Scripts¶
Create Database by Querying FDSN¶
Program query_fdsn_stdb.py
¶
Description¶
Program to query a datacenter using the :mod:obspy
fdsn client. All stations
returned based on the query criteria are saved into a both a .csv
file and a
stdb dictionary pickle
file for future use.
Usage¶
$ query_fdsn_stdb.py -h
Usage: query_fdsn_stdb.py [options] <station list filename>
Program to query a datacenter using the obspy fdsn client. All station
returned in this query are saved into both a csv format 1sls file as well as a
stationdb (stdb.StDbElement) pickled dictionary. The input argument, <station
file name> is the prefix for the output file, which is by default <station
file name>.csv and <station file name>.pkl.
Options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
-D, --debug Debug mode. After the client query is complete (and
successful), instead of parsing the inventory, it is
instead pickled to <station file name>_query_debug.pkl
which can be loaded in ipython to examine manually.
-L, --long-keys Specify Key format. Default is Net.Stn. Long keys are
Net.Stn.Chn
-a, --ascii Specify to write ascii Pickle files instead of binary.
Ascii are larger file size, but more likely to be
system independent.
Server Settings:
Settings associated with which datacenter to log into.
--Server=SERVER Specify the server to connect to. Options include:
BGR, ETH, GEONET, GFZ, INGV, IPGP, IRIS, KOERI, LMU,
NCEDC, NEIP, NERIES, ODC, ORFEUS, RESIF, SCEDC, USGS,
USP. [Default IRIS]
--User-Auth=USERAUTH
Enter your IRIS Authentification Username and Password
(--User-Auth='username:authpassword') to access and
download restricted data. [Default no user and
password]
Channel Priority/Selection Settings:
Settings associated with selecting the channels to retain.
--channel-rank=CHNRANK
If requesting more than one type of channel, specify a
comma separated list of the first two lettres of the
desired components to retain. Default is LH > BH > HH
: [ 'LH','BH','HH']
Station-Channel Settings:
Options to narrow down the specific channels based on network,
station, etc
-N NETS, --networks=NETS
Specify a comma separated list of network codes to
search for [Default *]
-S STNS, --stations=STNS
Specify a comma separated list of station names. If
you want wildcards, enclose in quotes [Default *]
-C CHNS, --channels=CHNS
Specify a comma separated, wildcarded list of channel
names. [Default LH*,BH*,HH*]
Geographic Lat/Lon Box Search:
Define the coordinates of a lat/lon box in which to select stations.
If filled out, takes precedence over values for Radius Search (below).
--minlat=MINLAT, --min-latitude=MINLAT
Specify minimum latitude to search (must specify all
of minlat, maxlat, minlon, maxlon).
--maxlat=MAXLAT, --max-latitude=MAXLAT
Specify maximum latitude to search (must specify all
of minlat, maxlat, minlon, maxlon).
--minlon=MINLON, --min-longitude=MINLON
Specify minimum longitude to search (must specify all
of minlat, maxlat, minlon, maxlon).
--maxlon=MAXLON, --max-longitude=MAXLON
Specify maximum longitude to search (must specify all
of minlat, maxlat, minlon, maxlon).
Geographic Radius Search:
Central point and min/max radius search settings. Box Search Settings
take precedence over radius search.
--lat=LAT, --latitude=LAT
Specify a Lat (if any of --lon --min-radius and --max-
radius are empty, an error will prompt).
--lon=LON, --longitude=LON
Specify a Lon (if any of --lat --min-radius and --max-
radius are empty, an error will prompt).
--minr=MINR, --min-radius=MINR
Specify a minimum search radius (in degrees) around
the point defined by --lat and --lon (if any of --lat
--lon and --max-radius are empty, an error will
prompt). [Default 0. degrees]
--maxr=MAXR, --max-radius=MAXR
Specify a maximum search radius (in degrees) around
the point defined by --lat and --lon (if any of --lat
--lon and --min-radius are empty, an error will
prompt).
Fixed Time Range Settings:
Find all stations operating within the start and end date/time. If
either are filled out, they take precedence over Non-Specific time
range search (below)
--start=STDATE, --start-date=STDATE
Specify the Start Date/Time in a UTCDateTime
compatible String (ie, 2010-01-15 15:15:45.2).
[Default Blank]
--end=ENDDATE, --end-date=ENDDATE
Specify the End Date/Time in a UTCDateTime compatible
String (ie, 2010-01-15 15:15:45.2). [Default Blank]
Non-Specific Time Range Settings:
Time settings with less specificity. Ensure that those you specify do
not interfere with each other. If above Fixed Range values are set,
they will take precedence over these values.
--start-before=STBEFORE
Specify a Date/Time which stations must start before
(must be UTCDateTime compatible string, ie 2010-01-15
15:15:45.2). [Default empty]
--start-after=STAFTER
Specify a Date/Time which stations must start after
(must be UTCDateTime compatible string, ie 2010-01-15
15:15:45.2). [Default empty]
--end-before=ENDBEFORE
Specify a Date/Time which stations must end before
(must be UTCDateTime compatible string, ie 2010-01-15
15:15:45.2). [Default empty]
--end-after=ENDAFTER
Specify a Date/Time which stations must end after
(must be UTCDateTime compatible string, ie 2010-01-15
15:15:45.2). [Default empty]
Example
Extract all stations with broadband seismic data (-C BH
) in the TA network (-N TA
)
in the region delimited by min and max latitudes of 60 to 65 deg, and min anx max longitudes
of -135 to -120 deg, which hold data recorded since January 1, 2017:
$ query_fdsn_stdb.py -C BH? -N TA --minlat=60 --maxlat=65 --minlon=-135 --maxlon=-120 --start=2017-01-01 ta_list
Performing Geographic Box Search:
LL: 60.0000, -135.0000
UR: 65.0000, -120.0000
Performing Fixed Time Range Search:
Start: 2017-01-01 00:00:00
End: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Station/Channel Search Parameters:
Network: TA
Stations: *
Channels: BH?
Channel Rank: LH,BH,HH
Output Files: ta_list.csv and ta_list.pkl
Initializing Client (IRIS)...Done
Querying client...Done
Search Complete:
3 stations in 1 networks
Network: TA
Station: M31M
Lon, Lat, Elev: -134.3906, 62.2024, 0.639
Start Date: 2015-10-17 00:00:00
End Date: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Selected Channel: BH
Locations: --
Added as: TA.M31M
Station: N32M
Lon, Lat, Elev: -133.0818, 61.1512, 0.816
Start Date: 2016-05-11 00:00:00
End Date: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Selected Channel: BH
Locations: --
Added as: TA.N32M
Station: P33M
Lon, Lat, Elev: -132.8174, 60.2114, 1.066
Start Date: 2015-10-15 00:00:00
End Date: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Selected Channel: BH
Locations: --
Added as: TA.P33M
Pickling to ta_list.pkl
Saving csv to: ta_list.csv
List Database Content¶
Program¶
ls_stdb.py
Description¶
Lists databse dictionary contained in a pickled StDb
database file.
The station dictionary contains keys that are named NET.STA.CHAN, where CHAN
is a two character representation of the desired channel (ex, BH, HH, LH).
Within each KEY is the set of data used in later programs to define the
station information. The data is stored in a dictionary, with each dictionary
element being an object of class stdb.StDbElement. An item has:
stdb[stkey]:
.station
.network
.altnet
.channel
.location
.latitude
.longitude
.elevation
.startdate
.enddate
.polarity
.azcorr
.status
Usage¶
ls_stdb.py -h
Usage: ls_stdb.py [options] <station pickle file>
Helper program to examine the contents of a station pickle file
Options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
-N, --networks Use flag to retrieve only the list of networks in the
database
--keys=KEYS Specify a comma separated list of keys to return. These can
be fragments of a key to include all keys matching any
fragment.
-a, --ascii Specify to write ascii Pickle files instead of binary. Ascii
are larger file size, but more likely to be system
independent.
