keytool
Section: User Commands (1)Updated: 07 Aug 2006
Index Return to Main Contents
NAME
keytool - Key and Certificate Management Tool
-
Manages a keystore (database) of cryptographic keys, X.509 certificate chains, and trusted certificates.
SYNOPSIS
keytool [ commands ]
The keytool command interface has changed in Java SE 6. See the Changes Section for a detailed description. Note that previously defined commands are still supported.
DESCRIPTION
keytool is a key and certificate management utility. It allows users to administer their own public/private key pairs and associated certificates for use in self-authentication (where the user authenticates himself/herself to other users/services) or data integrity and authentication services, using digital signatures. It also allows users to cache the public keys (in the form of certificates) of their communicating peers.
A certificate is a digitally signed statement from one entity (person, company, etc.), saying that the public key (and some other information) of some other entity has a particular value. (See Certificates.) When data is digitally signed, the signature can be verified to check the data integrity and authenticity. Integrity means that the data has not been modified or tampered with, and authenticity means the data indeed comes from whoever claims to have created and signed it.
keytool also enables users to administer secret keys used in symmetric encryption/decryption (e.g. DES).
keytool stores the keys and certificates in a keystore.
COMMAND AND OPTION NOTES
The various commands and their options are listed and described below . Note:
-
- o
- All command and option names are preceded by a minus sign (-).
- o
- The options for each command may be provided in any order.
- o
- All items not italicized or in braces or square brackets are required to appear as is.
- o
- Braces surrounding an option generally signify that a default value will be used if the option is not specified on the command line. Braces are also used around the -v, -rfc, and -J options, which only have meaning if they appear on the command line (that is, they don't have any "default" values other than not existing).
- o
- Brackets surrounding an option signify that the user is prompted for the value(s) if the option is not specified on the command line. (For a -keypass option, if you do not specify the option on the command line, keytool will first attempt to use the keystore password to recover the private/secret key, and if this fails, will then prompt you for the private/secret key password.)
- o
-
Items in italics (option values) represent the actual values that must be supplied. For example, here is the format of the -printcert command:
keytool -printcert {-file cert_file} {-v}
When specifying a -printcert command, replace cert_file with the actual file name, as in:
keytool -printcert -file VScert.cer
- o
- Option values must be quoted if they contain a blank (space).
- o
-
The -help command is the default. Thus, the command line
keytool
is equivalent tokeytool -help
Option Defaults
-
Below are the defaults for various option values.
-alias "mykey" -keyalg "DSA" (when using -genkeypair) "DES" (when using -genseckey) -keysize 1024 (when using -genkeypair) 56 (when using -genseckey and -keyalg is "DES") 168 (when using -genseckey and -keyalg is "DESede") -validity 90 -keystore the file named .keystore in the user's home directory -storetype the value of the "keystore.type" property in the security properties file, which is returned by the static getDefaultType method in java.security.KeyStore -file stdin if reading, stdout if writing -protected false
In generating a public/private key pair, the signature algorithm (-sigalg option) is derived from the algorithm of the underlying private key: If the underlying private key is of type "DSA", the -sigalg option defaults to "SHA1withDSA", and if the underlying private key is of type "RSA", -sigalg defaults to "MD5withRSA". Please consult the Java Cryptography Architecture API Specification & Reference @ http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/technotes/guides/security/crypto/CryptoSpec.html#AppA for a full list of -keyalg and -sigalg you can choose from.
Common Options
-
The -v option can appear for all commands except -help. If it appears, it signifies "verbose" mode; more information will be output.
There is also a -Jjavaoption option that may appear for any command. If it appears, the specified javaoption string is passed through directly to the Java interpreter. This option should not contain any spaces. It is useful for adjusting the execution environment or memory usage. For a list of possible interpreter options, type java -h or java -X at the command line.
These options may appear for all commands operating on a keystore:
-
- -storetype storetype
- This qualifier specifies the type of keystore to be instantiated.
- -keystore keystore
- The keystore location.
If the JKS storetype is used and a keystore file does not yet exist, then certain keytool commands may result in a new keystore file being created. For example, if keytool -genkeypair is invoked and the -keystore option is not specified, the default keystore file named .keystore in the user's home directory will be created if it does not already exist. Similarly, if the -keystore ks_file option is specified but ks_file does not exist, then it will be created
Note that the input stream from the -keystore option is passed to the KeyStore.load method. If NONE is specified as the URL, then a null stream is passed to the KeyStore.load method. NONE should be specified if the KeyStore is not file-based (for example, if it resides on a hardware token device).
- -storepass storepass
- The password which is used to protect the integrity of the keystore.
storepass must be at least 6 characters long. It must be provided to all commands that access the keystore contents. For such commands, if a -storepass option is not provided at the command line, the user is prompted for it.
When retrieving information from the keystore, the password is optional; if no password is given, the integrity of the retrieved information cannot be checked and a warning is displayed.
- -providerName provider_name
- Used to identify a cryptographic service provider's name when listed in the security properties file.
- -providerClass provider_class_name
- Used to specify the name of cryptographic service provider's master class file when the service provider is not listed in the security properties file.
- -providerArg provider_arg
- Used in conjunction with -providerClass. Represents an optional string input argument for the constructor of provider_class_name.
- -protected
- Either true or false. This value should be specified as true if a password must be given via a protected authentication path such as a dedicated PIN reader.
-
COMMANDS
Creating or Adding Data to the Keystore
-
-
- -genkeypair {-alias alias} {-keyalg keyalg} {-keysize keysize} {-sigalg sigalg} [-dname dname] [-keypass keypass] {-validity valDays} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Generates a key pair (a public key and associated private key). Wraps the public key into an X.509 v3 self-signed certificate, which is stored as a single-element certificate chain. This certificate chain and the private key are stored in a new keystore entry identified by alias.
keyalg specifies the algorithm to be used to generate the key pair, and keysize specifies the size of each key to be generated. sigalg specifies the algorithm that should be used to sign the self-signed certificate; this algorithm must be compatible with keyalg.
dname specifies the X.500 Distinguished Name to be associated with alias, and is used as the issuer and subject fields in the self-signed certificate. If no distinguished name is provided at the command line, the user will be prompted for one.
keypass is a password used to protect the private key of the generated key pair. If no password is provided, the user is prompted for it. If you press RETURN at the prompt, the key password is set to the same password as that used for the keystore. keypass must be at least 6 characters long.
valDays tells the number of days for which the certificate should be considered valid.
