SUDOERS
Section: MAINTENANCE COMMANDS (5)Updated: January 12, 2011
Index Return to Main Contents
NAME
sudoers - list of which users may execute whatDESCRIPTION
The sudoers file is composed of two types of entries: aliases (basically variables) and user specifications (which specify who may run what).When multiple entries match for a user, they are applied in order. Where there are multiple matches, the last match is used (which is not necessarily the most specific match).
The sudoers grammar will be described below in Extended Backus-Naur Form (EBNF). Don't despair if you don't know what EBNF is; it is fairly simple, and the definitions below are annotated.
Quick guide to EBNF
EBNF is a concise and exact way of describing the grammar of a language. Each EBNF definition is made up of production rules. E.g.,
symbol ::= definition | alternate1 | alternate2 ...
Each production rule references others and thus makes up a grammar for the language. EBNF also contains the following operators, which many readers will recognize from regular expressions. Do not, however, confuse them with ``wildcard'' characters, which have different meanings.
-
?
- Means that the preceding symbol (or group of symbols) is optional. That is, it may appear once or not at all.
-
*
- Means that the preceding symbol (or group of symbols) may appear zero or more times.
-
+
- Means that the preceding symbol (or group of symbols) may appear one or more times.
Parentheses may be used to group symbols together. For clarity, we will use single quotes ('') to designate what is a verbatim character string (as opposed to a symbol name).
Aliases
There are four kinds of aliases: User_Alias, Runas_Alias
, Host_Alias
and Cmnd_Alias
.
Alias ::= 'User_Alias' User_Alias (':' User_Alias)* | 'Runas_Alias' Runas_Alias (':' Runas_Alias)* | 'Host_Alias' Host_Alias (':' Host_Alias)* | 'Cmnd_Alias' Cmnd_Alias (':' Cmnd_Alias)* User_Alias ::= NAME '=' User_List Runas_Alias ::= NAME '=' Runas_List Host_Alias ::= NAME '=' Host_List Cmnd_Alias ::= NAME '=' Cmnd_List NAME ::= [A-Z]([A-Z][0-9]_)*
Each alias definition is of the form
Alias_Type NAME = item1, item2, ...
where Alias_Type is one of
User_Alias
,
Runas_Alias
,
Host_Alias
,
or
Cmnd_Alias
. A
NAME
is a string of uppercase letters, numbers,
and underscore characters ('_'). A
NAME
must start with an
uppercase letter. It is possible to put several alias definitions
of the same type on a single line, joined by a colon (':'). E.g.,
Alias_Type NAME = item1, item2, item3 : NAME = item4, item5
The definitions of what constitutes a valid alias member follow.
User_List ::= User | User ',' User_List User ::= '!'* user name | '!'* '#'uid | '!'* '%'group | '!'* '+'netgroup | '!'* '%:'nonunix_group | '!'* User_Alias
A
User_List
is made up of one or more user names, uids (prefixed
with '#'), system groups (prefixed with '%'), netgroups (prefixed
with '+') and
User_Alias
es. Each list item may be prefixed with
zero or more '!' operators. An odd number of '!' operators negate
the value of the item; an even number just cancel each other out.
A
user name
,
group
,
netgroup
or
nonunix_group
may
be enclosed in double quotes to avoid the need for escaping special
characters. Alternately, special characters may be specified in
escaped hex mode, e.g. \x20 for space.
The
nonunix_group
syntax depends on the underlying implementation.
For instance, the QAS AD backend supports the following formats:
- *
- Group in the same domain: ``Group Name''
- *
- Group in any domain: ``Group<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- *
- Group SID: ``S-1-2-34-5678901234-5678901234-5678901234-567''
Note that quotes around group names are optional. Unquoted strings must use a backslash (\) to escape spaces and the '@' symbol.
Runas_List ::= Runas_Member | Runas_Member ',' Runas_List Runas_Member ::= '!'* user name | '!'* '#'uid | '!'* '%'group | '!'* +netgroup | '!'* Runas_Alias
A
Runas_List
is similar to a
User_List
except that instead
of
User_Alias
es it can contain
Runas_Alias
es. Note that
user names and groups are matched as strings. In other words, two
users (groups) with the same uid (gid) are considered to be distinct.
If you wish to match all user names with the same uid (e.g. root
and toor), you can use a uid instead (#0 in the example given).
Host_List ::= Host | Host ',' Host_List Host ::= '!'* host name | '!'* ip_addr | '!'* network(/netmask)? | '!'* '+'netgroup | '!'* Host_Alias
A
Host_List
is made up of one or more host names, IP addresses,
network numbers, netgroups (prefixed with '+') and other aliases.
Again, the value of an item may be negated with the '!' operator.
If you do not specify a netmask along with the network number,
sudo will query each of the local host's network interfaces and,
if the network number corresponds to one of the hosts's network
interfaces, the corresponding netmask will be used. The netmask
may be specified either in standard IP address notation
(e.g. <IP_ADDRESS> or ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::),
or CIDR notation (number of bits, e.g. 24 or 64). A host name may
include shell-style wildcards (see the Wildcards section below),
but unless the
host name
command on your machine returns the fully
qualified host name, you'll need to use the fqdn option for
wildcards to be useful. Note sudo only inspects actual network
interfaces; this means that IP address <IP_ADDRESS> (localhost) will
never match. Also, the host name ``localhost'' will only match if
that is the actual host name, which is usually only the case for
non-networked systems.
Cmnd_List ::= Cmnd | Cmnd ',' Cmnd_List commandname ::= file name | file name args | file name '""' Cmnd ::= '!'* commandname | '!'* directory | '!'* "sudoedit" | '!'* Cmnd_Alias
A
Cmnd_List
is a list of one or more commandnames, directories, and other
aliases. A commandname is a fully qualified file name which may include
shell-style wildcards (see the Wildcards section below). A simple
file name allows the user to run the command with any arguments he/she
wishes. However, you may also specify command line arguments (including
wildcards). Alternately, you can specify "" to indicate that the command
may only be run without command line arguments.  When you specify a directory
in a
Cmnd_List
, the user will be able to run any file within that directory
(but not in any subdirectories therein).
If a
Cmnd
has associated command line arguments, then the arguments
in the
Cmnd
must match exactly those given by the user on the command line
(or match the wildcards if there are any). Note that the following
characters must be escaped with a '\' if they are used in command
arguments: ',', ':', '=', '\'. The special command "sudoedit"
is used to permit a user to run sudo with the -e option (or
as sudoedit). It may take command line arguments just as
a normal command does.
Defaults
Certain configuration options may be changed from their default values at runtime via one or more Default_Entrylines. These may affect all users on any host, all users on a specific host, a specific user, a specific command, or commands being run as a specific user. Note that per-command entries may not include command line arguments. If you need to specify arguments, define a Cmnd_Alias
and reference that instead.
Default_Type ::= 'Defaults' | 'Defaults' '@' Host_List | 'Defaults' ':' User_List | 'Defaults' '!' Cmnd_List | 'Defaults' '>' Runas_List Default_Entry ::= Default_Type Parameter_List Parameter_List ::= Parameter | Parameter ',' Parameter_List Parameter ::= Parameter '=' Value | Parameter '+=' Value | Parameter '-=' Value | '!'* Parameter
Parameters may be flags, integer values, strings, or lists.
Flags are implicitly boolean and can be turned off via the '!'
operator. Some integer, string and list parameters may also be
used in a boolean context to disable them. Values may be enclosed
in double quotes (
"
) when they contain multiple words. Special
characters may be escaped with a backslash (
\
).
Lists have two additional assignment operators,
+=
and
-=
.
These operators are used to add to and delete from a list respectively.
It is not an error to use the
-=
operator to remove an element
that does not exist in a list.
Defaults entries are parsed in the following order: generic, host and user Defaults first, then runas Defaults and finally command defaults.
See ``SUDOERS OPTIONS'' for a list of supported Defaults parameters.
User Specification
User_Spec ::= User_List Host_List '=' Cmnd_Spec_List \ (':' Host_List '=' Cmnd_Spec_List)* Cmnd_Spec_List ::= Cmnd_Spec | Cmnd_Spec ',' Cmnd_Spec_List Cmnd_Spec ::= Runas_Spec? SELinux_Spec? Tag_Spec* Cmnd Runas_Spec ::= '(' Runas_List? (':' Runas_List)? ')' SELinux_Spec ::= ('ROLE=role' | 'TYPE=type') Tag_Spec ::= ('NOPASSWD:' | 'PASSWD:' | 'NOEXEC:' | 'EXEC:' | 'SETENV:' | 'NOSETENV:' | 'LOG_INPUT:' | 'NOLOG_INPUT:' | 'LOG_OUTPUT:' | 'NOLOG_OUTPUT:')
A user specification determines which commands a user may run (and as what user) on specified hosts. By default, commands are run as root, but this can be changed on a per-command basis.
The basic structure of a user specification is `who = where (as_whom) what'. Let's break that down into its constituent parts:
Runas_Spec
A Runas_Specdetermines the user and/or the group that a command may be run as. A fully-specified Runas_Spec
consists of two Runas_List
s (as defined above) separated by a colon (':') and enclosed in a set of parentheses. The first Runas_List
indicates which users the command may be run as via sudo's -u option. The second defines a list of groups that can be specified via sudo's -g option. If both Runas_List
s are specified, the command may be run with any combination of users and groups listed in their respective Runas_List
s. If only the first is specified, the command may be run as any user in the list but no -g option may be specified. If the first Runas_List
is empty but the second is specified, the command may be run as the invoking user with the group set to any listed in the Runas_List
. If no Runas_Spec
is specified the command may be run as root and no group may be specified.
