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See:
Description
| Interface Summary | |
|---|---|
| EditorMap | This class contains methods that eases to use editors for specific or a set of property. |
| ModelFilter | A generic filter interface for Models. |
| PropertyAccessor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | Allows generic access to the properties or a path of properties from a bean. |
| PropertyEditor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | |
| PropertyFilterBilinked | A generic interface for bidirectional property filter |
| Visitor | Basic visitor interface for classes using Traverser. |
| Class Summary | |
|---|---|
| AbstractPropertyEditor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | This is the base class for all property editors. |
| AbstractTraverser | This is an all-in-one Traverser/Visitor combination to use when deep recursive visiting is required. |
| Cloner | Specifically "Clones" the BioPAX elements set
(traverses to obtain dependent elements),
puts them to the new model using the visitor and traverser framework;
ignores elements that are not in the source list (compare to Fetcher ) |
| Completer | This class is used for getting a valid subgraph from a set of BioPAX elements. |
| ConversionScore | Encapsulation of scores of conversions, and related information |
| DecoratingPropertyAccessor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | |
| EditorMapImpl | This is the base adapter for all editor maps. |
| EnumeratedPropertyEditor<D extends BioPAXElement,R extends Enum> | Provides an ENUM class compatible editor by extending the PropertyEditor . |
| Fetcher | This class is used to fetch an element (traverse it to obtain its dependent elements) and to add this element into a model using the visitor and traverse functions. |
| FilteredPropertyAccessor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | This class is a decorating property accessor that filters values with a given class. |
| Integrator | This class is intended to merge and to integrate biopax models not necessarily from the same resource - if models allow such a thing. |
| Merger | Utility class to merge multiple biopax models into one. |
| ModelUtils | Several useful algorithms and examples, e.g., to extract root or child BioPAX L3 elements, remove dangling, replace elements or URIs, fix/infer property values, etc. |
| ObjectPropertyEditor<D extends BioPAXElement,R extends BioPAXElement> | Provides an editor for all object value types, e.g. |
| PathAccessor | This class is a composite property accessor that allows users to chain multiple property accessors to define paths in the BioPAX object graph. |
| PrimitivePropertyEditor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | Provides a primitive (int, float, double) class compatible editor by extending the PropertyEditor . |
| PropertyAccessorAdapter<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | Adapter class for all property accessors. |
| PropertyReasoner | A tool to set or infer a particular BioPAX property for an object and all its children. |
| ReusedPEPHelper | This class contains methods for handling reused PEPs - a historically common problem in BioPAX L2 exports. |
| ShallowCopy | "Clones" a BioPAX element - using direct properties and dependent children only. |
| SimpleMerger | This is a "simple" BioPAX merger, a utility class to merge 'source' BioPAX models or a set of elements into the target model, using the RDFId (URI) identity only. |
| SimplePropertyAccessor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | |
| StringPropertyEditor<D extends BioPAXElement> | Provides an String class compatible editor by extending the PropertyEditor . |
| TransitivePropertyAccessor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | This class is a transitive decorator for PropertyAccessors. |
| Traverser | This is a utility class for traversing over the dependent objects of a biopax element, based on property editors |
| TraverserBilinked | |
| UnionPropertyAccessor<D extends BioPAXElement,R> | In OWL a single property can have multiple domains. |
| Enum Summary | |
|---|---|
| SimpleEditorMap | Provides a simple editor map for a level with a given factory. |
This package contains various methods and algorithms for traversing and manipulating the model.
|
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I like to play Minetest, a voxel game engine (and also the game). It is my longest game that I still play (and contribute!) until now. I make mods and published some of them to Minetest Content Database.
Minetest came to me when I was searching for voxel sandboxing game (that is free!) many years ago. Since then, I either play it, create mods for it, or contribute to it. Here are some of my mods:
Superflat Map Generator
This mod generates world layer by layer. This mod was created because I read that Minecraft has superflat mode in its world generation. This works the same, albeit uses different format, as superflat in Minecraft.
The actual description is "(Yet Another) Superflat Map Generator" because there is another map generator that generates flat world, e.g. built-in flat mapgen and flatgen mod.
Another Map Generator for Minetest
This mod generates world with more biomes and features than what Minetest had back then. It also supports other mods: moreores and bakedclay. This mod was my attempt to create map generator that uses noise (2D and 3D) and supports another mod.
This mod can be modified by another mod. I also create an example for that in another mod: amgmt_plugin. Now, Minetest supports custom biomes from its modding API that makes this mod irrelevant.
Advanced Ban
This mod can ban a player based on its username. It can also ban both its username and its IP address.
This mod was created because I realised that Minetest's default ban only ban IP address. I am not sure about Minetest's behaviour in latest version.
This mod's command was really long /advancedban. It was suggested that this mod's command should be shorter, so I choose /aban as replacement.
Banned on Die
This mod bans player when they are dead, i.e. Minecraft's hardcore mode.
This is a continuation from advancedban mod. I actually forgot which idea comes first: this or ban player's name. If I recall correctly, this idea comes first and then I realised that Minetest bans only IP address.
I have not checked this mod for so long. Maybe, I should back into improving this mod. There are requests to set a timer to reset the list and/or add API for other mods.
Limit chat by distance
This mod limits messages by distance so that only players within certain distance are able to hear. Player can "pay" to "shout" (send message without distance limitation), though.
This mod was created because I like the idea that you can not hear distant speech.
This idea already implemented before in chatplus mod. But, shout mod only implements this very idea. Also, it has payment for "shouting".
Carpet
This mod adds carpets from loaded mods with two layers of decoration.
I do not know what to say at this point; it was a crazy idea. This mod did not turn out to be enjoyed much (at least, by me). I am not planning to maintain this mod.


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Updated: May 5th, 2018


{% extends "header.html" %} {% block body %}
In this Python 3 programming tutorial, we cover the Try and Except statements, which are used for error handling. These statements work similarly to the if-else, where if the Try runs, the except will not run. If the Try fails, then the exception will run with the error that was just generated in the try. Try and Except is mainly used to handle failures in code, which result in errors. With handling exceptions, you can keep your code running when it would otherwise grind to a catastrophic halt from an error. You can also use error handling to log problems in your code, or to even attempt to remedy the problem as a part of the program.
The following code is complimentary to the video, as well as it builds on the previous video, where we read from a CSV file. Here is the sample data from the CSV file that we are reading from:
1/2/2014,5,8,red 1/3/2014,5,2,green 1/4/2014,9,1,blue
Now we need to learn how to handle errors in Python. As you can see, if you do not have any error handling, your program or script will just stop completely. This is not likely to be desired! First, we want to figure out how to handle errors, which is really just treating the symptom to the problem, not really solving the problem. Then, we want to learn how to avoid these sorts of problems to begin with, using proper logic in our programs.
Here is the sample code that matches the video:
import csv with open('example.csv') as csvfile: readCSV = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=',') dates = [] colors = [] for row in readCSV: color = row[3] date = row[0] dates.append(date) colors.append(color) print(dates) print(colors)
The above is the same, but here's where the code changes. We can put the "try" statement in quite a few places to solve our problem. I like to put the try statement in front of any new "block" of logic. Here, our logic block begins by asking the user to enter some input. This should immediately be a cause for concern, since we're opening a "door" to our program, and we might receive some unwanted input.
A great example of this is input fields on websites. Say you have a log-in with username and password field. Generally, you expect the user to enter a username and a password. First off, they might enter a non-existent username and password. Either they do not have one, they forgot it, or accidentally made a mistake in the input.
Sometimes, input isn't as innocent as this, as people sometimes have more sinister intentions. Using what is known as SQL injection, hackers can attempt to either gain access to your database or administration, or even wreak havoc on your website by modifying or just plain dropping tables in your database. Instead of entering usernames and passwords, hackers can enter SQL queries. If not handled right, your back-end code might actually go to run the SQL statement the hacker intends. The basic SQL injection usually starts with closing off the SQL statement you intended to run from your field, then begins a brand new query from the field. It looks nothing like a username or a password to a person, but your system may still blindly run it. This is a prime example where not only error handling is necessary to know, but also proper logic is imperative.
try: whatColor = input('What color do you wish to know the date of?:') coldex = colors.index(whatColor) theDate = dates[coldex] print('The date of',whatColor,'is:',theDate) # in python 2, this is read exception Exception, e. It's just helpful # to know this for porting old scripts if you need to. except Exception as e: print(e) ''' So this will try a block of code, and, if there is an exception, it will continue to run... ''' print('Stillllllll running though!')
This shown, we should always treat try and exception handling as a last resort, or a final point of failure. We should really instead code in a conditional before the exception is thrown, something like:
with open('example.csv') as csvfile: readCSV = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=',') dates = [] colors = [] for row in readCSV: color = row[3] date = row[0] dates.append(date) colors.append(color) print(dates) print(colors) # we could put the try anywhere. The weak point, however, starts # in my opinion immediately when we accept user input... no longer # is this is a closed-program, so I would personally code this block # here, but you could put the try right about the print statement # of where we search for the color and we KNOW it will throw an error # if not in the list. try: whatColor = input('What color do you wish to know the date of?:') if whatColor in colors: coldex = colors.index(whatColor) theDate = dates[coldex] print('The date of',whatColor,'is:',theDate) else: # now we can handle a specific scenario, instead # of handling it with a "catch-all" error. # now we have error handling and # proper logic. Yay. print('This color was not found.') # in python 2, this is read exception Exception, e. It's just helpful # to know this for porting old scripts if you need to. except Exception as e: print(e)
Above, we've not only handled an error if we get one, but we also have coded in proper logic. Just as a quick note, the above logic will absolutely not stop an SQL injection. I am just using that as an example of why logic is necessary!
Also, it should be noted that you can stack exceptions to cover specific errors.