Example
Assume we have already created a StDb database named new_list.pkl using the example in
py
. List its content:
$ ls_stdb.py new_list
Listing Station Pickle: new_list.pkl
TA.M31M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) TA.M31M
Station: TA M31M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 62.20240, -134.39059, 0.639
StartTime: 2015-10-17 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
TA.N32M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) TA.N32M
Station: TA N32M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 61.15120, -133.08180, 0.816
StartTime: 2016-05-11 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
TA.P33M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) TA.P33M
Station: TA P33M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.21140, -132.81740, 1.066
StartTime: 2015-10-15 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
Now list only one station key:
$ ls_stdb.py --keys=TA.P33M new_list
Listing Station Pickle: new_list.pkl
TA.P33M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) TA.P33M
Station: TA P33M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.21140, -132.81740, 1.066
StartTime: 2015-10-15 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
Generate Database¶
Program¶
gen_stdb.py
Description¶
Create Station Database dictionary
The station dictionary contains keys that are named NET.STA.CHAN, where CHAN
is a two character representation of the desired channel (ex, BH, HH, LH).
Within each KEY is the set of data used in later programs to define the
station information. The data is stored in a dictionary, with each dictionary
element being an object of Class StDbElement
. An item has:
stdb[stkey]:
.station
.network
.altnet
.channel
.location
.latitude
.longitude
.elevation
.startdate
.enddate
.polarity
.azcorr
.status
Usage¶
gen_stdb.py -h
Usage: gen_stdb.py [options] <station list>
Script to generate a pickled station database file.
Options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
-L, --long-keys Specify Key format. Default is Net.Stn. Long keys are
Net.Stn.Chn
-a, --ascii Specify to write ascii Pickle files instead of binary.
Ascii are larger file size, but more likely to be system
independent.
Input File (IPO SPC):
NET STA CHAN lat lon elev YYYY-MM-DD YYYY-MM-DD
Each element corresponding to each dictionary key is saved as stdb.StbBElement
class.
Merge Databases¶
Program merge_stdb.py
¶
Description¶
Merge multiple StDb
database files together.
Performs a rudimentary check for mulitple keys.
Usage¶
Example
Assume we have already created a StDb database named ta_list.pkl
using the example
in py
. Now create a second StDb database by querying the
FDSN archive for stations in the CN network in the same region. Send the prompt to a stdb.log
file.
Note
This could have been performed during the first call to query_fdsn_stdb.py
with the
option -N TA,CN
- this is just for illustration
$ query_fdsn_stdb.py -C BH? -N CN --minlat=60 --maxlat=65 --minlon=-135 --maxlon=-120 --start=2017-01-01 cn_list >> stdb.log
List the content of cn_list.pkl:
$ ls_stdb.py cn_list
Listing Station Pickle: cn_list.pkl
CN.WHY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) CN.WHY
Station: CN WHY
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.65970, -134.88251, 1.273
StartTime: 1994-10-03 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
Merge ta_list.pkl
and cn_list.pkl
into a new file called merged_list.pkl
:
$ merge_stdb.py -o merged_list ta_list cn_list
$ ls_stdb.py merged_list
Listing Station Pickle: merged_list.pkl
TA.M31M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) TA.M31M
Station: TA M31M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 62.20240, -134.39059, 0.639
StartTime: 2015-10-17 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
TA.N32M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) TA.N32M
Station: TA N32M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 61.15120, -133.08180, 0.816
StartTime: 2016-05-11 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
TA.P33M
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
3) TA.P33M
Station: TA P33M
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.21140, -132.81740, 1.066
StartTime: 2015-10-15 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
CN.WHY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
4) CN.WHY
Station: CN WHY
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.65970, -134.88251, 1.273
StartTime: 1994-10-03 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
Append New Station¶
Program append_stdb.py
¶
Description¶
Append new station information to an existing station database.
Usage¶
append_stdb.py -h
Usage: append_stdb.py [options] <station pickle file>
Helper program to append new stations to an existing station database.
Options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
-o ONAME, --output-file=ONAME
Specify output file name. Defaults to the input file
with '.apd' added to the end.
-C, --complex Default behaviour only promps for station basics
(net,stn,chn,loc,lat,lon,start,end). Complex includes
additional data (alternate networks, multiple
locations, elevation, polarity, azimuth correction and
restricted status)
-L, --long-keys Specify Key format. Default is Net.Stn. Long keys are
Net.Stn.Chn
-a, --ascii Specify to write ascii Pickle files instead of binary.
Ascii are larger file size, but more likely to be
system independent.
Example
Assume we have created the StDb database containing only one CN station
(as in the example in py
). Let’s append a new
station to the database with a different network code and using only the basic
station attributes. Note that the fields (e.g., NY
, NEW
below are
typed in the terminal by the user)
$ ls_stdb.py cn_list
Listing Station Pickle: cn_list.pkl
CN.WHY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) CN.WHY
Station: CN WHY
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.65970, -134.88251, 1.273
StartTime: 1994-10-03 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
$ append_stdb.py cn_list
********************************
* New Station
* Network: NY
* Station: NEW
* Channel: BH
* LocId: --
* Longitude: -120.
* Latitude: 80.
* Start: 2018-01-01
* End: 2018-06-01
* Added to DB
* Another Station? [Y]/N: N
Saving new database: cn_list.apd.pkl
$ ls_stdb.py cn_list.apd
Listing Station Pickle: cn_list.apd.pkl
CN.WHY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) CN.WHY
Station: CN WHY
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 60.65970, -134.88251, 1.273
StartTime: 1994-10-03 00:00:00
EndTime: 2599-12-31 23:59:59
Status: open
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
NY.NEW
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
2) NY.NEW
Station: NY NEW
Alternate Networks: None
Channel: BH ; Location: --
Lon, Lat, Elev: 80.00000, -120.00000, 0.000
StartTime: 2018-01-01 00:00:00
EndTime: 2018-06-01 00:00:00
Status: ?
Polarity: 1
Azimuth Correction: 0.000000
Edit Station Info¶
Program¶
edit_stdb.py
Description¶
Edit Station Database Dictionary contained in pickle file.
The station dictionary contains keys that are named NET.STA.CHAN, where CHAN
is a two character representation of the desired channel (ex, BH, HH, LH).
Within each KEY is the set of data used in later programs to define the
station information. The data is stored as a dictionary, with each dictionary
element being an object of class StDbElement
. An item has:
stdb[stkey]:
.station
.network
.altnet
.channel
.location
.latitude
.longitude
.elevation
.startdate
.enddate
.polarity
.azcorr
.status
Usage¶
edit_stdb.py -h
Usage: edit_stdb.py [options] <station pickle file>
Program to make basic modifications to a station database pickle file
Options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
--keys=KEYS Specify a comma separated list of keys to return.
These can be fragments of a key to include all keys
matching any fragment.
-L, --long-keys Specify Key format. Default is Net.Stn. Long keys are
Net.Stn.Chn
-O OFILE, --output-file=OFILE
Specify an output file name for the edited database.
Default behaviour performs the changes in place on the
input file.
-a, --ascii Specify to write ascii Pickle files instead of binary.
Ascii are larger file size, but more likely to be
system independent.
Convert Database to KML¶
Program¶
stdb_to_kml.py
Description¶
Convert a station Database from a .pkl
file into a .kml
file for use
in plotting in Google Earth.
Fields in the .kml
file include¶
Latitude
Longitude
Elevation
Start Time
End Time
Open?
Channels
Usage¶
stdb_to_kml.py -h
Usage: stdb_to_kml.py [options] <station pickle file>
Program to create a KML file for plotting based on the contents of a station
pickle file
Options:
-h, --help show this help message and exit
--keys=KEYS Specify a comma separated list of keys to return.
These can be fragments of a key to include all keys
matching any fragment.
-V VERB, -v VERB, --verb-level=VERB
Specify verbosity. Default 0: no output. 1: network
list. 2: include station list.