A
Runas_Spec
sets the default for the commands that follow it.
What this means is that for the entry:
dgb boulder = (operator) /bin/ls, /bin/kill, /usr/bin/lprm
The user dgb may run /bin/ls, /bin/kill, and /usr/bin/lprm --- but only as operator. E.g.,
$ sudo -u operator /bin/ls.
It is also possible to override a
Runas_Spec
later on in an
entry. If we modify the entry like so:
dgb boulder = (operator) /bin/ls, (root) /bin/kill, /usr/bin/lprm
Then user dgb is now allowed to run /bin/ls as operator, but /bin/kill and /usr/bin/lprm as root.
We can extend this to allow dgb to run
/bin/ls
with either
the user or group set to operator:
dgb boulder = (operator : operator) /bin/ls, (root) /bin/kill, \ /usr/bin/lprm
In the following example, user tcm may run commands that access a modem device file with the dialer group. Note that in this example only the group will be set, the command still runs as user tcm.
tcm boulder = (:dialer) /usr/bin/tip, /usr/bin/cu, \ /usr/local/bin/minicom
SELinux_Spec
On systems with SELinux support, sudoers entries may optionally have an SELinux role and/or type associated with a command. If a role or type is specified with the command it will override any default values specified in sudoers. A role or type specified on the command line, however, will supercede the values in sudoers.Tag_Spec
A command may have zero or more tags associated with it. There are eight possible tag values, NOPASSWD, PASSWD
, NOEXEC
, EXEC
, SETENV
, NOSETENV
, LOG_INPUT
, NOLOG_INPUT
, LOG_OUTPUT
and NOLOG_OUTPUT
. Once a tag is set on a Cmnd
, subsequent Cmnd
s in the Cmnd_Spec_List
, inherit the tag unless it is overridden by the opposite tag (i.e.: PASSWD
overrides NOPASSWD
and NOEXEC
overrides EXEC
).
By default, sudo requires that a user authenticate him or herself
before running a command. This behavior can be modified via the
NOPASSWD
tag. Like a
Runas_Spec
, the
NOPASSWD
tag sets
a default for the commands that follow it in the
Cmnd_Spec_List
.
Conversely, the
PASSWD
tag can be used to reverse things.
For example:
ray rushmore = NOPASSWD: /bin/kill, /bin/ls, /usr/bin/lprm
would allow the user ray to run /bin/kill, /bin/ls, and /usr/bin/lprm as root on the machine rushmore without authenticating himself. If we only want ray to be able to run /bin/kill without a password the entry would be:
ray rushmore = NOPASSWD: /bin/kill, PASSWD: /bin/ls, /usr/bin/lprm
Note, however, that the
PASSWD
tag has no effect on users who are
in the group specified by the exempt_group option.
By default, if the
NOPASSWD
tag is applied to any of the entries
for a user on the current host, he or she will be able to run
sudo -l
without a password. Additionally, a user may only run
sudo -v
without a password if the
NOPASSWD
tag is present
for all a user's entries that pertain to the current host.
This behavior may be overridden via the verifypw and listpw options.
If sudo has been compiled with noexec support and the underlying
operating system supports it, the
NOEXEC
tag can be used to prevent
a dynamically-linked executable from running further commands itself.
In the following example, user aaron may run /usr/bin/more and /usr/bin/vi but shell escapes will be disabled.
aaron shanty = NOEXEC: /usr/bin/more, /usr/bin/vi
See the ``PREVENTING SHELL ESCAPES'' section below for more details
on how
NOEXEC
works and whether or not it will work on your system.
These tags override the value of the setenv option on a per-command
basis. Note that if
SETENV
has been set for a command, any
environment variables set on the command line way are not subject
to the restrictions imposed by env_check, env_delete, or
env_keep. As such, only trusted users should be allowed to set
variables in this manner. If the command matched is ALL, the
SETENV
tag is implied for that command; this default may
be overridden by use of the
NOSETENV
tag.
These tags override the value of the log_input option on a per-command basis. For more information, see the description of log_input in the ``SUDOERS OPTIONS'' section below.
These tags override the value of the log_output option on a per-command basis. For more information, see the description of log_output in the ``SUDOERS OPTIONS'' section below.
Wildcards
sudo allows shell-style wildcards (aka meta or glob characters) to be used in host names, path names and command line arguments in the sudoers file. Wildcard matching is done via the POSIX glob(3) and fnmatch(3) routines. Note that these are not regular expressions.-
*
- Matches any set of zero or more characters.
-
?
- Matches any single character.
-
[...]
- Matches any character in the specified range.
-
[!...]
- Matches any character not in the specified range.
-
\x
- For any character ``x'', evaluates to ``x''. This is used to escape special characters such as: ``*'', ``?'', ``['', and ``}''.
POSIX character classes may also be used if your system's glob(3) and fnmatch(3) functions support them. However, because the ':' character has special meaning in sudoers, it must be escaped. For example:
/bin/ls [[\:alpha\:]]*
Would match any file name beginning with a letter.
Note that a forward slash ('/') will not be matched by wildcards used in the path name. When matching the command line arguments, however, a slash does get matched by wildcards. This is to make a path like:
/usr/bin/*
match /usr/bin/who but not /usr/bin/X11/xterm.
Exceptions to wildcard rules
The following exceptions apply to the above rules:- If the empty string "" is the only command line argument in the sudoers entry it means that command is not allowed to be run with any arguments.
Including other files from within sudoers
It is possible to include other sudoers files from within the sudoers file currently being parsed using the #includeand #includedir
directives.
This can be used, for example, to keep a site-wide sudoers file in addition to a local, per-machine file. For the sake of this example the site-wide sudoers will be /etc/sudoers and the per-machine one will be /etc/sudoers.local. To include /etc/sudoers.local from within /etc/sudoers we would use the following line in /etc/sudoers:
-
#include /etc/sudoers.local
When sudo reaches this line it will suspend processing of the current file (/etc/sudoers) and switch to /etc/sudoers.local. Upon reaching the end of /etc/sudoers.local, the rest of /etc/sudoers will be processed. Files that are included may themselves include other files. A hard limit of 128 nested include files is enforced to prevent include file loops.
The file name may include the %h escape, signifying the short form of the host name. I.e., if the machine's host name is ``xerxes'', then
#include /etc/sudoers.%h
will cause sudo to include the file /etc/sudoers.xerxes.
The
#includedir
directive can be used to create a sudoers.d
directory that the system package manager can drop sudoers rules
into as part of package installation. For example, given:
#includedir /etc/sudoers.d
sudo will read each file in /etc/sudoers.d, skipping file
names that end in
~
or contain a
.
character to avoid causing
problems with package manager or editor temporary/backup files.
Files are parsed in sorted lexical order. That is,
/etc/sudoers.d/01_first will be parsed before
/etc/sudoers.d/10_second. Be aware that because the sorting is
lexical, not numeric, /etc/sudoers.d/1_whoops would be loaded
after /etc/sudoers.d/10_second. Using a consistent number
of leading zeroes in the file names can be used to avoid such
problems.
Note that unlike files included via
#include
, visudo will not
edit the files in a
#includedir
directory unless one of them
contains a syntax error. It is still possible to run visudo
with the
-f
flag to edit the files directly.
Other special characters and reserved words
The pound sign ('#') is used to indicate a comment (unless it is part of a #include directive or unless it occurs in the context of a user name and is followed by one or more digits, in which case it is treated as a uid). Both the comment character and any text after it, up to the end of the line, are ignored.
The reserved word ALL is a built-in alias that always causes
a match to succeed. It can be used wherever one might otherwise
use a
Cmnd_Alias
,
User_Alias
,
Runas_Alias
, or
Host_Alias
.
You should not try to define your own alias called ALL as the
built-in alias will be used in preference to your own. Please note
that using ALL can be dangerous since in a command context, it
allows the user to run any command on the system.
An exclamation point ('!') can be used as a logical not operator
both in an alias and in front of a
Cmnd
. This allows one to
exclude certain values. Note, however, that using a
!
in
conjunction with the built-in
ALL
alias to allow a user to
run ``all but a few'' commands rarely works as intended (see SECURITY
NOTES below).
Long lines can be continued with a backslash ('\') as the last character on the line.
Whitespace between elements in a list as well as special syntactic characters in a User Specification ('=', ':', '(', ')') is optional.
The following characters must be escaped with a backslash ('\') when used as part of a word (e.g. a user name or host name): '@', '!', '=', ':', ',', '(', ')', '\'.
SUDOERS OPTIONS
sudo's behavior can be modified by Default_Entrylines, as explained earlier. A list of all supported Defaults parameters, grouped by type, are listed below.
Boolean Flags:
- always_set_home
-
If enabled, sudo will set the
HOME
environment variable to the home directory of the target user (which is root unless the -u option is used). This effectively means that the -H option is always implied. Note that HOME
is already set when the the env_reset option is enabled, so always_set_home is only effective for configurations where env_reset is disabled. This flag is off by default. - authenticate
-
If set, users must authenticate themselves via a password (or other
means of authentication) before they may run commands. This default
may be overridden via the
PASSWD
and NOPASSWD
tags. This flag is on by default. - closefrom_override
- If set, the user may use sudo's -C option which overrides the default starting point at which sudo begins closing open file descriptors. This flag is off by default.
- compress_io
- If set, and sudo is configured to log a command's input or output, the I/O logs will be compressed using zlib. This flag is on by default when sudo is compiled with zlib support.
