(f) dhi is used like dhā (28, 283): sabbadhi, everywhere.
(g) Suffixes so and sā (122, c, d) likewise form adverbs: bahuso, in a great degree; atthaso, according to the sense; balasā, forcibly.
(h) iti, (347) is extensively used as the particle of quotation; it is often abbreviated to ti (See Syntax).
532. (ii) Case-form Adverbs
(a) Some cases of pronouns, and adjectives, are used adverbially.
(b) Accusative Case. This case is very much used adverbially: kiṃ, why?; taṃ there; idaṃ here; yaṃ because, since; from pronouns.
(c) From nouns; divasaṃ during the day; rattiṃ at night; raho, in secret; saccaṃ truly; atthaṃ for the purpose of.
(d) For adjectives: ciraṃ, a long time; khippaṃ, quickly; mandaṃ, stupidly.
(e) Some adverbs of obscure origin may
be classed as the accusative case of nouns or adjectives long
obsolete. Such are: mitho, mithu, one another, mutually; araṃ,
presently; sajju, immediately; tuṇhī, silently; alaṃ, enough,
sāyaṃ, in the evening; isaṃ a little,
somewhat; jātu, surely, certainly; bahi, outside.
The Instrumentive. This case also is much used adverbially.
From pronouns: tena, therefore; yena; because.
From nouns: divasena, in a day; māsena, in a month;
divā by day; sahāsā, suddenly.
From adjectives: cirena, long; dakkhiṇena, to the south;
uttarena, to the north; antarena, within.
The Dative Case: the adverbial use of the dative is restricted to
atthāya, for the sake of, for the purpose of; cirāya,
for a long time; hitāya, for the benefit of.
The Ablative Case, is used frequently in an adverbial sense;
especially so is the case with pronouns: kasmā, why?;
yasmā, because; tasmā, therefore; pacchā, behind;
after; ārā, afar off; heṭṭhā, below.
The Genitive Case is seldom used adverbially; from pronouns we
have: kissa why?
From adjectives: cirassa, long; from nouns: hetussa, causally.
The Locative is very often used adverbially: bāhire,
outside; dūre, far, avidūre, not far; samīpe, santike, near;
rahasi, privately, in secret; bhuvi, on earth, on the earth.
(iii) Pure Adverbs
By these are understood the adverbs
which are not obtained by derivation and which are not
case-forms; such are:
kira, kila, they say, we are told that; hi, certainly, indeed;
khalu, indeed; tu, now, indeed; atha, atho, and, also, then; etc.
na, expressing simple negation; mā, expressing prohibition;
mā is often used with the Aorist.
nanu, used in asking questions to which an affirmative answer is
expected. nu used in asking simple questions; no, not; nūna
surely, perhaps; nānā, variously.
The particle kva, where?
The above particles are called nipātā by the
grammarians, they number about two hundred.
Verbal Prefixes; have already been treated of (514).
Inseparable Prefixes
(a) a, and before a vowel an, not,
without, free from.
e.g. abhaya, free from fear; abāla, not foolish; apassanto,
not seeing; anāloketva, without looking.
(b) du and before a vowel dur, bad, ill,
hard difficult.
e.g. dubbaṇṇo (33. Remark), ugly, ill-favoured; dubbinīto ill
conducted; duddamo, difficult to tame; duggo, difficult to pass;
dujjano, a bad man; dukkaro, difficult to perform; dujjīvaṃ, a hard
life.
(c) su has the contrary meaning of du
:good, well, easy. It implies excess, facility, excellence.
e.g. subhāsito, well-spoken; subahu, very much; sudanto,
well-tamed; sukaro, easy to perform; sulabho, easy to be
obtained.
Remarks. After du, the initial consonant is generally
reduplicated; reduplication seldom takes place after su.
(d) sa, which is used instead of sam,
(516), expresses the ideas of "possession, similarity; with,
and; like; including."
e.g. sabhāriya, with (his) wife; salajja, having shame,
ashamed; sabhoga, wealthy; savihārī, living with: sadevaka,
including the worlds of gods.
Remarks. The particle sa is the opposite of particle a, an.
Prepositions
533. It has been seen that Verbal prefixes are properly prepositions and are used with nouns as well as verbs.
534. Many adverbs are used with a prepositional force along with nouns. Those of class (ii) Case form adverbs, are seldom used as prepositions, except perhaps those in to.
535. Prepositions, or words used prepositionally may govern any case, except the Nominative and Vocative.
536. Most of the Verbal Prefixes require the noun to be in one case or other.
537. The cases mostly
used with prepositions or prepositional Adverbs are: the
genitive, the instrumentive and the accusative.
But only a few are used separately from the noun they govern.
For examples see "Syntax of Substantives."
Conjunctions
538. Indeclinables distinctly conjunctive are very few. The principal are:
(a) Copulative: ca, and, also, but, even. It is never used as the first word in a sentence; atha, and, then, now; atho; and also then.
(b) Disjunctive: vā, (never at the start of a sentence) uda, uda vā, or vā ... vā, either or; yadi vā, whether; yadi vā ... yadi vā, whether or; atha vā, or else, rather; na vā, or not; tathā pi, nevertheless.
(c) Conditional: yadi sace, if; ce (never at the beginning of a sentence) if; yadi evaṃ, yajj'evaṃ, if so.
(d) Causal: hi, for, because; certainly.
Interjections
Ahaha, alas! oh! aho! ah!; aho vata, oh! ah!; are, sirrah! I say! here!; dhi, dhī, shame! fie! woe!; bho, friend! sir! I say!; bhaṇe, I say! to be sure!; maññe, why! methinks!; he, oh!; sādhu, well! very well! very good!
General Remarks. The use of some particles will be given in the chapter on Syntax.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 12
Compounds
539. Declinable stems are frequently joined to one another to form compounds. In the older language, compounds are simple and rarely consist of more than 2 or 3 stems, but the later the language (i.e. in the commentaries and sub-commentaries) the more involved they become.
540. Compounds may also have an indeclinable as the first member; there are even a few compounds made up entirely of indeclinables.
Remarks. The Case Endings of the first member or members of a compound are generally dropped; only in a few instances are they preserved.
541. There are six
kinds of Compound Words:
(i) dvanda, Copulative or Aggregative Compounds.
(ii) tappurisa, Dependent Determinate Compounds.
(iii) kammadhāraya, Descriptive Determinate Compounds.
(iv) digu, Numeral Determinate Compounds.
(v) abyayibhāva, Adverbial Compounds.
(vi) bahubbihi, Relative Or Attributive Compounds.
Remarks. Native grammarians distribute the above into four classes by making. Nos. iii and iv subdivisions of No. ii, tappurisa; but this classification, through lack of sufficient distinctness, confuses the student unnecessarily. We shall therefore follow the above division (541).
Dvanda (Copulative or Aggregative Compounds)
542. The members of these compounds are co-ordinate syntatically, in their uncompounded state; each member would be connected with the other by means of the conjunction ca, and
543. Dvanda Compounds
are of two kinds:
(i) The compound is a plural and takes the gender and declension
of its last member.
(ii) The compound takes the form of a neuter singular and,
whatever the number of its members, becomes a collective. This is
the case generally with the names of: birds, parts of the body,
persons of different sexes, countries, trees herbs, the cardinal
points, domestic animals, things that form an antithesis, etc.
Remarks. The following rules are given
as to the order of the members of dvanda compounds:
(a) words in i and u are placed first;
(b) shorter words are placed before longer ones;
(c) ī and ū (long), are generally shortened in the
middle of the compound;
(d) sometimes a feminine noun, in the middle of the compound,
takes the masculine form (candimasuriyā) sometimes,
or remains unchanged (jarāmaraṇaṃ).
Examples of (i)
samaṇā ca brāhmaṇā ca=samaṇabrāhmanā,
samanas and brahmins.
devā ca manussā ca=devamanussā, gods and men.
devānañ ca manussānañ ca=devamanussānaṃ, of gods
and men.
candimā ca suriyo ca=candimasuriyā, the sun and the
moon.
aggi ca dhūmo ca=aggidhūmā, fire and smoke.
dhammo ca attho ca=dhammatthā, the spirit and the word.
sāriputte ca moggallāne ca=sariputtamoggallāne, in
Sariputta and in Moggallana.
Examples of (ii)
Note that the compounds which come under no.(ii) sometimes assume
the form of the plural like those of no.(i).
mukhanāsikaṃ = mukhañ ca
nāsikā ca, the mouth and the nose.
chavimaṃsalohitaṃ = chavi ca maṃsañ ca
lohitañ ca, the skin, flesh and blood.
jarāmaraṇaṃ = arā ca maranañ ca, old age and
death.
hatthapādaṃ or hatthapādā = hatthā ca
pādā ca, the hands and feet.
hatthiassaṃ = hatthino ca assā ca, elephants and
horses.
kusalākusalaṃ or kusalākusalā = kusalaṃ
akusalañ ca, good and evil,
vajjimallaṃ or vajjimallā = vajjī ca mallā ca,
the Vajjians and the Mallians.
544. The compounds which take the plural form are called: itaritara, because the members of the compound are considered separately; those that take the neuter singular form: samāhāra, because the several members are considered collectively, those that take either the plural or the neuter, are called: vikappasamāhāra.
Tappurisa (Dependent Determinate Compounds)
545. In these compounds the first member is a substantive in any case but the Nominative and the Vocative, qualifying, explaining or determining the last member.
Remarks.
(a) The Case-ending of the first member is elided.
(b) In a few cases, the Case-ending is not elided; these
compounds are called: alutta tappurisa.
(c) The ā of such words as: rājā, mātā,
pitā, bhāta, etc, is shortened in the first member.
(d) Generally, a tappurisa follows the gender of the last member.
(i) tappurisa with accusative case.
(dutiya tappurisa).

(ii) tappurisa with instrumentive case.
(tatiya tappurisa).
Examples
buddhabhāsito=buddhena
bhāsito, spoken by the Buddha.
viññugarahito=viññūhi garahito, censured by
the wise.
sukāhaṭaṃ=sukehi āhaṭaṃ, brought by
parrots.
jaccandho=jātiyā andho, blind by (from) birth.
urago=urena go, going on the breast, a snake.
pādapo=pādena po, drinking with the foot (root), a
tree.
Remarks. In some tappurisa compounds, a
word, necessary to express properly the full meaning, is
altogether elided.
Examples
guḷodano=guḷena saṃsaṭṭho
odano, rice mixed with molasses.
assaratho=assena yutto ratho=a carriage yoked with horses, a
horse carriage.
asikalaho=asinā kalaho, a combat with swords.
(iii) tappurisa with dative case (catutthī tappurisa)
Remark. In these compounds, the last member designates the object destined for or attributed to that which is expressed by the first member.
Examples
kathinadussaṃ=kathinassa
dussaṃ, cloth for the kathina robe,
(this is a robe sewn on a fixed day, each year as a meritorious
act.).
saṅghabhattaṃ=saṅghassa bhattaṃ, rice (prepared)
for the clergy.
buddhadeyyaṃ=buddhassa deyyaṃ, worthy to be
offered to the Buddha.
rājārahaṃ=rañño arahaṃ, worthy of (lit.,
to) the king.
(b) Compounds formed by adding kāmo
"desirous of" to an infinitive are considered to be
tappurisas in the Dative relation. (nīruttadīpanī,
saddanīti).
Examples
kathetukāmo=kathetuṃ
kāmo, desirous to speak.
sotukāmo=sotuṃ kāmo, desirous to hear.
gantukāmo=gantuṃ kāmo, desirous to go.
(iv) tappurisa with ablative case.
(pañcamī tappurisa).
Remarks. These express: fear of, separation or going away from,
fredom from, etc.
Examples
nagaraniggato=nagaramhā
niggato, gone out from town.
rukkhapatito=rukkhasmā patito, fallen from the tree.
sāsanacuto=sāsanamhā cuto, fallen away from
religion.
corabhīto=corābhīto, afraid of the thief.
pāpabhīruko=pāpato bhīruko, fearing sin.
pāpajigucchī=pāpato jigucchī; loathing evil.
bandhanamokkho=bandhanasmā mokkho, freedom from bonds or
fetters.
lokaggo=lokato aggo, greater than the world.
mātujo=mātito jo, born from a mother.
(v) tappurisa with genitive case. (chaṭṭha tappurisa).
Remarks.
(a) tappurisas in the Genitive relation are by far the most
common.
(b) Final ī and ū of the first member are as a rule shortened
to i and u respectively.
(c) The word: ratti, night, takes the form rattaṃ at the
end of a tappurisa.
Examples
e.g. rājaputto=rañño putto, the king's son, a
prince.
dhaññarāsi=dhaññānaṃ
rāsi, a heap of grains.
naditīraṃ=nadiyā tiraṃ, the river-bank.
(from nadī).
bhikkhunisaṅgho=bhikkunīnaṃ saṅgho, the assembly of the nuns (from
bhikkunī).
naruttamo=narānaṃ uttamo, the greatest of men.
(vi) tappurisa with locative case.
(sattāni tappurisa).
Examples
araññavāso=araññe
vāso, living in the forest.
dānajjhāsayo=dāne ajjhāsayo, inclined to
alms-giving.
dhammarato=dhamme rato, delighting in the Law.
vanacaro=vane cāro, walking in the woods.
thalaṭṭho=thale ṭho, standing on firm ground.
pabbataṭṭho=pabbatasmiṃ ṭho, standing on a mountain.
Anomalous tappurisa.
(a) Sometimes the first member of a tappurisa is placed last.
Example rājahaṃso=haṃsānaṃ rājā, the swan-king, but also: haṃsarājā.
Alutta tappurisa.
(b) In these the Case-endings are not dropped:
Examples
pabhaṅkaro=pabhaṃ karo,
making light, the sun.
vessantaro=vessaṃ taro, crossing over to the merchants (a king's
name).
parassapadaṃ=parassa padaṃ, word for
another, Active Voice.
attanopadaṃ=attano padaṃ, word for one's self, Reflective Voice.
kutojo=kuto jo, sprung whence?
antevāsiko=ante vāsiko, a pupil within, a resident
pupil.
urasilomo=urasi (loc.) lomo, having hair on the breast,
hairy-breasted.
The student will remark that the case of the first member may be any case but the Nominative and Vocative.
546. (iii) Kammadhāraya. Descriptive Determinate Compounds
Remarks.
(a) In kammadhāraya compounds, the adjective: mahanta
assumes the form: mahā, and, if the consonant which follows
is reduplicated, the form: maha.
(b)The word: santa, good, being, takes the form; sa (Sansk. sat).
(c) The word: puma, a male, rejects its final a.
(d) When the two members of a kammadhāraya are feminine, the
first one assumes the form of the masculine.
(e) The Prefix na, not, is replaced by a before a consonant and
by an before a vowel.
(f) Prefix ku, meaning bad, little, may become ka before a
consonant, and kad before a vowel.
(g) In their uncompounded state, the two members of a
kammadhāraya are in the same case.
(i) The kammadharaya compound (which is also called:
missakatappurisa) is divided into nine classes:
(1) visesanapubbapada kammadharaya, in
which the determining or qualifying word is placed first.
Examples
mahāpuriso=mahanto puriso, a great man.
mahānadī=mahantī nadī, a large river.
mahabbhayaṃ=mahantaṃ bhayaṃ, great fear.
aparapuriso=aparo puriso, the other man.
kaṇhasappo=kaṇho sappo, a black snake.
nīluppalaṃ=nīlaṃ uppalaṃ, a blue lotus.
(2) visesanaparapada, or
visesanuttarapada-kammadhāraya; in this, the second member
determines the first.
naraseṭṭho=naro seṭṭho, the oldest man.
purisuttamo=puriso uttamo, the greatest man.
buddhaghosācariyo=buddhaghoso ācariyo, the teacher
Buddhaghosa.
sāriputtathero=sāriputto thero, the Elder
Sāriputta.
(3) visesanobhayapada-kammadhāraya, the two members of which are determinate.
Remarks. A word, as for instance, so,
he, is generally understood between the two members of these
compounds.

(4)
sambhāvanāpubbapada-kammadhāraya; in which the
first member indicates the origin of the second term, or the
relation in which the second term stands to the first. In these
compounds such words as: iti namely, thus called; evaṃ thus,
called; saṅkhāto, called, named; hutvā, being are
generally understood, in order to bring out the full meaning of
the compound.
Examples
hetupaccayo=hetu (hutvā)
paccayo, the term (middle term) being, or considered as, the
cause, the term which is the cause or condition.
aniccasaññā=anicca iti saññā, the
idea, namely, Impermanence.
hinasamato=hino hutvā samato, equal in being low, unworthy.
dhammabuddhi=dhammo iti buddhi, knowledge (arising from) the Law.
attadiṭṭhi=attā iti diṭṭhi the (false) doctrine of Self.