This command was named -genkey in previous releases. This old name is still supported in this release and will be supported in future releases, but for clarify the new name, -genkeypair, is preferred going forward.
- -genseckey {-alias alias} {-keyalg keyalg} {-keysize keysize} [-keypass keypass] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Generates a secret key and stores it in a new KeyStore.SecretKeyEntry identified by alias.
keyalg specifies the algorithm to be used to generate the secret key, and keysize specifies the size of the key to be generated. keypass is a password used to protect the secret key. If no password is provided, the user is prompted for it. If you press RETURN at the prompt, the key password is set to the same password as that used for the keystore. keypass must be at least 6 characters long.
- -importcert {-alias alias} {-file cert_file} [-keypass keypass] {-noprompt} {-trustcacerts} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Reads the certificate or certificate chain (where the latter is supplied in a PKCS#7 formatted reply) from the file cert_file, and stores it in the keystore entry identified by alias. If no file is given, the certificate or PKCS#7 reply is read from stdin.
keytool can import X.509 v1, v2, and v3 certificates, and PKCS#7 formatted certificate chains consisting of certificates of that type. The data to be imported must be provided either in binary encoding format, or in printable encoding format (also known as Base64 encoding) as defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard. In the latter case, the encoding must be bounded at the beginning by a string that starts with "-----BEGIN", and bounded at the end by a string that starts with "-----END".
You import a certificate for two reasons:
-
- 1.
- to add it to the list of trusted certificates, or
- 2.
- to import a certificate reply received from a CA as the result of submitting a Certificate Signing Request (see the -certreq command) to that CA.
Which type of import is intended is indicated by the value of the -alias option:
-
- 1.
- If the alias does not point to a key entry, then keytool assumes you are adding a trusted certificate entry. In this case, the alias should not already exist in the keystore. If the alias does already exist, then keytool outputs an error, since there is already a trusted certificate for that alias, and does not import the certificate.
- 2.
- If the alias points to a key entry, then keytool assumes you are importing a certificate reply.
-
Before adding the certificate to the keystore, keytool tries to verify it by attempting to construct a chain of trust from that certificate to a self-signed certificate (belonging to a root CA), using trusted certificates that are already available in the keystore.
If the -trustcacerts option has been specified, additional certificates are considered for the chain of trust, namely the certificates in a file named "cacerts".
If keytool fails to establish a trust path from the certificate to be imported up to a self-signed certificate (either from the keystore or the "cacerts" file), the certificate information is printed out, and the user is prompted to verify it, e.g., by comparing the displayed certificate fingerprints with the fingerprints obtained from some other (trusted) source of information, which might be the certificate owner himself/herself. Be very careful to ensure the certificate is valid prior to importing it as a "trusted" certificate! -- see WARNING Regarding Importing Trusted Certificates. The user then has the option of aborting the import operation. If the -noprompt option is given, however, there will be no interaction with the user.
-
When importing a certificate reply, the certificate reply is validated using trusted certificates from the keystore, and optionally using the certificates configured in the "cacerts" keystore file (if the -trustcacerts option was specified).
The methods of determining whether the certificate reply is trusted are described in the following:
-
- o
- If the reply is a single X.509 certificate, keytool attempts to establish a trust chain, starting at the certificate reply and ending at a self-signed certificate (belonging to a root CA). The certificate reply and the hierarchy of certificates used to authenticate the certificate reply form the new certificate chain of alias. If a trust chain cannot be established, the certificate reply is not imported. In this case, keytool does not print out the certificate and prompt the user to verify it, because it is very hard (if not impossible) for a user to determine the authenticity of the certificate reply.
- o
- If the reply is a PKCS#7 formatted certificate chain, the chain is first ordered (with the user certificate first and the self-signed root CA certificate last), before keytool attempts to match the root CA certificate provided in the reply with any of the trusted certificates in the keystore or the "cacerts" keystore file (if the -trustcacerts option was specified). If no match can be found, the information of the root CA certificate is printed out, and the user is prompted to verify it, e.g., by comparing the displayed certificate fingerprints with the fingerprints obtained from some other (trusted) source of information, which might be the root CA itself. The user then has the option of aborting the import operation. If the -noprompt option is given, however, there will be no interaction with the user.
If the public key in the certificate reply matches the user's public key already stored with under alias, the old certificate chain is replaced with the new certificate chain in the reply. The old chain can only be replaced if a valid keypass, the password used to protect the private key of the entry, is supplied. If no password is provided, and the private key password is different from the keystore password, the user is prompted for it.
-
This command was named -import in previous releases. This old name is still supported in this release and will be supported in future releases, but for clarify the new name, -importcert, is preferred going forward.
- -importkeystore -srckeystore srckeystore -destkeystore destkeystore {-srcstoretype srcstoretype} {-deststoretype deststoretype} [-srcstorepass srcstorepass] [-deststorepass deststorepass] {-srcprotected} {-destprotected} {-srcalias srcalias {-destalias destalias} [-srckeypass srckeypass] [-destkeypass destkeypass] } {-noprompt} {-srcProviderName src_provider_name} {-destProviderName dest_provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Imports a single entry or all entries from a source keystore to a destination keystore.
When the srcalias option is provided, the command imports the single entry identified by the alias to the destination keystore. If a destination alias is not provided with destalias, then srcalias is used as the destination alias. If the source entry is protected by a password, srckeypass will be used to recover the entry. If srckeypass is not provided, then keytool will attempt to use srcstorepass to recover the entry. If srcstorepass is either not provided or is incorrect, the user will be prompted for a password. The destination entry will be protected using destkeypass. If destkeypass is not provided, the destination entry will be protected with the source entry password.
If the srcalias option is not provided, then all entries in the source keystore are imported into the destination keystore. Each destination entry will be stored under the alias from the source entry. If the source entry is protected by a password, srcstorepass will be used to recover the entry. If srcstorepass is either not provided or is incorrect, the user will be prompted for a password. If a source keystore entry type is not supported in the destination keystore, or if an error occurs while storing an entry into the destination keystore, the user will be prompted whether to skip the entry and continue, or to quit. The destination entry will be protected with the source entry password.
If the destination alias already exists in the destination keystore, the user is prompted to either overwrite the entry, or to create a new entry under a different alias name.
Note that if -noprompt is provided, the user will not be prompted for a new destination alias. Existing entries will automatically be overwritten with the destination alias name. Finally, entries that can not be imported are automatically skipped and a warning is output.