- env_editor
-
If set, visudo will use the value of the EDITOR or VISUAL
environment variables before falling back on the default editor list.
Note that this may create a security hole as it allows the user to
run any arbitrary command as root without logging. A safer alternative
is to place a colon-separated list of editors in the
editor
variable. visudo will then only use the EDITOR or VISUAL if they match a value specified in editor
. This flag is on by default. - env_reset
-
If set, sudo will reset the environment to only contain the
LOGNAME, MAIL, SHELL, USER, USERNAME and the
SUDO_*
variables. Any variables in the caller's environment that match the env_keep
and env_check
lists are then added. The default contents of the env_keep
and env_check
lists are displayed when sudo is run by root with the -V option. If the secure_path option is set, its value will be used for the PATH
environment variable. This flag is on by default. - fast_glob
- Normally, sudo uses the glob(3) function to do shell-style globbing when matching path names. However, since it accesses the file system, glob(3) can take a long time to complete for some patterns, especially when the pattern references a network file system that is mounted on demand (automounted). The fast_glob option causes sudo to use the fnmatch(3) function, which does not access the file system to do its matching. The disadvantage of fast_glob is that it is unable to match relative path names such as ./ls or ../bin/ls. This has security implications when path names that include globbing characters are used with the negation operator, '!', as such rules can be trivially bypassed. As such, this option should not be used when sudoers contains rules that contain negated path names which include globbing characters. This flag is off by default.
- fqdn
-
Set this flag if you want to put fully qualified host names in the
sudoers file. I.e., instead of myhost you would use myhost.mydomain.edu.
You may still use the short form if you wish (and even mix the two).
Beware that turning on fqdn requires sudo to make DNS lookups
which may make sudo unusable if DNS stops working (for example
if the machine is not plugged into the network). Also note that
you must use the host's official name as DNS knows it. That is,
you may not use a host alias (
CNAME
entry) due to performance issues and the fact that there is no way to get all aliases from DNS. If your machine's host name (as returned by the hostname
command) is already fully qualified you shouldn't need to set fqdn. This flag is off by default. - ignore_dot
-
If set, sudo will ignore '.' or '' (current dir) in the
PATH
environment variable; the PATH
itself is not modified. This flag is on by default. - ignore_local_sudoers
-
If set via LDAP, parsing of /etc/sudoers will be skipped.
This is intended for Enterprises that wish to prevent the usage of local
sudoers files so that only LDAP is used. This thwarts the efforts of
rogue operators who would attempt to add roles to /etc/sudoers.
When this option is present, /etc/sudoers does not even need to
exist. Since this option tells sudo how to behave when no specific LDAP
entries have been matched, this sudoOption is only meaningful for the
cn=defaults
section. This flag is off by default. - insults
- If set, sudo will insult users when they enter an incorrect password. This flag is off by default.
- log_host
- If set, the host name will be logged in the (non-syslog) sudo log file. This flag is off by default.
- log_year
- If set, the four-digit year will be logged in the (non-syslog) sudo log file. This flag is off by default.
- long_otp_prompt
- When validating with a One Time Password (OPT) scheme such as S/Key or OPIE, a two-line prompt is used to make it easier to cut and paste the challenge to a local window. It's not as pretty as the default but some people find it more convenient. This flag is off by default.
- mail_always
- Send mail to the mailto user every time a users runs sudo. This flag is off by default.
- mail_badpass
- Send mail to the mailto user if the user running sudo does not enter the correct password. This flag is off by default.
- mail_no_host
- If set, mail will be sent to the mailto user if the invoking user exists in the sudoers file, but is not allowed to run commands on the current host. This flag is off by default.
- mail_no_perms
- If set, mail will be sent to the mailto user if the invoking user is allowed to use sudo but the command they are trying is not listed in their sudoers file entry or is explicitly denied. This flag is off by default.
- mail_no_user
- If set, mail will be sent to the mailto user if the invoking user is not in the sudoers file. This flag is on by default.
- noexec
-
If set, all commands run via sudo will behave as if the
NOEXEC
tag has been set, unless overridden by a EXEC
tag. See the description of NOEXEC and EXEC below as well as the ``PREVENTING SHELL ESCAPES'' section at the end of this manual. This flag is off by default. - path_info
-
Normally, sudo will tell the user when a command could not be
found in their
PATH
environment variable. Some sites may wish to disable this as it could be used to gather information on the location of executables that the normal user does not have access to. The disadvantage is that if the executable is simply not in the user's PATH
, sudo will tell the user that they are not allowed to run it, which can be confusing. This flag is on by default. - passprompt_override
- The password prompt specified by passprompt will normally only be used if the password prompt provided by systems such as PAM matches the string ``Password:''. If passprompt_override is set, passprompt will always be used. This flag is off by default.
- preserve_groups
- By default, sudo will initialize the group vector to the list of groups the target user is in. When preserve_groups is set, the user's existing group vector is left unaltered. The real and effective group IDs, however, are still set to match the target user. This flag is off by default.
- pwfeedback
- By default, sudo reads the password like most other Unix programs, by turning off echo until the user hits the return (or enter) key. Some users become confused by this as it appears to them that sudo has hung at this point. When pwfeedback is set, sudo will provide visual feedback when the user presses a key. Note that this does have a security impact as an onlooker may be able to determine the length of the password being entered. This flag is off by default.
- requiretty
- If set, sudo will only run when the user is logged in to a real tty. When this flag is set, sudo can only be run from a login session and not via other means such as cron(8) or cgi-bin scripts. This flag is off by default.
- root_sudo
- If set, root is allowed to run sudo too. Disabling this prevents users from ``chaining'' sudo commands to get a root shell by doing something like "sudo sudo /bin/sh". Note, however, that turning off root_sudo will also prevent root from running sudoedit. Disabling root_sudo provides no real additional security; it exists purely for historical reasons. This flag is on by default.
- rootpw
- If set, sudo will prompt for the root password instead of the password of the invoking user. This flag is off by default.
- runaspw
-
If set, sudo will prompt for the password of the user defined by the
runas_default option (defaults to
root
) instead of the password of the invoking user. This flag is off by default. - set_home
-
If enabled and sudo is invoked with the -s option the
HOME
environment variable will be set to the home directory of the target user (which is root unless the -u option is used). This effectively makes the -s option imply -H. Note that HOME
is already set when the the env_reset option is enabled, so set_home is only effective for configurations where env_reset is disabled. This flag is off by default. - set_logname
-
Normally, sudo will set the
LOGNAME
, USER
and USERNAME
environment variables to the name of the target user (usually root unless the -u option is given). However, since some programs (including the RCS revision control system) use LOGNAME
to determine the real identity of the user, it may be desirable to change this behavior. This can be done by negating the set_logname option. Note that if the env_reset option has not been disabled, entries in the env_keep list will override the value of set_logname. This flag is on by default. - setenv
- Allow the user to disable the env_reset option from the command line. Additionally, environment variables set via the command line are not subject to the restrictions imposed by env_check, env_delete, or env_keep. As such, only trusted users should be allowed to set variables in this manner. This flag is off by default.
- shell_noargs
-
If set and sudo is invoked with no arguments it acts as if the
-s option had been given. That is, it runs a shell as root (the
shell is determined by the
SHELL
environment variable if it is set, falling back on the shell listed in the invoking user's /etc/passwd entry if not). This flag is off by default. - stay_setuid
- Normally, when sudo executes a command the real and effective UIDs are set to the target user (root by default). This option changes that behavior such that the real UID is left as the invoking user's UID. In other words, this makes sudo act as a setuid wrapper. This can be useful on systems that disable some potentially dangerous functionality when a program is run setuid. This option is only effective on systems with either the setreuid() or setresuid() function. This flag is off by default.
- targetpw
-
If set, sudo will prompt for the password of the user specified
by the -u option (defaults to
root
) instead of the password of the invoking user. In addition, the timestamp file name will include the target user's name. Note that this flag precludes the use of a uid not listed in the passwd database as an argument to the -u option. This flag is off by default. - log_input
-
If set, sudo will run the command in a pseudo tty and log all
user input.
If the standard input is not connected to the user's tty, due to
I/O redirection or because the command is part of a pipeline, that
input is also captured and stored in a separate log file.
Input is logged to the /var/log/sudo-io directory using a unique session ID that is included in the normal sudo log line, prefixed with TSID=.
- log_output
-
If set, sudo will run the command in a pseudo tty and log all
output that is sent to the screen, similar to the script(1) command.
If the standard output or standard error is not connected to the
user's tty, due to I/O redirection or because the command is part
of a pipeline, that output is also captured and stored in separate
log files.
Output is logged to the /var/log/sudo-io directory using a unique session ID that is included in the normal sudo log line, prefixed with TSID=.
Output logs may be viewed with the sudoreplay(8) utility, which can also be used to list or search the available logs.
- tty_tickets
- If set, users must authenticate on a per-tty basis. With this flag enabled, sudo will use a file named for the tty the user is logged in on in the user's time stamp directory. If disabled, the time stamp of the directory is used instead. This flag is on by default.
- umask_override
- If set, sudo will set the umask as specified by sudoers without modification. This makes it possible to specify a more permissive umask in sudoers than the user's own umask and matches historical behavior. If umask_override is not set, sudo will set the umask to be the union of the user's umask and what is specified in sudoers. This flag is off by default.
- use_pty
- If set, sudo will run the command in a pseudo-pty even if no I/O logging is being gone. A malicious program run under sudo could conceivably fork a background process that retains to the user's terminal device after the main program has finished executing. Use of this option will make that impossible.