(5) upamā- or
upamānuttarapada-kammadhāraya, in these compounds,
analogy is expressed between the two terms. The word: viya, like,
is understood between the two members.
Examples
buddhādicco=ādicco
viya buddho, the sun-like-Buddha.
munisīho=sīho viya muni, lion-like-sage, lion-sage.
munipuṅgavo, sage-bull.
buddhanāgo, Buddha-elephant.
saddhammaraṃsi=raṃsi viya saddhammo, Light-like-Good Law, the Light
of the Good Law.
Remarks. The words: ādicca, sun, sīha, lion; puṅgava, usabha, bull; naga, elephant, are frequently used as in the above examples, to denote: superiority, greatness excellence, eminence, so that buddhādicco may be translated: the eminent Buddha; munisīho, the great sage; munipuṅgavo, the eminent sage, etc.
(6)
avadhāranapubbapada-kammadhāraya, in which the first
member specifies a general term. Native grammarians, in resolving
these compounds, insert the word eva, just, even (but which in
these examples cannot be translated into English), between the
two terms of the compounds. In English, these compounds must be
translated as if they were in the Genitive relation.
Examples
guṇadhanaṃ=guno eva dhanaṃ, wealth
of virtues.
sīladhanaṃ=sīlaṃ eva dhanaṃ, treasure of morality or of piety.
paññāsatthaṃ=pañña eva satthaṃ, the sword of
wisdom.
paññāpajjoto=paññā eva pajjoto, the
lamp of wisdom.
avijjāmalā=avijjā eva malaṃ, the stain of
ignorance.
(7) kunipātapubbapada
kammadhāraya, the first member of which is: ku, (see f).
Examples
kuputto=ku+putto, a bad son.
kudāsā=ku+dāsā, bad slaves.
kadannaṃ=kad+annaṃ, bad food.
kāpuriso=kā+puriso, a bad man.
kadariyo=kad+ariyo, badly noble, not noble, ignoble, miserly,
stingy.
kalavaṇaṃ=ka+lavaṇaṃ, a little salt.
(8)
nanipātapubbapada-kammadhāraya, (see e).
Examples
anariyo=na+ariyo, ignoble.
anīti=na+iti free from calamity, secure.
anūmi=na+ūmi, not having waves, waveless.
anatikkamma=na+atikkamma (gerd.), not transgressing or
trespassing.
anatthakāmo=na+atthakāmo, not wishing for the welfare
of.
(9)
pādipubbapada-kammadhāraya, in which the first member
is pā, pa or any other prefix.
Examples
pāvacanaṃ=pa+vacanaṃ, the
excellent word, Buddha's word.
(Native grammarians take pā to be the abbreviation of the
word: pakaṭṭho=excellent).
pamukho=pa+mukho (having the face towards), facing, in front of,
chief.
vikappo=vi+kappo (thought, inclination), option.
atidevo=ati+devā, Supreme deva or God. (note that devā
becomes: devo).
abhidhammo=abhi+dhammo (Law, doctrine), transcending Doctrine.
uddhammo=ud+dhammo, wrong or false doctrines.
ubbinayo=ud+vinayo (Discipline for the monks), wrong Discipline.
sugandho=su+gandho, good smell, fragrance.
dukkataṃ=du+kataṃ, a bad, sinful act.
547. Nouns In Apposition
Nouns in Apposition are considered to be
kammadhāraya compounds:
Examples
vinayapiṭakaṃ, the
Vinaya. Basket (a part of the Buddhist Scriptures).
aṅgajanapadaṃ, the Province of Bengal.
magadharaṭṭhaṃ, the Kingdom of Magadhā.
cittogahapati, Citta, the householder. sakkodevarājā,
Sakka, the Lord of gods.
Remark. Sometimes the last member of a
kammadhāraya, being feminine, assumes the masculine form.
Example dīghajaṅgho=dīgha+jaṅghā (feminine)
long-legged.
548. (iv) Digu (Numeral Compounds)
There are two kinds of digu:
(i) samāhāra digu, considered as collective takes the
form of the neuter sing in ṃ.
(ii) asamāhāra digu when the digu does not express a
whole, but the objects indicated by the last member are
considered individually, the compound as a rule taking the form
of the plural.
Remarks.
(a) Some words, when last member of a digu, change their final
vowel to a, if it be other than a.
(b) The stems only of the numerals are used as first members.
(i) SAMîHîRA-DlGU.
Examples
tilokaṃ, the three worlds
(collectively).
tiratanaṃ the three Jewels (collectively).
catusaccaṃ, the four Truths (collectively).
sattāhaṃ=satta+ahaṃ (day), seven days, a week.
pañcasikkhāpadaṃ, the five Precepts (collectively).
dvirattaṃ=dvi+ratti, two nights (remark a).
pañcagavaṃ=pañca+gavo, (remark a).
tivaṅgulaṃ=ti+v (inserted, 28) aṅguli, three fingers.
navasataṃ, nine hundred.
catusahassaṃ, four thousand.
(ii) ASAMîHîRA-DIGU,
Examples
tibhavā, the three states
of existence.
catudisā, the four quarters.
pañcindriyāni, the five
senses=pañca+indriyāni.
sakaṭasatāni=sakaṭa+satāni, one hundred carts.
catusatāni, four hundreds.
dvisatasahassāni, two hundred thousand, (dvi sata
sahassāni).
549. (v) Abyayibhāva (Adverbial Compounds)
Remarks.
(a) These compounds have for first member an indeclinable (529).
(b) The abyayibhāva generally assumes the form of the
accusative singular in ṃ, and is indeclinable.
(c) If the final vowel of the last member is ā long ā
is replaced by aṃ; other long vowels (except ā), are
shortened.
(i) Examples
upagaṅgaṃ=upa+gaṅgāyaṃ (loc.),
near the Ganges.
upanagaraṃ=upa+nagaraṃ, (loc.), near the town.
upagu=upa+gunnaṃ (plural,) close to the cows.
anurathaṃ=anu+rathe, behind the chariot.
yāvajīvaṃ=yāva+jīvā (abl.), as long as life
lasts.
antopāsādaṃ=anto+pāsādassa, within the palace.
anuvassaṃ=anu+vassaṃ, year after year, every year.
anugharaṃ=house after house, in every house.
yathābalaṃ=yathā+balena, according to (one's) power.
pativātaṃ=pati+vātaṃ (acc.), against
the wind.
tiropabbataṃ=pabbatassa tiro, across the mountain.
uparipabbataṃ=pabbatassa+upari, upon the mountain.
paṭisotaṃ=sotassa+paṭilomaṃ, against the
stream.
adhogaṅgaṃ=gaṅgāya+adho, below the Ganges.
upavadhu=upa+vadhū, near (his) wife.
adhikumāri=adhi+kumāri, the young girl.
(ii) Sometimes, however, the case-ending
is retained; the cases thus retained being mostly the Ablative
and the Locative. But in most cases, the Neuter form is also met
with for the same compound. The Ablative termination may be
retained when the indeclinable is: pari, apa, ā, bahi,
yāva etc.
Examples
yāvajivā or
yāvajivaṃ, as long as life lasts.
apapabbatā or apapabbataṃ, away from the
mountain.
bahigāmā or bahigāmaṃ, outside the
village.
ābhavaggā or ābhavaggaṃ, to the highest
state of existence.
purāruṇā or purāruṇaṃ, (=aruṇamhā
pure), before daylight.
pacchābhattā, or pacchābhattaṃ, after meal.
tiropabbatā or tiropabbate (loc.) or tiropabbataṃ,
beyond, on the other side of, the mountain.
anto avīcimhi (loc.), in hell.
anutīre, along the bank.
antaravithiyaṃ (loc.), in the street.
bahisāṇiyaṃ (loc.), outside the curtain.
550. (vi) Bahubbīhi (Relative or Attributive Compounds)
Remarks.
(a) A bahubbihi compound, when resolved into its component parts,
requires the addition of such relative pronouns as: "he,
who, that, which," etc., to express its full meaning; a
bahubbihi is therefore used relatively, that is, as an adjective,
and consequently, the final member assumes the forms of the three
genders, according to the gender of the noun which it qualifies.
A bahubbihi is equal to a relative clause.
(b) All the Compounds explained above (dvanda, tappurisa,
kammadhāraya, dīgu, abyayibhāva), become, if used as
adjectives, bahubbihi Compounds.
(c) babubbihi being used as adjectives qualifying nouns, must
agree in gender, number and case with the nouns which they
qualify.
(d) It follows from (c) that a bahubbihi may be in any case
relation but the Vocative.
The following are the different kinds of bahubbihi.
(1) pathamā-bahubbihi, Relative in
the Nominative Case.

(2) dutiyā-bahubbihi, Relative in
the Accusative Case; that is, the bahubbihi gives to the word
which it determines or qualifies the sense of the Accusative
relation.
Examples
āgatasamaṇo
saṅghārāmo=imaṃ saṅghārāmaṃ samaṇo
āgato, this monastery the priest came to, the monastery into
which the priest came; āgatasamaṇo is the bahubbihi.
ārūḷhanaro rukkho=so naro imaṃ rukkhaṃ
ārūḷho the tree into which the man climbed.
ārūḷhanaro is the bahubbihi.
(3) tatiya-bahubbīhi, Relative in the
Instrumentive Case; in which the bahubbihi gives to the word it
determines the sense of the Instrumentive relation.
Examples
jitindriyo samano=yena
jitāni indriyāni so samaṇo, the samana by whom the
senses have been conquered. jitindriyo is the bahubbihi.
vijitamāro bhagavā=so bhagavā yena māro
vijito, the Blessed One by whom Mara was vanquished, the Blessed
One who vanquished Mara. vijitamāro is the bahubibhi.
(4) catutthī bahubbihi, Relative in the
Dative Case; in which the bahubbihi gives to the word it
determines the sense of the Dative relation.
Examples
dinnasuṅko puriso=yassa suṅko
dinno so, he to whom tax is given. dinnasuṅko is the bahubbihi.
upanītabhojano samaṇo=so samaṇo yassa bhojanaṃ upanītaṃ, the
priest to whom food is given. upanītabhojano is the bahubbihi.
(5) pañcamī-bahubbihi, Relative in
the Ablative case; in which the compound gives to the word
determined the sense of the Ablative relation.
Examples
niggatajano gāmo=asmā
gāmasmā janā niggatā, that village from which
the people have departed, an abandoned village. niggatajano is
the bahubbihi.
apagatakāḷakaṃ vatthaṃ=idaṃ vatthaṃ yasmā kāḷakā apagatā, the
cloth from which (the) black spots have departed=a cloth free
from black spots. apagatakāḷakaṃ is the bahubbihi.
(6) chaṭṭhī-bahubbīhi, Relative in
the Genitive Case; in which the compound gives to the word it
determines the sense of the Genitive relation.

(7) sattama-bahubbīhi, Relative in the
Locative Case; that is, in which the bahubbihi gives to the
determined word the sense of the Locative case.
Examples
sampannasasso janapado=yasmiṃ janapade
sassāni sampannāni, a district in which the crops are
abundant, a fertile district. sampannasasso is the bahubbibi.
bahujano gāmo=yasmiṃ gāme babū janā honti, a village in
which are many persons, a populous village. bahujano is the
bahubbihi.
(e) The word determined by the bahubbihi
Compound is often understood or implied and not expressed.
Examples
dinnasuṅko (4)=he who receives
taxes, a tax collector.
jitindriyo (3)=he who has subdued his senses.
lohitamakkhito (1)=besmeared with blood.
sattahaparinibbuto=dead since a week.
somanasso=joyful (lit., he to whom joy has arisen).
chinnahattho (6)=he whose hands have been cut off.
māsajato=a month old (lit., he who is born since one month).
vijitamāro (3)=he who has conquered Mara, the Buddha.
(f) In some bahubbihi, the determining
word may be placed either first or last without changing the
meaning:
Examples
hatthachinno or chinnahattho.
jātamāso of māsajāto.
(g) Feminine nouns ending in ī, ū as
well as stems ending in tu (=tā, see, 163, words declined
like satthā,) generally take the suffix ka, when they are
the last member of a bahubbihi; possession is then implied:
Examples
bahukattuko deso=a place in
which there are many artisans.
bahukumārikaṃ kulaṃ=a family in which there are many girls.
bahunadiko janapado=a district with many rivers.
Note that long ī is shortened before ka; the same remark applies
to long ū.
(h) When a feminine noun is the last
member of a babubbihi, it takes the masculine form if determining
a masculine noun, and the first member, if also feminine, drops
the sign of the feminine:
Example dīghā jaṅghā, a long leg;
dīghajaṅghā itthī, a long-legged woman, but:
dīghajaṅgho puriso a long-legged man.
(i) The adjective mahā, may be used
as the first member of a bahubbihi:
Example mahāpañño, of great wisdom, very
wise.
(j) Sometimes ā is added,to the
words: dhanu, a bow, dhamma, the Law, and a few others, when last
members of a bahubbihi:
Examples
gandhivadhanu=gandhivadhanvā
(27, ī), Arjuna, he who has a strong bow.
paccakkhadhammā, but also paccakkhadhammo, to whom the
Doctrine is apparent.
551. The student will have remarked that all the examples given above of bahubbihi, are digu, tappurisa, kammadhāraya, dvanda and abyayibhāva, used relatively. To make the matter clearer, however a few examples are here given.
dvanda used relatively.
Examples
nahātānulitto, bathed
and anointed.
kusalākusalāni kammāni, good and bad actions.
tappurisa used relatively.
Examples
buddhabhāsito dhammo, the
Doctrine spoken by the Buddha=Buddhena bhāsito dhammo.
sotukāmo jano, a person desirous to hear, one desirous to
hear.
nagaraniggato, one or he who has gone out of town.
kammadhāraya used relatively.
Examples
guṇadhano=rich in virtues.
sugandho=fragrant.
khañjakhujjo puriso=a lame and hump backed man.
digu used relatively.
Examples
dvimūlo rukkho=a two rooted
tree.
pañcasatāni sakaṭāni=five hundred carts.
sahassaraṃsi=the thousand rayed=the sun.
abyayibhāva used relatively.
Examples
saphala=saha phala, fruitful
(lit., having fruits).
savāhano māro, Māra with his monture.
niraparādho bodhisatto, the faultless Bodhisatta.
Upapada Compounds
552. When the second member of a dutiyā tappurisa Compound is a kita noun or Primary derivative, (see Chapter XIII, Primary and Secondary Derivation), and the first member a noun in the Accusative relation, the compound is called upapada. Such a compound may therefore be called indifferently: upapada or upapadatappurisa. or simply: tappurisa. (niruttidīpanī)
Examples
atthakāmo=atthaṃ kāmo, wishing for the welfare of,
(kāmo is a kita derivative).
kumbhakāro=kumbhaṃ+kāro, a pot-maker, a potter, (kāro is
a kito derivative).
pattagāho=pattaṃ gāho, receiver of the bowl.
rathakāro=rathaṃ kāro, carriage maker, cartwright.
brahmacārī=brahmaṃ cārī, one who leads the higher life.
dhammaññū=dhammaṃ ñū, he who knows the Law.
Anomalous Compounds
553. A few compounds are found which are quite anomalous in their formation, that is, they are made up of words not usually compounded together. These compounds must probably be considered as of very early formation, and be reckoned amongst the oldest in the language. We give a few examples:
Examples
vitatho=vi+tathā, false,
unreal.
yathātatho=yathā+tathā real, true, as it really
is.
itihā (=iti, thus+ha, lengthened to ā), thus indeed,
introduction, legend.
itihāsa (=iti, thus+ha, indeed+āsa, was), thus indeed
it was=itihā.
itihītihā (=itiha+itihā )=itihā, itihāsa.
itivuttaṃ (=iti, thus+vuttaṃ P P.P. of vatti,
to say), thus it was said; the name of a book of the Buddhist
Scriptures.
itivuttaka (=iti+vuttaṃ+kasuffix)=itivutta.
aññamaññaṃ (=aññaṃ+aññaṃ), one
another.
paramparo (=paraṃ+para), successive.
ahamahamikā (=ahaṃ, I+ahaṃ+ika suffix), egoism, arrogance, the conceit of
superiority lit., connected with I.
Complex Compounds
554. Compounds, as above explained, may themselves become either the first or the last member of another compound, or two compounds may be brought together to form a new one, and this new one again may become a member of another compound, and so on to almost any length, thus forming compounds within compounds. These compounds are mostly used relatively that is, they are bahubbihi. The student ought to bear in mind that, the older the language is, the fewer are these complex compounds, and the later the language, the more numerous do they become; it therefore follows that long compounds are a sign of decay and, to a certain extent, a test as to the relative age of a text.