-o OUTFILE, --outfile=OUTFILE
Output kml file
-s SCALE, --icon-scale=SCALE
Icon Size Scale (default 1.8)
-r, --no-random-colours
Turn off random colours (default random on)
-T DOCTITLE, --Document-title=DOCTITLE
KML Document Title
-a, --ascii Specify to write ascii Pickle files instead of binary.
Ascii are larger file size, but more likely to be
system independent.


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I like bikes.
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or browse the files simple_configurator


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Fossil Threads in the Web of Life
What's 75 million years old and brand spanking new? A teenage Utahceratops! Come to the Saroyan, armed with your best dinosaur roar, when Scott Sampson, Research Curator at the Utah Museum of Natural History, steps to the podium. Sampson's research has focused on the ecology and evolution of late Cretaceous dinosaurs and he has conducted fieldwork in a number of countries in Africa.
Scott Sampson is a Canadian-born paleontologist who received his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Toronto. His doctoral work focused on two new species of ceratopsids (horned dinosaurs) from the Late Cretaceous of Montana, as well as the growth and function of certopsid horns and frills.
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by Anirudh Krishna, http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5683/Civil_Society_Krishna.htm
Aid to civil society is becoming an increasingly important part of the development agenda. Located in the space between the family and the state, and promoting coordinated public action among their members and other citizens, civil society organizations have been celebrated most often for their role in promoting and protecting democracy 1. Increasingly, however, their contribution to economic development and poverty reduction are also being acknowledged and supported 2.
A fundamental aspect of the operation of civil society organizations (CSOs) concerns the mediating role that they play between the individual and the state. Analysts have demonstrated empirically how both states and citizens can benefit when a dense web of civil society organizations mediates the relationship between them. The performance of government programs is improved and the impact of state policy is enhanced and made more widespread when, instead of interacting with citizens as atomized individuals, state agencies deal with relatively organized citizens' groups. Citizens are also able to derive greater benefits from government programs and from market opportunities when their individual efforts are organized and made more cohesive by CSOs. 3
There are good reasons to believe why organizations originating in society can perform these mediating roles more effectively compared to other organizations that are initiated and controlled by the state. While analysts of development have focused traditionally on the resources and capacities that exist among state agencies, a relatively ignored resource, comprised by the talents and energies that exist among the poor themselves, is increasingly being identified by recent studies conducted under the rubric of social capital. Civil society organizations, these studies indicate, are important for mobilizing social capital to serve development objectives.
Social capital has been defined as those aspects of social organization, including networks, norms and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit. Communities and groups that are more closely united by bonds of trust and networks of mutual assistance are more likely to achieve superior development performance compared to other communities and groups where such bonds and networks are weaker. Social capital in this reckoning has both a cognitive dimension - consisting of norms, values, attitudes and beliefs that predispose people toward collective action - and a structural dimension, composed of formal or informal organizations that facilitate collective action for achieving some common objective 4.
Having a high level of social capital, a community is endowed with the capacity to tackle multiple tasks related to collective well being. Some agency is necessary, however, to harness this endowment and to convert it into a stream of benefits. How exactly is the social capital of any community brought to bear upon any particular development problem? How, for instance, can a community of poor citizens utilize the social capital that they have for resolving some common problem, say, building a water supply system or enhancing agricultural productivity? Empirical research on social capital is still relatively new, but the emergent evidence indicates that some act of agency is necessary in most instances for making productive use of the resource, social capital.
CSOs play the critical role in mobilizing social capital. Social capital is a resource that any community possesses to some level and it can help in resolving multiple problems of a collective nature. Like any other resource, however, social capital also needs to be activated and it needs to be combined with other kinds of resources, including physical, financial and human resources.  To be helpful for development or for any other purpose, the stock of social capital possessed by any community needs to be converted into a flow of benefits. Like a lode of rich mineral ore, social capital has only potential and not real value - until it is activated and combined judiciously with other resources.
These acts of mobilizing social capital and harnessing it together with other resources are performed in the main by CSOs. Usually, CSOs that have a local origin can tap - legitimately and accountably - into the cultural and social resources that comprise social capital. Evidence collected by the small group of studies conducted so far concerning development and social capital indicate quite clearly that forms of organization imposed from the outside are rarely successful in tapping into communities' resources of social capital 5.
Earlier studies intended to study the effects that different types of organizations have in terms of mobilizing people's participation in development programs also support a similar conclusion. Membership organizations and those emanating from the grassroots up are more likely to draw upon local traditions of coordination and cooperation compared to other organizations that are set down from above 6.
One critical advantage, thus, that CSOs usually have over state-sponsored organizations concerns their ability to tap, effectively and legitimately, into societies' reservoirs of social capital. As good results are achieved with the help of collective action, social capital gets built up and traditions of cooperation for mutual benefit are further reinforced. Encouraging and facilitating these virtuous cycles of social capital mobilization provides an important reason behind the current concern with assisting civil society organizations.
However, while the roles played by CSOs in effecting social mobilization and harnessing social capital are being increasingly well recognized, there is relatively little practical guidance available that can assist practitioners translate from expectations into ground realities. How should plans and strategies be devised in any given situation that can assist in strengthening CSOs appropriately? The sub-field of development concerned with strengthening civil society is still relatively new, and few answers have been provided to deal with issues of practical concern. Theory building in this new and emergent area will be both slow and inductive. Specific situations require far more attention to detail than theoreticians of civil society can usually provide, so deductive accounts are hardly sufficient for this purpose. Inductive accounts, based on the experiences of pioneering projects, will therefore provide a major part of the learning required to assist and guide future endeavors. It is useful and important in this context to bring together insights and lessons from the pioneers' examples - not merely to accord well deserved recognition to their efforts, but also to serve as a benchmark for future learning.
This volume of case studies has been put together with this intention of promoting mutual learning among those concerned with advancing civil society solutions for development and poverty reduction. Eight case studies, representing an equal number of projects and countries, have been selected from among a host of instructive and interesting experiences examined by the editors. This selection of cases was based as much on the excellence of results achieved in any particular case as on the richness in which these experiences were documented. Each case leads the reader step-by-step through the various stages of its particular learning experience, elucidating how particular problems were satisfactorily resolved in a specific situation, and providing insights about how similar processes and programs can be developed in other countries and contexts.
Though not by themselves constituting any generalized body of theory relevant to all situations and every country, these cases nevertheless represent a rich lode of practical experience, gained in a variety of different situations, and relating to different sectors, different countries, and different types of civil society organizations. The brief analytical framework presented below helps to organize these individual experiences into a cumulative body of knowledge that holds useful insights for practitioners as they deal with field situations elsewhere in the developing world.
The existence of a number of contending definitions complicates the task of identifying civil society organizations. For the purpose of this volume, we have selected a broad-based and relatively non-controversial definition that regards civil society as "the realm of organized social life that is voluntary, self-generating, (largely) self-supporting, autonomous from the state, and bound by a legal order or set of shared rules. It consists of a vast array of organizations, both formal and informal, including interest groups, cultural and religious organizations, civic and developmental associations, issue-oriented movements, the mass media, research and educational institutions, and similar organizations." 7
Notice that the description of organizations associated with the term civil society has deliberately been left somewhat vague and open-ended. It is neither possible nor useful to make any final list of CSOs that can apply universally and at all times. Which sorts of organizations qualify as CSOs will need to be determined with reference to the specific situation.
The constituents of civil society in any given setting can be distinguished by considering the functions that particular organizations perform or do not perform on behalf of individual citizens. It is with respect to their inclinations and their effectiveness in performing these functions that specific organizations in any particular country can or cannot be classified as CSOs 8.
Broadly, three sets of functions are performed to varying degrees by different types of civil society organizations:
Articulating citizens' interests and demands;
Defending citizens' rights; and
Providing goods and services directly, without recourse to state agencies.
Each of these functions is important, given the particular context, for mobilizing citizens toward the various tasks involved in reducing poverty.
