it's normally named artifactId-version.jar. The NAR Plugin follows this convention for its attached artifacts:
Since the java compiler has a unified interface there is no need for any naming conventions here. Native compilers and linkers on different platforms tend to have radically different interfaces (command line options) so these were unified, allowing the user to switch on exception handling and debugging with the same tag in the configuration no matter which platform the NAR Plugin is running on. An example is below:
... <plugin> <groupId>com.github.maven-nar</groupId> <artifactId>nar-maven-plugin</artifactId> <configuration> <cpp> <exceptions>false</exceptions> <debug>true</debug> </cpp> </configuration> </plugin> ...
The NAR Plugin provides multiple goals organized in the "nar" lifecycle. The "nar" lifecycle integrates nicely with the default "jar" lifecycle to build java and native files into nar artifacts in parallel. Each of the NAR Plugin goals can of course also be configured separately if needed.
Most NAR goals are executed using the NarManager, which provides an API that can also be used by other plugins when they need to deal with NAR artifacts.
All logic in Maven is setup in a declarative fashion using the Project Object Model (POM). The NAR Plugin can be configured inside this model. Moreover the "nar" lifecycle can be used to automatically integrate all the NAR Plugin goals with the goals of the default "jar" lifecycle.
The POM below is an example of how to compile, link and test a native shared library, which depends on a native math library (nmath).
<project> <modelVersion>4.0.0</modelVersion> <groupId>com.mycompany.app</groupId> <artifactId>my-app</artifactId> <packaging>nar</packaging> <version>1.0-SNAPSHOT</version> <build> <plugins> <plugin> <groupId>com.github.maven-nar</groupId> <artifactId>nar-maven-plugin</artifactId> <version>3.4.1-SNAPSHOT</version> <extensions>true</extensions> </plugin> </plugins> </build> <dependencies> <dependency> <groupId>org.freehep</groupId> <artifactId>nmath</artifactId> <version>4.5.1</version> <type>nar</type> </dependency> </dependencies> </project>
This POM will allow you to compile, link and test the java and native code in the project. The crucial part of the POM is the inclusion of the NAR plugin as an extension and the declaration of the "nar" packaging. The two will call the NAR Plugin goals as specified in the lifecycle.
For this POM the NAR Plugin will download and unpack the noarch and aol parts of the org.freehep nmath library version 4.5.1, for the platform you are running on.
Maven's Super POM is used for most of the default behaviour and the NAR Plugin's AOL Properties are used for native defaults.
Maven's default build lifecycle, "jar", allows one to execute plugin goals as part of it, but this necessitates declaration of separate goals in each POM. To simplify the building of native artifacts we chose to define a "nar" lifecycle which calls all the goals the "jar" lifecycle has, interleaved with the goals of the NAR Plugin.
Maven uses a local repository to resolve its dependencies. If not found one or more remote repositories are consulted to find a dependency. If found the dependency is downloaded to the local repository and used from there by any of the plugins.
The NAR Plugin uses the same organization of dependencies and repositories. When a user executes install or deploy on a NAR project the main nar file with its attached nar artifacts will be installed in the local repository or deployed in the remote repository.
A remote repository for the native math library would probably look like this (note the support for multiple platforms and multiple library bindings):
remoterepo/ org/ freehep/ nmath/ 4.5.1/ nmath-4.5.1.pom nmath-4.5.1.pom.sha1 nmath-4.5.1.jar nmath-4.5.1.jar.sha1 nmath-4.5.1-noarch.nar nmath-4.5.1-noarch.nar.sha1 nmath-4.5.1-MacOSX-g++-static.nar nmath-4.5.1-MacOSX-g++-static.nar.sha1 nmath-4.5.1-MacOSX-g++-shared.nar nmath-4.5.1-MacOSX-g++-shared.nar.sha1 nmath-4.5.1-Linux-g++-shared.nar nmath-4.5.1-Linux-g++-shared.nar.sha1 nmath-4.5.1-Windows-msvc-shared.nar nmath-4.5.1-Windows-msvc-shared.nar.sha1 ...
When a NAR dependency is encountered the main nar file is already downloaded into the local repository by maven itself. The nar-download goal will download any attached NAR artifacts into the local repository and store them alongside the main nar file and the POM. Note that for these main nar and attached nar files there is just one POM, since it is just one artifact. If the nar files are already in the local repository, due to someone calling nar-install on them, no extra download occurs.