-
Exporting Data
-
-
- -certreq {-alias alias} {-sigalg sigalg} {-file certreq_file} [-keypass keypass] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Generates a Certificate Signing Request (CSR), using the PKCS#10 format.
A CSR is intended to be sent to a certificate authority (CA). The CA will authenticate the certificate requestor (usually off-line) and will return a certificate or certificate chain, used to replace the existing certificate chain (which initially consists of a self-signed certificate) in the keystore.
The private key and X.500 Distinguished Name associated with alias are used to create the PKCS#10 certificate request. In order to access the private key, the appropriate password must be provided, since private keys are protected in the keystore with a password. If keypass is not provided at the command line, and is different from the password used to protect the integrity of the keystore, the user is prompted for it.
sigalg specifies the algorithm that should be used to sign the CSR.
The CSR is stored in the file certreq_file. If no file is given, the CSR is output to stdout.
Use the importcert command to import the response from the CA.
- -exportcert {-alias alias} {-file cert_file} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-rfc} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Reads (from the keystore) the certificate associated with alias, and stores it in the file cert_file.
If no file is given, the certificate is output to stdout.
The certificate is by default output in binary encoding, but will instead be output in the printable encoding format, as defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard, if the -rfc option is specified.
If alias refers to a trusted certificate, that certificate is output. Otherwise, alias refers to a key entry with an associated certificate chain. In that case, the first certificate in the chain is returned. This certificate authenticates the public key of the entity addressed by alias.
This command was named -export in previous releases. This old name is still supported in this release and will be supported in future releases, but for clarify the new name, -exportcert, is preferred going forward.
-
Displaying Data
-
-
- -list {-alias alias} {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v | -rfc} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Prints (to stdout) the contents of the keystore entry identified by alias. If no alias is specified, the contents of the entire keystore are printed.
This command by default prints the MD5 fingerprint of a certificate. If the -v option is specified, the certificate is printed in human-readable format, with additional information such as the owner, issuer, serial number, and any extensions. If the -rfc option is specified, certificate contents are printed using the printable encoding format, as defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard
You cannot specify both -v and -rfc.
- -printcert {-file cert_file} {-v} {-Jjavaoption}
Internet RFC 1421 standard.
Note: This option can be used independently of a keystore.
-
Managing the Keystore
-
-
- -storepasswd [-new new_storepass] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-Jjavaoption}
Changes the password used to protect the integrity of the keystore contents. The new password is new_storepass, which must be at least 6 characters long.
- -keypasswd {-alias alias} [-keypass old_keypass] [-new new_keypass] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-Jjavaoption}
Changes the password under which the private/secret key identified by alias is protected, from old_keypass to new_keypass, which must be at least 6 characters long.
If the -keypass option is not provided at the command line, and the key password is different from the keystore password, the user is prompted for it.
If the -new option is not provided at the command line, the user is prompted for it.
- -delete [-alias alias] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Deletes from the keystore the entry identified by alias. The user is prompted for the alias, if no alias is provided at the command line.
- -changealias {-alias alias} [-destalias destalias] [-keypass keypass] {-storetype storetype} {-keystore keystore} [-storepass storepass] {-providerName provider_name} {-providerClass provider_class_name {-providerArg provider_arg}} {-v} {-protected} {-Jjavaoption}
Move an existing keystore entry from the specified alias to a new alias, destalias. If no destination alias is provided, the command will prompt for one. If the original entry is protected with an entry password, the password can be supplied via the "-keypass" option. If no key password is provided, the storepass (if given) will be attempted first. If that attempt fails, the user will be prompted for a password.
-
Getting Help
-
-
- -help
Lists the basic commands and their options.
-
EXAMPLES
Suppose you want to create a keystore for managing your public/private key pair and certificates from entities you trust.
Generating Your Key Pair
-
The first thing you need to do is create a keystore and generate the key pair. You could use a command such as the following:
keytool -genkeypair -dname "cn=Mark Jones, ou=JavaSoft, o=Sun, c=US" -alias business -keypass kpi135 -keystore /working/mykeystore -storepass ab987c -validity 180
(Please note: This must be typed as a single line. Multiple lines are used in the examples just for legibility purposes.)
This command creates the keystore named "mykeystore" in the "working" directory (assuming it doesn't already exist), and assigns it the password "ab987c". It generates a public/private key pair for the entity whose "distinguished name" has a common name of "Mark Jones", organizational unit of "JavaSoft", organization of "Sun" and two-letter country code of "US". It uses the default "DSA" key generation algorithm to create the keys, both 1024 bits long.
It creates a self-signed certificate (using the default "SHA1withDSA" signature algorithm) that includes the public key and the distinguished name information. This certificate will be valid for 180 days, and is associated with the private key in a keystore entry referred to by the alias "business". The private key is assigned the password "kpi135".
The command could be significantly shorter if option defaults were accepted. As a matter of fact, no options are required; defaults are used for unspecified options that have default values, and you are prompted for any required values. Thus, you could simply have the following:
keytool -genkeypair
In this case, a keystore entry with alias "mykey" is created, with a newly-generated key pair and a certificate that is valid for 90 days. This entry is placed in the keystore named ".keystore" in your home directory. (The keystore is created if it doesn't already exist.) You will be prompted for the distinguished name information, the keystore password, and the private key password.
The rest of the examples assume you executed the -genkeypair command without options specified, and that you responded to the prompts with values equal to those given in the first -genkeypair command, above (a private key password of "kpi135", etc.)
Requesting a Signed Certificate from a Certification Authority
-
So far all we've got is a self-signed certificate. A certificate is more likely to be trusted by others if it is signed by a Certification Authority (CA). To get such a signature, you first generate a Certificate Signing Request (CSR), via the following:
keytool -certreq -file MarkJ.csr
This creates a CSR (for the entity identified by the default alias "mykey") and puts the request in the file named "MarkJ.csr". Submit this file to a CA, such as VeriSign, Inc. The CA will authenticate you, the requestor (usually off-line), and then will return a certificate, signed by them, authenticating your public key. (In some cases, they will actually return a chain of certificates, each one authenticating the public key of the signer of the previous certificate in the chain.)
Importing a Certificate for the CA
-
You need to replace your self-signed certificate with a certificate chain, where each certificate in the chain authenticates the public key of the signer of the previous certificate in the chain, up to a "root" CA.