I was born in Hamilton, Ontario and raised in the small town of Caledonia. I was born with a complex heart condition known as Right Atrial Isomerism and required multiple surgeries but here I am today!
Here are some pictures of me as a baby:
My favourite hobby is hockey! I started skating at 4 years old and I still play today!
Recently I have made the switch from player to goalie and I am excited to get back on the ice as soon as possible!
Here is a list of my Social Media accounts:


Verus Staffing Solutions is a full service permanent placement and executive search firm focusing on IT, Accounting & Finance and Life Sciences.
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Package udel.GardenProject.enums
Enum Colors
- java.lang.Object
-
- java.lang.Enum<Colors>
-
- udel.GardenProject.enums.Colors
-
- All Implemented Interfaces:
java.io.Serializable
,java.lang.Comparable<Colors>
public enum Colors extends java.lang.Enum<Colors>
This is one of the stupidest things I've ever done in Java. There is no built-in enum for Color. Java has a Color class which has zero helper methods for:- Getting all the colors, unlike an enum's
values()
. - Converting those colors to helpful strings for checkbox lists, and
- Convert strings of color names back into a Color object/enum.
web()
method that converts a CSS color into a Color object, but it's bad. CSS can specify a color such ascolor: red;
, but JavaFX's Color class can't handle that complex problem, apparently. Even if it did work (like it's supposed to), it doesn't acheive the other two requirements we have above.
May hardship rain upon Oracle for making me do this.- Version:
- 1.0
- Author:
- Team 0
-
-
Enum Constant Summary
-
Method Summary
All Methods Static Methods Instance Methods Concrete Methods Modifier and Type Method Description javafx.scene.paint.Color
getColor()
Getter for Colorjava.lang.String
getFriendlyName()
Getter for name.static Colors
valueOf(java.lang.String name)
Returns the enum constant of this type with the specified name.static Colors[]
values()
Returns an array containing the constants of this enum type, in the order they are declared.
-
-
-
Enum Constant Detail
-
ANYCOLOR
public static final Colors ANYCOLOR
-
ALICEBLUE
public static final Colors ALICEBLUE
-
ANTIQUEWHITE
public static final Colors ANTIQUEWHITE
-
AQUA
public static final Colors AQUA
-
AQUAMARINE
public static final Colors AQUAMARINE
-
AZURE
public static final Colors AZURE
-
BEIGE
public static final Colors BEIGE
-
BISQUE
public static final Colors BISQUE
-
BLACK
public static final Colors BLACK
-
BLANCHEDALMOND
public static final Colors BLANCHEDALMOND
-
BLUE
public static final Colors BLUE
-
BLUEVIOLET
public static final Colors BLUEVIOLET
-
BROWN
public static final Colors BROWN
-
BURLYWOOD
public static final Colors BURLYWOOD
-
CADETBLUE
public static final Colors CADETBLUE
-
CHARTREUSE
public static final Colors CHARTREUSE
-
CHOCOLATE
public static final Colors CHOCOLATE
-
CORAL
public static final Colors CORAL
-
CORNFLOWERBLUE
public static final Colors CORNFLOWERBLUE
-
CORNSILK
public static final Colors CORNSILK
-
CRIMSON
public static final Colors CRIMSON
-
CYAN
public static final Colors CYAN
-
DARKBLUE
public static final Colors DARKBLUE
-
DARKCYAN
public static final Colors DARKCYAN
-
DARKGOLDENROD
public static final Colors DARKGOLDENROD
-
DARKGRAY
public static final Colors DARKGRAY
-
DARKGREEN
public static final Colors DARKGREEN
-
DARKGREY
public static final Colors DARKGREY
-
DARKKHAKI
public static final Colors DARKKHAKI
-
DARKMAGENTA
public static final Colors DARKMAGENTA
-
DARKOLIVEGREEN
public static final Colors DARKOLIVEGREEN
-
DARKORANGE
public static final Colors DARKORANGE
-
DARKORCHID
public static final Colors DARKORCHID
-
DARKRED
public static final Colors DARKRED
-
DARKSALMON
public static final Colors DARKSALMON
-
DARKSEAGREEN
public static final Colors DARKSEAGREEN
-
DARKSLATEBLUE
public static final Colors DARKSLATEBLUE
-
DARKSLATEGRAY
public static final Colors DARKSLATEGRAY
-
DARKSLATEGREY
public static final Colors DARKSLATEGREY
-
DARKTURQUOISE
public static final Colors DARKTURQUOISE
-
DARKVIOLET
public static final Colors DARKVIOLET
-
DEEPPINK
public static final Colors DEEPPINK
-
DEEPSKYBLUE
public static final Colors DEEPSKYBLUE
-
DIMGRAY
public static final Colors DIMGRAY
-
DIMGREY
public static final Colors DIMGREY
-
DODGERBLUE
public static final Colors DODGERBLUE
-
FIREBRICK
public static final Colors FIREBRICK
-
FLORALWHITE
public static final Colors FLORALWHITE
-
FORESTGREEN
public static final Colors FORESTGREEN
-
FUCHSIA
public static final Colors FUCHSIA
-
GAINSBORO
public static final Colors GAINSBORO
-
GHOSTWHITE
public static final Colors GHOSTWHITE
-
GOLD
public static final Colors GOLD
-
GOLDENROD
public static final Colors GOLDENROD
-
GRAY
public static final Colors GRAY
-
GREEN
public static final Colors GREEN
-
GREENYELLOW
public static final Colors GREENYELLOW
-
GREY
public static final Colors GREY
-
HONEYDEW
public static final Colors HONEYDEW
-
HOTPINK
public static final Colors HOTPINK
-
INDIANRED
public static final Colors INDIANRED
-
INDIGO
public static final Colors INDIGO
-
IVORY
public static final Colors IVORY
-
KHAKI
public static final Colors KHAKI
-
LAVENDER
public static final Colors LAVENDER
-
LAVENDERBLUSH
public static final Colors LAVENDERBLUSH
-
LAWNGREEN
public static final Colors LAWNGREEN
-
LEMONCHIFFON
public static final Colors LEMONCHIFFON
-
LIGHTBLUE
public static final Colors LIGHTBLUE
-
LIGHTCORAL
public static final Colors LIGHTCORAL
-
LIGHTCYAN
public static final Colors LIGHTCYAN
-
LIGHTGOLDENRODYELLOW
public static final Colors LIGHTGOLDENRODYELLOW
-
LIGHTGRAY
public static final Colors LIGHTGRAY
-
LIGHTGREEN
public static final Colors LIGHTGREEN
-
LIGHTGREY
public static final Colors LIGHTGREY
-
LIGHTPINK
public static final Colors LIGHTPINK
-
LIGHTSALMON
public static final Colors LIGHTSALMON
-
LIGHTSEAGREEN
public static final Colors LIGHTSEAGREEN
-
LIGHTSKYBLUE
public static final Colors LIGHTSKYBLUE
-
LIGHTSLATEGRAY
public static final Colors LIGHTSLATEGRAY
-
LIGHTSLATEGREY
public static final Colors LIGHTSLATEGREY
-
LIGHTSTEELBLUE
public static final Colors LIGHTSTEELBLUE
-
LIGHTYELLOW
public static final Colors LIGHTYELLOW
-
LIME
public static final Colors LIME
-
LIMEGREEN
public static final Colors LIMEGREEN
-
LINEN
public static final Colors LINEN
-
MAGENTA
public static final Colors MAGENTA
-
MAROON
public static final Colors MAROON
-
MEDIUMAQUAMARINE
public static final Colors MEDIUMAQUAMARINE
-
MEDIUMBLUE
public static final Colors MEDIUMBLUE
-
MEDIUMORCHID
public static final Colors MEDIUMORCHID
-
MEDIUMPURPLE
public static final Colors MEDIUMPURPLE
-
MEDIUMSEAGREEN
public static final Colors MEDIUMSEAGREEN
-
MEDIUMSLATEBLUE
public static final Colors MEDIUMSLATEBLUE
-
MEDIUMSPRINGGREEN
public static final Colors MEDIUMSPRINGGREEN
-
MEDIUMTURQUOISE
public static final Colors MEDIUMTURQUOISE
-
MEDIUMVIOLETRED
public static final Colors MEDIUMVIOLETRED
-
MIDNIGHTBLUE
public static final Colors MIDNIGHTBLUE
-
MINTCREAM
public static final Colors MINTCREAM
-
MISTYROSE
public static final Colors MISTYROSE
-
MOCCASIN
public static final Colors MOCCASIN
-
NAVAJOWHITE
public static final Colors NAVAJOWHITE
-
NAVY
public static final Colors NAVY
-
OLDLACE
public static final Colors OLDLACE
-
OLIVE
public static final Colors OLIVE
-
OLIVEDRAB
public static final Colors OLIVEDRAB
-
ORANGE
public static final Colors ORANGE
-
ORANGERED
public static final Colors ORANGERED
-
ORCHID
public static final Colors ORCHID
-
PALEGOLDENROD
public static final Colors PALEGOLDENROD
-
PALEGREEN
public static final Colors PALEGREEN
-
PALETURQUOISE
public static final Colors PALETURQUOISE
-
PALEVIOLETRED
public static final Colors PALEVIOLETRED
-
PAPAYAWHIP
public static final Colors PAPAYAWHIP
-
PEACHPUFF
public static final Colors PEACHPUFF
-
PERU
public static final Colors PERU
-
PINK
public static final Colors PINK
-
PLUM
public static final Colors PLUM
-
POWDERBLUE
public static final Colors POWDERBLUE
-
PURPLE
public static final Colors PURPLE
-
RED
public static final Colors RED
-
ROSYBROWN
public static final Colors ROSYBROWN
-
ROYALBLUE
public static final Colors ROYALBLUE
-
SADDLEBROWN
public static final Colors SADDLEBROWN
-
SALMON
public static final Colors SALMON
-
SANDYBROWN
public static final Colors SANDYBROWN
-
SEAGREEN
public static final Colors SEAGREEN
-
SEASHELL
public static final Colors SEASHELL
-
SIENNA
public static final Colors SIENNA
-
SILVER
public static final Colors SILVER
-
SKYBLUE
public static final Colors SKYBLUE
-
SLATEBLUE
public static final Colors SLATEBLUE
-
SLATEGRAY
public static final Colors SLATEGRAY
-
SLATEGREY
public static final Colors SLATEGREY
-
SNOW
public static final Colors SNOW
-
SPRINGGREEN
public static final Colors SPRINGGREEN
-
STEELBLUE
public static final Colors STEELBLUE
-
TAN
public static final Colors TAN
-
TEAL
public static final Colors TEAL
-
THISTLE
public static final Colors THISTLE
-
TOMATO
public static final Colors TOMATO
-
TRANSPARENT
public static final Colors TRANSPARENT
-
TURQUOISE
public static final Colors TURQUOISE
-
VIOLET
public static final Colors VIOLET
-
WHEAT
public static final Colors WHEAT
-
WHITE
public static final Colors WHITE
-
WHITESMOKE
public static final Colors WHITESMOKE
-
YELLOW
public static final Colors YELLOW
-
YELLOWGREEN
public static final Colors YELLOWGREEN
-
-
Method Detail
-
values
public static Colors[] values()
Returns an array containing the constants of this enum type, in the order they are declared. This method may be used to iterate over the constants as follows:for (Colors c : Colors.values()) System.out.println(c);
- Returns:
- an array containing the constants of this enum type, in the order they are declared
-
valueOf
public static Colors valueOf(java.lang.String name)
Returns the enum constant of this type with the specified name. The string must match exactly an identifier used to declare an enum constant in this type. (Extraneous whitespace characters are not permitted.)- Parameters:
name
- the name of the enum constant to be returned.- Returns:
- the enum constant with the specified name
- Throws:
java.lang.IllegalArgumentException
- if this enum type has no constant with the specified namejava.lang.NullPointerException
- if the argument is null
-
getColor
public javafx.scene.paint.Color getColor()
Getter for Color- Returns:
- Color of c
-
getFriendlyName
public java.lang.String getFriendlyName()
Getter for name.- Returns:
- human name
-
-