Schemes of classification exist that differentiate among CSOs as membership vs. non-membership organizations; small, face-to-face organizations vs. large, subscription organizations spontaneous vs. professionally managed organizations; grassroots vs. umbrella organizations; etc. Any of these types of organizations can be relevant, however, provided that it serves one or more of the three functions stated above, and many different types of CSOs are represented in the cases included in this volume. It is important to recognize that there are a variety of organizations, serving a multitude of objectives, each related to empowering citizens and mobilizing social capital to serve collectively valued purposes 9.
Articulating citizens' interests and demands is an important function performed by CSOs. Particularly when state policies and the programs of government agencies do not take account sufficiently of needs of the poor or of some other vulnerable sections, CSOs can step into this breach and help to represent their needs and interests. Cases from South Africa and Ukraine included within this volume illustrate situations where civil society actors have mobilized sections of society and where government policies have changed based on the interests and demands voiced by these actors.
In South Africa, it was the rural poor, particularly women and non-white people, whose concerns were not addressed adequately or in any effective manner by government departments. Even after a more democratic and representative government had replaced the apartheid state, many women and non-white males continued to live amid grinding poverty. A group of national CSOs got together to devise solutions to this problem. Acting in coordination with selected government agencies, they organized a series of Poverty Forums at different locations across this country, where the poor could come forward and speak about poverty as they experienced it in their everyday lives. Government policies have changed considerably to reflect the interests and demands that the poor have expressed at these forums. For the first time in this country, and perhaps anywhere in the world, policy makers are dealing with poverty in terms of the lived experiences of the poor. It is difficult to imagine how the interests of the poor in South Africa could have been equally well represented without the intervention of the concerned CSOs.
In Ukraine, it was handicapped citizens whose cause was represented by a concerned civil society organization. Government policies concerning the handicapped have improved significantly since Cerebral, an organization formed among parents of handicapped children, commenced its activities in the capital city of Kyiv. Small-scale but highly effective service provision by this group of concerned citizens served as a demonstration and a catalyst for wider changes in national policy. Significantly, citizens' attitudes toward the handicapped have also undergone a healthy change - reflecting the fact that CSOs are not always aligned in favor of society and against the state.
Articulating interests and demands is a key function served by almost every civil society organization. While political scientists have traditionally ascribed the function of interest articulation to political parties, such parties are not always strong in developing countries, and even where they are strong, they do not always represent the interests of the poor. Providing voice to the poor is consequently a function that can very often be performed only by active and accountable CSOs. Particularly where it concerns situations of extreme social exclusion, for example, among indigenous populations or with people who live in remote and inaccessible areas, voicing interests and demands is a function that will usually be performed by area-based CSOs.
Both local- and national-level CSOs have been involved in performing these functions in the cases of Philippines and the Pacific that are presented in this volume. Additionally, these CSOs have also been defending the rights that have traditionally accrued to indigenous people of these countries and which were cast aside during decades of unaccountable and exploitative rule.
CSOs in the Pacific republic of Vanuatu have been actively involved in designing and implementing processes of local governance that combine the strengths of tradition together with the speed and efficacy of modern scientific techniques. Oral historians, the traditional keepers of land rights in parts of Vanuatu, are working alongside government technicians and trained local youth, who use the latest global positioning technology to conduct land surveys. While land boundaries are marked out by these technicians, land rights are adjudicated by a local council headed by oral historians. Land disputes, a cause of great social disruption during the past, have been largely eliminated through this innovative combination of traditional institutions and modern technology. In the process, peoples? traditional rights to land have been restored and codified, and local institutions have been revived that can uphold these rights and adjudicate local disputes.
Local, village- and community-level, CSOs have worked in tandem with national CSOs and government agencies to bring about the mix of law, policy and procedures that have contributed to success in Philippines and the Pacific. An important lesson that emerges from these experiences concerns the need to combine the resources and talents at the disposal of an array of organizations. The best results are achieved when CSOs work not individually and in isolation from other organizations, but when partnerships are formed among different types of CSOs, distinguished by sector and level of operation, and also between CSOs and government agencies.
Defending citizens' rights is an important theme in another group of cases that deal with post-conflict situations. In Guatemala, for instance, decades of unremitting civil war had resulted in tearing apart the social fabric and eroding whatever trust existed among citizens and the government. Civil society organizations played a critical role in this situation in reestablishing social trust, in setting up institutions that could defend the social contract, and in implementing programs that could bring citizens' rights to bear upon national policy and institution building. Civil society actors involved in this effort were not always or necessarily in conflict with the government. A successful program was developed through restoring mutual confidence and building partnerships among CSOs and government agencies.
Accomplishing similar objectives was made much harder in Laos on account of the reluctance that this country's government had toward any form of civic association that functioned outside and apart from the state. Defending citizens' rights to form associations in this context required a careful and balanced strategy. The advantages of civic associations would need to be demonstrated carefully, without in any way appearing to threaten the government, so that the risk of strong and adverse responses could be minimized. To succeed in this milieu, the strategy of strengthening civil society had to start small and build incrementally. It was necessary first to demonstrate success on a small scale. Results accumulated from a succession of small-scale demonstrations provided leverage for seeking changes in policy at the national level. To a considerable extent, the strategy developed in Laos has worked successfully, at least through the initial stages of this necessarily long drawn-out process. The government is more permissive in its attitudes toward civil society, and more projects are being taken up among CSOs in this country.
Defending rights quite often involves CSOs in performing monitoring and watchdog functions vis-à-vis government departments and donor agencies, keeping the personnel of these agencies honest to the objectives that they are mandated to pursue. Performing these functions sometimes brings CSOs into conflict with these government and donor agencies. More often, however, and with greater advantages all around, disputes and differences are resolved through a gradualist strategy, such as that of Laos.
Compromises often arise among agency views based on the mutual learning that results from implementing small-scale experiments and pilot projects. The Ukraine case in this volume shows how citizens' group experimented, initially on a small scale, with an alternative model of rehabilitation for handicapped children. Avoiding head-on confrontation with government officials - even when their aims were frustrated, for instance, by heavy-handed bureaucrats who repeatedly shut down their first support center - this group was later successful not only in scaling up its effort but also in getting the government to adopt its model for implementing nationwide.
Ratcheting up gradually has been key to the development of other CSOs as well who have had to defend their vision and their programs against co-optation by government or donor agencies. In Trinidad and Tobago, for example, an area-based CSO has kept donor agencies honest toward their commitment for integrated, long-term and sustained development. Donor-supported assistance deteriorates quite often into a series of disconnected projects that displace any long-term action plan that an assisted CSO might have developed. Though most donors proclaim in favor of capacity building and sustainable development, their lending activities can result under some circumstances in diminishing capacity and reducing the prospects for sustainable development. Particularly when the donor supports isolated and short-term projects and long-term and programmatic goals are ignored, capacity building for sustainable development is likely to suffer in consequence. The Toco Foundation in Trinidad and Tobago provides an example of an organizational strategy that has persuaded donor agencies to extend support toward long-term objectives.
Some other cases in this volume also represent how CSOs have discharged the function of defending citizens' rights in a variety of different circumstances. The table below indicates how each of the three sets of functions has been served by CSOs in several different contexts.
|
CASE |
Articulating Interests and Demands |
Defending Rights |
Providing Goods and Services |
Asia |
Philippines |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Laos |
. |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Pacific |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
|
Europe |
Ukraine |
Yes |
. |
Yes |
|
Latin America |
Trinidad and Tobago |
Yes |
. |
Yes |
Guatemala |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
|
Africa |
South Africa |
Yes |
. |
Yes |
Uganda |
Yes |
. |
Yes |
In every one of the cases we have considered in this volume, and in nearly all cases of CSOs' involvement in poverty reduction activities worldwide, there is usually a concern for providing some goods or services directly, i.e., without recourse to the state. Quite often it is the case that CSOs start out with the objective of serving some basic need, such as drinking water in Laos or medical assistance in Ukraine, that is being poorly served by state agencies. It is usually true, however, that even when they start out with such limited objectives, CSOs get drawn into a wider arena, articulating interests on behalf of their members and/or defending their rights vis-à-vis the state. The more CSOs get involved in mediating the relationship between citizens and the state, the more heavily they get drawn into articulating demands and defending rights.