Examples
varaṇarukkhamūle, at the foot of the varaṇa tree, is a
tappurisa compound in the genitive relation, and is resolved as
follows: varaṇarukkhassa mūle; varaṇarukkhassa is itself a
kammadharaya compound=varaṇa eva rukkha. It is therefore a
tappurisa compound, the first member of which is a kammadharaya
compound.
maraṇabhayatajjito, terrified by the fear of death, a bahubbihi
qualifying a noun understood, and is a tappurisa in the
instrumentive relation: maraṇabhayena tajjito; maraṇabhaya is
itself a tappurisa in the ablative: maranā bhaya.
sīhalaṭṭhakathāparivattanaṃ, the translation
of the Singhalese Commentaries, is first: a tappurisa
compound=sihalaṭṭhakathāya parivattanaṃ, second,
another tappurisa: sihalāya aṭṭhakathā=the
Commentaries of Ceylon, the Singhalese Commentaries.
aparimitakālasañcitapuññabalanibbattāya,
produced by the power accumulated during an immense period of
time, the whole is a bahubbihi feminine in the Instrumentive.
We resolve it as:
aparimitakālasañcitapuññabala, a tappurisa
determining nibbattāya;
aparimitakālasañcitapuñña, a kammadharaya
determining bala;
aparimitakālasañcita, a kammadharaya determining
puñña;
aparimitakāla, a kammadharaya determining sañcita;
lastly aparimita is a kammadharaya=a+parimita.
In its uncompounded state, it would run as follows: aparimite kāle sañcitassa puññassa balena nibbattāya.
Remark. The student should follow the above method in resolving compounds.
Changes of certain words in compounds.
555. Some words, when compounded, change their final vowel; when last members of a bahubbihi, they, of course, assume the ending of the three genders, according to the gender of the noun they determine. The most common are here given:
go, a cow, bullock, becomes gu, gavo or
gavaṃ:
pañcagu, bartered with five cows (pañcahi gohi kito);
rājagavo the king's bullock (rañño go);
dāragavaṃ, wife and cow (dāro ca go); dasagavaṃ, ten
cows.
bhūmi, place, state, stage, degree, storey becomes bhūma:
jātibhūmaṃ, birth place (jātiyā bhūmi);
dvibhūmaṃ, two stages (dvi bhūmiyo); dvibhūmo, two
storeyed. Ka, is sometimes superadded, as: dvibhūmako=dvibhūmo.
nadī, a river, is changed to nada:
pañcanadaṃ, five rivers; pañcanado, having five
rivers.
aṅguli, finger, becomes aṅgula (see, 548, a).
ratti, night, is changed to ratta (see,
548, a); here are a few more examples:
dīgharattaṃ for a long time (lit. long nights=dīghā
rattiyo; ahorattaṃ, Oh! the night! (aho ratti);
aḍḍharatto, midnight (rattiyā aḍḍhaṃ=the middle of the
night).
akkhi, the eye, changes to akkha:
visālakkho, large eyed (visālāni akkhīni yassa
honti); virūpakkho, having horrible eyes, name of the Chief of
the Nagas (virūpāni akkhīni yassa, to whom (are) horrible
eyes); sahassakkho, the thousand-eyed, a name of Sakka (akkhīni
sahassāni yassa); parokkhaṃ, invisible, lit.,
"beyond the eye" (akkhinaṃ tirobhāgo).
sakhā, (masc.) friend, companion,
becomes sakho:
vāyusakho, the breeze's friend, fire (vayuno sakhā so);
sabbasakho, the friend of all (sabbesaṃ sakhā).
attā, self, one's self becomes
atta:
pahitatto, resolute, whose mind is bent upon, lit, directed
towards (pahito pesito attā yena, by whom the mind is
directed upon); ṭhitatto, of firm mind (ṭhito attā assa,
whose mind is firm).
pumā=male, a man, becomes puṃ, and
final ṃ is assimilated to the following consonant
according to the usual rules:
pulliṅgaṃ, the male sex: manhood, the masculine gender (puṃ+lingaṃ,
characteristic, sign);
puṅkokilo, a male cuckoo (puṃ+kokilo).
saha, with, is abbreviated to sa, which is placed at the
beginning of compounds ka is sometimes superadded: sapicuka, of
cotton, with cotton, as -sapicukaṃ maṇḍalikaṃ, a ball
of cotton, cotton ball; sadevako, with the deva worlds; saha is
used in the same sense: sahodaka, with water, containing water
(saha udaka).
santa, good, being, is also abbreviated
to sa (see, 546, b):
sappurisa, a good man; sajjano, well-born, virtuous (sa+jana, a
person).
samāna, same, similar, equal; is likewise shortened to sa:
sajāti or sajātika, of the same species, of the same
class (samānajāti); sajanapado; of, or belonging to,
the same district (samānajanapado); sanāmo, of the same
name (samāno nāmo); sānābhi, of the same
navel, uterine.
mahanta, becomes mahā (see 546, a).
jāyā, wife, takes the forms
jāni, jaṃ, tudaṃ*,
jayaṃ, before the word pati, lord, husband:
jayāpati, jayampati, jānipati, jampati, tudampati,
husband and wife.
*The niruttidīpanī has the following interesting
note on the word tudaṃ: "yathā ca sakkaṭaganthesu 'dāro
ca pati ca dampatī' ti" And lower down: "tattha 'tu'
saddo padapūraṇamatte yujjati".
Verbal Compounds
556. Many nouns and adjectives are compounded with √kar, to do and √bhū, to be, or with their derivatives very much in the manner of Verbal Prefixes.
557. The noun or
adjective stems thus used change final a or final i to ī.
Examples
daḷha, hard, firm, daḷhikaroti, to make firm.
daḷhikaraṇaṃ, making firm, strengthening.
bahula, abundant, bahulīkaroti, to increase, to enlarge.
bahulīkaraṇaṃ, increasing; bahulīkato, increased.
bhasma, ashes, bhasmibhavati, to be reduced to ashes,
bhasmibhūto, reduced to ashes.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 13
Derivation
558. We have now come to a most important part of the grammar; the formation of nouns and adjectives otherwise called Derivation.
559. In Pāli, almost every declinable stem can be traced back to a primary element called a Root.
560. A root is a primitive element of the language incapable of any grammatical analysis, and expressing an abstract idea. It is common in European languages to express the idea contained in the root by means of the infinitive, e.g. √gam, to go, but it must be borne in mind that the root is not an infinitive, nor indeed a verb or noun, but simply a primary element expressing a vague indefinite idea. This indefinite idea is developed out of the root and is made to ramify into a diversity of meanings, both abstract and concrete, by means of suffixes.
561. The roots of the Pāli language, with slight variations in form, easily recognizable to the trained eye, are common with those of Sanskrit and consequently with many of the roots of the lndo-European Languages.
562. Every true root is monosyllabic as: √nas, to perish; √bhā, to shine; √ruh, to grow; √pac, to cook. Roots which have more than one syllable are the result of (a) the union of a verbal prefix with the root itself, both having become inseparable in the expression of a particular idea; for instance: √saṅgam: to fight, =sam+√gam, lit, to come together, to close in upon; and (b) of reduplication (372ff) as √jāgar, to be wakeful, from √gar (Sanks. √gr) to awake.
563. There are two
great divisions of Derivation:
(i) kita (k¨t), or Primary.
(ii) taddhita, or Secondary.
564. Primary Derivatives are formed from the root itself and Secondary Derivatives from the Primary Derivatives.
565. Native grammarians recognise a third derivation, which they call uṇādi (uṇ+ādi), from the suffix uṇ by which a few words are derived. But the uṇādi derivation is very arbitrary, and the connection between the noun and the root is not clear, either in meaning or in form. These uṇādi derivatives are included in the kita Derivation; uṇādi suffixes are therefore included in the kita-Suffixes and will be distinguished by an asterisk (*).
566. We shall therefore in the present chapter, treat of Primary and Secondary derivation. A few hints only will be given on the uṇādi derivation.
567. When Suffixes, both primary (kita) and secondary (taddhita) are added to roots, nouns or adjectives guṇa (103) frequently takes place; that is, a may be lengthened to ā, and i and u be respectively changed to e and o.
568. Whenever guṇa takes place by the addition of a suffix, native grammarians put an indicatory sign before or after the suffix to show that guṇa is to take place; this indicatory sign is generally the letter ṇ and sometimes the letter r. For instance: √cur, to steal, +suffix ṇa=cora, a thief. Here, the true suffix is a, the letter ṇ being simply indicatory that guna change must take place; again, √kar, to do, +ṇa=kāra, a doer. But √kar +suffix a=kara, a doer; in this last example no guna takes place and therefore , the suffix has not the indicatory sign. This sign is called by grammarians: anubandha. It is therefore clear that the anubandha or "indicatory sign of guna" is not part of the suffix.
569. European grammarians as a rule do not note the anubandha, but in this book it will be noted and put within brackets, and in small type, after the true suffix, thus: (ṇ)a, or kā(ṇ). the true suffixes will come first, printed in bold type.
570. Again, some suffixes are shown by native grammarians by means of some conventional signs; e.g. ṇvu is the conventional sign for suffix aka; yu is that for anaṃ. Such conventional signs will be shown within brackets, after the true suffix, as; anaṃ(yu); this means that anaṃ is the true suffix, yu the conventional sign used by native grammarians to represent the suffix anaṃ.
571. It must be remembered that sometimes even some of the prefixes explained in (514) undergo guṇa as: virajja+ka=virajjaka; paṭipada+(ṇ)a=pāṭipāda; vinaya+(ṇ)ika=venayika.
572. Before some suffixes, (generally those with the indicatory ṇ final c of the root is changed to k, and final j to g; as √pac+(ṇ)a=pāka, a cook; √ruj+(ṇ)a=roga, disease.
573. The final vowel of a stem may be elided before a suffix.
574. The rules of sandhi and assimilation are regularly applied.
(i) Primary Derivatives (kita)
575. As has been said already Primary Derivatives are formed directly from the roots by means of certain suffixes; these suffixes are called kita suffixes.
576. The kita suffixes are given below in alphabetical order to faciliate reference.
a- (a) (ṇ) (a). By means of this suffix are formed an extremely large number of derivatives, some of which take guṇa and some of which do not. It forms nouns, (substantive and adjective) showing:
1st-action: √pac, to cook+a=pāka, the act of cooking; √caj, to forsake+a=cāga, forsaking, abandonment; √bhaj, to divide+a=bhāga, dividing; √kam, to love+a=kāma, love.
2nd- the doer or agent: √car, to roam+a=cāra and cara, a spy; √har, to take, captivate,+a=hara, the Captivator, a name of Shiva; √kar, to do, make+a=kara, that which does, the hand; also kāra, a doer, maker.
3rd- abstract nouns of action: √kar+a=kara, action, making; √kam to step, proceed+a=kama, step, succession, order; √kamp, to shake+a=kampa, shaking, trembling; √yuj, to join+a=yoga, joining.
4th- It forms adjectives: √kar+a=kāra, doing, making, also kara, causing, making; √car, to walk, roam, cāra, walking, roaming, and also cara, do; √plu, to swim, float+a=plava, swimming, floating.
The student will readily understand that
the root may be preceded by any prefix:
sam+√gam+a=saṅgāma, assembly; pa+√vis, to enter+a=pavesa,
entrance; anu+√sar to go, move, walk+a=anusara, following. The
same remark applies to all the other suffixes.
577. From the
adjectives formed by this suffix (4th), are formed the upapada
compounds (552):
kammakāro=kammaṃ kāro (kammaṃ karotī'ti), the doer of the act; kumbhakāro=khumbhaṃ kāro
(kumbhaṃ karotī'ti), the maker of the pot, potter.
578. Very similar in nature with the upapada compounds are those compounds which are the names of persons. In our opinion they are purely and simply upapadas, but Kacchāyana has the following rule: "saññāyaṃ a nu" that is, to form a proper name, suffix nu (=ṃ=Accus. case) is added to the 1st member of the compound, which is the direct object of the root which forms the 2nd member and after which the suffix a is added to denote the agent: arindama, the subduer of his enemies=ari, enemy +ṃ(nu)+√dam, to subdue+a. So vessantara, who has crossed over to the merchants, (vessa +ṃ(nu)+√tar, to cross+a); taṇhaṅkara, creating desire=tanhā, desire +ṃ(nu)+kar+a. The name of a Buddha.
It will be seen from the above examples that the 1st member is in the Acc. case and is governed by the 2nd member which is an agent-noun formed by the suffix a.
Remark. The nouns formed by a are masculine: they form the feminine according to rules (183), and the same applies to the adjectives (197).
abha*- Used to form the names of some animals; the derivation is obscure. kalabha, or kaḷabha, a young elephant, from √kal, to drive, to sound; usabha, a bull from √us, (Sansk. ¨·), to go, flow, push; sarabha, a fabulous eight-legged kind of deer, from √sar (Sansk. ¨), to injure, break, tear; karabha, a camel, from √kar, to do.
aka (ṇv)-forms a
numerous class of action-nouns and adjectives with guṇa of the
radical vowel:
√kar, to make, do+aka=karaka, making, causing or maker, doer;
√gah, to take, receive+aha=gahaka, taking, receiving, a
receiver: sometimes a -y is inserted between aka and a root
ending in a vowel, especially long ā: √dā, to
give +aka=dāyaka, a giver.
Remark. The feminine of these derivatives is generally in kā or
ikā.
ala*-forming a few nouns of doubtful
derivation from, it is said, the roots: √paṭ, to split, slit;
√kus, to heap, bring together, cut; √kal, to drive, sound,
throw, etc.; paṭala, covering, membrane, roof; kusala, that
which is capable of cutting sin, meritorious act. These nouns are
neuter.
an- only a few words are derived from
this suffix: √rāj, to rule +an=rājan, a king,
ruler.
Remark. Nouns in an have the Nom. Sing. in ā (l56).
ana (yu)- this suffix forms an immense number of derivative nouns and adjectives. The nouns are neuter, or fem. in ā; the adjectives are of the three genders. Guṇa may or may not take place; it is however, more common with the adjectives. Nouns: √pac, to cook +ana=pacanaṃ, the cooking; √gah, to take +ana=gahaṅaṃ, the seizing, taking; √ṭhā, to stand +ana=ṭhānaṃ, a place. Adjectives: pa+√nud, to push, move +ana=panudano, removing, dispelling; √ghus, to sound +ana=ghosano, sounding; √kudh, to be angry +ana=kodhano, angry. The fem. of these adjectives is sometimes in ā, sometimes in ī. Fem. √sev, to serve, stay by +ana=sevanā, also, sevanaṃ, service, following; √kar, to execute +ana=kāranā, agony, torture.
as- This suffix forms a not very large, but important class of words, which have already been explained (160); guṇa sometimes takes place; they are declined like manas (59); their Nom. Sing. is in o. √vac, to say, speak +as=vacas (vaco), speech, word; √tij, to be sharp +as=tejas (tejo), sharpness, splendour.
āni*-Rarely found, it properly does not form nouns, but a vituperative negative imperative, with the prohibitive particle a (242, a) before the root, and a dative of the person who is forbidden to act: agamāni=a+√gam+āni, you are not to go! as in "paradesaṃ te agamāni", "You are not to go elsewhere!" "te idaṃ kammaṃ akarāni (a+√kar+āni).
āvi=vi (tāvi)- is used as has already been seen, to form participles (231) so also:
āna (448), also at, ant=nta (440) so that the Perf. Active, the Pres. Active and the Reflective Participles are considered by native grammarians as coming under the head of kita Derivatives. The same remark applies to the P.P.P.
dhu- so given by native grammarians is, properly adhu; it forms but a few derivatives and is only another form of thu=athu (see below).
i- Forms a large class of derivatives, Masc., Fem. and Neuter, as well as a few adjectives. The nouns may be agent-nouns or abstract. But the derivation is not always quite clear (principally of neuter nouns), hence, some grammars include this suffix among the uṇādi. Strengthening takes place in a few roots. Masc.: √ku, to sound sing+i=kavi, one who sings=a poet; √mun=man to think+i=muni, one who thinks=a sage. Fem. √lip, to smear, rub+i=lipi, a rubbing over, writing; √ruc, to shine, to please+i=ruci, light, pleasure. Neut.: akkhi, eye; aggi, fire, aṭṭhi, bone, and a few others, of very doubtful derivation. Adj. √suc, to beam, glow, burn+i=suci, beaming, clear, pure.
By means of this suffix is formed from √dhā, to bear, hold, a derivative: dhi, which forms many compounds, mostly masculine: sam+dhi=sandhi, connection, union (in grammar=euphony); udadhi, the ocean=uda, water+dhi, holding (uda+√dhā+i); others are: nidhi, a receptacle (ni+√dhā+i); paridhi, circle, halo (pari+√dhā+i).