Before you import the certificate reply from a CA, you need one or more "trusted certificates" in your keystore or in the cacerts keystore file (which is described in importcert command):
-
- o
- If the certificate reply is a certificate chain, you just need the top certificate of the chain (that is, the "root" CA certificate authenticating that CA's public key).
- o
- If the certificate reply is a single certificate, you need a certificate for the issuing CA (the one that signed it), and if that certificate is not self-signed, you need a certificate for its signer, and so on, up to a self-signed "root" CA certificate.
The "cacerts" keystore file ships with five VeriSign root CA certificates, so you probably won't need to import a VeriSign certificate as a trusted certificate in your keystore. But if you request a signed certificate from a different CA, and a certificate authenticating that CA's public key hasn't been added to "cacerts", you will need to import a certificate from the CA as a "trusted certificate".
A certificate from a CA is usually either self-signed, or signed by another CA (in which case you also need a certificate authenticating that CA's public key). Suppose company ABC, Inc., is a CA, and you obtain a file named "ABCCA.cer" that is purportedly a self-signed certificate from ABC, authenticating that CA's public key.
Be very careful to ensure the certificate is valid prior to importing it as a "trusted" certificate! View it first (using the keytool -printcert command, or the keytool -importcert command without the -noprompt option), and make sure that the displayed certificate fingerprint(s) match the expected ones. You can call the person who sent the certificate, and compare the fingerprint(s) that you see with the ones that they show (or that a secure public key repository shows). Only if the fingerprints are equal is it guaranteed that the certificate has not been replaced in transit with somebody else's (for example, an attacker's) certificate. If such an attack took place, and you did not check the certificate before you imported it, you would end up trusting anything the attacker has signed.
If you trust that the certificate is valid, then you can add it to your keystore via the following:
keytool -importcert -alias abc -file ABCCA.cer
This creates a "trusted certificate" entry in the keystore, with the data from the file "ABCCA.cer", and assigns the alias "abc" to the entry.
-
Importing the Certificate Reply from the CA
-
Once you've imported a certificate authenticating the public key of the CA you submitted your certificate signing request to (or there's already such a certificate in the "cacerts" file), you can import the certificate reply and thereby replace your self-signed certificate with a certificate chain. This chain is the one returned by the CA in response to your request (if the CA reply is a chain), or one constructed (if the CA reply is a single certificate) using the certificate reply and trusted certificates that are already available in the keystore where you import the reply or in the "cacerts" keystore file.
For example, suppose you sent your certificate signing request to VeriSign. You can then import the reply via the following, which assumes the returned certificate is named "VSMarkJ.cer":
keytool -importcert -trustcacerts -file VSMarkJ.cer
Exporting a Certificate Authenticating Your Public Key
-
Suppose you have used the jarsigner @ http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/tooldocs/solaris/jarsigner.html tool to sign a Java ARchive (JAR) file. Clients that want to use the file will want to authenticate your signature.
One way they can do this is by first importing your public key certificate into their keystore as a "trusted" entry. You can export the certificate and supply it to your clients. As an example, you can copy your certificate to a file named MJ.cer via the following, assuming the entry is aliased by "mykey":
keytool -exportcert -alias mykey -file MJ.cer
Given that certificate, and the signed JAR file, a client can use the jarsigner tool to authenticate your signature.
Importing Keystore
-
The command "importkeystore" is used to import an entire keystore into another keystore, which means all entries from the source keystore, including keys and certificates, are all imported to the destination keystore within a single command. You can use this command to import entries from a different type of keystore. During the import, all new entries in the destination keystore will have the same alias names and protection passwords (for secret keys and private keys). If keytool has difficulties recover the private keys or secret keys from the source keystore, it will prompt you for a password. If it detects alias duplication, it will ask you for a new one, you can specify a new alias or simply allow keytool to overwrite the existing one.
For example, to import entries from a normal JKS type keystore key.jks into a PKCS #11 type hardware based keystore, you can use the command:
keytool -importkeystore -srckeystore key.jks -destkeystore NONE -srcstoretype JKS -deststoretype PKCS11 -srcstorepass changeit -deststorepass topsecret
The importkeystore command can also be used to import a single entry from a source keystore to a destination keystore. In this case, besides the options you see in the above example, you need to specify the alias you want to import. With the srcalias option given, you can also specify the desination alias name in the command line, as well as protection password for a secret/private key and the destination protection password you want. In this way, you can issue a keytool command that will never ask you a question. This makes it very convenient to include a keytool command into a script file, like this:
keytool -importkeystore -srckeystore key.jks -destkeystore NONE -srcstoretype JKS -deststoretype PKCS11 -srcstorepass changeit -deststorepass topsecret -srcalias myprivatekey -destalias myoldprivatekey -srckeypass oldkeypass -destkeypass mynewkeypass -noprompt
TERMINOLOGY and WARNINGS
KeyStore
-
A keystore is a storage facility for cryptographic keys and certificates.
-
- o
- o
-
KeyStore Entries
-
Keystores may have different types of entries. The two most applicable entry types for keytool include:
-
- 1.
- key entries - each holds very sensitive cryptographic key information, which is stored in a protected format to prevent unauthorized access. Typically, a key stored in this type of entry is a secret key, or a private key accompanied by the certificate "chain" for the corresponding public key. The keytool can handle both types od entry, while jarsigner tool only handle the latter type of entry, that is private keys and their associated certificate chains.
- 2.
- trusted certificate entries - each contains a single public key certificate belonging to another party. It is called a "trusted certificate" because the keystore owner trusts that the public key in the certificate indeed belongs to the identity identified by the "subject" (owner) of the certificate. The issuer of the certificate vouches for this, by signing the certificate.
-
-
- o
-
KeyStore Aliases
-
All keystore entries (key and trusted certificate entries) are accessed via unique aliases.
An alias is specified when you add an entity to the keystore using the -genseckey command to generate a secret key, -genkeypair command to generate a key pair (public and private key) or the -importcert command to add a certificate or certificate chain to the list of trusted certificates. Subsequent keytool commands must use this same alias to refer to the entity.
For example, suppose you use the alias duke to generate a new public/private key pair and wrap the public key into a self-signed certificate (see Certificate Chains) via the following command:
keytool -genkeypair -alias duke -keypass dukekeypasswd
This specifies an inital password of "dukekeypasswd" required by subsequent commands to access the private key assocated with the alias duke. If you later want to change duke's private key password, you use a command like the following:
keytool -keypasswd -alias duke -keypass dukekeypasswd -new newpass
This changes the password from "dukekeypasswd" to "newpass".