- visiblepw
- By default, sudo will refuse to run if the user must enter a password but it is not possible to disable echo on the terminal. If the visiblepw flag is set, sudo will prompt for a password even when it would be visible on the screen. This makes it possible to run things like "rsh somehost sudo ls" since rsh(1) does not allocate a tty. This flag is off by default.
Integers:
- closefrom
- Before it executes a command, sudo will close all open file descriptors other than standard input, standard output and standard error (ie: file descriptors 0-2). The closefrom option can be used to specify a different file descriptor at which to start closing. The default is 3.
- passwd_tries
-
The number of tries a user gets to enter his/her password before
sudo logs the failure and exits. The default is
3
.
Integers that can be used in a boolean context:
- loglinelen
-
Number of characters per line for the file log. This value is used
to decide when to wrap lines for nicer log files. This has no
effect on the syslog log file, only the file log. The default is
80
(use 0 or negate the option to disable word wrap). - passwd_timeout
-
Number of minutes before the sudo password prompt times out, or
0 for no timeout. The timeout may include a fractional component
if minute granularity is insufficient, for example 2.5. The
default is
5
. - timestamp_timeout
-
Number of minutes that can elapse before sudo will ask for a
passwd again. The timeout may include a fractional component if
minute granularity is insufficient, for example 2.5. The default
is
5
. Set this to 0 to always prompt for a password. If set to a value less than 0 the user's timestamp will never expire. This can be used to allow users to create or delete their own timestamps via sudo -v
and sudo -k
respectively. - umask
-
Umask to use when running the command. Negate this option or set
it to 0777 to preserve the user's umask. The actual umask that is
used will be the union of the user's umask and the value of the
umask option, which defaults to
0022
. This guarantees that sudo never lowers the umask when running a command. Note on systems that use PAM, the default PAM configuration may specify its own umask which will override the value set in sudoers.
Strings:
- badpass_message
-
Message that is displayed if a user enters an incorrect password.
The default is
Sorry, try again.
unless insults are enabled. - editor
- A colon (':') separated list of editors allowed to be used with visudo. visudo will choose the editor that matches the user's EDITOR environment variable if possible, or the first editor in the list that exists and is executable. The default is "/bin/vi".
- mailsub
-
Subject of the mail sent to the mailto user. The escape %h
will expand to the host name of the machine.
Default is
*** SECURITY information for %h ***
. - noexec_file
-
Path to a shared library containing dummy versions of the execv(),
execve() and fexecve() library functions that just return an error.
This is used to implement the noexec functionality on systems that
support
LD_PRELOAD
or its equivalent. Defaults to /usr/libexec/sudo_noexec.so. - passprompt
-
The default prompt to use when asking for a password; can be overridden
via the -p option or the
SUDO_PROMPT
environment variable. The following percent (` %
') escapes are supported:-
- %H
- expanded to the local host name including the domain name (on if the machine's host name is fully qualified or the fqdn option is set)
- %h
- expanded to the local host name without the domain name
- %p
- expanded to the user whose password is being asked for (respects the rootpw, targetpw and runaspw flags in sudoers)
- %U
- expanded to the login name of the user the command will be run as (defaults to root)
- %u
- expanded to the invoking user's login name
-
%%
-
two consecutive
%
characters are collapsed into a single %
character
-
The default value is [sudo] password for %p:
.
-
- role
- The default SELinux role to use when constructing a new security context to run the command. The default role may be overridden on a per-command basis in sudoers or via command line options. This option is only available whe sudo is built with SELinux support.
- runas_default
-
The default user to run commands as if the -u option is not specified
on the command line. This defaults to
root
. Note that if runas_default is set it must occur before any Runas_Alias
specifications. - syslog_badpri
-
Syslog priority to use when user authenticates unsuccessfully.
Defaults to
alert
. - syslog_goodpri
-
Syslog priority to use when user authenticates successfully.
Defaults to
notice
. - sudoers_locale
- Locale to use when parsing the sudoers file. Note that changing the locale may affect how sudoers is interpreted. Defaults to "C".
- timestampdir
- The directory in which sudo stores its timestamp files. The default is /var/db/sudo.
- timestampowner
-
The owner of the timestamp directory and the timestamps stored therein.
The default is
root
. - type
- The default SELinux type to use when constructing a new security context to run the command. The default type may be overridden on a per-command basis in sudoers or via command line options. This option is only available whe sudo is built with SELinux support.
Strings that can be used in a boolean context:
- askpass
-
The askpass option specifies the fully qualified path to a helper
program used to read the user's password when no terminal is
available. This may be the case when sudo is executed from a
graphical (as opposed to text-based) application. The program
specified by askpass should display the argument passed to it
as the prompt and write the user's password to the standard output.
The value of askpass may be overridden by the
SUDO_ASKPASS
environment variable. - env_file
-
The env_file options specifies the fully qualified path to a
file containing variables to be set in the environment of the program
being run. Entries in this file should either be of the form
VARIABLE=value
or export VARIABLE=value
. The value may optionally be surrounded by single or double quotes. Variables in this file are subject to other sudo environment settings such as env_keep and env_check. - exempt_group
- Users in this group are exempt from password and PATH requirements. This is not set by default.
- lecture
-
This option controls when a short lecture will be printed along with
the password prompt. It has the following possible values:
-
If no value is specified, a value of once is implied. Negating the option results in a value of never being used. The default value is once.
- lecture_file
- Path to a file containing an alternate sudo lecture that will be used in place of the standard lecture if the named file exists. By default, sudo uses a built-in lecture.
- listpw
-
This option controls when a password will be required when a
user runs sudo with the -l option. It has the following possible values:
-
- all
-
All the user's sudoers entries for the current host must have
the
NOPASSWD
flag set to avoid entering a password. - always
- The user must always enter a password to use the -l option.
- any
-
At least one of the user's sudoers entries for the current host
must have the
NOPASSWD
flag set to avoid entering a password. - never
- The user need never enter a password to use the -l option.
-
If no value is specified, a value of any is implied. Negating the option results in a value of never being used. The default value is any.
-
- logfile
- Path to the sudo log file (not the syslog log file). Setting a path turns on logging to a file; negating this option turns it off. By default, sudo logs via syslog.
- mailerflags
- Flags to use when invoking mailer. Defaults to -t.
- mailerpath
- Path to mail program used to send warning mail. Defaults to the path to sendmail found at configure time.
- mailfrom
-
Address to use for the ``from'' address when sending warning and error
mail. The address should be enclosed in double quotes (
"
) to protect against sudo interpreting the @
sign. Defaults to the name of the user running sudo. - mailto
-
Address to send warning and error mail to. The address should
be enclosed in double quotes (
"
) to protect against sudo interpreting the @
sign. Defaults to root
. - secure_path
-
Path used for every command run from sudo. If you don't trust the
people running sudo to have a sane
PATH
environment variable you may want to use this. Another use is if you want to have the ``root path'' be separate from the ``user path.'' Users in the group specified by the exempt_group option are not affected by secure_path. This option is not set by default. - syslog
-
Syslog facility if syslog is being used for logging (negate to
disable syslog logging). Defaults to
authpriv
. - verifypw
-
This option controls when a password will be required when a user runs
sudo with the -v option. It has the following possible values:
-
- all
-
All the user's sudoers entries for the current host must have
the
NOPASSWD
flag set to avoid entering a password. - always
- The user must always enter a password to use the -v option.
- any
-
At least one of the user's sudoers entries for the current host
must have the
NOPASSWD
flag set to avoid entering a password. - never
- The user need never enter a password to use the -v option.
-
If no value is specified, a value of all is implied. Negating the option results in a value of never being used. The default value is all.
-
Lists that can be used in a boolean context:
- env_check
-
Environment variables to be removed from the user's environment if
the variable's value contains
%
or /
characters. This can be used to guard against printf-style format vulnerabilities in poorly-written programs. The argument may be a double-quoted, space-separated list or a single value without double-quotes. The list can be replaced, added to, deleted from, or disabled by using the =
, +=
, -=
, and !
operators respectively. Regardless of whether the env_reset
option is enabled or disabled, variables specified by env_check
will be preserved in the environment if they pass the aforementioned check. The default list of environment variables to check is displayed when sudo is run by root with the -V option. - env_delete
-
Environment variables to be removed from the user's environment
when the env_reset option is not in effect. The argument may
be a double-quoted, space-separated list or a single value without
double-quotes. The list can be replaced, added to, deleted from,
or disabled by using the
=
, +=
, -=
, and !
operators respectively. The default list of environment variables to remove is displayed when sudo is run by root with the -V option. Note that many operating systems will remove potentially dangerous variables from the environment of any setuid process (such as sudo). - env_keep
-
Environment variables to be preserved in the user's environment
when the env_reset option is in effect. This allows fine-grained
control over the environment sudo-spawned processes will receive.
The argument may be a double-quoted, space-separated list or a
single value without double-quotes. The list can be replaced, added
to, deleted from, or disabled by using the
=
, +=
, -=
, and !
operators respectively. The default list of variables to keep is displayed when sudo is run by root with the -V option.
When logging via syslog(3), sudo accepts the following values for the syslog facility (the value of the syslog Parameter): authpriv (if your OS supports it), auth, daemon, user, local0, local1, local2, local3, local4, local5, local6, and local7. The following syslog priorities are supported: alert, crit, debug, emerg, err, info, notice, and warning.