Now that the POM, main nar and attached nar files are all in the local repository, the nar-unpack goal unpacks the nar files in an area in the target directory of the project. This is necessary because none of the native compiler/linker tools understands nar files. Compilation and linking can thus search the local target area.


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Building a Climate I¶
Retaining an Atmosphere
This lecture introduces basic terminology and important units in climatology. Furthermore, we learn about how we are able to retain an atmosphere on Earth and other planets. Finally, we learn about the vertical structure of the atmosphere and why it exists.
Information¶
Learning goals |
|---|
|
Definitions¶
First, we will agree on the definitions of various terminology used in the course. This way, we ensure effective communication. In some cases, there is more than one valid definition, but the definitions used here do not significantly deviate (if at all) from other common definitions.
Weather¶
Intuitively, weather can be described as the relatively short-lived, temporary mood of the atmosphere at a specific location. More formally, weather can be described as the condition of meteorological processes at a specific location over a short time span.
Informal definition (intuitive): “The temporary mood of the atmosphere at a specific location”
Formal defition (one of many): “Condition of meteorological processes at a specific location over a short time span (usually a day)” [Kuttler W., 2013]
Climate¶
Extending the analogy above to climate, we can say the following: If weather is the temporary mood of the atmosphere, climate can be regarded as the character of the atmosphere. While the character can be seen as the average set of moods you can have, it does determine probabilities of certain moods.
Informal definition (intuitive): “The character of the atmosphere (that determines probabilities for different moods)”
Formal defition (one of many): “Summary of weather of a specific region over longer time scales (typically at least 30 years)” [Kuttler W., 2013]
We use the term climatology to refer to temporally averaged weather conditions. The standard averaging period to construct a climatology is 30 years, but it can vary depending on the purpose.
Systems¶
The system is our object of study that consists of many processes and attributes. The boundary is where the system exchanges mass and/or energy with the surroundings. In climatology, this can be something as small as an air or water parcel, or something as comprehensive as the climate system.
There are several models for systems:
An open system allows mass and energy flow through the boundary.
An isolated system allows no mass or energy folw through the boundary.
A closed system allows energy, but no mass flow through the bounday.
An idealised thermos flask with a closed lid can be taken as an example of closd system, because neither mass nor heat is allowed to escape. For real (non-idealised) thermos flasks, we experience that the latter is not entirely true of course, since a lot of heat is allowed to flow through the boundary quite easily over the course of a day. We could therefore argue that a real (non-idealised) thermos flask should be categorised as an isolated system instead. Once you open the flask, you turn it into an open system, allowing exchange of mass and energy.
Note
How would you categorise a to-go cup? How would you categorise a human?
Steady State¶
When state variables that define system behaviour or processes are not changing with time, we say that the system is in steady state or equibibrium. So we could write:
For system properties (or elements) p, the derivative with respect to time t is zero.
Systems can be in different types of steady state. If a system is in static equilibrium, all forces are balanced, there is no acceleration and all elements are at rest. If a system is in dynamic equilibrium, elements are not at rest, but processes are balanced, so that there is no net change over time.
System Paths¶
System paths are the paths taken, usually in the form of modification of the system attribute variables, to get from one equilibrium state to another. In this example, we go from an equilibrium state characterised by high temperature and pressure to an equilibrium state characterised by low temperature and pressure. The two possible paths shown on here are (1) decreasing pressure, then decresing temperature, and (2) simultaneously decreasing pressure and temperature. Path (1) includes an isobaric change, which involves no change in pressure, followed by an isothermal change, which involves no changes in temperature.
Note
Can you think of more paths the system can take?
The Climate System¶
Typically, the climate system on Earth includes the atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and land surface. Climate elements are measurable meteorological quantities that can be statisticall processed with regard to the measurement period. They are the state variables of the climate system.  Finally, we use the term climate dynamics to describe (1) effects of (external) forcings on the system or (2) forces and movements that characterise the system.
Note
Discuss how the climate factors in the figure modify climate elements in the climate system.
Reminder: Units¶
For this course, we use the International System of Units. Before getting into any calculations for this course, let’s remind ourselves of all relevant units.
These include the 7 base units:
unit |
abbreviation and explanation |
|---|---|
metre |
m, length/distance |
kilogram |
kg, mass |
second |
s, time |
ampere |
A, electric current |
kelvin |
K, temperature |
mole |
mol, substance amount |
candela |
cd, light intensity |
You will frequently come accross the following derived units in this course and climate science in general:
unit |
abbreviation and explanation |
|---|---|
Newton |
N (kg·m/s2), force |
Pascal |
Pa (N/m2), pressure |
Joule |
J (N·m), energy/work |
Watt |
W (J/s), power |
Note: Outside of equations, this course uses · and / to denote multiplication and division respectively. In equations, you often see multiplication implied by concatenation of letters representing variables. This can be confusing when variable are represented by more than one letter. We therefore always explicitly use the multiplication signs in all equations for this course.