Please note: A password should not actually be specified on a command line or in a script unless it is for testing purposes, or you are on a secure system. If you don't specify a required password option on a command line, you will be prompted for it.
-
- o
-
KeyStore Implementation
-
The KeyStore class provided in the java.security package supplies well-defined interfaces to access and modify the information in a keystore. It is possible for there to be multiple different concrete implementations, where each implementation is that for a particular type of keystore.
Currently, two command-line tools (keytool and jarsigner) and a GUI-based tool named Policy Tool make use of keystore implementations. Since KeyStore is publicly available, users can write additional security applications that use it.
There is a built-in default implementation, provided by Sun Microsystems. It implements the keystore as a file, utilizing a proprietary keystore type (format) named "JKS". It protects each private key with its individual password, and also protects the integrity of the entire keystore with a (possibly different) password.
Keystore implementations are provider-based. More specifically, the application interfaces supplied by KeyStore are implemented in terms of a "Service Provider Interface" (SPI). That is, there is a corresponding abstract KeystoreSpi class, also in the java.security package, which defines the Service Provider Interface methods that "providers" must implement. (The term "provider" refers to a package or a set of packages that supply a concrete implementation of a subset of services that can be accessed by the Java Security API.) Thus, to provide a keystore implementation, clients must implement a "provider" and supply a KeystoreSpi subclass implementation, as described in How to Implement a Provider for the Java Cryptography Architecture.
Applications can choose different types of keystore implementations from different providers, using the "getInstance" factory method supplied in the KeyStore class. A keystore type defines the storage and data format of the keystore information, and the algorithms used to protect private/secret keys in the keystore and the integrity of the keystore itself. Keystore implementations of different types are not compatible.
keytool works on any file-based keystore implementation. (It treats the keytore location that is passed to it at the command line as a filename and converts it to a FileInputStream, from which it loads the keystore information.) The jarsigner and policytool tools, on the other hand, can read a keystore from any location that can be specified using a URL.
For keytool and jarsigner, you can specify a keystore type at the command line, via the -storetype option. For Policy Tool, you can specify a keystore type via the "Keystore" menu.
If you don't explicitly specify a keystore type, the tools choose a keystore implementation based simply on the value of the keystore.type property specified in the security properties file. The security properties file is called java.security, and it resides in the security properties directory, java.home/lib/security, where java.home is the runtime environment's directory (the jre directory in the SDK or the top-level directory of the Java 2 Runtime Environment).
Each tool gets the keystore.type value and then examines all the currently-installed providers until it finds one that implements keystores of that type. It then uses the keystore implementation from that provider.
The KeyStore class defines a static method named getDefaultType that lets applications and applets retrieve the value of the keystore.type property. The following line of code creates an instance of the default keystore type (as specified in the keystore.type property):
KeyStore keyStore = KeyStore.getInstance(KeyStore.getDefaultType());
The default keystore type is "jks" (the proprietary type of the keystore implementation provided by Sun). This is specified by the following line in the security properties file:
keystore.type=jks
To have the tools utilize a keystore implementation other than the default, you can change that line to specify a different keystore type.
For example, if you have a provider package that supplies a keystore implementation for a keystore type called "pkcs12", change the line to
keystore.type=pkcs12
Note: case doesn't matter in keystore type designations. For example, "JKS" would be considered the same as "jks".
-
The KeyStore class provided in the java.security package supplies well-defined interfaces to access and modify the information in a keystore. It is possible for there to be multiple different concrete implementations, where each implementation is that for a particular type of keystore.
Certificate
-
A certificate (also known as a public-key certificate) is a digitally signed statement from one entity (the issuer), saying that the public key (and some other information) of another entity (the subject) has some specific value.
-
- o
- o
-
Certificate Terms
-
-
- Public Keys
- These are numbers associated with a particular entity, and are intended to be known to everyone who needs to have trusted interactions with that entity. Public keys are used to verify signatures.
- Digitally Signed
- If some data is digitally signed it has been stored with the "identity" of an entity, and a signature that proves that entity knows about the data. The data is rendered unforgeable by signing with the entity's private key.
- Identity
- A known way of addressing an entity. In some systems the identity is the public key, in others it can be anything from a Unix UID to an Email address to an X.509 Distinguished Name.
- Signature
- A signature is computed over some data using the private key of an entity (the signer, which in the case of a certificate is also known as the issuer).
- Private Keys
- These are numbers, each of which is supposed to be known only to the particular entity whose private key it is (that is, it's supposed to be kept secret). Private and public keys exist in pairs in all public key cryptography systems (also referred to as "public key crypto systems"). In a typical public key crypto system, such as DSA, a private key corresponds to exactly one public key. Private keys are used to compute signatures.
- Entity
- An entity is a person, organization, program, computer, business, bank, or something else you are trusting to some degree.
Basically, public key cryptography requires access to users' public keys. In a large-scale networked environment it is impossible to guarantee that prior relationships between communicating entities have been established or that a trusted repository exists with all used public keys. Certificates were invented as a solution to this public key distribution problem. Now a Certification Authority (CA) can act as a trusted third party. CAs are entities (for example, businesses) that are trusted to sign (issue) certificates for other entities. It is assumed that CAs will only create valid and reliable certificates, as they are bound by legal agreements. There are many public Certification Authorities, such as VeriSign @ http://www.verisign.com/, Thawte @ http://www.thawte.com/, Entrust @ http://www.entrust.com/, and so on. You can also run your own Certification Authority using products such as the Netscape/Microsoft Certificate Servers or the Entrust CA product for your organization.
Using keytool, it is possible to display, import, and export certificates. It is also possible to generate self-signed certificates.
keytool currently handles X.509 certificates.
-
-
- o
-
X.509 Certificates
-
The X.509 standard defines what information can go into a certificate, and describes how to write it down (the data format). All the data in a certificate is encoded using two related standards called ASN.1/DER. Abstract Syntax Notation 1 describes data. The Definite Encoding Rules describe a single way to store and transfer that data.
All X.509 certificates have the following data, in addition to the signature:
-
- Version
- This identifies which version of the X.509 standard applies to this certificate, which affects what information can be specified in it. Thus far, three versions are defined. keytool can import and export v1, v2, and v3 certificates. It generates v3 certificates.
X.509 Version 1 has been available since 1988, is widely deployed, and is the most generic.