FILES
- /etc/sudoers
- List of who can run what
- /etc/group
- Local groups file
- /etc/netgroup
- List of network groups
- /var/log/sudo-io
- I/O log files
EXAMPLES
Below are example sudoers entries. Admittedly, some of these are a bit contrived. First, we allow a few environment variables to pass and then define our aliases:
# Run X applications through sudo; HOME is used to find the # .Xauthority file. Note that other programs use HOME to find # configuration files and this may lead to privilege escalation! Defaults env_keep += "DISPLAY HOME" # User alias specification User_Alias FULLTIMERS = millert, mikef, dowdy User_Alias PARTTIMERS = bostley, jwfox, crawl User_Alias WEBMASTERS = will, wendy, wim # Runas alias specification Runas_Alias OP = root, operator Runas_Alias DB = oracle, sybase Runas_Alias ADMINGRP = adm, oper # Host alias specification Host_Alias SPARC = bigtime, eclipse, moet, anchor :\ SGI = grolsch, dandelion, black :\ ALPHA = widget, thalamus, foobar :\ HPPA = boa, nag, python Host_Alias CUNETS = <IP_ADDRESS>/<IP_ADDRESS> Host_Alias CSNETS = <IP_ADDRESS>, <IP_ADDRESS>/24, <IP_ADDRESS> Host_Alias SERVERS = master, mail, www, ns Host_Alias CDROM = orion, perseus, hercules # Cmnd alias specification Cmnd_Alias DUMPS = /usr/bin/mt, /usr/sbin/dump, /usr/sbin/rdump,\ /usr/sbin/restore, /usr/sbin/rrestore Cmnd_Alias KILL = /usr/bin/kill Cmnd_Alias PRINTING = /usr/sbin/lpc, /usr/bin/lprm Cmnd_Alias SHUTDOWN = /usr/sbin/shutdown Cmnd_Alias HALT = /usr/sbin/halt Cmnd_Alias REBOOT = /usr/sbin/reboot Cmnd_Alias SHELLS = /usr/bin/sh, /usr/bin/csh, /usr/bin/ksh, \ /usr/local/bin/tcsh, /usr/bin/rsh, \ /usr/local/bin/zsh Cmnd_Alias SU = /usr/bin/su Cmnd_Alias PAGERS = /usr/bin/more, /usr/bin/pg, /usr/bin/less
Here we override some of the compiled in default values. We want
sudo to log via syslog(3) using the auth facility in all
cases. We don't want to subject the full time staff to the sudo
lecture, user millert need not give a password, and we don't
want to reset the
LOGNAME
,
USER
or
USERNAME
environment
variables when running commands as root. Additionally, on the
machines in the SERVERS
Host_Alias
, we keep an additional
local log file and make sure we log the year in each log line since
the log entries will be kept around for several years. Lastly, we
disable shell escapes for the commands in the PAGERS
Cmnd_Alias
(/usr/bin/more, /usr/bin/pg and /usr/bin/less).
# Override built-in defaults Defaults syslog=auth Defaults>root !set_logname Defaults:FULLTIMERS !lecture Defaults:millert !authenticate Defaults@SERVERS log_year, logfile=/var/log/sudo.log Defaults!PAGERS noexec
The User specification is the part that actually determines who may run what.
root ALL = (ALL) ALL %wheel ALL = (ALL) ALL
We let root and any user in group wheel run any command on any host as any user.
FULLTIMERS ALL = NOPASSWD: ALL
Full time sysadmins (millert, mikef, and dowdy) may run any command on any host without authenticating themselves.
 Of those networks, only <IP_ADDRESS> has an explicit netmask (in CIDR notation) indicating it is a class C network. For the other networks in CSNETS, the local machine's netmask will be used during matching.
lisa CUNETS = ALL
The user lisa may run any command on any host in the CUNETS alias (the class B network <IP_ADDRESS>).
operator ALL = DUMPS, KILL, SHUTDOWN, HALT, REBOOT, PRINTING,\ sudoedit /etc/printcap, /usr/oper/bin/
The operator user may run commands limited to simple maintenance.
The user pete is allowed to change anyone's password except for root on the HPPA machines. Note that this assumes passwd(1) does not take multiple user names on the command line.
bob SPARC = (OP) ALL : SGI = (OP) ALL
The user bob may run anything on the SPARC and SGI machines
as any user listed in the OP
Runas_Alias
(root and operator).
jim +biglab = ALL
The user jim may run any command on machines in the biglab netgroup. sudo knows that ``biglab'' is a netgroup due to the '+' prefix.
+secretaries ALL = PRINTING, /usr/bin/adduser, /usr/bin/rmuser
Users in the secretaries netgroup need to help manage the printers as well as add and remove users, so they are allowed to run those commands on all machines.
fred ALL = (DB) NOPASSWD: ALL
The user fred can run commands as any user in the DB
Runas_Alias
(oracle or sybase) without giving a password.
john ALPHA = /usr/bin/su [!-]*, !/usr/bin/su *root*
On the ALPHA machines, user john may su to anyone except root but he is not allowed to specify any options to the su(1) command.
jen ALL, !SERVERS = ALL
The user jen may run any command on any machine except for those
in the SERVERS
Host_Alias
(master, mail, www and ns).
jill SERVERS = /usr/bin/, !SU, !SHELLS
For any machine in the SERVERS
Host_Alias
, jill may run
any commands in the directory /usr/bin/ except for those commands
belonging to the SU and SHELLS
Cmnd_Aliases
.
steve CSNETS = (operator) /usr/local/op_commands/
The user steve may run any command in the directory /usr/local/op_commands/ but only as user operator.
matt valkyrie = KILL
On his personal workstation, valkyrie, matt needs to be able to kill hung processes.
WEBMASTERS www = (www) ALL, (root) /usr/bin/su www
On the host www, any user in the WEBMASTERS
User_Alias
(will,
wendy, and wim), may run any command as user www (which owns the
web pages) or simply su(1) to www.
ALL CDROM = NOPASSWD: /sbin/umount /CDROM,\ /sbin/mount -o nosuid\,nodev /dev/cd0a /CDROM
Any user may mount or unmount a CD-ROM on the machines in the CDROM
Host_Alias
(orion, perseus, hercules) without entering a password.
This is a bit tedious for users to type, so it is a prime candidate
for encapsulating in a shell script.
SECURITY NOTES
It is generally not effective to ``subtract'' commands from ALLusing the '!' operator. A user can trivially circumvent this by copying the desired command to a different name and then executing that. For example:
bill ALL = ALL, !SU, !SHELLS
Doesn't really prevent bill from running the commands listed in SU or SHELLS since he can simply copy those commands to a different name, or use a shell escape from an editor or other program. Therefore, these kind of restrictions should be considered advisory at best (and reinforced by policy).
Furthermore, if the fast_glob option is in use, it is not possible to reliably negate commands where the path name includes globbing (aka wildcard) characters. This is because the C library's fnmatch(3) function cannot resolve relative paths. While this is typically only an inconvenience for rules that grant privileges, it can result in a security issue for rules that subtract or revoke privileges.
For example, given the following sudoers entry:
john ALL = /usr/bin/passwd [a-zA-Z0-9]*, /usr/bin/chsh [a-zA-Z0-9]*, /usr/bin/chfn [a-zA-Z0-9]*, !/usr/bin/* root
User john can still run
/usr/bin/passwd root
if fast_glob is
enabled by changing to /usr/bin and running
./passwd root
instead.
PREVENTING SHELL ESCAPES
Once sudo executes a program, that program is free to do whatever it pleases, including run other programs. This can be a security issue since it is not uncommon for a program to allow shell escapes, which lets a user bypass sudo's access control and logging. Common programs that permit shell escapes include shells (obviously), editors, paginators, mail and terminal programs.There are two basic approaches to this problem:
- restrict
- Avoid giving users access to commands that allow the user to run arbitrary commands. Many editors have a restricted mode where shell escapes are disabled, though sudoedit is a better solution to running editors via sudo. Due to the large number of programs that offer shell escapes, restricting users to the set of programs that do not is often unworkable.
- noexec
-
Many systems that support shared libraries have the ability to
override default library functions by pointing an environment
variable (usually
LD_PRELOAD
) to an alternate shared library. On such systems, sudo's noexec functionality can be used to prevent a program run by sudo from executing any other programs. Note, however, that this applies only to native dynamically-linked executables. Statically-linked executables and foreign executables running under binary emulation are not affected.To tell whether or not sudo supports noexec, you can run the following as root:
sudo -V | grep "dummy exec"
If the resulting output contains a line that begins with:
File containing dummy exec functions:
then sudo may be able to replace the exec family of functions in the standard library with its own that simply return an error. Unfortunately, there is no foolproof way to know whether or not noexec will work at compile-time. noexec should work on SunOS, Solaris, *BSD, Linux, IRIX, Tru64 UNIX, MacOS X, and HP-UX 11.x. It is known not to work on AIX and UnixWare. noexec is expected to work on most operating systems that support the LD_PRELOAD
environment variable. Check your operating system's manual pages for the dynamic linker (usually ld.so, ld.so.1, dyld, dld.sl, rld, or loader) to see if LD_PRELOAD
is supported.To enable noexec for a command, use the NOEXEC
tag as documented in the User Specification section above. Here is that example again:aaron shanty = NOEXEC: /usr/bin/more, /usr/bin/vi
This allows user aaron to run /usr/bin/more and /usr/bin/vi with noexec enabled. This will prevent those two commands from executing other commands (such as a shell). If you are unsure whether or not your system is capable of supporting noexec you can always just try it out and see if it works.
Note that restricting shell escapes is not a panacea. Programs running as root are still capable of many potentially hazardous operations (such as changing or overwriting files) that could lead to unintended privilege escalation. In the specific case of an editor, a safer approach is to give the user permission to run sudoedit.