Retaining an Atmosphere¶
Some may be familiar with the movie “Spaceballs”, in which a shield around the planet prevents the atmosphere from escaping. Here, we explore why we do not need such a shield on Earth to prevent (too much of) the atmosphere from escaping. To understand how we can retain an atmosphere, we need to have a look at its composition and 2 important concepts: molecular speed and escape velocity.
Escape Velocity¶
The escape velocity is the minimum speed required for a free object to escape from the gravitational influence of a massive body. It can be calculated as follows:
G - the universal gravitational constant (G ≈ 6.67×10−11 m3·kg-1·s-2).
M - the mass of the body to be escaped from.
r - the distance from the center of mass of the body to the object.
ve (Earth) = 11190 m/s
Note: solar winds also remove molecules; molecules bouncing into each other also speed up some
Note
Is escape velocity a property of the escaping object or the body that the object escapes from? Have a closer look at the equation to answer this. Can you calculate ve (Earth) on your own in Python or another language? How about ve (Mars)?
The Speed of Molecules¶
The speed of molecules can be calculated as follows:
vm- molecular speed
kb - gas constant (8.314 kg·m2/s2·mol·K)
T - temperature
m - mass (molecular)
Note: Interactions between molecules in the atmosphere can speed them up beyond what is calculated here.
Note
Examine the equation to infer the different controls for the speed of molecules.
Gases in the Atmosphere¶
Nitrogen, N (78%) - no GHG
Oxygen, O2 (21%) - no GHG
Water vapour, H2O (<1%, up to 3% in parts of tropics)
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 (0.04%, 400ppm)*
Methane, CH4 (0.00018%, 1.85 ppm)*
Note
Calculate Earth’s escape velocity and the speed of commonly occuring molecules and discuss.
Dissecting the Atmosphere¶
Layering¶
We use the following, common layering scheme for the atmosphere. It subdivides the atmosphere into Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
Note
Do you know how the atmosphere is layered? By pressure? By temperature? Can you think of more ways to layer the atmosphere in a merited way?
Temperature-Defined Boundaries¶
We subdivide the atmopheric profile by air temperature, because boundaries more easily tied to specific heights than compositional boundaries. The figure shows a (very conceptual) vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere.
We will walk through the different layers and look at their attributes step-by-step.
Troposphere¶
Troposhpere fact sheet:
Temperature decreases upwards with a gradient of dT/dz = -6.5 K/km.
There is lots of vertical and horizontal mixing, high (but very variable) water vapor content.
The lowest part (ca. 1km) is known as the PBL (planetary boundary layer).
Tropopause:
The Tropopause is the upper boundary of troposphere, where main jet streams are.
Tropopause height varies and is controlled by surface energy exchange.
It is highest at equator (ca. 17km) and lowest in polar regions (ca. 9km).
It is not a continuous layer; there are multiple Tropopauses and “gaps” enable exchange of trace elements between troposphere and stratosphere.
Note
Think about the temperature lapse rate of -6.5 K/km. Can you confirm this with personal experiences?
Stratosphere¶
Stratosphere fact sheet:
8-17km to ca. 50km.
Its lower part has a lapse rate of dT/dz = 0 K/km. Temperature remains fairly constant, so we can say it is isothermal.
Its upper part has a lapse rate of dT/dz = 3 K/km. temperature actually starts to increase again upwards. We call this the stratospheric thermal inversion.
It has an Ozone concentration of ~320ppb. (The Troposphere only has ~34ppb).
The Stratopause is the boundary between Stratosphere and Mesosphere and is marked by the temperature peak from the stratospheric thermal inversion.
Note
Think about what the Stratosphere’s temperature profile means for vertical transport of air masses. Would you expect the stratosphere to be wet or dry?
Stratospheric Thermal Inversion:
The thermal inversion, i.e. the upward warming, is related to Ozone. Below are the reactions involved:
Photodissociation at wavelength of 242 nm (UV) follows:
Ozone formation is facilitated by a 3 body collision reaction involving a third body M. This third body can, for example, be Nitrogen. Excess energy from the reaction is passed to M, which results in the heating of the upper Stratosphere. It follows:
Ozone formation is balanced with its photodissociation at lower energy UV radiation (at wavelength 310 nm):
Mesosphere¶
Mesosphere fact sheet:
50km to 80/85km.