X.509 Version 2 introduced the concept of subject and issuer unique identifiers to handle the possibility of reuse of subject and/or issuer names over time. Most certificate profile documents strongly recommend that names not be reused, and that certificates should not make use of unique identifiers. Version 2 certificates are not widely used.
X.509 Version 3 is the most recent (1996) and supports the notion of extensions, whereby anyone can define an extension and include it in the certificate. Some common extensions in use today are: KeyUsage (limits the use of the keys to particular purposes such as "signing-only") and AlternativeNames (allows other identities to also be associated with this public key, e.g. DNS names, Email addresses, IP addresses). Extensions can be marked critical to indicate that the extension should be checked and enforced/used. For example, if a certificate has the KeyUsage extension marked critical and set to "keyCertSign" then if this certificate is presented during SSL communication, it should be rejected, as the certificate extension indicates that the associated private key should only be used for signing certificates and not for SSL use.
- Serial Number
- The entity that created the certificate is responsible for assigning it a serial number to distinguish it from other certificates it issues. This information is used in numerous ways, for example when a certificate is revoked its serial number is placed in a Certificate Revocation List (CRL).
- Signature Algorithm Identifier
- This identifies the algorithm used by the CA to sign the certificate.
- Issuer Name
- The X.500 Distinguished Name of the entity that signed the certificate. This is normally a CA. Using this certificate implies trusting the entity that signed this certificate. (Note that in some cases, such as root or top-level CA certificates, the issuer signs its own certificate.)
- Validity Period
- Each certificate is valid only for a limited amount of time. This period is described by a start date and time and an end date and time, and can be as short as a few seconds or almost as long as a century. The validity period chosen depends on a number of factors, such as the strength of the private key used to sign the certificate or the amount one is willing to pay for a certificate. This is the expected period that entities can rely on the public value, if the associated private key has not been compromised.
- Subject Name
-
The name of the entity whose public key the certificate identifies. This name uses the X.500 standard, so it is intended to be unique across the Internet. This is the X.500 Distinguished Name (DN) of the entity, for example,
CN=Java Duke, OU=Java Software Division, O=Sun Microsystems Inc, C=US
(These refer to the subject's Common Name, Organizational Unit, Organization, and Country.) - Subject Public Key Information
- This is the public key of the entity being named, together with an algorithm identifier which specifies which public key crypto system this key belongs to and any associated key parameters.
-
-
The X.509 standard defines what information can go into a certificate, and describes how to write it down (the data format). All the data in a certificate is encoded using two related standards called ASN.1/DER. Abstract Syntax Notation 1 describes data. The Definite Encoding Rules describe a single way to store and transfer that data.
- o
-
Certificate Chains
-
keytool can create and manage keystore "key" entries that each contain a private key and an associated certificate "chain". The first certificate in the chain contains the public key corresponding to the private key.
When keys are first generated (see the -genkeypair command), the chain starts off containing a single element, a self-signed certificate. A self-signed certificate is one for which the issuer (signer) is the same as the subject (the entity whose public key is being authenticated by the certificate). Whenever the -genkeypair command is called to generate a new public/private key pair, it also wraps the public key into a self-signed certificate.
Later, after a Certificate Signing Request (CSR) has been generated (see the -certreq command) and sent to a Certification Authority (CA), the response from the CA is imported (see -importcert), and the self-signed certificate is replaced by a chain of certificates. At the bottom of the chain is the certificate (reply) issued by the CA authenticating the subject's public key. The next certificate in the chain is one that authenticates the CA's public key.
In many cases, this is a self-signed certificate (that is, a certificate from the CA authenticating its own public key) and the last certificate in the chain. In other cases, the CA may return a chain of certificates. In this case, the bottom certificate in the chain is the same (a certificate signed by the CA, authenticating the public key of the key entry), but the second certificate in the chain is a certificate signed by a different CA, authenticating the public key of the CA you sent the CSR to. Then, the next certificate in the chain will be a certificate authenticating the second CA's key, and so on, until a self-signed "root" certificate is reached. Each certificate in the chain (after the first) thus authenticates the public key of the signer of the previous certificate in the chain.
Many CAs only return the issued certificate, with no supporting chain, especially when there is a flat hierarchy (no intermediates CAs). In this case, the certificate chain must be established from trusted certificate information already stored in the keystore.
A different reply format (defined by the PKCS#7 standard) also includes the supporting certificate chain, in addition to the issued certificate. Both reply formats can be handled by keytool.
The top-level (root) CA certificate is self-signed. However, the trust into the root's public key does not come from the root certificate itself (anybody could generate a self-signed certificate with the distinguished name of say, the VeriSign root CA!), but from other sources like a newspaper. The root CA public key is widely known. The only reason it is stored in a certificate is because this is the format understood by most tools, so the certificate in this case is only used as a "vehicle" to transport the root CA's public key. Before you add the root CA certificate to your keystore, you should view it (using the -printcert option) and compare the displayed fingerprint with the well-known fingerprint (obtained from a newspaper, the root CA's webpage, etc.).
-
- o
-
The cacerts Certificates File
-
A certificates file named "cacerts" resides in the security properties directory, java.home/lib/security, where java.home is the runtime environment's directory (the jre directory in the SDK or the top-level directory of the Java 2 Runtime Environment).