SEE ALSO
rsh(1), su(1), fnmatch(3), glob(3), sudo(8), visudo(8)CAVEATS
The sudoers file should always be edited by the visudo command which locks the file and does grammatical checking. It is imperative that sudoers be free of syntax errors since sudo will not run with a syntactically incorrect sudoers file.
When using netgroups of machines (as opposed to users), if you
store fully qualified host name in the netgroup (as is usually the
case), you either need to have the machine's host name be fully qualified
as returned by the
hostname
command or use the fqdn option in
sudoers.
BUGS
If you feel you have found a bug in sudo, please submit a bug report at http://www.sudo.ws/sudo/bugs/SUPPORT
Limited free support is available via the sudo-users mailing list, see http://www.sudo.ws/mailman/listinfo/sudo-users to subscribe or search the archives.DISCLAIMER
sudo is provided ``AS IS'' and any express or implied warranties, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed. See the LICENSE file distributed with sudo or http://www.sudo.ws/sudo/license.html for complete details.
Index
- NAME
- DESCRIPTION
- SUDOERS OPTIONS
- FILES
- EXAMPLES
- SECURITY NOTES
- PREVENTING SHELL ESCAPES
- SEE ALSO
- CAVEATS
- BUGS
- SUPPORT
- DISCLAIMER
This document was created by man2html, using the manual pages.
Time: 05:34:00 GMT, December 24, 2015


Viewing Your Comments on Portfolios
To read comments you have made about portfolios on this site, access the Portfolios tool and follow these steps:
- If the Portfolios home page is not displayed, click the Reset button.
- In the Portfolios menu at the top of the page, click the My Comments button. Sakai displays the Comments screen. Information
on each comment fills two rows.
- The top row indicates the name of the portfolio and the template used to create it (if any), the title of your comment and
the date and time you submitted it, and the name of the portfolio owner. The last column indicates whether the comment is
displayed to everyone (Public), only to you and the portfolio owner (Shared), or only to you (Private).
- The second row contains the text of your comment.
- If desired, sort the list by any of the headings. To do so, simply click the heading you want to sort by. The first time you
click a heading, Sakai sorts the list in ascending order. If you click the heading again, Sakai sorts the list in descending
order.
- To return to the Portfolios home page, click the Reset button.


Public Member Functions | |
| analysisValueForSessionAndQuestion ($session_id, $question_id) | |
| bodyTextForAnswerToQuestion ($session_id, $question_id) | |
| forSessionAndQuestion ($session_id, $question_id, $iteration=0) | |
| for_textbox ($question_id, $session_id, $iteration=0) | |
| for_image ($question_id, $session_id) | |
| for_checkbox_options_and_session ($question_id, $options, $session_id, $iteration=0) | |
| for_date ($question_id, $options, $session_id, $iteration=0) | |
| for_option_w_possible_value ($option_id, $session_id, $iteration=0) | |
| most_recent_for_session ($session_id) | |
| beforeSave ($options=Array()) | |
| beforeFind ($queryData) | |
| afterSave ($new_record) | |
| afterFind ($results, $primary=false) | |
Public Attributes | |
| $belongsTo = array('Question', 'Option', 'SurveySession') | |
| $bindModels = true |
A single answer or click of an option for a survey.
Copyright 2013 University of Washington, School of Nursing. http://opensource.org/licenses/BSD-3-Clause
See note below at afterFind: no timezone modification is done to 'modified' field due to the overhead of getting the proper timezone; saving is easy because it's just the current time in GMT, but converting to local time on find is another matter. Because currently no one is using the modified fields (except to compare to other modified fields for the same user), we're letting this slide. --- gsbarnes
| Answer::analysisValueForSessionAndQuestion | ( | $ | session_id, | |
| $ | question_id | |||
| ) |
Return analsysis value for a question NULL for absolutely no answer a String for textbox questions an Int analysis value for radio buttons
checkboxes: Returns an array of all options for which the most recent state is active/selected. May return an empty array. key = option ID; value = text from combo, or null if non-combo
other controls undefined
| Answer::bodyTextForAnswerToQuestion | ( | $ | session_id, | |
| $ | question_id | |||
| ) |
Works for radio and combo-radio, at least...
| Answer::for_image | ( | $ | question_id, | |
| $ | session_id | |||
| ) |
Helper function called from $this->forSessionAndQuestion() Finds previously given answer for a question
| int | $question_id id of the question to find the answer for | |
| int | $session_id id of the survey session |


Class is now in session!--or at least in Ruby. Classes can be used to group together multiple methods, or "bundle" them together. I will show examples on this later on in this blog to help illustrate what I mean. Classes are used primarily to organize the data and make programming large amounts of code a lot simpler than constantly going through method by method and changing everything, sometimes repeating the same code. (Note: #1 Rule: D.R.Y. Don't Repeat Yourself) Methods with no Class implemented generally rely on themselves, rather than the whole block. Methods are great, until you want the method to work on multiple objects, causing you to write a million "if/else" or "case" or other loop statements. This is where using a Class can really be helpful. It can reduce the amount of loops and conditionals in your code, as well as work for multiple items, without retyping the same code.
class Name
end
After creating your Class, you can define your methods inside the Class structure. "Initialize" should be the first method you create. This method should be defined to take an argument (or number of arguments) that can later be called (or initialized) and run your code within the Class. Let's say you create the method to take 3 arguments, but these arguments will have different values for different things. This is when you will create "Instance Variables". Instance variables are used when you want to create a different results for a different object. For you gamers out there, let's say one of your arguments is "health" but you have 10 characters with different health limits (1 is 150 HP, another is 100 HP, and so on).
This is when you would create an Instance Variable using @ (at symbol) and make it equal to "health".
Example: @health = health
This will allow you to assign different values of "health" to different characters.
class Name
def initialize(name)
@name = name
@name = gets.chomp
puts "Hello" + @name + "."
end
end
This example shows the class "Name" with the method "initialize" taking the argument "name". "@name" is the instance variable being used for anything that is associated with "name". "@name = gets.chomp" refers to acquiring the user's name that they input themselves. The fourth line tells the program to print "Hello" and then the user's name. The first "end" closes the method "initialize" and the second "end" closes the class "Name". Simply put, when ran, this program will ask you for your name, and respond with "Hello (your name)." (Note: The layout of the code is horrendous. Do NOT under any circumstances, ever leave the code the way mine is. It is very bad practice and confusing for others to read.)
In short:
I hope this blog was helpful. Please feel free to contact me with feedback!


|
The BMW X1 is a compact luxury crossover SUV manufactured and marketed worldwide by BMW since 2009. The first generation model, based on the BMW 3-Series, was available with rear-wheel-drive (sDrive) and all-wheel-drive (xDrive) configurations. The second generation, based on BMW's compact UKL platform, is available with front-wheel-drive (sDrive) and all-wheel-drive (xDrive). |
|||||
Manufacturer |
Class |
Base MSRP$33,100 |
Average MPGUp to 23 city / 32 highway |
Drive DescriptionFront or All-Wheel Drive |
Production Run2009-present |


var http = require('http');
http.createServer(function (req, res) {
res.writeHead(200, {'Content-Type': 'text/plain'});
res.end('Hello World\n');
}).listen(1337, '<IP_ADDRESS>');
console.log('Server running at http://<IP_ADDRESS>:1337/');
native sockets
var net = require('net');
var server = net.createServer(function (socket) {
socket.write('Echo server\r\n');
socket.pipe(socket);
});
server.listen(1337, '<IP_ADDRESS>');
Events
var callback = function(stream) {
console.log('someone connected!');
};
server.on('connection', callback);
emitter.emit(event, arg1, arg2);
Current State on OpenShift
- version: 0.6.20
- latest: 0.6.21, 0.8.19
- rapid releases
- run any version of node
- ability to offer yum package updates via kraman?
- great support for dependency resolution via npm
- and, a multitude of dependency issues...
Installing dependencies
Using Node's [npm package manager](https://npmjs.org/):
npm install irc -S
Include the -S
flag in order to save this dependency to your application's package.json
file.
Top packages and libraries
Mods available by default
Deployments tips
- compiled / compressed / uglified code
- checking in your deps
MVC with node.js
- express
- angular
- backbone
- flatiron
- ...
- meteor.js
Competitive Landscape
- rackspace (IaaS)
- joyent (IaaS / VPS)
- nodejitsu (Joyent / Solaris)
- heavy sponsors of the core nodejs team
- nodester
- linode
- heroku
- github pages?
Developer expectations
git push
- thousands of concurrent connections
- realtime
- full support for websockets
Developer expectations
Next Steps:
BUZZ
BUZZ
BUZZ
Community Carts
Looking to the future
- trends: Defragmentation of the node VPS space
- Telling the story of Open Source
- Building strong communities around OpenShift
- Enabling existing communities
- Leading with more cartridge and quick-start examples
- fork me on GitHub -> run me on OpenShift
- meteor.js + hot_deploy


001/* 002 * Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more 003 * contributor license agreements. See the NOTICE file distributed with 004 * this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership. 005 * The ASF licenses this file to You under the Apache License, Version 2.0 006 * (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with 007 * the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at 008 * 009 * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 010 * 011 * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software 012 * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, 013 * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. 014 * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and 015 * limitations under the License. 016 */ 017package org.apache.commons.configuration2.reloading; 018 019import org.apache.commons.configuration2.event.Event; 020import org.apache.commons.configuration2.event.EventListener; 021import org.apache.commons.configuration2.event.EventListenerList; 022import org.apache.commons.configuration2.event.EventSource; 023import org.apache.commons.configuration2.event.EventType; 024 025/** 026 *
 027 * A class for adding support for reload operations in a generic way. 028 *
 029 *
 030 * A {@code ReloadingController} monitors a specific source and triggers reloading events if necessary. So it does not 031 * perform reloading itself, but only sends out notifications when it thinks that this should be done. This allows for a 032 * very generic setup in which different components involved in reloading are loosely coupled via events. 033 *
 034 *
 035 * A typical usage scenario is as follows: 036 *
 037 *
 038 *
A {@code ReloadingController} instance is created and initialized with a {@link ReloadingDetector} object.