I'm a goal oriented, determined and ambitious person with a passion for becoming better developer.I will surely mind the concerns of my clients with due respect and gratitude. I am a ambitious problem solver.
I m a web developer with some extraordinary thinking and executing skills with a great willingness to learn. I have already made projects earlier.
I m little higher than intermediate in html and also i have worked on so many small projects with ease.
I m intermediate in css and i love to work on css as well as making new designs to the best of my knowledge.
I m a very biginner in JavaScript but I m pretty sure I will upgrade my skills at very best.
If you love coding then, Meet me and we'll have a great conversation with a cup of coffee.
Front-end web development is the development of the graphical user interface of a website, through the use of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, so that users can view and interact with that website.
DOWNLOAD RESUME


Read Condensed Cornell Ecology Program ('CEP') and legacy 'CANOCO' files into R data frames.
| Version: | 1.1-2 |
| Published: | 2018-02-05 |
| Author: | Jari Oksanen [aut, cre], Gavin L. Simpson [aut] |
| Maintainer: | Jari Oksanen <jhoksane at gmail.com> |
| BugReports: | https://github.com/vegandevs/cepreader/issues |
| License: | MIT + file LICENCE |
| URL: | https://cran.r-project.org/, https://github.com/vegandevs/cepreader/ |
| NeedsCompilation: | yes |
| CRAN checks: | cepreader results |
| Reference manual: | cepreader.pdf |
| Package source: | cepreader_1.1-2.tar.gz |
| Windows binaries: | r-devel: cepreader_1.1-2.zip, r-release: cepreader_1.1-2.zip, r-oldrel: cepreader_1.1-2.zip |
| OS X binaries: | r-release: cepreader_1.1-2.tgz, r-oldrel: cepreader_1.1-2.tgz |
Please use the canonical form https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=cepreader to link to this page.


12.04 as an alternative operating system for those who currently use only Windows 7 or 8. [TOC]
Abstract
One of the most anticipated Linux distribution for a long time now is Ubuntu 12.04 LTS. There has been so much speculation and gossip about it. Canonical finally lifts the curtain on that 12.04 LTS version, and let me already say it out loud ... it's a gem !
Introduction
In this article we will show you how to download and install Ubuntu 12.04 as an alternative operating system for those who currently use only Windows 7 or 8. This tutorial, takes you by the hand and guides you step-by-step into easily tasks.
Before we startup the how-to let me blast a quick pros'n'cons out of the Ubuntu's commercial hype and emphasize some remarkable spots about Ubuntu and why should we care about.
Pros
- It is the most popular Linux distribution
- Easy to use (Noob friendly) and install software
- Thousands of applications (derived from Debian)
- It just works -- out of the box
- Huge community (your question is probably already answered)
- Valve Steam will be supported soon
Cons
- Not the fastest Linux distro
- Unity desktop is still young
- bugs bunny lives
Materials and Methods
Downloading and Burning Ubuntu 12.04
To obtain a copy of Ubuntu, please launch your favorite browser (Firefox, Chrome, Opera, IE) and go to official Ubuntu website.
Once you get there, you'll find many resources about Ubuntu. Click "Get Ubuntu now" in order to proceed.
Alright, here we have the 32-bit version as recommended by Canonical. Despite what's it says, please select 64bit and click Start Download. The disk image of 64bit is called amd64 -- which is just bad name scheme in every aspect -- meaning that it supports both AMD and Intel 64bit processors.
Currently you're downloading Ubuntu 12.04 64-bit for Desktop PC. After that, you have to choose in what media you want Ubuntu to be loaded. There are to 2 choices here:
- CD/DVD-Rom
- boot via USB.
A. Using a CD/DVD
Once you have downloaded Ubuntu ISO image disc, the next step is to burn it into a CD media. To accomplish this task, we are going to use ImgBurn.
Launch ImgBurn utility and click "Write Image file to disc" button. Browse into your computer's hard drive directory, probably at your "Downloads" folder, locate ubuntu-12.04-desktop-amd64.iso and click "Open".
Afterwards, please insert an empty (blank) CD-Rom into your DVD-Writer device and get ready to obtain a copy of Ubuntu. Burn the Ubuntu ISO disk image into an actual CD-ROM disc. Please wait while the disc has being writing...
Congrats! Operation Successfully completed!
Just in case, mark the CD-Rom's surface using an appropriate marker-pen that dries instantly.
B. Using a USB flash disk
First off, we need a USB Drive Disc. Do you have one ?
Plug it in your PC and backup its contents, because they will be deleted/replaced by Ubuntu disc image. Again: backup your flash disk's data. Just don't say you weren't warned.
Go to Unetbootin's webpage and download the Windows version.
Afterwards, browse into your hard disk and locate the unebootin executable. Double click to launch the application.
Select Disc Image, ISO and click the dots "..." button in order to locate the Ubuntu's ISO image file.
Browse into your computer's hard drive directory, probably at your "Downloads" folder, locate ubuntu-12.04-desktop-amd64.iso and click "Open".
Select USB Drive and the locate the approriate letter that matches in your flash drive. Eventually, hit "OK" button to start the conversion of your flash drive into a fully operational and bootable media including Ubuntu 12.04 64bit.
Please wait a couple of minutes while the USB flash disk is getting ready.
Congrats! Operation successfully completed! Now you have Ubuntu 12.04 inside your flash disk. Reboot your computer and boot from USB.
First Boot Device
First off, remove all unnecessary USB items to ease the process.
 Most newer computers can boot from a USB flash/CD-Rom drive. If your computer does not automatically do so, you might need to edit the BIOS settings.
Restart your computer, and watch for a message telling you which key to press to enter the BIOS setup. It will usually be one of F1, F2, DEL, ESC or F10. Press this key while your computer is booting to edit your BIOS settings.
Instead of editing BIOS settings, you can chose a boot device from the boot menu. Press the function key to enter the boot menu when your computer is booting. Typically, the boot screen displays which key you need to press. It maybe one of F12, F10. Note: with some motherboards you have to select 'hard disk/USB-HDD0' to choose the USB flash disk.
You need to edit the Boot Order. Depending on your computer, and how your USB key was formatted, you should see an entry for "removable drive" or "USB media" or "CD-Rom". Move this to the top of the list to make the computer attempt to boot from the USB/CD-Rom device before booting from the hard disk.
In case you have moden PC using UEFI Bios make the necessary changes in order to boot from USB or CD-Rom first, instead of hard drive. Take a look from ASUS UEFI BIOS:
Otherwise if you own a MSI motherboard take a look below:
Ok now, hit F10 keystroke (Save and Exit) and restart your PC in order to boot from CD-ROM or USB drive as to install Ubuntu.
Booting Ubuntu
The installation of the Ubuntu 12.04 distribution is a child’s play in the hands of advanced users who already have the experience of re-installing operating systems. If you are newbie, please do not be afraid of installation. Using the manual and our helpful instructions, there is no doubt that you will accomplish this task quite easily. As we stated before, the installation procedure is quite an easy job, but is also a bit time consuming though (about 25 minutes). Pay attention to the instructions and be gentle with your computer. Please be aware of the fact that if you already use Windows 7 or 8, Ubuntu can be installed alongside or completely remove Windows.
That's my old monitor, installing Ubuntu 12.04. As you can see I've already managed to boot from CD-Rom and Ubuntu distribution auto loads first, replacing your hard drive and MBR. Have a peak and let's do it together step-by-step.
Select your language from the left menu and click "Install Ubuntu" to proceed with the Installation. Make sure that your have a wired internet connection via Ethernet, in case of inability to find wifi networks.
Allocate drive's space
Please check "Download updates while installing" and "Install third-party software". Use the checkboxes to choose whether you'd like to Install Ubuntu alongside another operating system, delete your existing operating system and replace it with Ubuntu, or – if you're an advanced user – choose the 'Something else' option
Select the first option in order to dual boot with Windows 7/8 and Ubuntu, otherwise select the second option and delete Windows partition at all using only Ubuntu. Third option is not recommended for beginners. Dual boot means multi-booting, likewise the act of installing multiple operating systems on a computer, and being able to choose which one to boot when starting the computer. The term dual-booting refers to the common configuration of specifically two operating systems. Multi-booting may require a custom boot loader that Ubuntu installation provives and configures it automatically based upon your system's needs.
Now hit "Install Now" and wait a couple of moments until the installation is complete. Please notice that Ubuntu needs about 4.5 GB to install, so add a few extra GB to allow for your files.
Ubuntu asks you for ...
During the instalaltion, Ubuntu asks you some questions about yourself. No, it doesn't ask you to go out for a beer. Just, like any other operating system, Ubuntu needs to configure itself... local time, language, keyboard layout, username etc...
Check if your location is correct and click 'Continue' to proceed. If you're unsure of your time zone, type the name of the town you're in or click on the map and we'll help you find it.
Select your prefered keyboard layout. Click on the language option you need. If you’re not sure, click the ‘Detect Keyboard Layout’ button for help. Afterward click "Continue" to proceed.
Enter your login and password details. If you like check "Log in automatically" and press "Continue" to proceed.
Ok that's it. Now sit back and wait while the system installs…
And yeah, that's the final message saying that installation is complete.
Please remove the CD-Rom or USB from your PC and hit "Enter" to reboot.
Update and Upgrade
Once you boot into Ubuntu 12.04 you will see the Desktop; this is Unity. Before you play around with your new toys, we recommended update your pre-installed applications to the latest version. Also, bug fixes and security updates will automatically installed. Follow the instruction below and take a look to the video.
Open your terminal by typing "terminal" into Dash search field or press Ctrl+Alt+T
sudo apt-get update
sudo apt-get upgrade
Results and discussion
Now reboot your PC and you're ready to boot in back to the all brand new Ubuntu 12.04. Hopfully this guid will help windows user to get along with the installation procedure of Ubuntu 12.04.
So what do you think? Did I miss something? Is any part unclear? Please leave your comments below