Similarly, from, √dā to give with prefix ā, we obtain: ādi (=ā+√dā+i)=and so forth, and so on, etc, lit.=beginning. The word ādi is much used at the end of compounds.
icca (ricca), and iriya(ririya),-are given by kacchāyana as kita prefixes, but in reality they are not: both are suffixes of the F.P.P. (466); they are found only in the two examples: kicca and kiriya, (lit., what is to be done) business: √kar+icca=kicca (with elision of radical a and of r) √kar+iriya=kiriya with elision of radical a and of r). But the true derivation* is kar+tya=kitya (with elision of ar and insertion of i)=kicca, according to the usual rules (74). *Sans. √k¨+tya=k¨tya ; k¨+ya=k¨ya=kriya.
ika- is given for the only root: √gam, to go: gamika, one who goes.
in=ī (ṇī)- This forms a very great number of derivatives whose stem ends in in, and the Nom. Sing. ī (see 137, 173); they are properly possessive adjectives, sometimes used substantively. Guṇa as a rule takes place. √gah, to take, receive+in=gāhin (gāhi), taking, catching; √kra+in=kārin (kārī), doing; pāpakārī, a sinner: √yā, to go, yāyin (yāyī), going; nagarayāyī, going to the town; √dā, to give, dāyin, (dāyī), giving, a giver. Note that a y is inserted between the suffix and the roots ending in ā long. The Feminine is formed according to rules (189).
ina- A few nouns are formed by this suffix; there is no guṇa: √sup, to sleep+ina =supinaṃ (Neut.), a dream, sleep. The derivation of some nouns and adjectives from this suffix is not apparent and clear, and it is also classed as an uṇādi; √dakkh, to be able, skilful+ina=dakkhiṇa, able, southern.
ira-The derivitives from this, nouns and adjectives, are few; there is no guṇa: √ruc, to shine +ira=rucira, brilliant, beautiful; √vaj, to be strong +ira=vajira, thunderbolt.
iya, iṭṭha- are the suffixes used for the comparison of adjectives (238).
isa*-forms a few nouns, mostly Masc., of rather obscure derivation: √pūr, to fill+isa=purisa, a man, person; √sun, to oppress+isa=sunisa, an oppressor; √il, to shake, come+isa=ilisa, one who shakes; √mah to be great+isa=mahisa, mighty, a buffalo.
itta* (ṇitta)- is said to express multitude (?): the root is guṇated: √vad, to speak, to play (music)+itta=vādittaṃ, the multitude of those that play music, an orchestra. This suffix and its derivatives are incomprehensible; but see -tta, -tra where its probable formation will be explained.
īvara*-forms a few Neut. nouns of doubtful connection with the roots from which they are derived: √ci, to gather, to depend upon+īvara=cīvaraṃ, a monk's garment, that which is heaped upon or depended upon; √pā, to drink+īvara=pīvaraṃ, beverage, that which is to be drunk.
ka is added to very few roots which take guṇa; it forms agent-nouns and adjectives: √vad, to speak+ka=vādaka, one who speaks, a musician; playing (adj.); √dah, to burn+ka=dāhaka, burning (adj.). Note that these two words would be better derived from suffix aka (see above) √sukh (Sansk. cus)+ka=sukkha, dry, dried up; √thu (Sansk. stu) to dribble, drop+ka=thoka, a little, ka often takes a connecting vowel i or u before a root, and forms the suffixes ika, uka (see also).
la generally with connecting vowels: a, or i before it. la is but another form of ra (see also): √thu, to be thick, strong+la=thūla, thick, fat; √cap to waver, tremble+(a) la=capala, tremulous, fickle, giddy; √pā, to keep, guard+la=pala, a guardian; √an, to breathe, blow softly+(i) la=anila, wind, breeze.
lāṇa- as well as yāṇa given as primary suffixes, are not at all suffixes; the true suffix is āṇa, which is a taddhita suffix (see also).
ma- forms some abstract nouns, agent-nouns, and some adjectives: √bhī, to fear, be afraid of +ma=bhīma, terrible, fearful; √ghar (sansk. ghr) to be warm, to glow+ma=gharma=ghamma, heat, warmth. (Note the assimilation of r (80); √thu, to praise, thoma, praise; √dhū, to shake, move hither and thither+ma=dhūma smoke. This suffix, in Pāli, becomes nearly confounded with the next: man, and native grammarians are often at a loss in choosing between these two suffixes: the reason is that no word in Pāli being allowed to end in a consonant, they have included the stems in an in the vowel declension (152, 156-c, 157-a).
man- (given as ramma as well as man by
kacchāyana) forms action nouns, Masc. and Neuter; in a
few cases the noun being both Masc. and Neut.; the stems are in
an the Nom, in ā, o, or ṃ:
√dhar; to hold, bear+man=dhammo, dhammaṃ, nature,
characteristic, duty, the Law;
√kar+man=kammaṃ, action, karma (Note the assimilation of r),
√bhī to fear+man=bhemo, fearful, terrible; √khi, to
destroy, make an end of+ma=khemo, secure, peaceful, khemaṃ, safety,
happiness. Most of the derivatives from man, have migrated to the
class of those formed by the last suffix (ma).
māna- This is the suffix of the Pres. Part. Reflective already seen (447). (See, āna, above).
mi- The number of derivatives from this suffix is very restricted, they are Masc. or Fem. There is no guṇa. √bhū, to exist, become+mi=bhūmi, the earth, ground, a place; √u (sansk. v), to roll, turn from side to side+mi=ūmi (ūrmi, note the elision of radical r), a wave.
na- The use of this suffix in forming a certain number of P.P.P. has been explained (458); it also forms a few nouns; the root takes no guṅa, but through assimilation, the root is not always recognisable: √var, to cover enclose+na=vaṇṇa (80, 83), colour, external appearance; √sup (Sansk. svap) to sleep+na=soppa (=S. svapna), sleep; √phar (also phur=S. sphur, sphr), to shake, to make a jerky motion+na=paṇṇa a feather, wing. From √tās (S. trs), taṇhā, thirst, craving; √ji, to conquer+na=jina, conqueror.
Connected with this na, are the suffixes ina, una (see also); also: tana, (=S. tna), from this last is derived the word ratana, gift, blessing, jewel, from √rā, to bestow+tna=tana (note that radical ā is shortened through the influence of the double consonant to tna see 34).
ni- from this we obtain but a few nouns. Fem. √hā, to quit, forsake+ni=hāni, abandonment, loss, decay; √yu, to fasten, to unite+ni=yoni, womb, origin, a form of existence.
nu- forms a few words mostly Masc., some abstract and some concrete: √bhā. to shine, to be bright+nu=bhānu, beam, light, the sun; √dhe, to drink+nu=dhenu, yielding milk, a milk-cow.
ta 1-This suffix has been explained in the formation of the P. P. P. (450). It also forms a few concrete nouns: √dū, to go far, to a certain distance+ta=duta, messenger; √sū to impel, to set in motion+ta=sūta, a charioteer. The student will remark that even these nouns look very much like P.P.P. (see. 452 remarks). The suffix ita, also connected with the- P.P.P. (452, ii), forms a few derivatives of doubtful connection with roots: palita, grey; lohita, red; harita, green, etc.
ta 2 (S.- tas)- forms a few nouns √su to go, pass+ta=sota, a stream; √su, to hear+tar:sota, the ear.
tā (ritu, rātu) (S. tr or tar)- This suffix forms a pretty
large number of agent-nouns; See (162).
Remark that the base is in u, and the nominative in ā; √mā, to
measure, mete out (food, etc.)+tā=matā,
mother; √vad, to speak, say+tā=vattā, one
who says, tells, a speaker.
ti- This forms a very numerous class of action nouns, Fem., agent-nouns, and a limited number of adjectives. Fem: √bhaj, to divide+ti=bhatti(=bhakti, 426 remark, 59, a), division; √kitt, to praise+ti=kitti (with one t dropped), praise; √gam, go+ti=gati, (456), a going, journey. From √muc, mutti, deliverance; from √man, to think, mati (455), thought, etc. Adj.: √ṭhā, stand, last+ti=ṭhiti, lasting; √pad, to go, step+ti=patti (64), going, a foot soldier.
tu 1- This is properly the suffix of the Infinitive, which has become an Accusative (363-i): but it also forms nouns chiefly Masc., but of the other genders too: √dhā, to lay, put+tu=dhātu, Masc, and Fem., that which lay (at the bottom), a primary element, a root, principle; √tan, to stretch+tu=tantu, a thread, Masc; √si, to bind+tu=setu, a tie, bridge.
tu 2- The same as tā (ritu rātu) above.
tra, ta (tran, ta)- forms a large number of derivatives chiefly denoting the agent, and concrete nouns: √chad, to cover over+tra, ta=chatraṃ, chattaṃ, an umbrella (in chatra d has been dropped to avoid the collocation of three consonants; in chatta it is assimilated); √gā (a collateral form of √gaṃ), to move+tra, ta=gattaṃ, limb; √nī, to lead+tra, ta=netraṃ, nettaṃ, the eye, that which leads.
tha- The derivatives from this are not very numerous: √gā, to sing+tha=gāthā, a song, stanza, verse; √tar (S. tr), to cross+tha=titthaṃ, ford, landing place (with connecting i).
thu and also dhu- give only a few derivatives, and have generally the form atthu, adhu. √vip; √vep, to shake, tremble+thu, dhu=vepathu, vepadhu, trembling; √vam to throw up, vomit+thu, dhu=vamathu, vamadhu vomitting.
ra- Forms some nouns and adjectives; there is no guṇa, mostly found in the forms: ira, ura (see also), and ara. Nouns: √bhand √bhad, to receive, praise+ra=bhadra, bhadda, (adj.) laudable, good, worthy; √dhī, to think+ra=dhīra (adj.) wise, a wise man; √bham, to flutter, move in circles+(a) ra=bhamara, a bee.
ri- gives very few derivatives: √bhū+ri=bhūri (adj.), abundant, much.
ru- forms some nouns and adj.: √bhī, to fear, be afraid+ru=bhīru, timid; √can, to rejoice in, to gladden+ru=cāru (with elision of n), dear, gladsome.
u (ru and u)- Although making a large number of derivatives, substantive and adjectives, as the connection of the meaning with the root, is, in many, cases, not easily traced, this suffix is classed with the uṇādi; guṅa may or may not take place. √bandh, to bind+u=bandhu, a kinsman; √kar+u=karu, a doer, maker, artisan; √tan, to continue, extend+u=tanu, a son; √vas, to light up, shine+u=vasu, a gem; good.
uka (ṇuka)- forms a few
nouns and adj. denoting the agent; there is guṇa;
√pad, to tread, step+uka=pāduka (Fem.), a shoe; √kar+uka=kāruka
(Masc.), a maker, artisan.
una- Forms a few derivatives. √tar, to cross, pass away+una=taruṇā, just begun, young, fresh, √kar, to love, pity+una=karunā, (Fem.) compassion; √pis, to grind, hurt, destroy+una=pisuno (adj.), backbiting, malicious; a tale-bearer.
ū- forms some adj. and nouns mostly Fem. √vid, to know+ū=vidū, knowing; vi+√ñā, to know+ū=viññū, knowing.
ūra-A few nouns only. √und, to wet, moisten+ūra=undūra, a rat.
usa,* ussa- The derivatives from this, very few, are doubtful: √man, to think+usa, ussa=manussa, mānusa, man.
vā-This, as the suffix of the P.P.A., has already been noticed (465).
ya- This forms Neut. nouns, most of them abstract in meaning. Assimilation takes place regularly. √rāj, rule+ya=rajjaṃ, kingship, kingdom; √vaj, to avoid+ya=vajjaṃ, a fault, what is to be avoided; √yuj, to yoke, harness+ya=yogaṃ, a carriage, conveyance. It will be remarked that ya is also the suffix of the F. P. P. (466) which often, in the Neut. Sing. makes nouns.
yāṇa (see remark; under: laṇa).
Remarks.
(a) The student will have remarked that the participles Pres.
Active, Pres. Reflective; the P.P.P. the Perf Active and the
F.P.P. are considered as belonging to the Primary derivation.
(b) Suffixes: tabba, anīya, ya(nya), and icca are by native grammarians
called kicca suffixes. (466)
579. (ii) Secondary Derivatives (taddhita)
Remarks.
(a) These derivatives are called "Secondary" because
they are formed by means of suffixes from the the
"Primary" derivatives explained in the kita derivation
above.
(b) Secondary derivatives are also formed from pronominal bases
(336).
(c) As in kita, guṇa may or may not take place.
580. The following
remarks about the meaning of the secondary derivation, should be
well noted:
(i) The great bulk of taddhita suffixes form adjectives from
nouns.
(ii) These adjectives are very freely used as substantives, the
Masc. and Fem. being generally nouns denoting the agent, while in
the Neut. they are abstract.
(iii) The final vowel of a word is often elided before a taddhita
suffix.
(iv) The guṇa affects mostly the first syllable of the word
to which the suffix is added.
581. The following is a list in alphabetical order of the taddhita suffixes.
a (ṇa, and a)- An extremely large number of derivatives are formed by means of this suffix. It is added to nouns and to adjectives used substantively; these derivatives are essentially adjectives, used in most cases substantively. They primarily express connection with, relations with or dependence on that denoted by the "primary derivatives"; this relation is necessarily of many kinds, as:
(1) patronymics; the Masc. denotes the son of, the Fem., the daughter of and the Neuter the consanguinity or relation of, vasiṭṭha+a=vāsiṭṭho, the son of, vāsiṭṭhī, the daughter of, vāsiṭṭhaṃ, the relation of Vasiṭṭha. So: from visamitta+a=vesamitto, vesamitta, vesamittaṃ; manu+a=mānavo, mānavī, mānavaṃ (110, Remark) the son, daughter or relation of Manu.
(2) that which is dyed with: kasāva, a reddish-yellow dye+a=kāsāvo, reddish-yellow, yellow; kāsāvaṃ, a monk's robe (which is dyed with such dye). So: haliddā, turmeric+a=hāliddo, yellow, dyed with turmeric.
(3) the flesh of: sūkara, a pig+a=sokaraṃ pork; mahisa, buffalo+a=māhisaṃ, buffalo's flesh. As adj.=sokaro, relating to pigs; māhiso, relating to buffaloes.
(4) belonging to: vidisā(a foreign country) +a=vediso belonging to a foreign country, a foreigner; magadhā(Southern Bihar) +a=māgadho, belonging to, born in, Magadhā.
(5) a collection of: kapota, a dove pigeon +a=kāpoto a group of doves, or, relating to doves; mayūra a peacock+a=māyūro, a group of peacocks; adj., belonging to, relating to peacocks.
(6) Study, knowledge of, knowing: nimitta, an omen+a=nemitto, a knower of omens, a fortune teller; veyyā karaṇaṃ, exegesis, grammar+a=veyyākaraṇo, a grammarian; muhutta, a while+a=mohutto, one who studies for a while only; also: relating to a moment, momentary.
(7) The locality in which something or some one is or exists: sakuṇa, a bird+a=sākuṇaṃ, the place wherein birds roost or resort to; udumbara, a fig-tree+a=odumbaraṃ, a place where fig-trees grow.
(8) Possession of: paññā, wisdom+a=pañño, possessing wisdom, wise, a wise man; saddhā, faith +a=saddho, one who has faith, believing, faithful, a believer.
aka (ṇaka)- Is said to denote the property of: manussa, a man+a=manussakaṃ, that which belongs to man, the property of man, human. (See ka).
aya- For this, see ya.
ālu- (This is suffix lu, preceded by ā (See lu); denotes the tendency, and forms some past participial adj. dayā, sympathy, compassion +ālu=dayālu, compassionate; abhijjhā, covetousness +alu=abhijjhālu, covetous, whose tendency is to be covetous; sīta, cold+ālu sītālu, chilled, cold.
āna (ṇāna)- Forms patronymics: kacca (a proper name)+āna=kaccāno, kaccānī, kacccānaṃ, the son, daughter, offspring of Kacca; cora, a thief+āna=corāno, corānī, corānam, the son, etc.
āṇa- (given as a kita Suffix in the forms: lāṇa, yāṇa (see kita suffixes above) forms a very few derivatives; kalya, and by assimilation kalla, healthy, remembering, thinking of, +āṇa=kalyāṇo, kallāṇo, happy, blessed with health, good.