 039 *
A number of {@link EventListener} objects for reloading events can be registered at the controller.
 040 *
Now the controller's {@code checkForReloading()} method is called whenever a check is to be performed. This could 041 * be done for instance by a timer in regular intervals or by any other means appropriate for a specific 042 * application.
 043 *
When a check reveals that a reload operation is necessary all registered event listeners are notified.
 044 *
Typically one of the listeners is responsible to perform the actual reload operation. (How this is done is not in 045 * the scope of the controller object.) After this has been done, the controller's {@code resetReloadingState()} method 046 * must be called. It tells the controller that the last notification has been processed and that new checks are 047 * possible again. It is important that this method is called. Otherwise, {@code checkForReloading()} will not do any 048 * new checks or send out event notifications any more.
 049 *
 050 *
 051 * This class can be accessed from multiple threads concurrently. It shields the associated {@link ReloadingDetector} 052 * object for concurrent access, so that a concrete detector implementation does not have to be thread-safe. 053 *
 054 * 055 * @since 2.0 056 */ 057public class ReloadingController implements EventSource { 058 /** Stores a reference to the reloading detector. */ 059 private final ReloadingDetector detector; 060 061 /** The helper object which manages the registered event listeners. */ 062 private final EventListenerList listeners; 063 064 /** A flag whether this controller is in reloading state. */ 065 private boolean reloadingState; 066 067 /** 068 * Creates a new instance of {@code ReloadingController} and associates it with the given {@code ReloadingDetector} 069 * object. 070 * 071 * @param detect the {@code ReloadingDetector} (must not be null) 072 * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the detector is undefined 073 */ 074 public ReloadingController(final ReloadingDetector detect) { 075 if (detect == null) { 076 throw new IllegalArgumentException("ReloadingDetector must not be null!"); 077 } 078 079 detector = detect; 080 listeners = new EventListenerList(); 081 } 082 083 /** 084 * Returns the {@code ReloadingDetector} used by this controller. 085 * 086 * @return the {@code ReloadingDetector} 087 */ 088 public ReloadingDetector getDetector() { 089 return detector; 090 } 091 092 /** 093 * {@inheritDoc} This class generates events of type {@code ReloadingEvent}. 094 */ 095 @Override 096 public <T extends Event> void addEventListener(final EventType<T> eventType, final EventListener<? super T> listener) { 097 listeners.addEventListener(eventType, listener); 098 } 099 100 @Override 101 public <T extends Event> boolean removeEventListener(final EventType<T> eventType, final EventListener<? super T> listener) { 102 return listeners.removeEventListener(eventType, listener); 103 } 104 105 /** 106 * Tests whether this controller is in reloading state. A return value of true means that a previous 107 * invocation of {@code checkForReloading()} has detected the necessity for a reload operation, but 108 * {@code resetReloadingState()} has not been called yet. In this state no further reloading checks are possible. 109 * 110 * @return a flag whether this controller is in reloading state 111 */ 112 public synchronized boolean isInReloadingState() { 113 return reloadingState; 114 } 115 116 /** 117 * Performs a check whether a reload operation is necessary. This method has to be called to trigger the generation of 118 * reloading events. It delegates to the associated {@link ReloadingDetector} and sends out notifications if necessary. 119 * The argument can be an arbitrary data object; it will be part of the event notification sent out when a reload 120 * operation should be performed. The return value indicates whether a change was detected and an event was sent. Once a 121 * need for a reload is detected, this controller is in reloading state. Until this state is reset (by calling 122 * {@link #resetReloadingState()}), no further reloading checks are performed by this method, and no events are fired; 123 * it then returns always true. 124 * 125 * @param data additional data for an event notification 126 * @return a flag whether a reload operation is necessary 127 */ 128 public boolean checkForReloading(final Object data) { 129 boolean sendEvent = false; 130 synchronized (this) { 131 if (isInReloadingState()) { 132 return true; 133 } 134 if (getDetector().isReloadingRequired()) { 135 sendEvent = true; 136 reloadingState = true; 137 } 138 } 139 140 if (sendEvent) { 141 listeners.fire(new ReloadingEvent(this, data)); 142 return true; 143 } 144 return false; 145 } 146 147 /** 148 * Resets the reloading state. This tells the controller that reloading has been performed and new checks are possible 149 * again. If this controller is not in reloading state, this method has no effect. 150 */ 151 public synchronized void resetReloadingState() { 152 if (isInReloadingState()) { 153 getDetector().reloadingPerformed(); 154 reloadingState = false; 155 } 156 } 157}


We hope to solve it shortly. Please check back in a few minutes. If you continue seeing this error please contact us at team@phalconphp.com


In programming, a module is a piece of software that has a specific functionality. Each module is a different file, which can be edited separately.
Writing modules
Modules in Python are simply Python files with a .py
extension. The name of the module will be the name of the file. A Python module can have a set of functions, classes or variables defined and implemented. Modules are imported from other modules using the import
command. For example:
[learnpython.org]
# game.py
# import the draw module
import draw
def play_game():
...
def main():
result = play_game()
draw.draw_game(result)
# this means that if this script is executed, then
# main() will be executed
if __name__ == '__main__':
main()
The draw
module may look something like this:
# draw.py
def draw_game():
...
def clear_screen(screen):
...
To use a function draw_game from a module, we would need to specify in which module the function is implemented, using the dot operator:
draw.draw_game()
When the import directive is run, the Python interpreter looks for a file in the directory which the script was executed from, by the name of the module with a .py suffix. If it finds one, it will import it. If not, it will continue to look for built-in modules.
You may have noticed that when importing a module, a .pyc
file appears, which is a compiled Python file. Python compiles files into Python bytecode so that it won't have to parse the files each time modules are loaded. If a .pyc
file exists, it gets loaded instead of the .py
file, but this process is transparent to the user.
Importing module objects
We may also import a function directly into the main script's namespace, by using the from
command.
# game.py
# import the draw module
from draw import draw_game
def main():
result = play_game()
draw_game(result)
You may have noticed that in this example, draw_game
does not precede with the name of the module it is imported from, because we've specified the module name in the import
command.
The advantages of using this notation is that it is easier to use the functions inside the current module because you don't need to specify which module the function comes from. However, any namespace cannot have two objects with the exact same name, so the import command may replace an existing object in the namespace.
Importing all objects from a module
We may also use the import *
command to import all objects from a specific module, like this:
from draw import *
This might be a bit risky as changes in the module might affect the module which imports it, but it is shorter and also does not require you to specify which objects you wish to import from the module.
Custom import name
We may also load modules under any name we want. This is useful when we want to import a module conditionally to use the same name in the rest of the code. For example, if you have two draw
modules with slighty different names - you may do the following:
# game.py
# import the draw module
if visual_mode:
# in visual mode, we draw using graphics
import draw_visual as draw
else:
# in textual mode, we print out text
import draw_textual as draw
def main():
result = play_game()
# this can either be visual or textual depending on visual_mode
draw.draw_game(result)
Module initialization
The first time a module is loaded into a running Python script, it is initialized by executing the code in the module once. If another module in your code imports the same module again, it will not be loaded twice but once only - so local variables inside the module act as a "singleton" - they are initialized only once. This is useful to know, because this means that you can rely on this behavior for initializing objects. For example:
# draw.py
def draw_game():
# when clearing the screen we can use the main screen object initialized in this module
clear_screen(main_screen)
...
def clear_screen(screen):
...
class Screen():
...
# initialize main_screen as a singleton
main_screen = Screen()
Extending module load path
There are a couple of ways we could tell the Python interpreter where to look for modules, aside from the default, which is the local directory and the built-in modules. You could either use the environment variable PYTHONPATH
to specify additional directories to look for modules in, like this:
PYTHONPATH=/foo python game.py
This will execute game.py
, and will enable the script to load modules from the foo directory as well as the local directory.
Another method is the sys.path.append
function. You may execute it before running an import command. This will add the foo directory to the list of paths to look for modules in as well.
sys.path.append("/foo")
Exploring built-in modules
Check out the full list of built-in modules in the Python standard library at
docs.python.org.
Two very important functions come in handy when exploring modules in Python - the dir
and help
functions.
If we want to import the module urllib
, which enables us to create read data from URLs, we simply import the module:
# import the library
import urllib
# use it
urllib.urlopen(...)
We can look for which functions are implemented in each module by using the dir function:
>>> import urllib
>>> dir(urllib)
When we find the function in the module we want to use, we can read about it more using the help function, inside the Python interpreter:
help(urllib.urlopen)
Writing packages
Packages are namespaces which contain multiple packages and modules themselves. They are simply directories, but with a twist.
Each package in Python is a directory which MUST contain a special file called __init__.py
. This file can be empty, and it indicates that the directory it contains is a Python package, so it can be imported the same way a module can be imported. For example, to use the module bar, we can import it in two ways:
import foo.bar
or
from foo import bar
In the first method, we must use the foo prefix whenever we access the module bar. In the second method, we don't, because we import the module to our module's namespace.