| Balls Bowled | {{ statistics["balls_bowled"] }} |
| Runs Conceded | {{ statistics["runs_conceded"] }} |
| Dot Balls Bowled | {{ statistics["dot_balls_bowled"] }} |
| Fours Conceded | {{ statistics["4s_conceded"] }} |
| Sixes Conceded | {{ statistics["6s_conceded"] }} |
| Wickets Taken | {{ statistics["wickets_taken"] }} |
| No Balls Bowled | {{ statistics["no_balls_bowled"] }} |
| Wides Bowled | {{ statistics["wides_bowled"] }} |
| Extras Conceded | {{ statistics["extras_conceded"] }} |


Think Different.
View the old version of the Project on GitHub Pages Kirin X
A quick brown fox jumps over a lazy dog.


#include <TerrainPatch.hpp>
◆ TerrainPatch()
| TerrainPatch::TerrainPatch |
( |
| ) |
|
|
default |
◆ DynamicTerrain
◆ height
| float TerrainPatch::height |
|
private |
◆ leftBottomAdj
◆ leftTopAdj
◆ originPos
| glm::vec3 TerrainPatch::originPos |
|
private |
◆ rightBottomAdj
◆ rightTopAdj
◆ scaleNegativeX
| float TerrainPatch::scaleNegativeX |
|
private |
◆ scaleNegativeZ
| float TerrainPatch::scaleNegativeZ |
|
private |
◆ scalePositiveX
| float TerrainPatch::scalePositiveX |
|
private |
◆ scalePositiveZ
| float TerrainPatch::scalePositiveZ |
|
private |
◆ width
| float TerrainPatch::width |
|
private |
The documentation for this class was generated from the following file:
- C:/Users/User/Desktop/Github/Procedural-Terrain-Estimator/Renderer/TerrainRenderer/TerrainPatch.hpp


| get_range/4 | Returns an iolist() for the starting offset and length specified. |
| put_range/4 | Put range performs a synchronous write operation on the given tensors file. |
| truncate/3 | Truncates a file to the specified offset. |
get_range(Riak::riak(), File::tensors_file(), Start::int(), Length::int()) -> iolist()
Returns an iolist() for the starting offset and length specified.
put_range(Riak::riak(), File::tensors_file(), Start::int(), Data::binary()) -> {ok, WrittenBlocks, NewFile}
Put range performs a synchronous write operation on the given tensors file. The write will start at the offset specified by Start and overwrite anything at that position with the contents of Data. Writes starting beyond the end of the file will occur at the end of the file. Tensors does not allow for gaps in a file.
truncate(Riak::riak(), File::tensors_file(), Start::int()) -> {ok, NewFile}
Truncates a file to the specified offset. All bytes beyond Start will no longer be readable in NewFile.
Generated by EDoc, May 31 2010, 11:13:39.


Matthew Dominick
6712 Santa Maria Lane, Charlotte NC 28227
Phone:<PHONE_NUMBER>
Email<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Aspiring full stack web developer prepared to help a development team reach their goals
Full Stack Web Developer Boot Camp
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC
BSBA in Operations and Supply Chain Management


|
ReactPhysics3D
0.7.1
Physics engine library
|
This class contains the material properties of a rigid body that will be use for the dynamics simulation like the friction coefficient or the bounciness of the rigid body. More...
#include <Material.h>
Public Member Functions | |
| Material (const WorldSettings &worldSettings) | |
| Constructor. | |
| Material (const Material &material) | |
| Copy-constructor. | |
| ~Material ()=default | |
| Destructor. | |
| decimal | getBounciness () const |
| Return the bounciness. More... | |
| void | setBounciness (decimal bounciness) |
| Set the bounciness. More... | |
| decimal | getFrictionCoefficient () const |
| Return the friction coefficient. More... | |
| void | setFrictionCoefficient (decimal frictionCoefficient) |
| Set the friction coefficient. More... | |
| decimal | getRollingResistance () const |
| Return the rolling resistance factor. More... | |
| void | setRollingResistance (decimal rollingResistance) |
| Set the rolling resistance factor. More... | |
| std::string | to_string () const |
| Return a string representation for the material. | |
| Material & | operator= (const Material &material) |
| Overloaded assignment operator. | |
This class contains the material properties of a rigid body that will be use for the dynamics simulation like the friction coefficient or the bounciness of the rigid body.
|
inline |
Return the bounciness.
|
inline |
Return the friction coefficient.
|
inline |
Return the rolling resistance factor.
|
inline |
Set the bounciness.
The bounciness should be a value between 0 and 1.
The value 1 is used for a very bouncy body and zero is used for a body that is not bouncy at all.
| bounciness | Bounciness factor (between 0 and 1) where 1 is very bouncy |
|
inline |
Set the friction coefficient.
The friction coefficient has to be a positive value.
The value zero is used for no friction at all.
| frictionCoefficient | Friction coefficient (positive value) |
|
inline |
Set the rolling resistance factor.
| rollingResistance | The rolling resistance factor |


{% if current_tenant.is_public_instance %}
Are you an {{ current_tenant.name}} client?
register for an account
If you are a service provider for {{ current_tenant.name}}, please ask your {{ current_tenant.name}} contact to invite you.
{% else %}
Are you an {{ current_tenant.name}} employee?
register for an account
{% endif %}