As mentioned before, a critical advantage that CSOs usually have over state-sponsored organizations concerns their ability to tap, effectively and legitimately, into societies' reservoirs of social capital. Among the cases considered in this volume, the one from Uganda provides a good illustration for this proposition. Farmers' groups, organized from below, and federated later into the Ugandan Cooperatives Association and the Ugandan Horticultural Association have been much more successful at mobilizing social capital than have the government-sponsored Village Councils that were imposed in standardized fashion across this country in compliance with administrative directions. Largely dissociated from local norms and values, these Councils have fallen prey in many instances to the unaccountable and self-serving deeds of their leaders. The new administrative laws and systems of grievance representation are not well explained among villagers, many of who live quite far away, both physically and emotionally, from the formal legal system.
Organizations imposed from above - Village Councils, in this case - are usually unable to mobilize social capital, at least not as effectively as other organizations that are constructed from below. Being accountable to their hierarchical superiors, state-invoked local organizations are usually less able to tap into local traditions of cooperation and coordination. Standardization of administrative practices further diminishes the ability of such organizations to adapt themselves to variations in local customs and traditions.
Combining modern institutions with traditional norms and social customs can be more productive, our cases illustrate, than decentralization that is driven by formal and codified rules alone. Highly formalized laws have served to diminish the favorable impacts of decentralization for most people of developing countries. Formal laws and courts remain mostly inaccessible to most people who live in villages. Consequently, many of these people are quite powerless to take advantage of decentralization schemes that bypass traditional systems of control and accountability at the local level 10. The cases in this volume from Philippines and the Pacific illustrate the benefits in terms of mobilizing social capital that can be gained by melding together traditional and modern institutions.
Neither traditional nor modern structures are entirely useful by themselves; rather, it is an appropriate combination of the two forms that are usually best suited for the purpose of development. The importance of this combination can be understood by considering the two dimensions of social capital, cognitive and structural, that were outlined above. While traditional structures are helpful in most cases for mobilizing the cognitive dimension of social capital, the structural dimension is better addressed - at least insofar as the tasks of development and growth are concerned - by establishing an appropriate and task-oriented local organization.
In the Philippines and the Pacific cases, while customary local leaders and oral historians provided the core around which the local organization was built, the organization itself was built from among new and technically competent elements of local society. In Philippines it was women, who served as key constituents of the local organization, while in the Pacific it was educated youth that were trained to apply the new techniques of land surveying. Novel and useful ways of combining tradition with modernity have been pioneered in these two cases as CSOs, not beholden to rigid official procedures, have felt relatively free to experiment with bold and innovative ideas.
Another advantage of working closely with CSOs has to do, thus, with the ability that these organizations have for developing innovative solutions through undertaking pilot projects on a small scale. State agencies tend over time to develop standardized and uniform responses that are implemented with relatively little local adaptation across entire regions and countries. Formal rules and operating procedures often limit the flexibility that even highly motivated agency staffs have for adapting national programs to local circumstances. CSOs, who have much fewer compulsions to bind themselves into some preconceived sets of operating procedures, are often more capable of innovating new approaches to development. Especially since they work on a small scale, CSOs usually provide excellent laboratories for pioneering new methods and strategies in a relatively efficacious and cost-effective manner.
Cerebral in Ukraine and the Toco Foundation in Trinidad and Tobago provide examples of this kind of development. Cerebral has pioneered the development of new approaches to deal effectively with rehabilitating handicapped children, not just physically but also economically and socially, and the Toco Foundation has developed original models for promoting eco-tourism in a region where natural beauty is profuse but also very fragile.
Pioneering innovative approaches on a small scale is not the entire measure of success, however. It is important in addition to disseminate these approaches and to scale up the effort so that it can make a measure of impact on the vast numbers of poor and powerless citizens who live in these countries. Cerebral's model has been adopted for nationwide implementation by Ukraine's government, and the Toco Foundation has been entering into collaborations with other CSOs and also with government departments to promote the spread of its strategy and approach.
Not all CSOs are able to scale up effectively the approaches that they have developed and which have worked well on a small scale. Quite often, CSOs and their external sponsors are not sufficiently sensitive to the need for maintaining healthy ties with government agencies. Though autonomy of action is often the motive behind choosing to remain aloof from government, this reduces the ability that any CSO has for exercising an effective influence upon the design of policy and large-scale national programs. Working in coordination with government agencies has its costs, no doubt, as Michael Als, the founder of the Toco Foundation, explains lucidly in the parts he has contributed to this case study; but the advantages that Toco has derived from these associations appear to outweigh the costs.
Development works best, as remarked earlier, when the strengths available to different agencies can be combined together in mutually beneficial ways. Though CSOs are much better suited for mobilizing social capital at the community level, government has the distinct advantage for mobilizing institutional resources at the regional and national levels. While we make a plea in this volume for supporting and strengthening civil society organizations, and while we use case materials to illustrate some ways in which these ends can be achieved in practice, we do not for a moment intend suggesting that these activities should be undertaken at the expense of the state.
Combining the spread and reach of government with the depth and flexibility of CSOs is to our minds the most effective organizational method for achieving development objectives. What we hope to achieve through this volume is to generate more interest in the second, and relatively less well attended, among these two complementary aspects of building organizational capacity, namely that related to strengthening civil society. That strengthening civil society is better accomplished through following a positive-sum approach - and not in some zero-sum manner, which views the state and civil society as adversaries, with the gains of one party being the loss of the other - is illustrated quite handily by each of the eight cases in this volume.
The selection of cases represented in this volume all draw upon UNDP's experience of working with CSOs in different parts of the developing world. While these organizations must themselves be given full credit for the remarkable achievements that many of them have recorded, UNDP does take pride in the fact that, to some extent and at some times, it was associated with the endeavors that have made these achievements possible.
The United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) has been increasingly involved with non-governmental organizations, community-based associations, grassroots groups, and other organizations of civil society, especially during the last two decades. For the initial three decades since its inception in 1945, UNDP's partners had traditionally been governments and other UN System bodies. Since 1975, however, UNDP has progressively sought to enlarge and enrich its engagement with civil society actors as well.
Commitment by UNDP has deepened since then as CSOs have come to be perceived as innovative in meeting community needs, flexible in their implementation modalities, conscious of local traditions and circumstances, as well as being cost-effective in service delivery. This change in awareness was reflected in 1986 when at the instance of UNDP's Governing Council a separate division, now entitled the Civil Society Organizations and Participation Programme, was established at headquarters with the specific objectives of enhancing UNDP's involvement with organizations of civil society.
The 1990's have proven pivotal for UNDP's approach toward mainstreaming engagements with civil society organizations. In part, this enlarged concern stems from the major outcomes and recommendations of pivotal international conferences organized under the auspices of the UN. Of particular importance was the World Summit of Social Development held in 1995 that called upon the international community, including all actors of the civil society to "positively contribute their own share of efforts and resources" toward assisting with the global objective of poverty reduction. It is from this commitment that UNDP derives it mandate to expand its work with CSOs. The concept and practices of Civil Society Organizations are now firmly entrenched as an integral part of UNDP's work at country, regional, and global levels.
Collaboration with CSOs is an officially declared and policy of UNDP's work. In 1998, an Information Disclosure Policy was adopted to ensure that all salient information on programmes and projects in made available freely to interested members of the public. Several CSO representatives have been nominated to sit on an oversight panel that assists with the implementation of this policy. UNDP has invited leaders of civil society to join with government planners and members of the private sector as well as other donors in preparing, implementing and evaluating programmes. To facilitate this process, UNDP has issued extensive operational guidelines in order that CSOs can be involved in all aspects of program design and management and not simply as downstream sub-contractors. CSOs participate in the formulation of Advisory Notes, Country Co-operation Frameworks, Policy Papers, local Project Appraisal Committees, etc., that is in all aspects of UNDP's work related to poverty reduction and sustainable human development. A committee comprised of CSOs, both North and South, is being set-up to consult with the Administrator and the Executive Board on key policy decisions.