The "cacerts" file represents a system-wide keystore with CA certificates. System administrators can configure and manage that file using keytool, specifying "jks" as the keystore type. The "cacerts" keystore file ships with several root CA certificates with the following aliases and X.500 owner distinguished names:
-
- *
-
Alias: thawtepersonalfreemailca
Owner DN<EMAIL_ADDRESS>CN=Thawte Personal Freemail CA,
OU=Certification Services Division,
O=Thawte Consulting, L=Cape Town, ST=Western Cape, C=ZA - *
-
Alias: thawtepersonalbasicca
Owner DN<EMAIL_ADDRESS>CN=Thawte Personal Basic CA,
OU=Certification Services Division,
O=Thawte Consulting, L=Cape Town, ST=Western Cape, C=ZA - *
-
Alias: thawtepersonalpremiumca
Owner DN<EMAIL_ADDRESS>CN=Thawte Personal Premium CA,
OU=Certification Services Division,
O=Thawte Consulting, L=Cape Town, ST=Western Cape, C=ZA - *
-
Alias: thawteserverca
Owner DN<EMAIL_ADDRESS>CN=Thawte Server CA, OU=Certification Services Division,
O=Thawte Consulting cc, L=Cape Town, ST=Western Cape, C=ZA - *
-
Alias: thawtepremiumserverca
Owner DN<EMAIL_ADDRESS>CN=Thawte Premium Server CA,
OU=Certification Services Division,
O=Thawte Consulting cc, L=Cape Town, ST=Western Cape, C=ZA - *
-
Alias: verisignclass1ca
Owner DN: OU=Class 1 Public Primary Certification Authority,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass2ca
Owner DN: OU=Class 2 Public Primary Certification Authority,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass3ca
Owner DN: OU=Class 3 Public Primary Certification Authority,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignserverca
Owner DN: OU=Secure Server Certification Authority,
O="RSA Data Security, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass1g2ca
Owner DN: OU=VeriSign Trust Network,
OU="(c) 1998 VeriSign, Inc. - For authorized use only",
OU=Class 1 Public Primary Certification Authority - G2,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass1g3ca
Owner DN: CN=VeriSign Class 1 Public Primary Certification Authority - G3, OU="(c) 1999 VeriSign, Inc. - For authorized use only",
OU=VeriSign Trust Network,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass2g2ca
Owner DN: OU=VeriSign Trust Network,
OU="(c) 1998 VeriSign, Inc. - For authorized use only",
OU=Class 2 Public Primary Certification Authority - G2,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass2g3ca
Owner DN: CN=VeriSign Class 2 Public Primary Certification Authority - G3,
OU="(c) 1999 VeriSign, Inc. - For authorized use only",
OU=VeriSign Trust Network,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass3g2ca
Owner DN: OU=VeriSign Trust Network,
OU="(c) 1998 VeriSign, Inc. - For authorized use only",
OU=Class 3 Public Primary Certification Authority - G2,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: verisignclass3g3ca
Owner DN: CN=VeriSign Class 3 Public Primary Certification Authority - G3,
OU="(c) 1999 VeriSign, Inc. - For authorized use only",
OU=VeriSign Trust Network,
O="VeriSign, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: baltimorecodesigningca
Owner DN: CN=Baltimore CyberTrust Code Signing Root,
OU=CyberTrust, O=Baltimore, C=IE - *
-
Alias: gtecybertrustglobalca
Owner DN: CN=GTE CyberTrust Global Root,
OU="GTE CyberTrust Solutions, Inc.", O=GTE Corporation, C=US - *
-
Alias: baltimorecybertrustca
Owner DN: CN=Baltimore CyberTrust Root,
OU=CyberTrust, O=Baltimore, C=IE - *
-
Alias: gtecybertrustca
Owner DN: CN=GTE CyberTrust Root,
O=GTE Corporation, C=US - *
-
Alias: gtecybertrust5ca
Owner DN: CN=GTE CyberTrust Root 5,
OU="GTE CyberTrust Solutions, Inc.", O=GTE Corporation, C=US - *
-
Alias: entrustclientca
Owner DN: CN=Entrust.net Client Certification Authority,
OU=(c) 1999 Entrust.net Limited,
OU=www.entrust.net/Client_CA_Info/CPS incorp. by ref. limits liab.,
O=Entrust.net, C=US - *
-
Alias: entrustglobalclientca
Owner DN: CN=Entrust.net Client Certification Authority,
OU=(c) 2000 Entrust.net Limited,
OU=www.entrust.net/GCCA_CPS incorp. by ref. (limits liab.),
O=Entrust.net - *
-
Alias: entrust2048ca
Owner DN: CN=Entrust.net Certification Authority (2048),
OU=(c) 1999 Entrust.net Limited,
OU=www.entrust.net/CPS_2048 incorp. by ref. (limits liab.),
O=Entrust.net - *
-
Alias: entrustsslca
Owner DN: CN=Entrust.net Secure Server Certification Authority,
OU=(c) 1999 Entrust.net Limited,
OU=www.entrust.net/CPS incorp. by ref. (limits liab.),
O=Entrust.net, C=US - *
-
Alias: entrustgsslca
Owner DN: CN=Entrust.net Secure Server Certification Authority,
OU=(c) 2000 Entrust.net Limited,
OU=www.entrust.net/SSL_CPS incorp. by ref. (limits liab.),
O=Entrust.net - *
-
Alias: godaddyclass2ca
Owner DN: OU=Go Daddy Class 2 Certification Authority,
O="The Go Daddy Group, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: starfieldclass2ca
Owner DN: OU=Starfield Class 2 Certification Authority,
O="Starfield Technologies, Inc.", C=US - *
-
Alias: valicertclass2ca
Owner DN<EMAIL_ADDRESS>CN=http://www.valicert.com/,
OU=ValiCert Class 2 Policy Validation Authority,
O="ValiCert, Inc.", L=ValiCert Validation Network - *
-
Alias: geotrustglobalca
Owner DN: CN=GeoTrust Global CA,
O=GeoTrust Inc., C=US - *
-
Alias: equifaxsecureca
Owner DN: OU=Equifax Secure Certificate Authority,
O=Equifax, C=US - *
-
Alias: equifaxsecureebusinessca1
Owner DN: CN=Equifax Secure eBusiness CA-1,
O=Equifax Secure Inc., C=US - *
-
Alias: equifaxsecureebusinessca2
Owner DN: OU=Equifax Secure eBusiness CA-2,
O=Equifax Secure, C=US - *
-
Alias: equifaxsecureglobalebusinessca1
Owner DN: CN=Equifax Secure Global eBusiness CA-1,
O=Equifax Secure Inc., C=US - *
-
Alias: soneraclass1ca
Owner DN: CN=Sonera Class1 CA, O=Sonera, C=FI - *
-
Alias: soneraclass2ca
Owner DN: CN=Sonera Class2 CA, O=Sonera, C=FI - *
-
Alias: comodoaaaca
Owner DN: CN=AAA Certificate Services,
O=Comodo CA Limited, L=Salford, ST=Greater Manchester, C=GB - *
-
Alias: addtrustclass1ca
Owner DN: CN=AddTrust Class 1 CA Root,
OU=AddTrust TTP Network, O=AddTrust AB, C=SE - *
-
Alias: addtrustexternalca
Owner DN: CN=AddTrust External CA Root,
OU=AddTrust External TTP Network, O=AddTrust AB, C=SE - *
-
Alias: addtrustqualifiedca
Owner DN: CN=AddTrust Qualified CA Root,
OU=AddTrust TTP Network, O=AddTrust AB, C=SE - *
-
Alias: utnuserfirsthardwareca
Owner DN: CN=UTN-USERFirst-Hardware,
OU=http://www.usertrust.com, O=The USERTRUST Network,
L=Salt Lake City, ST=UT, C=US - *
-
Alias: utnuserfirstclientauthemailca
Owner DN: CN=UTN-USERFirst-Client Authentication and Email,
OU=http://www.usertrust.com, O=The USERTRUST Network,
L=Salt Lake City, ST=UT, C=US - *
-
Alias: utndatacorpsgcca
Owner DN: CN=UTN - DATACorp SGC,
OU=http://www.usertrust.com, O=The USERTRUST Network,
L=Salt Lake City, ST=UT, C=US - *
-
Alias: utnuserfirstobjectca
Owner DN: CN=UTN-USERFirst-Object,
OU=http://www.usertrust.com, O=The USERTRUST Network,
L=Salt Lake City, ST=UT, C=US
The initial password of the "cacerts" keystore file is "changeit". System administrators should change that password and the default access permission of that file upon installing the SDK.