Negative temperature lapse rate of dT/dz = -3 K/km.
Temperature at top of Mesosphere is ~ 75°C to -90°C, the coldest in the atmosphere.
Mesopause
It separates Mesophere from Thermosphere.
It also separates homosphere (where gases are well mixed) from heterosphere (where gases start separating by mass).
Note
What conditions are required to see gases separating by mass?
Thermosphere and Exosphere¶
Thermosphere
At ~100 km.
Extremely low pressure conditions (less than 0.0002 hPa).
Temperature can rise to 100s of °C, depending on solar radiation.
Exosphere
It is the uppermost layer in atmosphere.
It transitions into interplanetary space.


We designed Holonix to enable developer productivity in a FOSS and extensible way based on the assumption that productivity comes from evolving conventions around a set of “golden workflows”.
These workflows are relevant to most projects in the Holochain ecosystem.
- building & testing zomes
- building & testing UIs
- documenting code
- releasing artifacts
The benefits of leveraging a well tested set of conventional scripts usually outweighs reinventing the wheel here.
Holonix dogfoods relevant golden workflows.
E.g. this documentation is generated by the hugo tooling, bash examples recorded with asciinema, all automatically deployed to github pages by a simple bash script, that is itself part of Holonix.
Workflows are achieved through a combination of:
- automated management of tools and dependencies on the
$PATH
- setting environment variables inside a shell session
- simple bash scripts and scaffolding tools
- virtual machines for continuous integration and extended platform support
- conventions and project specific configuration
- leveraging the NixOS toolkit
Extending holonix
Holonix can be consumed in three main ways:
- A project-agnostic
https://holochain.love
1-liner - A project-specific
default.nix
configuration - As a NixOS native overlay
This allows for increasing levels of sophistication and control over Holonix usage.
As developers gain familiarity with Holonix and NixOS in general they can progressively dive deeper to customise and leverage more.


Springboard is installed to:
This is the default Springboard template, which you should now edit to suit your needs. You can also create new templates simply by adding them to the templates directory and then use them like so:
$ cd /YourWorkspace/NewProject/ $ sb init template-name
To access the templates directory, just run the config command:
$ sb config
For more information, please refer to the README file in the repo: https://github.com/soulwire/Springboard
The following message is set via JavaScript and will be true in the project source directory but false in deploy. This utilises Springboard's ability to show or hide blocks of code during the build process, useful in this instance for toggling a DEBUG flag automatically…


about us
NIKOLA'S BOOKSTORE is an independent bookseller serving Serbia, since 1997. We've grown to employ over 530 people across five Serbia-concentrated stores and nikolasbookstore.com, and our book inventory exceeds two million volumes. In spite of our substantial size and reach, we remain grounded by our company's core values, which have guided us through the ups and downs of the bookselling industry. Each and every employee's love of books drives us forward.
We have an especially intimate relationship with Novi Sad — what other city in Serbia can name a bookstore as its top attraction? We host over 500 author events a year, in addition to children's storytimes, writing workshops, game demonstrations, and book clubs. Through nikolasbookstore.com and our expansive online community, we also reach readers around the world, people who are as excited about books as we are.
We look forward to a future filled with many new opportunities, new innovations, and, of course, new books!
Our mission is to be the world's best destination for readers, a place that fosters a culture of reading and connects people with the books they'll love.
We love everything about books. As entertainment, as tools of discovery, and as timeless works of art, we believe books have the unique ability to transport us and transform our world view. We're conversation starters. We're an eclectic team of readers with broad interests and strong feelings about the books on our shelves. And we're committed to sharing our knowledge and enthusiasm with our customers every day. We're nothing without our customers. NIKOLA'S BOOKSTORE would not be the destination it is now without its loyal customers. We recognize that every reader is different. We know readers are as unique and complex as the books we sell. We, in turn, make every effort to engage with our customers, respond to their needs, and learn from their feedback. We're creative and resourceful. We built our name on innovative bookselling, and we continue to evolve by remaining curious and inventive. We support readers and writers. Through literary events, original content, and a vibrant online community, we're dedicated to promoting great authors and their books, literacy, and freedom of expression. We exchange ideas. We all play a role in NIKOLA'S BOOKSTORE success, and it's the sharing of our unique perspectives that generates exceptional ideas.