Graduates from different decades look back on their time at Ball State
While eager freshmen wheel suitcases and lug furniture up to their new home for the semester, it’s not uncommon to picture what the future may hold for them at Ball State.
The Centennial Celebration list of events is long for Cardinals past and present. For starters, Ball State will celebrate its 100th birthday with a public opening event Sept. 6 at Emens Auditorium.
Get Some MACtion: Ball State 10th school to join Mid-American Conference
After the Conference of Midwestern Universities (CMU) disbanded in 1972, the Ball State Cardinals were left without a home.
In 1964, the elevation of the Civil Rights Movement and debut release of the Beatles’ second album weren’t the only events that changed lives. /dekfont>
Charlie Cardinal’s transformation from simple mascot to famous bird
“If people asked me what the personality of Charlie was, I told them that he is Ball State’s No. 1 fan,” said Mitch Prather. “That’s what I told myself when I was playing the bird.”
Books upon books of knowledge accumulated over the last 50 years lay precariously around professor Teh-Kuang Chang’s office.
While 1918 may have been the year of the founding of one of Indiana’s largest universities, it was also the year of flu outbreaks, train wrecks and war.
Imagine a sea of Ball State students gathering in front of the Arts Terrace at the David Owsley Museum of Art, not for graduation, but demonstration. At 10:30 a.m. May 7, 1970, a student yelled into a microphone, “Ball State, where are you?”
Immersive learning impacts Ball State, Muncie for nearly 20 years
When Joe Trimmer wrote the proposal in 1999 that would change Ball State’s curriculum, he didn’t want to present it.
Colleagues create historical photo book for Ball State centennial
To celebrate Ball State’s centennial milestone, co-authors Bruce Geelhoed, Michael Szajewski and Brandon Pieczko collaborated on creating “Ball State University,” a photo book emphasizing the significance of students, faculty and Muncie community members with Ball State’s growth throughout its 100-year history.
Ball State’s 1989-90 men’s basketball team was more than the greatest in school history.
Throughout the 100-year history of Ball State, millions of students have had the honor to chirp proud as a Cardinal. The alumni and currently enrolled students come from a variety of diverse backgrounds and have unique stories to tell about the university. See why 100 Cardinals said they love Ball State.


SAVING GRACE (2000) / ***
Directed by Nigel Cole. Screenplay by Craig Ferguson and Mark Crowdy, from a story by Crowdy. Starring Brenda Blethyn, Ferguson, Valerie Edmond. Running time: 92 minutes. Rated AA by the MFCB. Reviewed on November 22nd, 2000.
By SHANNON PATRICK SULLIVAN
"Saving Grace" is a cozy rural comedy -- about marijuana. That statement by itself should convince you that either this is an incredibly poorly-conceived film... or else that it's British. And indeed, "Saving Grace" is a delightfully amusing little English lark, possessing more than enough charm to overcome any reticence viewers might feel about its seemingly incongruous subject material.
Instead of relying on elaborate gags and set pieces, first-time director Nigel Cole opts for the tried-and-true British practise of establishing a familiar, comfortable setting which is just off-kilter enough to tickle the funny bone. Much of the action is set in a small Cornish village in the middle of nowhere, where everybody knows (and gossips about) everybody else.
The town is populated by such unlikely -- but not absurd -- characters as a police officer who searches doggedly for poachers while living in ignorance of the barely-concealed local marijuana stash, and two well-meaning old biddies who are hopelessly naive, and probably a little dense to boot. None of these characters are gross exaggerations, but none of them are entirely realistic. They're regular people reflected in a slightly warped mirror.
As befitting their role in the movie, the major characters are somewhat more believable (if only just). There's gentle but sheltered Grace Trevethyn (Brenda Blethyn), recently widowed, who learns that her late husband has bequeathed to her a massive debt she cannot hope to pay off. Then there's Grace's gardener, Matthew (Craig Ferguson, who also co-wrote the script), a man reluctant to seize the responsibilities that come with age, despite the efforts of his girlfriend Nicky (Valerie Edmond).
Matthew is trying to grow a small marijuana patch in a hidden plot in the garden of the local vicarage. When his crop begins to turn sickly, he turns in desperation to Grace, whose gardening skills are a matter of local legend. Reluctantly at first, Grace nurses the plants back to health -- better than ever, in fact. Gradually, she and Matthew hit upon the idea of using Grace's greenhouse to grow enough pot to sell to a dealer and make the money Grace needs to save her home (not to mention Matthew's job).
What follows is a fairly typical sequence of events, as Grace and Matthew try to keep their new line of work from the townsfolk, avoid Grace's creditors, and find a drug trafficker to whom they can sell their haul without getting their throats slit. There are very few surprises in the narrative structure of "Saving Grace", but the material is nonetheless well-written enough that this hardly seems to matter. It is difficult not to watch the movie without a smile permanently creasing your face; that the film only rarely provokes a huge laugh is almost irrelevant.
Blethyn gives a very even-handed performance as Grace.  Occasionally, the script lets her down -- a protracted scene in which Grace walks the back roads of London looking for a dealer, dressed incongruously in her Sunday best, is more groan-inducing than truly funny -- but for the most part, Blethyn holds steady. This serves her particularly well in scenes such as her confrontation with drug kingpin Jacques Chevalier (Tcheky Karyo). Their disarming tete-a-tete would appear ludicrous in less skilled hands, but Blethyn makes it work.
Also very good is Ferguson, whose Matthew is probably the most well-rounded character in the piece. He nicely captures a portrait of a man trapped between his undisciplined younger years and the undesirably mounting obligations of later life. He is paired well with Edmond, who does a good job with her material; but unfortunately Nicky is just not drawn well enough to match Matthew, and this dulls the energy of their scenes together. Martin Clunes is also laudable as Matthew's best friend, Dr Bamford, the village medic. As played by Clunes, Bamford is the sort of man who looks at the world through ironic eyes, as though he never quite believes what he is seeing. Clunes is consistently funny throughout "Saving Grace", and it's just a shame his role is not more integral.
"Saving Grace" proceeds well through its first two acts, but unfortunately does come off the rails as it heads toward its conclusion. Whereas the opening hour is carefully measured, slowly but assuredly building up the intertwining stories of Grace, Matthew and Nicky, and the general bemusement of rural life, the final thirty minutes is a cacophony of different ideas. Beginning with Grace's spur-of-the-moment trip to London, a slew of new characters are thrown at the viewer, and only some of the resulting storylines emerge successfully. The ending of "Saving Grace" feels very much like somebody throwing a cupboard-full of plates into the air and seeing how many they can catch.
As a result, some subplots (including, sadly, Matthew and Nicky's) feel abbreviated or abandoned altogether (one of Grace's creditors finally comes to see her in person, gets hijacked into a separate thread, and is then promptly forgotten). The main story of Grace's efforts to get out of debt is handed an unforeseen and largely unbelievable resolution, as the film fast-forwards ahead a year or two. It is the sort of ending that makes you think the screenwriters were trying too hard to come up with something that would both provide closure and send the movie out on an uproarious note. In reality, it just comes across as odd and contrived, and therefore accomplishes neither goal.
Still, "Saving Grace" is infectious enough that it is quite enjoyable, on the whole. And despite its contentious subject material, it should enjoy a wide appeal because it manages to be a movie about marijuana, without really coming across as either pro- or anti-pot. "Saving Grace" illuminates both the pleasant and unpleasant aspects of the matter -- and pokes good fun at it all.
Copyright © 2000 Shannon Patrick Sullivan. Archived at The Popcorn Gallery, http://www.physics.mun.ca/~sps/movies/SavingGrace.html
_______________________________________________________________________ / Shannon Patrick Sullivan | "We are all in the gutter, but some of us \ |<EMAIL_ADDRESS>| are looking at the stars." - Oscar Wilde | \___________________________|__________________________________________/ | Popcorn Gallery Movie Reviews www.physics.mun.ca/~sps/movies.html | | Doctor Who: A Brief History of Time (Travel) /drwho.html |
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
review and has no editorial control. Unless stated otherwise, the copyright
belongs to the author.
Please direct comments/criticisms of the review to relevant newsgroups.
Broken URLs inthe reviews are the responsibility of the author.
The formatting of the review is likely to differ from the original due
to ASCII to HTML conversion.
Related links: index of all rec.arts.movies.reviews reviews