The __init__.py
file can also decide which modules the package exports as the API, while keeping other modules internal, by overriding the __all__
variable, like so:
__init__.py:
__all__ = ["bar"]


Tools
Tool
Name
Skill
Rank 1
Rank 2
Rank 3
Rank 4
Rank 5
Rank 6
Rank 7
Secondary Skill
Translation
Rank 1
Rank 2
Rank 3
Rank 4
Rank 5
Rank 6
Rank 7
Tool
Secondary Skill
Drop Location
Drop Location
Drop Location


This coming Sunday I'll be presenting Pseudo GTID and easy replication management at FOSDEM, Brussels. There's been a lot of development on Pseudo GTID these last few weeks. In this talk I'll show you how you can use Pseudo GTID instead of "normal" GTID to easily repoint your slaves, recover from intermediate master failure, promote slaves to masters as well as emply crash safe replication without crash safe replication. Moreover, I will show how you can achieve all the above with less constraints than GTID, and for bulk operations -- with less overhead and in shorter time.
And not for long!
The Call for Papers for Percona Live MySQL Conference and Expo, to be held at Santa Clara in April 2015, is open. The dead line for submissions is Nov. 16th; that’s just around the corner.
As with previous years, we will hold a 4 day conference, the first being a tutorials day and three days for sessions, BoF and lightning talks, as well as community events. The committee is expecting to review at about 250-300 submissions, out of which it will pick at about 100 talks to schedule or reserve.
We will be using these tracks:
- High Availability
- DevOps
- Programming
- Performance Optimization
- Replication and Backup
- MySQL in the Cloud
- MySQL and NoSQL
- MySQL Case Studies
- Security
- What’s New in MySQL
This year we will roughly pre-define the desired number of sessions we wish to have per track. This is not set in stone and everything is fluid. Yet, this will give us better guidelines at choosing and pursuing content for this conference.
Submitting a proposal
We encourage all members of the community to submit their tutorial/session/BoF proposals as soon as possible. Please register/login at the conference home page.
The guidelines for submitting a proposal are generally unchanged; please review past recommendations: [1], [2], [3], [4]. To add to all these:
- Do note that we are likely to only review a proposal just once. Please submit only after you have finalized your draft.
- Make a reasonable length of proposal. We believe 250 - 300 words are quite enough for a good proposal. Please don’t write an essay, and remember that you proposal is what gets printed on the schedule, and what is read by the conference attendees when choosing the next talk to go to.
- Write a descent Bio.
In less than a month I'll be giving these two talks at Percona Live: common_schema: DBA's framework for MySQL If you are still unfamiliar with common_schema, this will make for a good introduction. I'll give you multiple reasons why you would want to use it, and how it would come to immediate use at your company. I do mean immediate, as in previous common_schema presentations I happened to get feedback emails from attendees within the same or next day letting me know how common_schema solved an insistent problem of theirs or how it exposed an unknown status.
We've got some spare time on Percona Live during the lightning talks session, and are spontaneously calling for "Hall of Shame" submissions. What is this about? We just had a wonderful Reversim Summit a couple weeks back, where we held the "Hall of Shame" session. We are used to hear talks about success stories and great new technologies. Well, this session is your chance to come up and say: "I messed up, and I'm proud of it!" You will have 3-4 minutes to tell us about how you once accidentally dropped your database; corrupted your data; brought your company's service down.
The complete tutorial & session schedule for Percona Live MySQL Conference & Expo 2014 is released. This schedule offers both a sense of achievement as well as a sense of regret; for I believe the schedule is very good, and yet some good proposals had to be left out. This is an inevitable result of a conference that is popular and receives far more proposals than can fit within the time frames.
In one week’s time I’ll be presenting common_schema: DBA’s framework for MySQL at Percona Live, London.
This talk introduces the rich toolset known as common_schema. It is free, open source, extremely useful in solving DBA & developer tasks, and is the next best thing ever invented next to SQL pie charts.
I’ll introduce:
- Views, with which you can detect and terminate idle transactions, blocking transactions; roll your range partitions; find duplicate keys; block/unblock accounts; get fine grained privileges per account; find AUTO_ICNREMENT free space; …
- Routines: do meta executions such as eval(); get query checksums; duplicating accounts; killing suspicious connections; security auditing; parsing JSON data; …
- QueryScript: if you’re not using it, you’re missing on a powerful scripting language tightly integrated with SQL/MySQL. We’ll see the basic constructs, variables, loops; the more sophisticated MySQL/locks/overhead/danger aware constructs such as foreach & split; throttling, exceptions, it’s all in there. I’ll present real scripts that saved the day and challenge you to implement them in another scripting language.
- Briefly introducing rdebug: stored routine debugger and debugging API
- Roadmap (some cool things coming along)
#DBHangOps I had the pleasure of joining into @DBHangOps today, and speak about common_schema and openark-kit. What was meant to be a 15 minute session turned to be 50 -- sorry, people, I don't talk as much at home, but when it comes to my pet projects... I also realized I was missing on a great event: DBHangOps is a hangout where you can chat and discuss MySQL & related technologies with friends and colleagues, with whom you typically only meet at conferences.
I had the pleasure of speaking on two excellent podcasts: OurSQL No need for me to introduce this podcast. I just have to say it was only when I interviewed that I realized the amount of work taken for producing one single cast. Kudos to Sheeri & Gerry and Rich Goyette the sound producer and thank you for your kind hospitality! You can find the cast on OurSQL Episode 129: New and Extended, where we speak about the upcoming Percona Live MySQL Conference & Expo, 2013.
Thank you to all who attended my talk at Percona Live London! The slides from my talk are now made available, following: [download id="2" format="1"]. Also available on slideshare. They should also be on the Percona Live site within a few days.
I'm happy to be speaking about common_schema at Percona Live London, Dec 4th, 2012. This will be the first chance for me to speak about common_schema, what I believe to be an extremely useful companion to your MySQL server. I will show you how common_schema can leverage your SQL skills and give you new powers. Stuff you had to be SQL-Perl-super-expert to work through is easily attainable with common_schema and QueryScript.
Are you attending PerconaLive? Allow me to suggest you attend the Common Schema: a framework for MySQL server administration session on April 12, 14:00 - 14:50 @ Ballroom F. This talk is by none other than Roland Bouman. Roland co-authored parts of common_schema, and is a great speaker. I have a personal interest, of course, being the author of most of the components in common_schema. I would like to convert you to a supporter of this project.
Am now back from Percona Live, London. Here are some quick impressions of mine. The physical location of the conference was excellent, not far from Tower Bridge. The conference area itself was nice and has good atmosphere. Very well organized. Kudos to Percona! Theme The official theme for the conference was "Discover the Power of MySQL". However, looking back at the conference, I think the de-facto theme was "High Availability and Scale Out for MySQL".
Here are the slides from my talk Programmatic Queries: things you can code with SQL held on October 25th on the Percona Live event, London. Programmatic Queries: PDF I wish to thank those who attended my talk. The topic of the talk was irregular and, to some extent, controversial. Should one really rely on internal implementation for optimizing her queries? Sergei Golubchik was quick to suggest that even in current and coming versions of MariaDB, some things I spoke about may not hold true.
I'll be speaking at the Percona Live event, held in London, October 24, 25, 2011. My session is called Programmatic Queries: things you can code with SQL. It's a short 30 minute talk, in which I present underlying knowledge of the programmatic nature of SQL queries within MySQL, and how to take advantage of such knowledge so as to build faster, shorter, and sometimes unexpected queries. This is not about stored routine programming, a classic programmatic aspect of MySQL, but rather about expected order of execution: of row evaluation, of control flow statements, of table inference, of time issues.


embeddings : SlidingWindowFeature
data = next(self.from_file(current_file))
window = SlidingWindow(duration=self.duration,
step=self.step, start=0.)
return SlidingWindowFeature(data, window)
embeddings : SlidingWindowFeature
window = SlidingWindow(duration=self.duration, step=self.step, start=0.)
batches = [batch for batch in self.from_file(current_file,
incomplete=True)]
return SlidingWindowFeature(np.vstack(batches), window)


They are like grass that grows up.
6 In the morning the grass sprouts and grows well,
but in the evening it dries up and completely withers.
7 Similarly, because of the sins that we commit, you become angry with us;
you terrify us and then you destroy us.
8 It is as though you place our sins in front of you;
you spread out even our secret sins where you can see them.
9 Because you are angry with us, you cause our lives to end;
the years that we live pass as quickly as a sigh does.
10 People live for only seventy years;
if they are strong, some of them live for eighty years.
But even during good years we have much pain and troubles;
our lives soon end, and we die.
11 No one has really experienced the powerful things you can do to them when you are angry with them,
and people are not afraid that you will punish them because of your being angry with them.
12 So teach us to realize that we live for only a short time
in order that we may use our time wisely.
13 Yahweh, how long will you be angry with us?
Pity us who serve you.
14 Each morning, show us that it is enough for us if you love us faithfully as you have promised you would do.
Show us this so that we may shout joyfully and be happy all during the years that we live.
15 Cause us to be now as happy for as many years as you afflicted us and we experienced troubles.
16 Enable us to see the great things that you do,
and enable our descendants to see your glorious power also.
17 Lord, our God, give us your blessings
and enable us to be successful;
yes, cause us to be successful in everything that we do!


Brilliant things happen in calm minds.
Measuring your stress level in real time.
Connect with your therapist! Chat made easy and secured.
Know how you are doing from therapist's notes!