There is need, however, for deepening this ongoing process. CSOs are as yet only peripherally involved in most countries in policy-making and governance activities. Increasing CSOs' involvement with the state and promoting mechanisms that facilitate co-operative relationships among state and civil society actors are goals that will acquire additional salience and commitment in the future.
A distinctive contribution of the UN lies in bringing civil society into the mainstream of public affairs and political commitments that affect the reduction of poverty and promote environmental conservation, gender equality, transparency, peace, and human rights at all levels of society - with a distinct emphasis on assisting the weakest actors. Working with civil society organisations will be increasingly aimed, thus, toward contributing to a different dynamic of promoting co-operation among state and civil society actors that is consistent with the UN's principles.
While these aims are becoming increasingly clear, the task of altering consciousness and promoting change is often slow and arduous. Even as UNDP embraces this transformative agenda and views development as a people's movement that transcends projects, structural change continues to be inhibited by an interlocking set of interests that are sustained and legitimated by a development vision grounded in the politics of the "powerful". Ultimately governments and markets must be persuaded to deal with the global development crisis - consisting of significant levels of human deprivation - and to address the associated tasks in collaboration with organizations of civil society. By providing examples of successful collaboration in practice, it is hoped, the cases in this volume can contribute toward making such a transformation easier and more widely accepted.
In stepping up its efforts to work with and support CSOs, UNDP commits itself to deliver its share of the global responsibility to make the UN system fully responsive to the aspirations of "We, the peoples." While the ground has shifted, the task of altering consciousness and promoting change is often slow and arduous. Even for UNDP, as it embraces the transformative agenda and views development as a people's movement that transcends projects and accepts sustainability and inclusiveness as its defining principles, structural change continues to be inhibited by an interlocking set of interests that are sustained and legitimated by a development vision grounded in the politics of the "powerful". Ultimately governments and markets must be persuaded to deal with the global development crisis, that of significant levels of human deprivation, in collaboration with organizations of civil society.
Chapter 2 through 8 of this volume present the experiences of a selection of CSOs that were assisted to a smaller or greater extent by UNDP. Chapter 10 concludes this volume by drawing together the lessons presented by the various cases.
The literature relating to the roles played by such organizations in the "fourth wave" of democratizations in Eastern Europe and Latin America are represented, for example, by Schmitter and O'Donnell (199x), Ekiert (199x), [ADD OTHERS].
See, for example, Barber 1995; Fukuyama 1995; Kothari 1988; Ostrom, Gardner and Walker 1994; World Bank 1993, 1997.
Useful theoretical and empirical accounts of these relationships are provided, for instance, in Ostrom (1990); Rosenstone and Hansen (1993); and Verba, Schlozman and Brady (1995).
On social capital, in general, and its links with institutional performance, see Putnam et al. (1993) and Coleman (1990). On the distinction between the cognitive and structural dimensions of social capital, see Uphoff (1999) and Krishna (1999).
For instance, see Grootaert (1998), Krishna and Uphoff (1999), Reid and Salmen (1999).
Representative studies of this genre include Esman and Uphoff (1984), Carroll (1992), and Farrington et al. (1993). Other organizations can also support social mobilization at the local level, these studies indicate, but only those externally imposed organizations can be successful in this respect that learn to be accountable to the local population (instead of to their hierarchical superiors) and that can thereby gain some degree of local legitimacy.
This definition of civil society has been taken from Diamond, Linz and Lipset (1995: 27). Contending definitions of civil society presented by other authors are usually concerned about where exactly the boundaries should be drawn. Though little controversy exists about including grassroots groups, NGOs, universities, interest groups, and the media within the ambit of civil society, the inclusion of other groups, particularly private business, political parties, and kinship groups, provides ground for disagreement and dispute.
This argument about considering civil society in terms of "what it does" rather than in terms of ?what it is? is developed further and presented in Uphoff and Krishna (1999), which also elaborates further on the three functions performed by civil society organizations and by other organizations that act in support of civil society.
These and other categories of CSOs are considered, for instance, by Carroll (1992), McAdam, McCarthy and Zald (1988), Putnam (1996), and others.


Broadband
Breathnach questions why broadband plan costs twice as much in Louth as in Armagh
Granham McCourt, preferred bidder for the NBP, bidding for Project Stratum in the North
by Donard McCabeLouth TD Declan Breathnach has questioned why the preferred bidder for the state’s National Broadband Plan is rolling out broadband in the North for less than half of the cost.
Deputy Breathnach, who is Fianna Fáil's spokesperson on cross-border co-operation says that Granahan McCourt, which is the preferred bidder for the National Broadband Plan, is bidding for Project Stratum, an initiative to roll out broadband to 100,000 premises in rural areas in the North.
The Louth TD said:
“High-speed broadband is vital and long overdue to rural Ireland, but we cannot write a blank cheque for the companies who are responsible for the service. The National Broadband Plan will cost about €5,000 per household, while Project Stratum will cost about €1,900 per household.
“The same company is going to roll out the same service, in the same country, but is doing so for well over twice the price. While I accept that the plan to provide broadband in the two jurisdictions are different, the price difference raises further questions about the value for money which have been achieved through the tender process.”
Breathnach concluded: “Other companies have said that they can deliver the same service for half the price of the National Broadband Plan.
"Granahan McCourt itself is willing to provide broadband in two parts of Ireland hugely different prices. The Minister for Communications needs to outline why it costs over twice as much to deliver broadband to Louth as it does in Armagh."


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On the Mindless Menace of Violence" was a speech given by United States
Senator and presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy. He delivered it at the
Sheraton-Cleveland Hotel on April 5, 1968, in the wake of riots and chaos following
the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., an African-American civil rights leader.
Speechwriters worked early into the morning on a full response to the assassination.
After revising the draft, Kennedy spoke for only 10 minutes in front of 2,200 people at the City Club of
Cleveland, outlining his views on violence in American society. He faulted both the rioters and the white
establishment who, from his perspective, were responsible for the deterioration of social conditions in
the United States. He proposed no specific solutions, but urged the audience to seek common ground
and cooperation. Journalist Jack Newfield framed the address as a suitable epitaph for the senator,
who was himself assassinated two months later. (Full article...)
April 5:Feast Day of Vincent Ferrer; Hansik in South Korea


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HEALTH AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE LABORATORY
maecenas feugiat ex purus, quis volutpat lacus placerat
The £1.5 million Health and Human Performance Laboratory is a state-of-the-art facility for teaching, research and sport science support in the field of biomechanics.Students learn to use the equipment to conduct detailed analyses of sports movements, focusing on performance enhancement and injury prevention.
The lab has been equipped to a high standard with a 10 camera high-speed 3D motion capture system linked to five integrated AMTI and Kistler force plates.It also features 16 channel wireless EMG, a Biodex isokinetic dynamometer, an EquiTest analyser for dynamic posturography, a motorised Woodway treadmill, and a strength and conditioning area.


Next: load-time-value, Previous: eval, Up: Evaluation and Compilation Dictionary
eval-when
({situation}*) {form}* ⇒ {result}*
situation—One of the symbols :compile-toplevel , :load-toplevel , :execute , compile , load , or eval .
The use of eval, compile, and load is deprecated.
forms—an implicit progn.
results—the values of the forms if they are executed, or nil if they are not.
The body of an eval-when form is processed as an implicit progn, but only in the situations listed.
The use of the situations :compile-toplevel (or compile) and :load-toplevel (or load) controls whether and when evaluation occurs when eval-when appears as a top level form in code processed by compile-file. See File Compilation.