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SELENA A film review by Marty Mapes Copyright 1997 Marty Mapes
*** (out of 4) After watching SELENA it's hard not to like the "Tejano" singer.
I went to the movie knowing very little about Selena's music. I even anticipated that I might not like it very well, because there are types of Tex-Mex music that I can't stand (e.g., norteno music, the Mexican version of polka). I was relieved that Selena didn't do polka, but I still don't think I'd go buy her albums. Her music just doesn't appeal to me.
Luckily, the movie doesn't require that you love -- or even like -- Selena's music. The movie focuses enough on the characters and the story that even non-fans can enjoy it. I did.
Selena was a pop music singer. She rose to fame singing Tex-Mex songs in Spanish and she was just making progress as a crossover singer -- crossing over to mainstream pop in English -- when she was gunned down at age 23, ironically, by the president of her fan club.
SELENA tells the story both of Selena (Jennifer Lopez) and of her father Abraham (Edward James Olmos). The movie opens with Selena's last big concert in the Houston Astrodome. Her opening number is a medley starting with "I Will Survive," a bit of heavy-handed irony that could have been overplayed, but which ends up working rather well.
The movie then flashes back to her father's early stint in music, before Selena was born. Abraham's doo-wop group is pretty good, but can't get a gig anywhere because racist Anglos won't hire a group of Mexicans and Mexicans don't want to listen to doo-wop.
The movie jumps forward several years, to when Selena is just 9. Abraham discovers that music runs in the Quintanilla family like Mexican blood. Little Selena proves to have the same love of, and more talent for, music than he has. Her voice and interest in music inspire him to buy a vanload of instruments for his whole family. After a rocky start, they begin to sound pretty good together. They stick together through it all and move on to the big time.
Though the subject herself isn't that interesting to me, I like the story and the characters in SELENA.
SELENA is a rags-to-riches story, but it shuns the extremes common to movies of this sort. Selena was not dirt-poor as a child. Her father was difficult at times, but he was not portrayed as an inhuman monster. He pushed the kids to practice, but he didn't crack the whip. He disapproved of Selena's boyfriend, but he knew when he was overreacting and was able to apologize. There were obstacles and conflicts, but none of them were blown out of proportion.
Also, though Selena is murdered in the end, the movie manages to be a triumphal story and not a tragedy. Her death is tragic, but the tone of the movie is gracious and joyful, not bitter and sad. Come to think of it, that's probably the better way to be remembered. It is more generous, more healthful, to celebrate a person's life than to brood over their death.
The characters in SELENA are well developed and likeable. Abraham, as I mentioned, is not presented as an ogre. He is stern, but he loves his kids as most fathers do, and his family always comes first.
Jon Seda plays Chris, Selena's boyfriend, guitarist, and husband with quiet, shy, downcast eyes in spite of his heavy metal tendencies. When the time comes for him to say "I love you," it's not just because the script calls for it; it's because Chris and Selena have become best friends.
Lopez shines as Selena who is always cheerful and seems to have a true love for life. When a boy climbs on stage and starts dancing with her, she stops the security guard from removing him. Soon she is dancing with a stageful of smiling children. When she sticks up for Chris, it is not an act of defiance to her father, it is truly defense of her best friend.
The movie has its shortcomings. Nava and editor Nancy Richardson introduced a motif of the moon that doesn't play well. A split-screen effect is used occasionally that doesn't play well and is distracting.  This sequence brought to mind the coda of SCHINDLER'S LIST and the comparison left a bad taste in my mouth.
Still, the movie is worth seeing, even if you don't like the music. It's a shame that the movie came out only two years after Selena's death because it seems like the movie is carefully targeted at just her fans and mourners. I wonder if a greater distance might have made her story more universal and given this fine movie a broader audience.
Check out more current movie reviews at http://www.indra.com/~mmapes
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
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Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest
Once again in the surreal world, dashing captain Jack Sparrow suddenly learns that he is the debtor of the legendary captain of the" Flying Dutchman " Davey Jones. Jack must solve this problem as soon as possible, otherwise he faces eternal damnation and a slave existence after death. In addition to everything, the wedding of will Turner and Elizabeth Swann is disrupted, who are forced to keep Jack company in his misadventures…