āyana (ṇāyana)- Also forms patronymics: kacca+āyana=kaccāyano, kacāyanī, kaccāyanaṃ, the son, etc, of Kacca: vaccha+āyana=vacchāyano, vacchāyānī, vacchāyanaṃ, the son, etc, of Vaccha.
bya- is said to denote: the state of: dāsa, a slave +bya=dāsabyaṃ, the state of being a slave, slavery.
dhā- Has already been noted (see kita suffixes above).
era (ṇera)- Patronymics; the final vowel of the word is elided. vidhava+era=vedhavera, the son of Vidhava; naḷika+era=naḷikero, the son of Naḷika; samaṅa, a monk+era=sāmaṇera, the son,viz. the disciple of the monk, a novice.
eyya 1 (ṇeyya)- The state or nature of: alasa, idle +eyya=ālaseyyaṃ idleness; sāpateyyaṃ, property (lit., one's own property)=sa, own +pati, master, owner+eyya (note the elision of i in pati).
eyya 2 (ṇeyya)- Patronymics; with guṅa. vinata+eyya=venateyyo, the son of Vinata; mālī, a gardener +eyya=māleyya, the gardener's son.
eyya 3- Denotes the nature of, the origin, the place where a thing is made, or a person or animal reared up. Pabbateyya, whose place or abode is in the mountain, belonging to mountains=pabbata +eyya; suci, purity +eyya=soceyyaṃ, the state of him who is pure, also, purification; kula, family+eyya=koleyyo, belonging to, reared up in a (noble) family, of good family; bārāṇasī, Benares +eyya=bārāṇaseyyaṃ; that which is made in Benares, lit., that the origin of which is in Benares.
eyya 4- Fitness, worthiness. This is a form of the F.P.P. already explained (468).
i 1 (ṇi)- Forms a few patronymics, from nouns in a: duna+i=doni, the son of Duna; anuruddhā+i=Anuruddhi, the son of Anuruddhā; jinadattha+i=jinadatthi, the son of Jinadattha.
i 2- After the word pura, town, city, indicates that which belongs or is proper to a city: pori, urbane, polite, affable.
ika (ṇika)- Is of very wide application and is added after nouns and adjectives; guṇa generally takes place. It denotes:
(1) Patronymics: nādaputta+ika=nādaputtiko, the son of Nadiputta; jinadattha+ika=jinadatthiko, the son of Jinadattha.
(2) Living by means of nāvā, a boat+ika=nāviko, one who goes or lives by means of a boat=a boatman; balisa, a fish-hook +ika=bālisiko, a fisherman; vetana, wages +ika=vetaniko, one who lives upon wages, a labourer.
(3) Going by means of: pada, the foot +ika=pādiko, one who goes with his feet, a pedestrian; sakaṭa, a cart +ika=sākaṭiko, one who goes in a cart.
(4) Relating to: samudda, the sea +ika=sāmuddiko, relating to the sea, marine; sakaṭa, cart, sākaṭiko, relating to carts.

(6) Mixed with: tela, oil, telikaṃ, that which is mixed with oil; oily; dadhi, curds, dadhikaṃ, that which is mixed with curds, and dadhiko, mixed with or relating to curds.
(7) Making, the maker: tela, oil, teliko, an oil manufacturer.
(8) Connected with: dvāra, a door, dvāriko, one who is connected with a door, a door-keeper.
(9) Carrying upon: khanda, the shoulder, khandiko, who carries on the shoulder; aṅguli, finger, aṅguliko, who carries on the finger.
(10) Born in or belonging to a place, or living in a place: sāvatthi, sāvatthiko, of, born in, or, living in Sāvatthi; kapilavatthu, kapilavatthiko, of, born, in, or, living in Kapilavatthu.
(11) Studying, learning: vinaya, the Discipline, venayiko, one who studies the vinaya; suttanta, a discourse (of the Buddha), suttantiko, one who studies, or knows Discourses, viz., the Suttapiṭaka.
(12) That which is performed by: mānasa, the mind, mānasiko, mental, and mānasikaṃ, the act performed by mind; sarira, the body, sārīriko, bodily, corporeal, sārīrikaṃ, the act performed by the body.
(13) That which is bartered for: suvaṇṇa, gold, sovaṇṇikaṃ, that which is bartered for gold; sovaṇṇiko, relating to gold; vattha, cloth, vatthikaṃ, that which is exchanged for cloth; vatthiko, relating to cloth.
(14) Possession: daṇḍo, a staff, daṇḍiko, one who has a staff, a mendicant; mālā wreath, māliko, one having a wreath; puttiko, who has sons.
(15) A collection, herd, group: kedāra, a field, kedārikaṃ, a collection of fields; hatthi, elephant, hatthikaṃ, herd of elephants.
(16) Measure: kumbha, a pot, kumbhiko, containing a big measure, viz., as much as a pot; kumbhikaṃ, that which is contained in a pot.
imā- Denotes position or direction in space or time; it also shows relation: pacchā, behind, western, pacchimo hindermost, western; anta, limit, end; antimo, last, final. So, majjhimo, middling, from majjha, middle.
imā- Forms a limited number of possessive adj.: putta, son, puttimā, who has sons; papā, evil, sin, pāpimā sinful, evil. This suffix is the same as that noticed in (221, 222) with connecting vowels before it.
in (ṇi)- Forms a numerous class of possessive adj., very often used substantively (137); the stems are in in, and the nominative sing in ī; daṇḍa, a staff, daṇḍī, possessed of a staff; manta, design, plan, mantī, one replete with plans, a minister, adviser; pāpa, evil+in=pāpī, having evil, evil.
ina- A few possessive adj.; mala, dirt, taint+ina=malina, dirty, tainted.
issika- This is the sign of the Superlative (238).
iya- A few abstract nouns; issara, lord, chief+iya=issariyaṃ, dominion; alasa, lazy, ālasiyaṃ, idleness.
īya- like ima above.
iya, as īya noticed in (466), is essentially a suffix of the F.P.P. The proper form of the suffix, it should be noted is: īya.
ī 1- See in, above.
ī 2- Is used after the cardinals from 11 upwards to form ordinals expressing the day of the month, but also mere ordinals sometimes: ekādasa, 11 +ī=ekādasī, the 11th day or simply, the 11th; catuddasa, 14 +ī=catuddasī, the 14th day, or the 14th.
ka (kaṇ)- Is much used to form adjectives, which in Neut. become abstract nouns; besides, it also forms a certain number of nouns Masc. which, however, are adjectives used as substantives. Guṇa often takes place: rakkhā, protection +ka=rakkhako, protecting, a guard; rakkhana, defence +ka=rakkhanako, a guard; ramaṇeyya, pleasurable +ka=rāmaṇeyyako, delightful, rāmaṇeyyakaṃ, delightfulness.
It has a few other meanings;
(1) Collection, group; rājaputta, prince +ka=rājaputtaka, a group or band of princes; manussa, man +ka=mānussakaṃ, an assembly or group of men.
(2) Diminutives, with, sometimes, a certatn amount of contempt implied; pāda, foot, pādako, a small foot; rāja, king, rājako, a princeling; putta, son, puttako, a little son; luddha, hunter, luddhako, a young hunter.
(3) Not seldom, ka adds nothing whatever to the primary meaning of the word; kumāra, child, young prince +ka=kumārako; nava, young, junior +ka=navaka.
(4) It is much used after compounds, above all, after bahubbīhī, to form poseessives, but often also redundantly.
(5) The use of ka after numerals has been noticed (286).
kata- Is considered as a suffix by some grammarians; It is used with prefixes ni+kaṭa=nikaṭa, near; vi+kaṭa=vikaṭa, changed; pa+kaṭa=pākaṭa, evident, public, clear; sam+kaṭa=saṅkaṭa, narrow. It will be remarked that kaṭa forms adjectives differing very little or even not at all from the meaning of the suffix to which it is added. It is probably a form of kata (P.P.P.), from √kar, to do, make.
kiya- Forms adj. denoting relation, connection (it is made up, no doubt, of ka+iya): Andha, the Andhra country +kiya=andhakiya, relating or belonging to the Andhra country; jāti, birth +kiya=jātikiya, relating to birth, congenital.
la- Forms a few adj. and nouns; it is often preceded by the vowels: i, and u: bahu, many +la=bahulo, abundant; vācā, word +la=vācālo, talkative, garrulous; phena, froth=phenila, frothy, the soap plant, soap; mātā, mother+ula=mātulo, maternal uncle; vaṭṭa, a circle +ula=vaṭṭulo, circular; kumbhī, a pot, jar +la=kumbhīlo, a crocodile, one who has (a belly like) a jar. la is another form of ra (see also below.); r and l often interchange (47, vi).
lu- For this see: ālu above.
ma- Forms ordinals (see 274); ma has sometimes a superlative meaning (see, ima, above). ima is the suffix ma with preceding vowel i.
mā (mantu) (mant)- is much used in forming adj. of possession. It has been explained already (220, 221, 222, 223, 224).
maya- With this suffix are formed adjectives denoting made of, consisting of: suvaṇṇa, gold +maya=suvaṇṇamaya, made of gold, golden; rajata, silver +maya=rajatamaya, made of silver.
min=mi- This forms a few possessive adjectives; the stems are in in and the Nominative Sing in ī (see, in and ī). go, cow +min=gomin, (gomī) possessing oxen, cattle, a possessor of cattle; sa, own +min=samin (sāmī) owner, master, lord.
mī- See last.
ra- From this are made a few adjectives; guṇa, in some examples, takes place. It is often preceded by the vowels a and i. madhu, honey+ra=madhura, sweet, sweetness; sikhā, a peak +ra=sikhāra, having a peak, peaked, a mountain; susa, empty, hole +(i)ra=susira, full of holes; kamma, act, work +ara=kammāro, having or doing work, an artificer, smith.
so- same meaning as ra; medhā, wisdom +so=medhāso having wisdom, wise; loma, hair +so=lomaso, hairy.
si, ssi- See below (vin=vi).
ta- Forms a few nouns and adj. it is a possessive suffix: pabba, a knot, joint, fulness +ta=pabbata, a mountain, that which has joints or fulness; vaṅka, bent +ta=vaṅkata, bent, crooked.
tama- Is the suffix used in forming the Superlative. See (238, i).
tana- This suffix forms, from adverbs, a few adjectives: svā (sve, suve), tomorrow +tana=svātano, of tomorrow, belonging to tomorrow; sanaṃ (S. sanā), of old, always+tana=sanantano, ancient, old, perpetual; nū, now +tana=nūtano fresh, new.
tara- As the suffix of the comparative, tara has already been explained (238, i).
tā 1- This suffix forms a numerous class of feminine abstract nouns from adjectives and nouns, and expresses the state, nature or quality of being that which is denoted by the adj. or noun. lahu, light +tā=lahutā, lightness; sāra, pith, marrow +tā=sāratā, essence, strength; ati (prefix) very great +sūra, a hero +tā=atisūratā great heroism.
tā 2- Denotes multitude, collection: jana, person, man +tā=janatā, a multitude of persons, folk, people; gāma, village +tā=gāmatā, a collection of villages. So: nagaratā, bandhutā etc.
ti- Is used in forming the words expressing decades (see 251).
tta- (S. tva). Forms Neuter nouns of the same import as tā (i); puthujjana, a common man +tta=puthujjanattaṃ; the state of being a common man; buddha, a buddha +tta=buddhattaṃ, Buddhahood; atthi he is +tta=atthittaṃ the state of "he is", existence.
ttana- Used in the same sense as the last (S. tvana), puthujjana +ttana=puthujjanattanaṃ, state of being a common man; vedanā, sensation +ttana =vedanattanaṃ, sensitiveness.
tya=cca- (S. tya). Forms a few adjectives from indeclinables; ni, in +cca=nicca, inward, inmate, own, eternal, perpetual; amā, with, at home +cca=amacco, inmate, minister (for tya=cca, see 74).
tha- used in forming the ordinals: 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th. (see 251).
thaṃ- Makes adverbs from pronominal stems; it has been noticed in (337).
thā- This also has been noticed in (337).
vā (vantu)(vant)- This suffix makes a very large class of possessive adjectives. It is similar in character to mā (mant). See (220).
va- Forms a small number of adjectives; aṇṇa, wave +va=aṇṇavo, billowy, also, the ocean; kesa, hair +va=kesavo; hairy (a name of Vi·nu).
vī=vin- Used to form adjectives of possession. The stems are in in, and the Nominative Sing. in ī. It has been explained in (231).
It is used also after some words the
stem of which ends in s (158, 160):
tapas (tapo), austerity, devotion+ vī=tapassī
(tapasvi), austere, a hermit;
yasas (yaso), fame +vī=yasassī (yasasvi), renowned, famous.
Note that initial v of vī is assimilated to final s, thus giving ssī; the
suffix as given by native grammarians is ssī, which the
student should assume as being the true suffix.
ya (ṇya)- This forms a very large class of nouns, mostly Neuter abstract.
Roots Used as Suffixes (kvi)
582. "kvi" is an imaginary suffix denoting that the root itself is to be considered as the suffix. When a root ends in a consonant, this consonant is elided: √gam=ga, √ghan, to kill=gha. As these form primarily adjectives, they assume, in certain cases, but not always, the endings of the three genders.
583. The student must
bear in mind that native grammarians include kvi in kita. As,
however,
they are used as suffixes added after Primary and Secondary
derivatives and indeclinables, I have
preferred to treat them separately.
584. A list of the principal roots used as suffixes is here given.
bhū- (√bhū, to be), has generally the meaning denoted by the verb itself: abhi+bhū=abhibhū, mastering, overcoming, a conqueror (abhibhavi, to overcome); vi+bhū=vibhu, arising, expanding, ruler, lord (vibhavati, to arise, expand); sam+bhū=sambhū, offspring, progeny; sambhavati, to be produced, to spring from.
da- (√dā, to give, bestow); amata, imortality +da=amatado, he who bestows or confers immortality, conferring immortality; lokahita, the world's welfare +da=lokahitado, bestowing, or wishing for, the world's welfare.
ga- (√gam to go); pāra, the further shore +ga=parago, gone to the further shore, viz. to Nirvana; kula, family +upa, near +ga=kulupago, one who goes near a family, a family adviser.
gū- (a collateral form of √gam); addhā, distance +gū=addhagū, going to a distance, a traveller; pāra +gū=pāragū, as above, pārago.
gha- (√ghan=han [59, note]) to strike, kill; paṭi, back, in return +gha=paṭigho, hatred.
ja- (√jā, jan, to be born, produced): paṅka, mud +ja=paṅkaja, produced in the mud, a lotus; aṅda, an egg +ja=aṅdaja, born from an egg=a bird.
ji- (√ji, to conquer); māra, the enemy of Buddha +ji=māraji, conqueror of Mara.
pa- (√pā, to drink); pada, a foot +pa=pādapo, drinking by the foot (root), a tree.
pa- (√pā, to guard, keep); go, cow +pa=gopo, cowkeeper.
ṭha- (√ṭhā, to stand; exist); nāvā, boat +ṭha=nāvaṭṭho, stored in a boat; ākāsa, the sky, air +ṭha=ākasaṭṭho, standing, resting, abiding in the sky.
kha- (√khā, a collateral form of √khan, to dig) pari, round +kha=parikha, that which is dug all round=a moat.
dada- properly the base (371-4) of √dā, but considered as a root by some grammarians, is used in the same way as da above: sabbakāmadadaṃ kumbhaṃ=an all-desire-granting vessel, a vessel which grants all desires.
585. The taddhita
suffixes may be classified as follows:
Patronymics- a, āna, āyana, era, eyya, i, ika.
Possessive- aka, ika, imā, in=ī, ra, (ara, ira), so, ssī, mā(mat,
mant), min=mī, va, vā, (vat, vant), vī=vin, ta, ina, la.
Group, collection, multitude- a, ika, ka, tā.
State of, quality, abstract idea: bya, eyya, iya, tā,
tta, ttana, ta.
Relation (relating to): a, i, ika, ima, kiya.
The others may be classified as miscellaneous.
586. It will have been remarked that some suffixes are merely made up of a principal one which has taken the vowel a or i or u before it. Such are: aka, ika from ka; aya, iya, from ya; ara, ira, ura from ra; ila from la.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 14
Syntax (Kāraka)
587. Syntax, in Pāli, does not offer any difficulty for nearly all the relations of the substantives, adjectives and pronouns which will be explained in this chapter are very often obviated by compounding them as has already been explained in the chapter on Compounds. The student who has carefully read and mastered the Compounds has therefore done much and will understand ordinary prose without too much difficulty. However, there are peculiar uses of the Cases, without a knowledge of which a thorough mastery of the language would be impossible; we therefore invite the learner to read attentively the present chapter.
(i) Order of Sentences
588. The order of the Pāli sentence is very simple in character, compound sentences being rather the exception than the rule:
(1) Whether the sentence be Simple, Compound or Complex, the predicate must always come last.
(2) In a simple sentence containing an object, the order is: (i) Subject; (ii) object and (iii) predicate, as: dāso kammaṃ karoti, the slave does the work.
(3) Words qualifying the subject or the
object come before the subject and the object respectively, and
adverbs before the verb: etetayo purisā mahantaṃ siriṃ sīghaṃ
pāpuṇiṃsu, these three men quickly attained to great
glory.
Remark. Adverbs of time always come first in the sentence.
(4) The conjunctions, pana, but; udāhu, or, are used to form compound sentences; ce, yadi and sace, if, complex sentences.
(ii) The Article
589. There are no words in Pāli corresponding to the English articles; the words eko, ekacce, one, a certain are often used in the sense of the indefinite article (253); and so, eso, that, this, do the function of the definite article: so puriso, the man; sā itthī, the woman.