The use of the situation :execute (or eval) controls whether evaluation occurs for other eval-when forms; that is, those that are not top level forms, or those in code processed by eval or compile. If the :execute situation is specified in such a form, then the body forms are processed as an implicit progn; otherwise, the eval-when form returns nil.
eval-when normally appears as a top level form, but it is meaningful for it to appear as a non-top-level form. However, the compile-time side effects described in Compilation only take place when eval-when appears as a top level form.
One example of the use of eval-when is that for the compiler to be able to read a file properly when it uses user-defined reader macros, it is necessary to write
(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :load-toplevel :execute) (set-macro-character #\$ #'(lambda (stream char) (declare (ignore char)) (list 'dollar (read stream))))) ⇒ T
This causes the call to set-macro-character to be executed in the compiler’s execution environment, thereby modifying its reader syntax table.
;;; The EVAL-WHEN in this case is not at toplevel, so only the :EXECUTE ;;; keyword is considered. At compile time, this has no effect. ;;; At load time (if the LET is at toplevel), or at execution time ;;; (if the LET is embedded in some other form which does not execute ;;; until later) this sets (SYMBOL-FUNCTION 'FOO1) to a function which ;;; returns 1. (let ((x 1)) (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel :compile-toplevel) (setf (symbol-function 'foo1) #'(lambda () x)))) ;;; If this expression occurs at the toplevel of a file to be compiled, ;;; it has BOTH a compile time AND a load-time effect of setting ;;; (SYMBOL-FUNCTION 'FOO2) to a function which returns 2. (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel :compile-toplevel) (let ((x 2)) (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel :compile-toplevel) (setf (symbol-function 'foo2) #'(lambda () x))))) ;;; If this expression occurs at the toplevel of a file to be compiled, ;;; it has BOTH a compile time AND a load-time effect of setting the ;;; function cell of FOO3 to a function which returns 3. (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel :compile-toplevel) (setf (symbol-function 'foo3) #'(lambda () 3))) ;;; #4: This always does nothing. It simply returns NIL. (eval-when (:compile-toplevel) (eval-when (:compile-toplevel) (print 'foo4))) ;;; If this form occurs at toplevel of a file to be compiled, FOO5 is ;;; printed at compile time. If this form occurs in a non-top-level ;;; position, nothing is printed at compile time. Regardless of context, ;;; nothing is ever printed at load time or execution time. (eval-when (:compile-toplevel) (eval-when (:execute) (print 'foo5))) ;;; If this form occurs at toplevel of a file to be compiled, FOO6 is ;;; printed at compile time. If this form occurs in a non-top-level ;;; position, nothing is printed at compile time. Regardless of context, ;;; nothing is ever printed at load time or execution time. (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel) (eval-when (:compile-toplevel) (print 'foo6)))
The following effects are logical consequences of the definition of eval-when:
Execution of a single eval-when expression executes the body code at most once.
Macros intended for use in top level forms should be written so that side-effects are done by the forms in the macro expansion. The macro-expander itself should not do the side-effects.
For example:
Wrong:
(defmacro foo () (really-foo) `(really-foo))
Right:
(defmacro foo () `(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :execute :load-toplevel) (really-foo)))
Adherence to this convention means that such macros behave intuitively when appearing as non-top-level forms.
Placing a variable binding around an eval-when reliably captures the binding because the compile-time-too mode cannot occur (i.e., introducing a variable binding means that the eval-when is not a top level form). For example,
(let ((x 3)) (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel :compile-toplevel) (print x)))
prints 3 at execution (i.e., load) time, and does not print anything at compile time. This is important so that expansions of defun and defmacro can be done in terms of eval-when and can correctly capture the lexical environment.
(defun bar (x) (defun foo () (+ x 3)))
might expand into
(defun bar (x) (progn (eval-when (:compile-toplevel) (compiler::notice-function-definition 'foo '(x))) (eval-when (:execute :load-toplevel) (setf (symbol-function 'foo) #'(lambda () (+ x 3))))))
which would be treated by the above rules the same as
(defun bar (x) (setf (symbol-function 'foo) #'(lambda () (+ x 3))))
when the definition of bar is not a top level form.
Next: load-time-value, Previous: eval, Up: Evaluation and Compilation Dictionary


About me! 👨🏻💻
I am Kumar Shubham, a senior student at VIT Chennai. My major interests include:
Study of algorithms and Data structures
Study of programming languages and paardigms
Linux kernel and internals


The waste and recycling industry has changed over the years, the days of running a horse and cart and collecting waste product from the streets has all but disappeared.
Over the past decade, the waste industry has changed and adopted a sophisticated logistics, manufacturing and production process for collecting, sorting and recycling waste.
Products such as RDF and SRF has become popular due to the potential cost savings, however as the sector advances and changes, so has Environmental legislation, duty of care, VOSA regulations, Employment law, staff management and Health and safety.
Our job is to assist and support you, take away the headaches, so you can get on with running your Waste Transfer Station or Landfill.


Trees are commonly represented as binary trees, a rooted tree structure in which each node has no more than two children.
A node of a binary tree is represented by a structure containing data and two pointers (left and right) to other structures of the same type.
class Node {
constructor(value = null) {
this.value = value;
this.left = null;
this.right = null;
}
}


eBay-Classifieds API documentation, specification version: 1.11
Home navigation
Page replies
Reply use-cases:
Method/URL
# Execute reply
POST /replies/reply-to-ad
# Prototype data, gives you template of reply payload
GET /replies/reply-to-ad/prototype
Expected response codes:
- 201 Created: Successfully posted reply email. Response payload contains the sent payload.
- 200 Bad Request: Validation error (e.g. unknown ad-id).
Sample payload
Sample snippet. For the correct payload (including namespaces) refer to prototype call (see above).
eBay-Classifieds API documentation, specification version: 1.11


Vestibular effects of chronic perilymph fistula in the cat.
Rotary chair, fistula, caloric, and vestibulospinal tests were performed before and . Round Window, Ear*; Temporal Bone/pathology; Vestibular Function Tests .
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2115657
Perilymph Fistula
Jan 23, 2013 . An opening in the round window allows perilymph to leak out into the middle . A fistula test , which entails making a sensitive recording of eye .
http://www.dizziness-and-balance.com/disorders/unilat/fistula.html
A Balance Test for Chronic Perilymph Fistula
Aug 5, 2012 . Perilymph fistula is defined as a leak of perilymph at the oval or round window. It excludes other conditions with fistula tests due to a dehiscent .
http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijol/2012/163691/
Perilymph Fistula - What is a Perilymph Fistula
Perilymph Fistula occurs when there is a tear in the thin membrane called the oval or round window which separates the inner ear from the middle ear. . fistula test; valsalva test; audiometry; Electrocochleography (ECOG) (a test that records .
http://ent.about.com/od/entdisorderspr/a/perilymph_fistula.htm
Perilymph Fistula in Emergency Medicine
Apr 13, 2012 . Most commonly, a tear in the round or oval window leads to loss of . (CTP) detection test identifies traumatic perilymphatic fistula due to .
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/764117-overview
Perilymph fistulas in infants and children.
A PLF was identified at the round window, oval window, or both in 29 (66%) of the . of preoperative vestibular function studies, which included a fistula test, and .
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6420749
[The "window-fistula symptom" in lesions of the round and oval ...
[The "window-fistula symptom" in lesions of the round and oval window]. . Round Window, Ear/injuries*; Round Window, Ear/surgery; Vestibular Function Tests .
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3495713


DRANDSKIPAHEAD / SRANDSKIPAHEAD
Advance a generator N places.
(Note that SRANDSKIPAHEAD is the single precision version of DRANDSKIPAHEAD. The argument lists of both routines are identical except that any double precision arguments of DRANDSKIPAHEAD are replaced in SRANDSKIPAHEAD by single precision arguments - type REAL in FORTRAN or type float in C).