This document was prepared for the middle school math teachers who are taking part in Project Skymath. It is also hoped that the general public will find it interesting.
It is easy to demonstrate that when two objectsof the same material are placed together (physicists say when they are put in thermal contact), the object with the higher temperature cools while the cooler object becomes warmer until a point is reached after which no more change occurs, and to our senses, they feel the same. When the thermal changes have stopped, we say that the two objects (physicists define them more rigorously as systems) are in thermal equilibrium . We can then define the temperature of the system by saying that the temperature is that quantity which is the same for both systems when they are in thermal equilibrium.
If we experiment further with more than two systems, we find that many systems can be brought into thermal equilibrium with each other; thermal equilibrium does not depend on the kind of object used. Put more precisely,
if two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they must also be in thermal equilibrium with each other,
and they all have the same temperature regardless of the kind of systems they are.
The statement in italics, called the zeroth law of thermodynamics may be restated as follows:
If three or more systems are in thermal contact with each other and all in equilibrium together, then any two taken separately are in equilibrium with one another. (quote from T. J. Quinn's monograph Temperature)Now one of the three systems could be an instrument calibrated to measure the temperature - i.e. a thermometer. When a calibrated thermometer is put in thermal contact with a system and reaches thermal equilibrium, we then have a quantitative measure of the temperature of the system. For example, a mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer is put under the tongue of a patient and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in the patient's mouth - we then see by how much the silvery mercury has expanded in the stem and read the scale of the thermometer to find the patient's temperature.
where t is the temperature of the substance and changes as the property x of the substance changes. The constants a and b depend on the substance used and may be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the scale, such as 32° for the freezing point of water and 212° for its boiling point.
For example, the element mercury is liquid in the temperature range of -38.9° C to 356.7° C (we'll discuss the Celsius ° C scale later). As a liquid, mercury expands as it gets warmer, its expansion rate is linear and can be accurately calibrated.
The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above figure contains a
bulb filled with mercury that is allowed to expand into a capillary. Its
rate of expansion is calibrated on the glass scale.
One of the first attempts to make a standard temperature scale occurred about
AD 170, when Galen, in his medical writings, proposed
a standard "neutral" temperature made up of equal quantities of boiling water
and ice; on either side of this temperature were four degrees of heat and four
degrees of cold, respectively.
The earliest devices used to measure the temperature were called thermoscopes.
They consisted of a glass bulb having
a long tube extending downward into a container of colored water, although Galileo
in 1610 is supposed to have used wine. Some of the air in the bulb was expelled
before placing it in the liquid, causing the liquid to rise into the tube. As
the remaining air in the bulb was heated or cooled, the level of the liquid
in the tube would vary reflecting the change in the air temperature. An engraved
scale on the tube allowed for a quantitative measure of the fluctuations.
The air in the bulb is referred to as the thermometric medium, i.e.
the medium whose property changes with temperature.
In 1641, the first sealed thermometer that used liquid rather than air as
the thermometric medium was developed for Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany.
His thermometer used a sealed alcohol-in-glass device, with 50 "degree" marks
on its stem but no "fixed point" was used to zero the scale. These were referred
to as "spirit" thermometers.
Robert Hook, Curator of the Royal Society, in 1664 used a red dye in the alcohol
. His scale, for which every degree represented an equal increment of volume
equivalent to about 1/500 part of the volume of the thermometer liquid, needed
only one fixed point. He selected the freezing point of water. By scaling it
in this way, Hook showed that a standard scale could be established for thermometers
of a variety of sizes. Hook's original thermometer became known as the standard
of Gresham College and was used by the Royal Society until 1709. (The first
intelligible meteorological records used this scale).
In 1702, the astronomer Ole Roemer of Copenhagen based his scale upon two
fixed points: snow (or crushed ice) and the boiling point of water,
and he recorded the daily temperatures at Copenhagen in 1708- 1709 with this
thermometer.
It was in 1724 that Gabriel Fahrenheit, an instrument maker of Däanzig
and Amsterdam, used mercury as the thermometric liquid. Mercury's thermal expansion
is large and fairly uniform, it does not adhere to the glass, and it remains
a liquid over a wide range of temperatures. Its silvery appearance makes it
easy to read.
Fahrenheit described how he calibrated the scale of his mercury thermometer:
On this scale, Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of water to be 212. Later
he adjusted the freezing point of water to 32 so that the interval between the
boiling and freezing points of water could be represented by the more rational
number 180. Temperatures measured on this scale are designated as degrees
Fahrenheit (° F).
In 1745, Carolus Linnaeus of Upsula, Sweden, described a scale in which the
freezing point of water was zero, and the boiling point 100, making it a centigrade
(one hundred steps) scale. Anders Celsius (1701-1744) used the reverse scale
in which 100 represented the freezing point and zero the boiling point of water,
still, of course, with 100 degrees between the two defining points.
In 1948 use of the Centigrade scale was dropped in favor of a new scale using
degrees Celsius (° C). The Celsius scale is defined by
the following two items that will be discussed later in this essay: On the Celsius scale the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure
is 99.975 C in contrast to the 100 degrees defined by the Centigrade scale.
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply by 1.8 and add 32.
° F = 1.8° C + 32
(Or, you can get someone else to
do it The Development of Thermometers and Temperature Scales
The historical highlights in the development of thermometers and their scales
given here are based on "Temperature" by T. J. Quinn and "Heat" by James M. Cork.
"placing the thermometer in a mixture of sal ammoniac or sea salt,
ice, and water a point on the scale will be found which is denoted as zero.
A second point is obtained if the same mixture is used without salt. Denote
this position as 30. A third point, designated as 96, is obtained if the thermometer
is placed in the mouth so as to acquire the heat of a healthy man." (D. G. Fahrenheit,Phil.
Trans. (London) 33, 78, 1724)
(i) The triple point of water is defined to be 0.01° C.
(ii) A degree Celsius equals the same temperature change as a degree on the
ideal-gas scale.
° K = ° C + 273.
In 1780, J. A. C. Charles, a French physician, showed that for the same increase in temperature, all gases exhibited the same increase in volume. Because the expansion coefficient of gases is so very nearly the same, it is possible to establish a temperature scale based on a single fixed point rather than the two fixed- point scales, such as the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. This brings us back to a thermometer that uses a gas as the thermometric medium.
In a constant volume gas thermometer a large bulb B of gas, hydrogen for example, under a set pressure connects with a mercury-filled "manometer" by means of a tube of very small volume. (The Bulb B is the temperature-sensing portion and should contain almost all of the hydrogen). The level of mercury at C may be adjusted by raising or lowering the mercury reservoir R. The pressure of the hydrogen gas, which is the "x" variable in the linear relation with temperature, is the difference between the levels D and C plus the pressure above D.
P. Chappuis in 1887 conducted extensive studies of gas thermometers with constant pressure or with constant volume using hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide as the thermometric medium. Based on his results, the Comité International des Poids et Mesures adopted the constant-volume hydrogen scale based on fixed points at the ice point (0° C) and the steam point (100° C) as the practical scale for international meteorology.
Experiments with gas thermometers have shown that there is very little difference in the temperature scale for different gases. Thus, it is possible to set up a temperature scale that is independent of the thermometric medium if it is a gas at low pressure. In this case, all gases behave like an "Ideal Gas" and have a very simple relation between their pressure, volume, and temperature:
This temperature is called the thermodynamic temperature and is now accepted as the fundamental measure of temperature. Note that there is a naturally-defined zero on this scale - it is the point at which the pressure of an ideal gas is zero, making the temperature also zero. We will continue a discussion of "absolute zero" in a later section. With this as one point on the scale, only one other fixed point need be defined. In 1933, the International Committee of Weights and Measures adopted this fixed point as the triple point of water , the temperature at which water, ice, and water vapor coexist in equilibrium); its value is set as 273.16. The unit of temperature on this scale is called the kelvin, after Lord Kelvin (William Thompson), 1824-1907, and its symbol is K (no degree symbol used).
To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273.
Thermodynamic temperature is the fundamental temperature; its unit is the kelvin which is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
Sir William Siemens, in 1871, proposed a thermometer whose thermometric medium is a metallic conductor whose resistance changes with temperature. The element platinum does not oxidize at high temperatures and has a relatively uniform change in resistance with temperature over a large range. The Platinum Resistance Thermometer is now widely used as a thermoelectric thermometer and covers the temperature range from about -260° C to 1235° C.
Several temperatures were adopted as Primary reference points so as to define the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968. The International Temperature Scale of 1990 was adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures at its meeting in 1989. Between 0.65K and 5.0K, the temperature is defined in terms of the vapor pressure - temperature relations of the isotopes of helium. Between 3.0K and the triple point of neon (24.5561K) the temperature is defined by means of a helium gas thermometer. Between the triple point of hydrogen (13.8033K) and the freezing point of silver (961.78°K) the temperature is defined by means of platinum resistance thermometers. Above the freezing point of silver the temperature is defined in terms of the Planck radiation law.
T. J. Seebeck, in 1826, discovered that when wires of different metals are fused at one end and heated, a current flows from one to the other. The electromotive force generated can be quantitatively related to the temperature and hence, the system can be used as a thermometer - known as a thermocouple. The thermocouple is used in industry and many different metals are used - platinum and platinum/rhodium, nickel-chromium and nickel-aluminum, for example. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) maintains databases for standardizing thermometers.
For the measurement of very low temperatures, the magnetic susceptibility
of a paramagnetic substance is used as the thermometric physical quantity. For
some substances, the magnetic susceptibility varies inversely as the temperature.
Crystals such as cerrous magnesium nitrate and chromic potassium alum have been
used to measure temperatures down to 0.05 K; these crystals are calibrated in
the liquid helium range. This diagram and the last
illustration in this text were taken from the Low Temperature Laboratory, Helsinki
University of Technology's picture archive. For these
very low, and even lower, temperatures, the thermometer is also the mechanism
for cooling. Several low-temperature laboratories conduct
interesting applied and theoretical research on how to reach the lowest possible
temperatures and how work at these temperatures may find application.
Benjamin Thomson, Count Rumford, published a paper in 1798 entitled "an
Inquiry Concerning the Source of Heat which is Excited by Friction". Rumford
had noticed the large amount of heat generated when a cannon was drilled. He
doubted that a material substance was flowing into the cannon and concluded
"it appears to me to be extremely difficult if not impossible to form any
distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the
manner the heat was excited and communicated in these experiments except
motion."
But it was not until J. P. Joule published a definitive paper in 1847 that
the the caloric idea was abandoned. Joule conclusively showed that heat was
a form of energy. As a result of the experiments of Rumford, Joule, and
others, it was demonstrated (explicitly stated by Helmholtz in 1847), that
the various forms of energy can be transformed one into another.
This is the first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy.
To express it another way: it is in no way possible either by mechanical,
thermal, chemical, or other means, to obtain a perpetual motion machine;
i.e., one that creates its own energy (except in the fantasy world of Maurits Escher's
"Waterfall"!)
A second statement may also be made about how machines operate. A steam
engine uses a source of heat to produce work. Is it possible to
completely convert the heat energy into work, making it a 100% efficient
machine? The answer is to be found in the second law of
thermodynamics:
The second law of thermodynamics implies the irreversibility of certain
processes - that of converting all heat into mechanical energy, although it
is possible to have a cyclic machine that does nothing but convert mechanical
energy into heat!
Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) conducted theoretical studies
of the efficiencies
of heat engines (a machine which converts
some of its heat into useful work). He was trying to model the most
efficient
heat engine possible. His theoretical work provided the basis for practical
improvements in the steam engine and also laid the foundations of
thermodynamics. He described an ideal engine, called the Carnot engine,
that is the most efficient way an engine can be constructed. He showed
that the efficiency of such an engine is given by
where the temperatures, T' and T" , are the hot and cold "reservoirs" ,
respectively, between which the machine operates. On this temperature scale,
a heat engine whose coldest reservoir is zero degrees would operate with 100%
efficiency. This is one definition of absolute zero, and it can be
shown to be identical to the absolute zero we discussed previously.
The temperature scale is called the absolute, the thermodynamic
, or the kelvin scale.
The way that the gas temperature scale and the thermodynamic temperature
scale are shown to be identical is based on the microscopic
interpretation of temperature, which postulates that the
macroscopic measurable quantity called temperature is a result
of the random motions of the microscopic particles that make up a system.
About the same time that thermodynamics was evolving,
James Clerk Maxwell