Remark. Substantives not preceded by the above words may, according to the context, be translated as if preceded by the articles: puriso=a man, or, the man.
(iii) Concord
590. Concord of subject and predicate.
(1) The predicate may be:
(i) a finite verb: bhikkhu gahapatiṃ ovādi, the
monk admonished the householder;
(ii) a substantive with the verb "hoti" understood
after it: yadi ete guṇā, if these (are=honti) virtues;
(iii)An adjective with "hoti" also understood: tvaṃ
atibālo, thou (art=asi) very foolish;
(iv) A P.P.P.used as a finite verb; so pi gato, he too went, lit.
he too gone.
(2) When a finite verb is used as predicate, it must agree with the subject in number and person. When there are several subjects of different persons, the verb is put in the first person plural: so ca tvaṃ ahaṃ gacchatha, he thou, and I go. Should there be no subject of the first person, the verb is put in the 2nd person plural: so ca tvaṃ gacchatha, he and thou go.
(3) In the case of an adjective or a P.P.P. taking the place of the predicate, the adj. and the P.P.P. must agree with the subject in gender and number: so gato, he went; sā gatā, she went; taṃ gataṃ, it went; so taruṇo, he is young; sā taruṇā, she is young; taṃ taruṇaṃ, it is young.
(4) But if a substantive stands in the place of a verb, no such concord of gender or number needs take place; appamado nibbanapadaṃ (=nibbānassa padaṃo), vigilance is the path to Nirvana.
Concord of Adjective and Substantive
591. An adjective, or participle (which is of the nature of an adj.) when not compounded with the noun it qualifies, must agree with it in gender, number and case.
Concord of the Relative and its Antecedent
592. The relative must agree with its antecedent in gender, number and person.
(1) The relative may be used by itself, without the noun: yo janāti so imaṃ gaṇhātu, he who knows let him take this. Note, that in the above the demonstrative pronoun so is used as a correlative.
(2) The relative is used instead of a preceding noun: ahaṃ ekaṃ upāyaṃ janāmi, yena amhe gaṇhituṃ no sakkissati, I know an expedient by which he will not able to seize us.
(3) With the noun expressed: yassa purisassa buddhi hoti so mahaddhano ti vuccati, to whom there is wisdom, he is called very wealthy, he who has wisdom is said to be very wealthy.
(4) Note that the clause containing the relative is put first; sometimes the clause containing the correlative is placed first for the sake of emphasis: na so pitāyena putto na sikkhāpiyati, he is no father by whom the son is not made to learn.
(iv) Syntax of Substantives
593. This is properly government, for the term "kāraka" expresses the relation between the noun and the verb; so that any relation existing between words not connected with a verb cannot be called a kāraka, consequently the Genitive and the Vocative are not considered as cases, for they have no relation whatever with the verb; they are therefore called akāraka, non-cases.
594. 1. The Nominative
The Nominative is used very much in the same way as in English; it is the subject of the verb and the latter must agree with it in number and person; see Concord of subject and predicate (590).
(i) The Nominative is used in apposition: malliko kosalarājā, Mallika, king of Kosala.
(ii) It is used absolutely in titles of books, that is, it does not take the termination proper to the nominative; māhajānakajātaka, the birth.story of Mahajanaka.
595. 2. Genitive
The true force of the genitive is -of and -'s expressing possession.
(i) The genitive therefore is used primarily to denote possession: suvaṇṇassa rāsi, a heap of gold; rukkhassa sākhā, the branch of the tree.
(ii) In such examples as the above, the genitive is often compounded with the noun it qualifies: suvaṇṇarāsi.
(iii) It denotes the whole of which a part only is taken; this is called "partitive genitive": brāhmāṇaṃ so paṇḍito, he is clever among brahmins; sabbayodhānaṃ atisūro, the bravest of all warriors; tumhākaṃ pana ekenā, but even not one of you.
(iv) The genitive is used also with
words expressing, difference, equality, inequality: tassa antaraṃ na passiṃsu, they
did not see the (its) difference; sadiso pitu, the same as (his)
father; tulyo pitu equal to his father.
Remark. In these examples the ablative may also be used: sadiso
pitarā.
(v) Words meaning. dear or the reverse, take a genitive: sā brāhmaṇassa manāpā, she (was) dear to the brahmin.
(vi) Likewise words denoting: honour,
veneration etc.: gāmassa pūjito honoured of the village;
rañño mānito, revered by (of) the king.
Remark. In these examples the Inst. may also be used: gāmena
pūjito.
(vii) Words of: skill, proficiency, etc., and their opposites, govern the genitive: kusalā naccagītassa, clever in dancing and singing.
(viii) It is used with words indicating: locality, time, distance: amhākaṃ buddhassa pubbe, before our Buddha; gāmassa avidure, not far from the village; upari tesaṃ, above them.
(ix) Believing in or well disposed
towards: budhassa pasanno, he has faith in the Buddha.
Remark. Here the Loc. may also be used: buddhe pasanno.
(x) It is used also with words of remembering or thinking of (with sorrow), pitying, wishing for, giving or apportioning, honouring, cleaning, filling, fearing and a few others: mātussa sarati, he remembers his mother (with sorrow); na tesa koci sarati, nobody remembers them; telassa davati, he gives oil; pūrati bālo pāpassa, the fool is full of evil; sabbe tasanti daṇḍassa, all fear punishment.
In these examples the Acc. may be used:
telaṃ davati.
Remark. Words of fearing also govern the Abl.: kin nu kho ahaṃ
sunakhā bhāyami? Why should I fear the dog?
(xi) A genitive with a participle in
agreement is called a Gen. Absolute. It generally denotes some
attendant circumstance:
tassa bhattaṃ bhuttassa udakaṃ aharanti, when he
had finished his meal they fetched him water.
(xii) Some other relations of the genitive will present no difficulty, as they have their exact parallel in English.
596. It will be seen from the remarks above that the genitive is often used instead of the Accusative, the Ablative, the Instrumentive and the Locative. It is also used adverbially, as kissa, why? It will also be remarked that whenever the genitive is dependent on a verb, it is so on account of its being used instead of another case, as in: mātussa sarati.
597. 3. The Dative
The person or object to or for whom, something is given or done, is put in the Dative case. The Dat. is consequently used also as indirect object with transitive verbs having an Acc. as direct object.
(i) The Dat., then, expresses the relations which, in English, are usually denoted by the words to, for: bhikkhussa civaraṃ deti, he gives a robe to the priest; yuddhāya paccuggacchāmi; I will set out for battle.
(ii) The Dat. is governed by verbs expressing praise or blame, anger, believing, disbelieving, assent, envy, pleasure or displeasure, injury, benefit, approval, forgiveness, salutation, blessing, hatred, abuse, concealing, worshipping, carrying.
Examples: Buddhassa silāghate, he praises the Buddha; yadi'haṃ tassa kuppeyya, if I should be angry with him; duhayati disānaṃ ogho, the flood has injured the country; tuyhaṃ saddahāmi, I believe thee; svāgataṃ te, hail to thee! sotthi tuyhaṃ hotu, fare thee well! khama me, forgive me! mayhaṃ sapate he swears at or, reviles me; tassa sampaṭicchi, he assented to it; ussuyanti dujjanā guṇav antānaṃ wicked people envy the virtuous; tassa atītaṃ āhari, he told him a story; devā pi tesaṃ pihayanti, even the gods desire them, envy them; samaṇassa rocate saccaṃ: truth pleases a monk.
(iii) The Dat. is commonly used with the
verb "to be" to express possession: puttā me
n'atthi, no sons are to me, I have no sons.
Remark. When the verb "hoti" is used with the Dat. to
express possession, it is generally put in the singular, even
when, as in the above example what is possessed is plural.
(iv) The word, alaṃ, enough, fit, governs the Dat.: alaṃ kukkuccāya, enough of doubt! alaṃ mallo mallassa, sufficient is a warrior for a warrior! A warrior is match for a warrior.
(v) The words, attha, object, purpose; hita, benefit, blessing; and sukha, happiness, are used in the Dat. with the meaning respectively of: for the purpose of, for; for the benefit of; for the happiness of; and they govern a Gen.: ropanassa atthāya, or, ropanatthāya, for the purpose of sowing; devamanussānaṃ hitāya, for the benefit of gods and men; tassa sukhāya, for his hapiness.
(vi) The Dat. may denote the purpose for
which, and then governs a Gen: dārassa bharaṇāya for
the purpose of maintaining a wife, for the maintenance of a wife,
to maintain a wife.
Remark. It will be seen from this example that the Dat. in
āya has the force of an Infinitive.
(vii) The Dat. is also used with the
verb maññati, to consider, esteem, when contempt is
implied:
kaliṅgarassa tuyhaṃ maññe, I consider thee as chaff, a fig
for you! jīvitaṃ tiṇaya na maññe, I do
not consider life (so much) as grass, I do not care in the least
for life.
(viii) The place to which motion is directed is sometimes put in the Dat: appo saggāya gacchati, (only) the few go to heaven; nirayāya upakaḍḍhati, drags down to hell; so maṃ udakāya neti, he takes me to the water.
(ix) The Dat. is often used instead of the Accusative, and also of the Locative.
598. 4. The Accusative
(i) The Accusative Case is generally governed by transitive verbs: rathaṃ karoti, he makes a carriage; āhāro balaṃ janeti, food produces (=gives strength).
(ii) All verbs implying motion govern the Acc.: nagaraṃ gacchati; he goes to town; bhagavantaṃ upasaṅkamitvā, having approached the Blessed One.
(iii) Verbs having the meaning of, to choose to name, to call, to appoint, to ask, to make, to know, to consider, etc. take two accusatives, one a direct object and the other a factitive or indirect object: puriso bhāraṃ gamaṃ vahati, the man carries the load to the village; purisaṃ gacchantaṃ passati, he sees the man going; here gāmaṃ and gacchantaṃ are the factitive objects.
(iv) Causative Verbs likewise govern two
Accusatives: puriso purisaṃ gāmaṃ gamāyati: the man causes the man to go to
the village; ācariyo sisaṃ dhammaṃ
pātheti, the preceptor causes the disciple to read the
Doctrine.
Remark. In such examples the Instrumentive may be used instead of
the factitive object: sāmiko dāsena (or dāsaṃ) khajjaṃ
khādāpeti. The master causes the slave to eat the food;
purisena (or purisaṃ) kammaṃ kāreti, he causes the slave to do the work.
(v) When thc roots: √vas, to live; √thā, to stand; √si, to lie down; √pad to go step; and √vis to enter; are preceded by the verbal prefixes: anu, upa, abhi, adhi, ā and ni, they govern the Acc: gāmaṃ upavasati, he lives near the village; nagaraṃ adhivasanti, they dwell in the village; mañ caṃ abhinsīdeyya; he ought to sit on the cot; sakkassa sahabyataṃ upapajjati, got into companionship with Sakka, she went to Sakka's heaven.
(vi) The Acc. is used for the Loc.: nadiṃ pivati=nadiyaṃ pivati, he drinks in the river; gāmaṃ carati=gāme carati he roams in the village.
(vii) The indeclinables: abhito, near, in the presence of, on both sides; dhi, dhī, Woe! Fie! Shame! as well as the expression: dhi-r-atthu, Woe, shame be to! antarā, between, on the way; parito, around, everywhere, on every side; anu by the side of, inferior; pati, to, towards, for, near; pari, around; upa, inferior to; antarena, except, without; abhi, before, govern the Accusative: abhito gāma vasati, he lives near the village; dhī brāhmaṇassa hantāraṃ, woe to whom strikes a brahmin! dhī-ratthu maṃ pūtikayaṃ, shame on that foul body of mine! upāyaṃ antarena, without expedient; maṃ antarena excepting me; antarā ca rājagahaṃ, and on the way to Rajagaha; parito nagaraṃ, around the village; sadhu devadatto mātaraṃ anu, Devadatta is kind to his mother; anu sāriputtaṃ, inferior to Sariputta; pabbattaṃ anu, by the side of the mountain; sādhu devadatto mātaraṃ pati, Devadatta is kind to his mother; nadiṃ nerañjaraṃ pati, near the river Nerañjara; upa sāriputtaṃ, inferior to Sariputta.
(viii) Duration of time is put in the Acc.: divasaṃ, the whole day; taṃ khaṇaṃ, at that moment; ekaṃ samayaṃ, once upon a time.
(ix) Ordinals in the Acc., denote "number of times" dutiyaṃ, for the second time; tatiyaṃ, for the 3rd time.
(x) Distance is also expressed by the Acc.: yojanaṃ gacchati, he goes one league.
(xi) The Acc. is very often used
adverbially: khippaṃ gacchati he goes quickly; hatthanillehakaṃ
bhuñjati, he eats "licking his hands."
Remark. This is called the adverbial accusative.
599. 5. The Instrumentative
(i) The agent by whom or the insutrument with which .an action is performed is put in the Inst.: cakkhunā rupaṃ passati, (one) sees forms with the eye; hatthena kammaṃ karoti (one) does work with the hands; dāsena kato, done by the slave.
(ii) The Inst. shows cause or reason: rukkho vātena oṇamati, the tree bends down on account of the wind; kammuna vasalo hoti, he is a pariah by reason of his work. The Inst. can therefore be translated by such expressions as: by means of; on account of; through; by reason of; owing to.
(iii) The conveyance in or on which one goes is put in the Inst.: yānena gacchati, he goes in a cart; vimānena, gacchiṃsu they went in a flying mansion; hatthina upasaṅkamati, he approached on his elephant.
(iv) The price at which a thing is bought or sold is put in the Inst. kahāpaṇena no detha, give it to us for a kahāpaṇa (a small piece of money); satasahassena kiṇitvā having bought it for 100,000 (pieces of money).
(v) The direction or route, or the way by which one goes is shown by the Inst.: tā sāladvārena gacchanti, they went by the gate of the hall; kena maggena so gato, (by) which way did he go?
(vi) It is used to denote infirmity or bodily defects, the member or organ affected being in the Inst.: akkhinā so kāṇo, he is blind of one eye; hatthena kuṇi, having a crooked hand.
(vii) Words expressing, birth, lineage, origin, nature are put in the Inst.: jātiyā khattiyo buddho, Buddha is a k·atriya by birth: pakatiyā bhaddako, good by nature.
(viii) The Inst. expreses the time in which: divasena patto, arrived in one day; ekena māsena nagaraṃ gacchi, he went to the city in a month.
(ix) Also the time at which: tena samayena, at that time...
(x) It expresses companionship, and is then generally used with the indeclinables, saha or saddhiṃ, with, together with: nisīdi bhagavā saddhiṃ bhikkhusaṅghena, the Blessed One sat together with the assembly of the monks.
(xi) The expressions "what is the use of," "what use to ..."," what benefit by ...", etc., are expressed in Pāli by the Inst. of the thing and the Dat. of the person: kin te jatāhi dummedha, what good to thee, O fool, by matted hair? kin nu me buddhena, what need have I of Buddha? What do I care for a Buddha?
(xii) The word attho, desire, need, want, takes an Inst. of the object desired or wanted and a Dat. of the person: maṇinā me attho, I want a jewel (lit., to me is need of, or desire for, a jewel).
(xiii) alaṃ, enough, governs also this case: alaṃ idha vāsena enough of living here: alaṃ buddhena, Buddha is sufficient for me.
(xiv) Words denoting "separation" are generally construed with the Inst.: piyehi vippayogo dukkho, separation from those we love is painful.
(xv) The indeclinables, saha, saddhiṃ, samaṃ, with
at: vinā, without, except, govern the Inst.:
vinādosena, without fault.
Remark. saha, sometimes expresses "equality": puttena
saha dhanavā pitā, a father as rich as his son.
(xvi) Verbs meaning "to convey, to
carry, to fetch" etc., take the Inst. of the place of
carrying:
sisena dārukalāpaṃ ucchaṅgena paṇṇam ādāya, taking a
bunch of firewood on her head and greens at her hips...
(xvii) The Inst. is often used adverbially (see above).
(xviii) It is also governed by many prepositions.
600. 6. The Ablative
(i) The primary meaning of the Ablative is that expressed by the word "from"; that is, it expresses separation; it expresses also many other relations, in which the principal idea of separation is more or less discernible.
(ii) Separation: gāmā apenti, they left the village; so assā patati, he fell from the horse.
(iii) Direction from: avīcito upari above the Avici Hell; uddhaṃ padatala, (from) above the sole of the foot.
(iv) The place "wherein" an action is performed is put in the Abl.; in such cases a gerund is sometimes understood according to native grammarians, but the student will remark that these expressions have their exact parallel in English: pāsādā oloketi, he looks from the palace, is said to be equivalent to: pāsādaṃ abhiruhitvā pāsādā oloketi, having ascended the palace he looks from the palace.