— Input/Output: INTEGER STATE(*)
The STATE vector holds information on the state of the base generator being used and as such its minimum length varies. Prior to calling
DRANDSKIPAHEAD
STATE must have been initialized. See Initialization of the Base Generators for information on initialization of the STATE variable.
On input: the current state of the base generator.
On output: The STATE vector for a generator that has been advanced N places.
Constraint: The STATE vector must be for either the NAG basic, Wichmann-Hill or L'Ecuyer Combined Recursive base generators.
Example:
C Generate 3 * 100 values from the Uniform distribution C Multiple streams generated using the Skip Ahead method INTEGER LSTATE,N PARAMETER (LSTATE=16,N=100) INTEGER I,INFO,NSKIP INTEGER SEED(1),STATE1(LSTATE),STATE2(LSTATE),STATE3(LSTATE) INTEGER X1(N),X2(N),X3(N) DOUBLE PRECISION A,B C Set the seed SEED(1) = 1234 C Set the distributional parameters A = 0.0D0 B = 1.0D0 C Initialize the STATE1 vector CALL DRANDINITIALIZE(1,1,SEED,1,STATE1,LSTATE,INFO) C Copy the STATE1 vector into other state vectors DO 20 I = 1,LSTATE STATE2(I) = STATE1(I) STATE3(I) = STATE1(I) 20 CONTINUE C Calculate how many places we want to skip, this C should be >> than the number of variates we C wish to generate from each stream NSKIP = N * N C Advance each stream, first does not need changing CALL DRANDSKIPAHEAD(NSKIP,STATE2,INFO) CALL DRANDSKIPAHEAD(2*NSKIP,STATE3,INFO) C Generate 3 sets of N variates from the Univariate distribution CALL DRANDUNIFORM(N,A,B,STATE1,X1,LDX,INFO) CALL DRANDUNIFORM(N,A,B,STATE2,X2,LDX,INFO) CALL DRANDUNIFORM(N,A,B,STATE3,X3,LDX,INFO) C Print the results DO 40 I = 1,N WRITE(6,*) X1(I),X2(I),X3(I) 40 CONTINUE |


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getAddress()
- Method in class Model.
Auditor
getAddress()
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Author
getAddress()
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getAddress()
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Answer
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Instruction
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Answer
getAuthorId()
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Address
getAuthors()
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getConnection()
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DBUtils
getContactdetail()
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Auditor
getContactdetail()
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Author
getContactdetail()
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Employee
getContactDetailAlternativeCellNumber()
- Method in class Model.
Contactdetail
getContactDetailAlternativeMail()
- Method in class Model.
Contactdetail
getContactDetailCellNumber()
- Method in class Model.
Contactdetail
getContactDetailEmailAddress()
- Method in class Model.
Contactdetail
getContactDetailId()
- Method in class Model.
Contactdetail
getCreateTime()
- Method in class Model.
User
getCustomer()
- Method in class Model.
Product
getCustomerId()
- Method in class Model.
Customer
getCustomers()
- Method in class Model.
Address
getCustomers()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getDepartment()
- Method in class Model.
Goal
getDepartment()
- Method in class Model.
Job
getDepartmentId()
- Method in class Model.
Department
getDepartmentManagerId()
- Method in class Model.
Department
getDepartmentName()
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Department
getEmail()
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User
getEmployee()
- Method in class Model.
Manager
getEmployeeContract()
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Employee
getEmployeeDocuments()
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Employee
getEmployeeEmployeeId()
- Method in class Model.
User
getEmployeeId()
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Employee
getEmployees()
- Method in class Model.
Address
getEmployees()
- Method in class Model.
Contactdetail
getEmployees()
- Method in class Model.
Job
getGoalId()
- Method in class Model.
Goal
getGoals()
- Method in class Model.
Department
getGoals()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getInformationId()
- Method in class Model.
Information
getInformationIdNumber()
- Method in class Model.
Information
getInformationInformationId()
- Method in class Model.
Author
getInformationInformationId()
- Method in class Model.
Employee
getInformationName()
- Method in class Model.
Information
getInformationSurname()
- Method in class Model.
Information
getInstruction()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getInstructionArchivedPeriod()
- Method in class Model.
Instruction
getInstructionDescription()
- Method in class Model.
Instruction
getInstructionId()
- Method in class Model.
Instruction
getInstructionOldNumber()
- Method in class Model.
Instruction
getInstructions()
- Method in class Model.
Author
getIsoStandard()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getIsoStandardId()
- Method in class Model.
IsoStandard
getIsoStandardIsoStandardId()
- Method in class Model.
Tab
getIsoStandardLink()
- Method in class Model.
IsoStandard
getIsoStandardName()
- Method in class Model.
IsoStandard
getJob()
- Method in class Model.
Employee
getJobDescr()
- Method in class Model.
Job
getJobId()
- Method in class Model.
Job
getJobs()
- Method in class Model.
Department
getJobTitle()
- Method in class Model.
Job
getManagerId()
- Method in class Model.
Manager
getManagers()
- Method in class Model.
Employee
getMeasurable()
- Method in class Model.
Customer
getMeasurableDecription()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getMeasurableDocuments()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getMeasurableId()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getMeasurableOwner()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getMeasurables()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getMeasurableType()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getPassword()
- Method in class Model.
User
getPeriodCompletionPercent()
- Method in class Model.
Period
getPeriodEndDate()
- Method in class Model.
Period
getPeriodId()
- Method in class Model.
Period
getPeriodPeriodId()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getPeriodStartDate()
- Method in class Model.
Period
getProcess()
- Method in class Model.
Goal
getProcess()
- Method in class Model.
Measurable
getProcessdata()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getProcessDataArchivePeriod()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcessDataAuth()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcessDataDescription()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcessDataDocument()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcessDataId()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcessDataReviewFrequency()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcessdatas()
- Method in class Model.
Instruction
getProcessdatas()
- Method in class Model.
Record
getProcesses()
- Method in class Model.
IsoStandard
getProcesses()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getProcesses()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessId()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getProcessrisk()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getProcessRiskClosedDate()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessRiskCurrentControls()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessRiskDescription()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessRiskDueDate()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessRiskId()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessRiskResponse()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessRiskType()
- Method in class Model.
Processrisk
getProcessType()
- Method in class Model.
Process
getProductId()
- Method in class Model.
Product
getProductName()
- Method in class Model.
Product
getProductPrice()
- Method in class Model.
Product
getProducts()
- Method in class Model.
Customer
getQuestionData()
- Method in class Model.
Question
getQuestionId()
- Method in class Model.
Question
getQuestionQuestionId()
- Method in class Model.
Answer
getRecord()
- Method in class Model.
Processdata
getRecordArchivedPeriod()
- Method in class Model.
Record
getRecordDescription()
- Method in class Model.
Record
getRecordDocuments()
- Method in class Model.
Record
getRecordId()
- Method in class Model.
Record
getSessionFactory()
- Static method in class Util.
HibernateUtil
getSupplierId()
- Method in class Model.
Supplier
getSuppliers()
- Method in class Model.
Audits
getTabId()
- Method in class Model.
Tab
getTabTabId()
- Method in class Model.
Question
getTabTitle()
- Method in class Model.
Tab
getUserId()
- Method in class Model.
User
getUsername()
- Method in class Model.
User
Goal
- Class in
Model
Goal generated by hbm2java
Goal()
- Constructor for class Model.
Goal
Goal(Department, Process)
- Constructor for class Model.
Goal
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Browse the Facades and choose the one that's right for you. There's no judgement here.
Does login. That's about it.
All the meta tags for all the social things. og:, tw:, ipad icons, etc.
Business-y. Get down and defeat the huns 'n stuff.
Well-behaved and simple.


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--- layout: page --- {% include main-menu.html %} {% t workgroups.workgroups.{{page.workgroup}}.title %} {% t workgroups.workgroups.{{page.workgroup}}.description %} {% include workgroups/menu.html %} {{ content }}