(1831-1879) and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)
developed a theory describing
the way molecules moved - molecular dynamics.  The energy
associated with motion is called Kinetic Energy and this kinetic approach to
the behavior of ideal gases led to an interpretation of the concept of
temperature on a microscopic scale.
The amount of kinetic energy each molecule has is a function of its velocity;
for the large number of molecules in a gas (even at low pressure), there
should be a range of velocities at any instant of time. The magnitude of
the velocities of the various particles should vary greatly - no two
particles should be expected to have the exact same velocity. Some may be
moving very fast; others, quite slowly. Maxwell found that he could
represent the distribution of velocities statistically by a function known
as the Maxwellian distribution. The collisions of
the molecules with their container gives rise to the pressure of the gas.
By considering the average force exerted by the molecular collisions on the
wall, Boltzmann was able to show that the average kinetic energy of the
molecules was directly comparable to the measured pressure, and the greater
the average kinetic energy, the greater the pressure. From Boyles' Law, we
know
that the pressure is directly proportional to the temperature, therefore,
it was shown that the kinetic energy of the molecules related directly to
the temperature of the gas. A simple relation holds for this:
where k is the Boltzmann
constant. Temperature is a measure of the
energy of thermal motion and, at a temperature of zero, the energy reaches
a minimum (quantum mechanically, the zero-point motion remains at
0 K).
In July, 1995, physicists in Boulder, Colo.achieved a temperature far
lower than
has ever been produced before and created an entirely new state of matter
predicted decades ago by Albert Einstein and
Satyendra Nath Bose. The press
release describes the nature of this experiment and a full
description of this phenomenon is described by the University
of Colorado's BEC Homepage.
Dealing with a system which contained huge numbers of molecules requires a
statistical approach to the problem. About 1902, J. W. Gibbs (1839-1903) introduced statistical
mechanics with which he
demonstrated how average values of the properties of a system could be
predicted from an analysis of the most probable values of these properties
found from a large number of identical systems (called an ensemble). Again,
in the statistical mechanical interpretation of thermodynamics, the key
parameter is identified with a temperature which can be directly linked to
the
thermodynamic temperature, with the temperature of Maxwell's distribution,
and with the perfect gas law.
A second mechanism of heat transport is illustrated by a pot of water set
to boil on a stove - hotter water closest to the flame will rise to mix with
cooler water near the top of the pot. Convection involves the bodily
movement of the more energetic molecules in a liquid or gas.
The third way that heat energy can be transferred from one body to another
is by radiation; this is the way that the sun warms the earth. The
radiation
flows from the sun to the earth, where some of it is absorbed, heating the
surface.
A major dilemma in physics since the time of Newton was how to explain
the nature of this radiation.
In the diagram, the electric (red) and magnetic (blue) oscillations are
orthogonal to each other - the electric lying in the xy plane; the
magnetic, in the xz plane. The wave is traveling in the x direction. An
electromagnetic wave can be defined in terms of the frequency of its
oscillation, designated by the Greek letter nu (v). The wave moves
in a straight line with with a constant speed (designated as c if it is
moving through a vacuum); the distance between successive 'peaks' of the
wave is the wavelength,,of the wave and is equal to
its speed divided by its frequency.
The electromagnetic spectrum covers an enormous range in wavelengths,
from very short waves to very long ones.
The only region of the electromagnetic spectrum to which our eye is
sensitive is the "visible" range identified in the diagram by the rainbow
colors.
The sun is not the only object that provides radiant energy; any object
whose temperature is greater than 0 K will emit some radiant energy.
The challenge to scientists was to show how this radiant energy is related to
the temperature of the object.
If an object is placed in a container whose walls are at a uniform
temperature, we expect the object to come into thermal equilibrium with the
walls of the enclosure and the object should emit radiant energy just like
the walls of the container. Such an object absorbs and radiates the same
amount of energy. Now a blackened surface absorbs all radiation incident upon
it and it must radiate in the same manner if it is in thermal equilibrium.
Equilibrium thermal radiation is therefore called black body radiation.
The first relation between temperature and radiant energy was deduced by J.
Stefan in 1884 and theoretically explained by Boltzmann about the same time.
It states:
where the total energy is per unit area per second emitted by the back
body, T is its absolute (thermodynamic) temperature
and
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
The great question at the turn of the century was to explain the way this
total radiant energy emitted by a black body was spread out into the various
frequencies or wavelengths of the radiation. Maxwell's "classical"
theory of
electromagnetic oscillators failed to explain the observed brightness
distribution. It was left to
Max Planck to solve the dilemma by showing that the
energy of the oscillators must be quantized, i.e. the energies can not
take any value but must change in steps, the size of each step, or quantum,
is proportional to the frequency of the oscillator and equal to hv,
where h is the Planck constant. With this assumption, Planck derived the
brightness distribution of a black body and showed that it is defined by
its
temperature. Once the temperature of a black body is specified, the Planck
law can be used to calculate the intensity of the light emitted by the
body as a function of
wavelength. Conversely, if the brightness distribution of a radiating
body is
measured, then, by fitting a Planck curve to it,
its temperature can be determined.
The curves illustrated below show that the hotter the body is,
the brighter it is at shorter wavelengths. The surface
temperature of the
sun is 6000 K, and its Planck curve peaks in the visible wavelength range.
For bodies cooler than the sun, the peak of the Planck curve shifts to longer
wavelengths, until a temperature is reached such that very little radiant
energy is emitted in the visible range.
This is a graphical representation of Wien's law, which states:
where (max) is the wavelength of maximum brightness
in cm and T is the absolute temperature of the black body.
The human body has a temperature of about 310 K and radiates primarily in
the far infrared.  This picture is courtesy of the Infrared Processing and
Analysis Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA.
A page developed by
In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were conducting a careful
calibration of their radio telescope at the Bell Laboratory at Whippany,
New Jersey. The found that their receiver showed a "noise" pattern as if it
were inside a container whose temperature was 3K - i.e. as if it were in
equilibrium with a black body at 3 K. This "noise" seemed to be
coming from every direction. Earlier theoretical predictions by George
Gamow and other astrophysicists had predicted the existence of a
cosmic 3
K background. Penzias' and Wilson's discovery was the observational
confirmation of the
isotropic radiation from the Universe, believed to be a relic of the "Big
Bang".
The enormous thermal energy released during the creation of the universe
began to cool as the universe expanded. Some 12 billion years later, we are
in a universe that radiates like a black body now cooled to 3 K. In
1978 Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel prize in physics for this
discovery.
A black body at 3 K emits most of its energy in the microwave wavelength range.
Molecules in the earth's atmosphere absorb this radiation so that from the ground,
astronomers cannot make observations in this wavelength region. In 1989 the
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, developed
by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, was
launched to measure the diffuse infrared and microwave radiation from the early
universe. One of its instruments, the Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer
(FIRAS) compared the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation with
a precise blackbody. The cosmic microwave background spectrum
was measured with a precision of 0.03% and it fit precisely with a black body
of temperature 2.726 K. Even though there are billions of stars in the universe,
these precise COBE measurements show that 99.97% of the radiant energy of the
Universe was released within the first year after the Big Bang itself and now
resides in this thermal 3 K radiation field.
A more detailed
explanation of the origin of the microwave background radiation, and its
possible anisotropy,
may be found here. A new mission
selected by NASA is the Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (MAP) will measure the
small fluctuations in the background radiation and will yield more
information on the details of the early universe. The European Space
Agency has a similar mission
planned.
We can record events (illustration from Low Temperature Laboratory of
Helsinki University of Technology)that cover 18 orders of magnitude
in
the temperature
range, and we have one clearly defined lower limit to the temperature,
absolute zero. Because of this 10-with-18-zeros-behind-it range in
temperatures, there are many different kinds of thermometers developed to
explore it and many different fields of research.
One of the beauties of "publishing" on the web is the interactive element
it offers. Joachim Reinhardt has written to point out
that the highest temperatures that are accessible on earth (only surpassed
by the early stages of the big bang) occur in high-energy collisions of
particles (in particular of heavy ions), during which one sees a "fireball"
with a temperature of several hundred MeV (which corresponds
to a temperature of 10 to the 12th power k). This fireball cools down by
expanding
and by radiating off particles, mostly pions, quite similar to the thermal
black-body radiation.
Thermal physics is a field rich in theoretical and practical applications.
Heat and Thermodynamics
Prior to the 19th century, it was believed that the sense of how hot or cold
an object felt was determined by how much "heat" it contained. Heat was
envisioned as a liquid that flowed from a hotter to a colder object; this
weightless fluid was called "caloric", and until the writings of Joseph Black
(1728-1799), no distinction was made between heat and temperature. Black
distinguished between the quantity (caloric) and the intensity (temperature)
of heat. When heat is transformed into any other form of energy, or when
other forms of energy are transformed into heat, the total amount of energy
(heat plus other forms) in the system is constant.
No cyclic machine can convert heat energy wholly into other forms of energy.
It is not possible to construct a cyclic machine that does nothing but
withdraw heat energy and convert it into mechanical energy.
The Kinetic Theory
This brief summary is abridged from a more detailed discussion to be
found in Quinn's "Temperature" Temperature becomes a quantity definable either in terms of
macroscopic thermodynamic quantities such as heat and work, or, with equal
validity and identical results, in terms of a quantity which characterized
the energy distribution among the particles in a system. (Quinn,
"Temperature")
With this understanding of the concept of temperature, it is possible to
explain how heat (thermal energy) flows from one body to another.
Thermal energy is carried by the molecules in the form of their motions and
some of it, through molecular collisions, is transferred to molecules of a
second object when put in contact with it. This mechanism for transferring
thermal energy by contact is called conduction. Thermal Radiation
The nature of radiation has puzzled scientists for centuries. Maxwell
proposed that this form of energy travels as a vibratory electric and
magnetic disturbance through space in a direction perpendicular to those
disturbances. 3 K - The Temperature of the Universe
The sun and stars emit thermal
radiation covering all wavelengths; other objects in the sky, like the
great clouds of gas in the Milky Way, also emit thermal radiation but are
much cooler. These objects are best detected by infrared and radio telescopes
- telescopes whose detectors are sensitive to the longer wavelengths.
Summary
The concept of temperature is as fundamental a physical concept as the
three fundamental quantities of mechanics - mass, length, and time. Through
the study of such practical problems as how to make a highly
efficient steam engine, fundamental physical theories emerge, including the
concepts of the quantum theory and the two laws of thermodynamics. The
second law, with its irreversibility requirement, predicts an inevitable
evolution from other forms of energy into heat. It is the second law alone
that provides an "arrow" for the concept of time.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank
Rick Ebert of IPAC for his help in locating some
of the infrared files used here and Dave Leisawitz of NASA Goddard for
his very careful editing of the article and for his assistance with the
COBE results.
Joachim
Reinhardt generated
the
pictures of most of the scientists. Thanks to Seth Sharpless
for scanning Galen's picture. Carl
Mungan
provided advice on low-temperature thermodynamics, and very generously
served as an "expert" reviewer.
References
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Police investigating after body found in Niagara Falls workshop fire
by Bryann Aguilar, CP24.comNiagara police are investigating after a body was found inside a workshop following a fire on Sunday.
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THE government is to invest €145 million to deliver high-speed broadband to 36,360 homes across Mayo.
Minister Michael Ring today (Tuesday) joined the Taoiseach and other Cabinet Ministers at the signing of the contract for the National Broadband Plan with National Broadband Ireland, the company which will deliver the project.
Commented Minister Ring: “Today marks a new dawn for the people who live and work in rural Ireland. The signing of the contract for the delivery of the National Broadband Plan in rural areas means that work can now commence on making high-speed internet connectivity available to everyone in Ireland, no matter where they live, work or study.
“This is a game-changer for rural Ireland.”
Senator Michelle Mulherin hailed it as a 'landmark day' for Mayo and for rural Ireland generally.
The contract for the National Broadband Plan, which will see investment of €145 million in the county, will see 12 Mayo community locations initially facilitate local broadband:
Belderrig Community Centre
Bofeenaun Community Centre
Finny Community Centre
Islandeady Community Centre
Keel Community Centre
Keenagh Community Centre
Killala Business Park
Killasser Community Centre
Kilmovee Community Centre
Clare Island Library
National Parks & Wildlife Service, Ballycroy National Park
Taugheen Community Centre
Minister Ring confirmed that the work will start immediately, with roll-out of broadband within eight weeks of today’s contract signing. Over 90% of premises in the State will have access to high speed broadband within four years.
As an initial step, the government has published a list of approximately 300 community centres, schools, library hubs and local GAA halls in every county that will be connected to high speed broadband during 2020 to enable communities to quickly get free public access to high speed broadband.