(v) Measure of length, breadth or
distance is put in the Abl: dīghaso navavidatthiyo nine spans
long , yojanaṃ āyāmato, a league in length; yojanaṃ
vittharato, a league in breadth.
Remark. In these examples the Inst. may also be used: yojanaṃ
āyāmena, yojanaṃ vitthārena.
(vi) That from which a person or animal is warded or kept off is put in the Abl: yavehi gāvo rakkhati, he keeps off the cows from the barley; taṇḍulā kāke vāreti, he wards off the crows from the rice.
(vii) With verbs meaning to hide,
conceal, "the person from whom one wishes to hide is in the
Abl: upajjhāya antaradhāyati sisso, the pupil hides
himself from his preceptor.
Remark. In such expressions, the Gen. may also be used:
antaradhāyissāmi samaṇassa gotamasssa, I will hide
myself from the samana Gotama.
(viii) When the verb "antaradhāyati" means, to vanish, to disappear, the place from which one vanishes is put in the Locative: jetavane antaradhāyitvā, having disappeared from the Jetavana Monastery.
(ix) But when "natural phenomena" are referred to, the Nom. is used: andhakāro antaradhāyati, darkness disappears.
(x) Verbs meaning "to abstain, to avoid, to release, to fear, to abhor", also govern the Abl.: pāpadhammmato viramati, he refrains from sin; so parimuccati jātiyā he is released from existence: corehi bhāyāmi, I am afraid of thieves.
(xi) The Abl. also shows ṃotive, cause,
reason" and can be translated by for, on account of, by
reason of, through , etc.: vācāya marati, he died on
account of his speech: sīlato naṃ pasaṃsanti,
they praise him for his virtue.
Remark. In these examples, the Inst. may be used as well: sīlena
pasaṃsanti.
(xii) It is used with words showing
proximity, gāmā samīpaṃ, near the
village.
Remark. in these examples, the Gen. may also be used.
(xiii) Verbs meaning "to be born, to originate from" etc. govern the Abl.: corā jāyati bhayaṃ, from a thief fear arises.
(xiv) The following indeclinables govern the Abl.: araka, far from, afar, ārakā tehi bhagavā, far from them is the Blessed One; upari, above, over: upari pabbatā, over the mountain; So: pati, against, instead, in return; rite, except, without; aññatra, vinā, without, except; nānā, different, away from; puthu and, before a vowel, puthag, separately, without, except; ā, till, as far as; yava, till, as far as; saha, with; buddhasmā pati sāriputto, Sariputta takes the place of the Buddha; rite saddhamma, without the true Doctrine, etc.
(xv) It should be noted that the Abl. is very frequently used, instead of the Inst., Accus., the Gen. and the Loc., e.g. vināsaddhammā, or vinā saddhammaṃ or vinā saddhammena.
601. 7. The Locative
(i) The Locative shows the place in or on which a thing or person is, or an action performed; it is therefore expressed in English by "in, on, upon, at." kate nisīdati puriso, the man is sitting on the mat; thaliyaṃ odanaṃ pacati; he cooks the food in a cooking-pot.
(ii) The Loc. shows the "cause, reason, or motive" of an action: dīpīcammesu haññante, the panther is killed for its skin; kuñjaro dantesu haññate, the elephant is killed for his tusks.
(iii) It denotes time when an action takes place; sāyaṇhasamaye āgato, he came in the evening.
(iv) When the pre-eminence of an individual (thing or person) over the whole class to which he belongs is implied, as well as with adjectives in the superlative degree, the noun with respect to which such pre-eminence or such superlative degree of excellence is shown is put in the Loc. or in the Gen.: manussesu khattiyo sūratamo, the k·atriya is the most valiant of men; manussānaṃ khattiyo sūratamo; kaṇhā gāvisu sampannakhīratamā, of cows, the black one abounds most in milk, or, kaṇhā gāvinaṃ sampannakhīratamā.
(v) The following words govern the Loc. and the Gen. as well: sāmī, an owner, master; issaro, king, lord; adhipati, chief, lord; dāyādo, an heir; patibhū, substitute, surety; pasūto, offspring, child; kusalo, clever, expert; gonesu sāmī, an owner of oxen, or gonānaṃ sāmī, etc.
(vi) Words signifying "to be happy,
contented, eager", govern the Loc., as well as the Inst.:
ñāṇasmiṃ ussuko, eager for wisdom, or ñāṇena
ussako; ñāṇasmiṃ pasīdito, contented with wisdom,
ñāṇena pasīdito.
(vii) Words signifying "reverence, respect, love, delighting in, saluting, taking, seizing, striking, kissing, fond of, adoring," govern the Loc.: pāpasmiṃ ramati mano, the mind delights in evil; bhikkhūsu abhivādenti, they salute the monks; pāde gahetvā papāte khipati, took him by the feet and threw him in the precipice; purisaṃ sīse paharati, struck the man on the head.
(viii) The Loc. is used sometimes to show that one does not take any account of something or person: rudantasmiṃ dārake pabbaji, he left the world in spite of his son weeping. The Genitive also may be used: rudantassa ārakassa pabbaji (See: Locative and Genitive Absolute).
(ix) The Loc. is employed to denote superiority or inferiority, with the words "upa" and "adhi" respectively. upa khāriyaṃ doṇo, a doṇa is inferior to a khāri; adhi brahmadatte pañcalā, the Pancalas are under Brahmadatta's supremacy; adhi devesu buddho, the Buddha is above the gods.
(x) It is used to denote "proximity": nadiyaṃ sassaṃ, corn near the river; tassa paṇṇasālāya hatthimaggo hoti, near his leaf hut there is an elephant-track.
(xi) The Loc. is used absolutely with a participle in the same case as itself (see, Absolute Construction).
(xii) In lexicons, the Loc. is used to signify "in the sense of" ru sadde, (the root) ru, is used in the sense of making noise."
(xiii) Words denoting "fitness, suitability" govern the Loc.: tayi na yuttaṃ, not fit for thee; the Gen. is used in the same sense: tava na yuttaṃ.
(xiv) The Loc. is extensively used
instead of other Cases, and the students must be prepared to meet
the Loc. where very often he would expect to find some other
case.
Let him note that in almost all instances, the Case for which the
Loc. stands may be and is, used.
(xv) The Loc. in used for the Gen, (see, above, v).
(xvi) It is used for the Inst.: pattesu piṇḍāya carānti, they go about with bowls for their food.
(xvii) It is also used instead of the Dat.: saṅghe dinnaṃ mahapphalaṃ, offering to the Clergy are very meritorious.
(xviii) The Loc. is used for the Ablative: kadalīdesu gaje rakkhanti, they keep off the elephants from the plantain-trees.
(xix) The Loc. is frequently used adverbially; atīte, formerly.
602. 8. The Vocatives
The Vocative Case does not require any explanations: it is used exactly as in English.
603. The Genitive and Locative Absolute
(i) When a noun or a pronoun in the Locative or Genitive is used with a participle in the same case as itself, the construction is called, Locative Absolute and Genitive Absolute respectively. The Locative Absolute construction is met with much more often than the Genitive absolute. There is also found, now and then, a Nominative Absolute construction, but far less common than the other two.
(ii) The Locative, Genitive and (sometimes) the Nominative Absolute, may often be translated by "when, while, since" and sometimes by "although": tesu vivadantesu bodhisatto cintesi, while they were disputing, the Future Buddha thought; suriye atthaṅgate, when the sun had set, after sunset; gavisu duyhamānāsu gato, he went when the cows were being milked; asaniyā pi sīse patantiyā, although the thunderbolt was falling on their head.
(iii) sati, the Locative singular of santo, Pres. part of the verb atthi, to be, besides having the above meanings may also often be translated by "if, such being the case": atthe sati, if there be need: evaṃ sati, such being the case; payoge sati, when there is occasion. With Feminine words, sati is also used, although it should be, satiyā (Fem.): pucchāya sati, if the question be asked; ruciyā sati, had he the desire, if he had the wish.
(iv) The Genitive Absolute is not quite so frequently used as the Loc. Absolute although found often enough: sākuṇakassa gumbato jālaṃ mocentass'eva, even while the fowler was disengaging the net from the bush; tesaṃkiḷantānaṃ yeva suriyatthaṅigatavelā jātā, while even they were sporting, it became dusk.
(v) There is also mentioned a so-called
Nominative Absolute; gacchanto bhāradvājo so,
addasā ajjhutaṃ isiṃ, Bharadvaja having gone he .. etc.,
yāymāno mahārājā, addāsī tantarena
ge, as the king was going, he. . . ., etc,
Remark. The Gen. Absolute is frequently used to show
"disregard, contempt", it can then be translated by
"in spite of, notwithstanding". For example see above
(601, vīi).
604. Syntax of the Adjective
(i) As has already been said, whenever an adjective is not in composition with another word, it must agree with the word it qualifies in number, gender and case.
(ii) Adjectives in the comparative degree require an Ablative: sīlaṃ eva sutā seyyo, virtue is better than learning.
(iii) Comparison is also expressed by an
Abl. followed by an adjective in the positive degree:
mādhurā pāṭaliputtakehi abhirupā, the people
of Madhura are more handsome than those of Pāṭaliputta.
(iv) It is also expressed by the indeclinable varaṃ, better, with an Abl.: tato varaṃ; better than that.
(v) When "the better of two"
is to be expressed, a Gen. is used with the positive degree:
tumhakaṃ dvinnaṃ ko bhaddako of you two who is the better?
(vi) Superlative adjectives are used with the Gen. or the Loc, for examples see above (601, iv).
(vi) Syntax of Pronouns
605. 1. Personal Pronouns
(i) The personal pronouns are used much in the same way as in English, and do not call for particular remarks, except, perhaps, the enclitic forms of ahaṃ and tvaṃ; (289-b, c; 290, c).
(ii) The enclitic forms of ahaṃ: me and no, and those of tvaṃ: te and vo, are never used at the beginning of a sentence nor immediately before the particles ca, tā and eva: detu me, let him give to me; tava vā me hotu, be it thine or mine; kammaṃ no niṭṭhitaṃ, our task is finished; ko te doso, what is thy fault? kahaṃ vo rājā, where is your king?
(iii) With verbs, the personal pronouns are frequently understood, as the endings of the tenses clearly indicate also the person as: gacchati (he) goes=so gacchati; gaccheyyāmi, (I) should go=ahaṃ gaccheyyāmi etc.
(iv) The personal pronoun so, sā, taṃ is also used as a demonstrative and as an article. See Concord (589). Therefore, so puriso may mean according to the context: the man, or, that man.
(v) Tasmā (abl ), is used adverbially in the sense of "therefore accordingly, thereby": with the same meanings it is also followed by hi and ti ha (=iti ha): tasmā hi paññā ca dhanena seyyo, and therefore is wisdom better than riches; tasmā ti ha bhikkhave, accordingly, O monks!
(vi) The Inst. tena is used with the same meanings as tasmā: tena taṃ madhuraṃ, therefore, on that account, it is sweet. Tena followed by hi means "well! very well! all right! well then!" tena hi khādāpessāmi nan ti, very well, then, I'll make you devour him.
(vii) Naṃ and enaṃ (295, 300), are used when something or someone already mentioned is referred to. See (296).
606. 2. Demonstrative Pronouns
(i) eso, esā, etaṃ (298), refer to what is near, and mean: this; esā itthī, this woman; nirupakāro esā, this (fellow) is useless.
The same remarks apply to ayaṃ and asu,
this.
Remark. esa is often used for eso, sa for so.
(ii) The neuter etad (=etaṃ, 302), is used with the verb hoti and the Gen. of the person, and the expression is then equivalent to "to think": tassa etad ahosi, he thought... (lit=of his this was).
607. 3. The Relative
(i) We have already explained the Relative (592); only a few of its most important peculiar uses need be mentioned here:
(ii) Yo (311) is used with the Indefinite koci (319): yo koci, whoever, anyone; yaṃ kiñci, whatsoever, anything. See (314-a, b).
(iii) The Neut. Sing. yaṃ is frequently used adverbially in the sense of "as; that, because, since, seeing that, If, when "taṃ bahuṃ yaṃ pi jīvasi, it is much that thou livest.
(iv) The Inst. yena is used as an adverb, meaning "whereby, by which, for which, because": yena naṃ gaṇhissāmi, by which I shall catch him.
(v) When motion to a definite place is expressed, yena, where, is used with tena, there: yena bhagavā, ten'upasaṅkati, he went to Buddha (lit. where was Buddha there he approached).
(vi) Yasmā (Abl.), is used in the sense of "because" and is then generally followed by tasmā, therefore; yasmā tvaṃ na jānāsi tasmā bālo'sī ti, because thou doth not understand, therefore art thou a fool.
608. 4. The Interrogative
(i) The interrogative pronoun ko (316), may be used by itself or with a noun or pronoun: ko pana tvaṃ, who art thou? ke ete, who are these? kā dārikā, which girl?
(ii) kena (Inst.) used with attho and the Dat. of the person, forms such expressions as "what do you want?" etc,: kena te attho, what are you in need of?
(iii) kena (Inst.) kasmā (Abl.) and kissa (Gen.) are used adverbially with the meaning of "why? wherefore?"
(iv) kiṃ is much used with the Inst. to express "what is the use of?" kiṃ me jīvitena, what is the use to me of life?
5. The Indefinite
609. The indefinite pronoun (319), does not present any peculiarity: mā idha koci pāvisi, let nobody enter here; kiñci bhayaṃ, any danger.
(vii) Repetition
610. To express "plurality, totality, distribution, variety, multiplicity," etc., words are sometimes repeated: tesu tesu ṭhānesu in various places; taṃ taṃ kathaya mānā, saying this and this. yo, thus repeated means "whoever, whatever, whichever": yaṃ yaṃ gāmaṃ, whatever village; itarā ten'eva niyāmena yā yā. kiñci katheti tassa tassa upari kacavaraṃ chaḍḍesi, and in this way the other (woman) threw the refuse on whomsoever said anything; so diṭṭhadiṭṭhamanusse jīvitakkhayaṃ pāpeti, he kills all whom he sees; gatagataṭṭhāne, in every place, yena kena, by whatever...; ubbahīyati so so, every one is put to flight.
611. (viii) Syntax of Verbs
(i) The Concord of the verb with its subject has already been noticed (590, 1st).
(ii) The Present Tense denotes an action taking place now, a fact existing at the present time so bhāyati, he is afraid; sā pacati, she cooks.
(iii) The present tense often expresses the continuance of an action and is equivalent to the present progressive: sā gabbhe nisīdati, she is sitting in her private room.
(iv) Habit, custom and general truths are expressed by the present tense sabbe maranti, all (men) die; bhikkhu sīlaṃ ācarati: a monk practises virtue.
(v) The present is sometimes used with a future signification: kiṃ karomi, what shall I do?
(vi) The present is extremely frequent in narrations when recounting past events as if they were actually happening, this is called the Historical Present: so pañcamāṇavakasatāni sippaṃ uggaṇhāpeti, he taught five hundred young men (lit. he teaches).
(vii) When no interrogative particle is used, interrogation is sometimes expressed by placing the present tense at the beginning of the sentence: socasi tvaṃ upāsaka, grievest thou, O layman? Remark. Other tenses may also be used in the same way to mark interrogation.
612. The Past Tense
Perfect, Imperfect and Aorist.
(i) The Perfect and the Imperfect tenses present no difficulty, they are as a rule used in the sense of a general past, and they do not require any notice. Let it be borne in mind, however, that the Perfect is but seldom used; that the Imperfect, though more frequent than the Perfect, does seldom differ from it in meaning and last, that the Aorist has generally displaced these two tenses and superseded them.
(ii) The Aorist is the principal past tense in Pāli and is therefore extensively used; it expresses indefinite past time, but also includes the Present day. The Aorist may be translated by the Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite (See 405): catuppādū pi ekaṃ sīhaṃ rājānaṃ akaṃsu, the quadrupeds made a lion king; mukhe pahari, struck him on the mouth; kena kāraṇena rodi, why did you cry? brāhmaṇo eḷakena saddhiṃ vicari, the brahmin walked about with the goat.
(iii) The indeclinable mā is used
with the Aorist to express prohibition:
eḷaka, mā bhāyi, O! goat, fear not! mā puna
evarūpaṃ akāsi, do not do so again; tāta,
mā gami, dear son, do not go.
613. Future Tense
(i) The Future expresses simple futurity: ahaṃ gacchissāmi, I shall go; te marissanti, they will die.
(ii) The future is also used as a mild form of the Imperative, when courteously giving a command: tvaṃ tassa bandhanaṃ dantehi khādissasi, cut his bonds with thy teeth.
(iii) The future is used to express simple condition, with the particles ce, sace and yadi: yadi tvaṃ yāguṃ pacissasi ahaṃ pivissāmi, if thou wilt cook the gruel, I shall drink it; so tañ ce labhissati, tena saddhiṃ gaccha, if he gets it, go with him.
(iv) bhavissati, the 3rd. pers. sing. of bhavati, to be, is often used in the sense of "it must be that...: corā pathamaṃ ñeva bherisaddaṃ sutvā issarabheri bhavissatī ti palāyitvā, the theives on first hearing the beating of the drum, (said) "It must be the drum of an official" and fled; ayaṃ me putto bhavissati, he must be my son.
(v) bhavissati preceded by the negative particle na may be translated by "it cannot be" nāyaṃ issarabheri bhavissati. This cannot be an official's drum.
(vi) jānissāmi, the 3rd. pers sing of jānāti, to know, is often used idiomatically in the sense of "I'll see": hotu, pacchā jānissāmi, let it be, I'll see (to it) afterwards.
614. The Optative
(i) The Optative expresses "probability, capability, fitness, assent or permission, command, wish, condition" and is also used in laying down rules and precepts.
(ii) Fitness: tvaṃ tattha gaccheyyāsi, you should go there.
(iii) Wish: ahaṃ imaṃ tumhākaṃ bhājetvā dadeyyaṃ, I would divide and give it to you, but...
(iv) Command: tvaṃ pana ito paṭṭhāya ovādānusāsaniyaṃ dadeyyāsi, but thou hence forward, give us instructions and admonitions; udarena nipajjeyyāsi, lie on thy belly.
(v) Probability: api ca nāma gaccheyyāmi, I may go.
(vi) When expressing condition, it is usually preceded by ce, sace or yadi, if: sāmi, sace imāya velāya tava sapattaṃ passeyyāsi kin ti taṃ kareyyāsi? Lord, if, at this time thou should see thy enemy, what would thou do to him?
(vii) To express supposition, the word yathā is sometimes used with the Optative: yathā mahārāja kocideva puriso padīpaṃ padīpeyya, were, maharaja, a man to light a lamp...
(viii) Assent: tvaṃ idāni gaccheyyāsi, thou may now go.
The Conditional
615. The Conditional expresses an action unable to be performed on account of some impediment in the way of its execution: so ce taṃ yānaṃ alabhissa agacchissā, he would go if he could get that vehicle; bho satthavāsino, sace esa rukkhamūle caṅkamanatāpaso ajja nābhavissā, sabbe mahāvilopaṃ patta abhavissatha, O! merchants, had not today this ascetic been walking to and fro at the foot of this tree you should all have been completely pillaged.
616. The Imperative
(i) The Imperative is used in giving commands: tena hi, gaccha, very well, go!
(ii) It expresses entreaty: bhante bhagavā apposukko viharatu, Lord, let the Blessed One now live free from cares.
(iii) Benedictions, blessings: vassasataṃ, jīva, may you live a hundred years!
(iv) With mā prefixed, the Imperative 2nd person expresses simple prohibition (see Aorist 612, iii) mā evaṃ karotha, do not do so!
(v) The Imperative 3rd person sing. of bhavati, to be, is often used idiomatically, with the meaning of "very well": hotu, ahaṃ jaṇissāmi, very well I'll see (to it).
617. The Infinitive
(i) The Infinitive shows "purpose,
motive intention". It is used actively as well as passively.
ūyyānapālo chaḍḍetuṃ upāyaṃ na
passati, the gardener saw no means of throwing (them) away;
taṃ gantuṃ, na dassāmi, I will not let him go.
(ii) The Infinitive is used with verbs meaning "to wish to try or strive, to begin, to be able": sā rodituṃ, ārabhi, she began to cry; na koci mayā saddhiṃ sallapituṃ sakkoti, no one can converse with me; sā pavisituṃ na icchati, she did not wish to enter; so taṃ ukkhipituṃ ussahati, he endeavoured to lift it.
(iii) The verb dadāti to give, after an Inf. means "to let, to allow" and the verb labhati, to obtain, means "to be allowed": taṃ paharituṃ na dassāmi, I will not allow him to be struck; gehabahi nikkhamituṃ alabhanto, not being allowed to go out of the house.
(iv) Verbs like vaṭṭati, to behove, to be fit, proper, and adjectives like yuṭṭo, having the same meaning, are much used with the Inf.; in the case of vaṭṭati, the Instrumentive is used of the person who ought to do the act: ettha dāni mayā vasituṃ vattati, it now behoves me to live; it is used also impersonally: taṃ harituṃ vaṭṭati, the best is to kill him, it is proper, fit, to kill him. evaṃ kathetuṃ na yuṭṭaṃ, it is not proper to speak thus.
(v) The indeclinable labbha, possible, allowable and sakkā, possible, able, are used wih the Inf.: sakkā is used much in the same way as vaṭṭati, that is, actively or passively, and often with the Inst. of the person; the verb hoti frequently follows sakkā: sakkā hoti methunaṃ dhammaṃ paṭisevituṃ, it is possible to practise fornication; etasmiṃ ṭhāne na sakkā vasituṃ, it is impossible to live in this place; idaṃ na labbhhā evaṃ katuṃ, it is not possible to do it in this way.
(vi) When kāmo, willing, desirous,
is compounded with an Inf., final ṃ of the Inf. is
dropped:
devatāya balikammaṃ kāretukāmo, wishing to make an
offering to the god.
618. The Gerund
(i) The Gerund always denotes an action completed before another; it may be translated by the word "having" followed by a past participle as: gantvā, having gone; or by the past tense followed by the conjunction "and" : gantvā, he went and... The gerund, therefore, being very extensively used, is the most common connective in Pāli , and practically does away with the Pāli conjunction equivalent to the English "and" connecting two sentences. so taṃ ukkhipitvā gharaṃ netvā catudhā vibhajitvā dānādīni puññāni katvā yathākammaṃ gato, He lifted it up, took it home, divided into four parts and, practising alms-giving and other good deeds, went according to his deeds.
(ii) The word va (=eva) following a gerund, may be translated by "as soon as": taṃ vacanaṃ sutvā va, as soon as he heard these words...; so vāndro attano puttaṃ disvā va, the monkey, as soon as he saw his offspring...
(iii) The particle "api" coming after a gerund, may be translated by "although": akataññū puggalo cakkavattirajjaṃ datvā pi tosetuṃ na sakkā, an ungrateful man cannot be satisfied although he be given universal sovereignty.
(iv) Before a gerund, a may be translated by "without": papañcaṃ akatvā, without making delays, without any delay; ekaṃ pi akilametvā, without harming even one person.
(v) Some gerunds are used prepositionally; the principal of them are: patthāya since, beginning from, from, after; sandhāya, with reference to, concerning; ārabbha concerning, with reference to; sañcicca intentionally; asallakkhetvā, inadvertently, unawares: nissāya, upanissāya, on account of, through, near; ādāya, with; paticca by, through, on account of; ṭhapetvā, except, excepting.
(vi) The Gerund may sometimes be translated by the present participle; idha āgantvā ahaṃ coraṃ passiṃ, coming here I saw the thief.
(vii) The Gerund may have a passive signification: corajeṭṭhakena gahetvā, having been seized by the robber chief.
The Participles
619. The Present Participle
(i) The Present Participle may generally be translated by "while, whilst," which sense is inherent in it; this participle always expresses contemporaneity of action: attano gāmaṃ gacchanto corāṭaviṃ patvā, while going to his village he came upon a forest inhabited by thieves; tattha gantvā mātaraṃ paṭijagganto vāsaṃ kappesi, he went and, taking care of his mother, took up his abode there.
(ii) It must be remembered that participles are of the nature of adjectives (439) and must agree with the word they qualify in the same way as adjectives: avīcinirayaṃ gacchantā sattā..., persons going to the Avici Hell; āgacchantaṃ taṃ disvā pi, although he saw him coming.
(iii) The present participle is sometimes used substantively, and may be translated by "he who" (does the action expressed by the verb): idaṃ pana paralokaṃ gacchantassa patheyyaṃ bhavissati, but this will be provisions for him who goes to the other world: paralokaṃ gacchanto ekaṃ kahāpaṇaṃ pi gahetvā na gacchati he who goes to the other world does not take even one cent with him.
(iv) The present participle may also sometimes be translated by a conditional clause: taṃ labhanto jīvissami alabhanto idh' eva marissāmi, if I obtain her I shall live; if not, in this very spot shall I die; addhamāse sahassaṃ labhanto upaṭṭhahissāmi deva, if I get a thousand every fortnight, I'll serve thee, Lord; evaṃ karonto lacchasi akaronto na lacchasi, if you do so you'll get it, if not, you will not get it.
(v) The particle pi (=api) following a pres. part. may be rendered by "although": pitarā vāriyamāno pi, although prevented by his father; taṃ apassanto pi; although not seeing him.
620. 2. The Past Participles
(i) There are two past participles, the Perfect Active (231, 465) and the Passive Perfect (450).
(ii) The perfect active participle presents no difficulty whatever: so sīhaṃ ādinnavā, he having captured the lion; bhattaṃ bhuttāvī, having taken his meal.
(iii) The passive perfect participle is very often used as a predicate instead of a finite verb (See Concord of Subject and Predicate 590); it can then be translated by a past tense.
(iv) The P.P.P. of roots implying motion, and of transitive roots, takes an accusative; sakanivāsaṃ eva gato, he went to his own place.
(v) When the P.P.P; is thus used predicatively, the verb "hoti," to be, is generally understood after it.
(vi) The agent of a P.P.P. is as a rule put in the Instrumentive case: tayā pañhaṃ puṭṭhaṃ, by her the question was asked, she asked the question; sāsanaṃ mayā likkhitaṃ, a letter has been written by me, I have etc.
(vii) Not seldom the P.P.P. may be translated by a pres. participle: tato uppatito vijjullata viya vijjotamāno paratīre aṭṭhāsi, springing from there, he reached the other shore as a lightning flash.
621. 3. The Future Participle
(i) The future Participle (449) denotes that the agent is about to perform the action or undergo the state expressed by the root: raṭṭhā raṭṭhaṃ vicarissaṃ, I am going (= I am about to go) from kingdom to kingdom; taṃ ganthaṃ racissaṃ ahaṃ; I am about to compose that book.
(ii) It also shows purpose, intention, as may be seen by the 2nd example in (i) above.
(iii) It shows simple futurity: nāhaṃ puna upessaṃ gabbhaseyyaṃ, I shall not be reborn again.
622. 4. The Future Passive Participle
(i) The Future Passive Participle conveys the idea of "fitness, necessity, obligation;" it denotes that what is expressed by the root is to be, or ought to be, or is fit to be or must be done or undergone: mayā kattabbaṃ kammaṃ niṭṭhitaṃ the work which was to be done by me is finished; sace so deso uklāpo hoti so deso sammajjitabbo, if the place be dirty it ought to be swept; na navā bhikkhū āsanena paṭibāhetabbā, young monks should not be ousted from their seat.
(ii) From the above examples, it will be seen that the F.P.P. must agree with the subject in gender, case and number.
(iii) It is much used impersonally: kinnu kattabbaṃ, what is to be done? ettha ca imāni suttāni dassetabbāni, and in this connection these passages (from the Scriptures) should be pointed out; iminā nayena veditabbo, it must be understood in this way.
(iv) It will be, from the above examples, remarked, that the agent is put in the Instrumentive.
(v) bhavitabbaṃ, used with the Inst. of the thing or person, is frequently used in the sense of "it must be that, one should or ought to'': majjhatten'eva bhavitabbaṃ, one should be indifferent to...; visayojitāya etāya bhavitabbaṃ, this must have been mixed with poison.
623. (ix) Syntax of lndeclinables
(i) The following are used
correlatively:
yathā, as.. athā, so; yavā, so long...
tavā that long, as long as: yadā, when.. tadā,
then; yattha, where; attha, there.
(ii) ca...ca..., both...and, so ca
ahañ ca, both he and I.
vā...vā.. whether...or: bhāsati vā karoti
vā, whether he speaks or acts.
pi..pi..., both...and siñcati pi siñcāpeti pi,
both sprinkles and causes to sprinkle.
(iii) ca....ca...., and vā...vā...when in a negative sentence, are equivalent to: neither...nor.
(iv) ca and vā used singly, never come at the beginning of a sentence.
(v) eva, and, before a vowel yeva is used to emphasize the idea expressed by a word, and may be translated by "very, just, quite, exactly, as soon as": idāni eva, just now; attano yeva, one's very own. yeva, coming after a verb, is not always easy to translate into English, but in the majority of cases, it may be rendered by "on, to go on, continue," etc.: kathenti yeva, they went on talking.
(vi) yadi if, is used in conditional
sentences with the Present., the Future, the Optative and the
Conditional. yadi evaṃ, yajj' evaṃ, if so, in that case; vā...yadi vā...,
whether...or ; gāme vā yadi v'āraññe,
whether in the village or in the forest.
Remark. The syntax of the most important indeclinables has been
given in "Syntax of Substantives."
624. Direct and Indirect Narration
(i) The oblique construction in Pāli is expressed by placing the particle iti, so, thus, after the words in the direct construction as they would stand in English, that is, at the end of the words quoted: kahaṃ so etarahi ti pucchi, he asked, "Where is he now?"
(ii) iti is generally abbreviated to: ti, and the last vowel of the quotation, if short, is lengthened before it: sādhū ti, he said "very well!"
(iii) Verbs of "saying, telling,
asking, naming, knowing, thinking," are generally used with
iti; those verbs may be:
(1) Placed after the particle iti: te "sādhū" ti
vatvā, they said "Very well."
(2) Before the words quoted: so pucchi "kiṃ
jānāsi tvan" ti, he asked "What do you
know?"
(3) The verb is frequently omitted altogether:
māressāmi nan" ti, (he thought, or said)
"I'll kill him!"
(4) When iti or ti, is followed by a vowel, sandhi takes place
regularly: iti+evaṃ=iccevaṃ; kvaci+iti=kvacīti.
(5) Often, iti has the sense of "because, with the intention
of "showing "cause, motive, intention, purpose:"
"jīvituṃ asakkontā" ti because (we) are unable
to make a living; ṃakasaṃ paharissāmi" ti pitu matthakaṃ
dvidhā bhindi, intending to kill the mosquito he broke his
father's head in two.
625. Interrogation and Negation
(i) The negative particle is na: imasmiṃ sare sudakaṃ n'atthi, there is no water in this lake; na aññāsi, did not thou know? seṭṭhinā saddhiṃ kathetuṃ na sakkomi, I am unable to speak with the banker.
(ii) With an Optative, na is used in prohibition: na hatthisālaṃ gaccheyya, let him not go to the elephant-shed.
(iii) na may form the first part of a compound: nāgamanaṃ (=na+āgamanam), non-arrival: na bhikkhu, a non-monk, a layman.
(iv) Two negatives make an affirmative: bheriṃ na na vādeyyā, not that he may not beat the drum (he may therefore beat it).
(v) no, is also used in negation in the same way as na: no janāti, he does not know.
(vi) no, followed by na, expresses a strong affirmative: no na dhameyya, he should surely blow (the conch); no nappahoti, he is most certainly able.
(vii) Interrogation is expressed by using interrogative adverbs or pronouns as kasmā, why? wherefore? kissa, kena, why? ko, who? etc.
(viii) Also by means of interrogative particles.
(ix) api, when used in interrogation, is always placed first in the sentence: ap'avuso, amhākam satthāraṃ jānāsi, do you, Sir, know our Teacher?
(x) followed by nu kho, it expresses a very emphatic interrogation: api nu kho koci upaddavo hoti, well, have you any cause of distress?
(xi) nu, I wonder! Pray? nu, is often followed by kho: kīdiso nu kho paraloko, I wonder what the next world is like? corā nu atthi, are there thieves?
(xii) Preceded by na, it expresses emphatic interrogation: na nu'haṃ yodho, am I not a warrior?
(xiii) Interrogation is also expressed by placing the verb first in the sentence: socasi upāsaka, grievest thou layman?
(xiv) Sometimes the mere tone of voice is sufficient to express interrogation: supaṃ labhi, did thou get broth?
Interjections
(i) The principal interjections are: hā, alas! ah! handa, come! aṅga, indeed! oh! bho, friend! Sir! I say! hare, sirrah! amā, yes! truly! indeed! aho, alas! oh! (538).
(ii) bhaṇe, first pers. sing. Reflective of bhaṇati, to say, is used as an interjection with the meaning of "to be sure! I say there!"
(iii) maññe, 1st. pers. sing. Reflective of maññati, to think, is also used as an interjection in the sense of ṃethinks! I dare say! I suppose!"
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 15
Prosody
626. Prosody is that
part of Grammar which treats of the laws of versification.
A gāthā in Pāli poetry, is a stanza.
A pāda is the fourth part of a stanza, called also a quarter
verse.
A vaṇṇa is a syllable in a pāda.
A short syllable is termed lahu.
A long syllable is called garu.
A foot is termed gaṇa.