-
IMPORTANT: Verify Your cacerts File
Since you trust the CAs in the cacerts file as entities for signing and issuing certificates to other entities, you must manage the cacerts file carefully. The cacerts file should contain only certificates of the CAs you trust. It is your responsibility to verify the trusted root CA certificates bundled in the cacerts file and make your own trust decisions. To remove an untrusted CA certificate from the cacerts file, use the delete option of the keytool command. You can find the cacerts file in the JRE installation directory. Contact your system administrator if you do not have permission to edit this file.
-
-
- o
-
The Internet RFC 1421 Certificate Encoding Standard
-
Certificates are often stored using the printable encoding format defined by the Internet RFC 1421 standard, instead of their binary encoding. This certificate format, also known as "Base 64 encoding", facilitates exporting certificates to other applications by email or through some other mechanism.
Certificates read by the -importcert and -printcert commands can be in either this format or binary encoded.
The -exportcert command by default outputs a certificate in binary encoding, but will instead output a certificate in the printable encoding format, if the -rfc option is specified.
The -list command by default prints the MD5 fingerprint of a certificate. If the -v option is specified, the certificate is printed in human-readable format, while if the -rfc option is specified, the certificate is output in the printable encoding format.
In its printable encoding format, the encoded certificate is bounded at the beginning by
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
and at the end by
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
-
X.500 Distinguished Names
-
X.500 Distinguished Names are used to identify entities, such as those which are named by the subject and issuer (signer) fields of X.509 certificates. keytool supports the following subparts:
-
- o
- commonName - common name of a person, e.g., "Susan Jones"
- o
- organizationUnit - small organization (e.g, department or division) name, e.g., "Purchasing"
- o
- organizationName - large organization name, e.g., "ABCSystems, Inc."
- o
- localityName - locality (city) name, e.g., "Palo Alto"
- o
- stateName - state or province name, e.g., "California"
- o
- country - two-letter country code, e.g., "CH"
When supplying a distinguished name string as the value of a -dname option, as for the -genkeypair command, the string must be in the following format:
CN=cName, OU=orgUnit, O=org, L=city, S=state, C=countryCode
where all the italicized items represent actual values and the above keywords are abbreviations for the following:
CN=commonName OU=organizationUnit O=organizationName L=localityName S=stateName C=country
A sample distinguished name string is
CN=Mark Smith, OU=JavaSoft, O=Sun, L=Cupertino, S=California, C=US
and a sample command using such a string is
keytool -genkeypair -dname "CN=Mark Smith, OU=JavaSoft, O=Sun, L=Cupertino, S=California, C=US" -alias mark
Case does not matter for the keyword abbreviations. For example, "CN", "cn", and "Cn" are all treated the same.
Order matters; each subcomponent must appear in the designated order. However, it is not necessary to have all the subcomponents. You may use a subset, for example:
CN=Steve Meier, OU=SunSoft, O=Sun, C=US
If a distinguished name string value contains a comma, the comma must be escaped by a "\" character when you specify the string on a command line, as in
cn=peter schuster, o=Sun Microsystems\, Inc., o=sun, c=us
It is never necessary to specify a distinguished name string on a command line. If it is needed for a command, but not supplied on the command line, the user is prompted for each of the subcomponents. In this case, a comma does not need to be escaped by a "\".
-
WARNING Regarding Importing Trusted Certificates
-
IMPORTANT: Be sure to check a certificate very carefully before importing it as a trusted certificate!
View it first (using the -printcert command, or the -importcert command without the -noprompt option), and make sure that the displayed certificate fingerprint(s) match the expected ones. For example, suppose someone sends or emails you a certificate, and you put it in a file named /tmp/cert. Before you consider adding the certificate to your list of trusted certificates, you can execute a -printcert command to view its fingerprints, as in
keytool -printcert -file /tmp/cert Owner: CN=ll, OU=ll, O=ll, L=ll, S=ll, C=ll Issuer: CN=ll, OU=ll, O=ll, L=ll, S=ll, C=ll Serial Number: 59092b34 Valid from: Thu Sep 25 18:01:13 PDT 1997 until: Wed Dec 24 17:01:13 PST 1997 Certificate Fingerprints: MD5: 11:81:AD:92:C8:E5:0E:A2:01:2E:D4:7A:D7:5F:07:6F SHA1: 20:B6:17:FA:EF:E5:55:8A:D0:71:1F:E8:D6:9D:C0:37:13:0E:5E:FE
Then call or otherwise contact the person who sent the certificate, and compare the fingerprint(s) that you see with the ones that they show. Only if the fingerprints are equal is it guaranteed that the certificate has not been replaced in transit with somebody else's (for example, an attacker's) certificate. If such an attack took place, and you did not check the certificate before you imported it, you would end up trusting anything the attacker has signed (for example, a JAR file with malicious class files inside).
Note: it is not required that you execute a -printcert command prior to importing a certificate, since before adding a certificate to the list of trusted certificates in the keystore, the -importcert command prints out the certificate information and prompts you to verify it. You then have the option of aborting the import operation. Note, however, this is only the case if you invoke the -importcert command without the -noprompt option. If the -noprompt option is given, there is no interaction with the user.
Warning Regarding Passwords
-
Most commands operating on a keystore require the store password. Some commands require a private/secret key password.
Passwords can be specified on the command line (in the -storepass and -keypass options, respectively). However, a password should not be specified on a command line or in a script unless it is for testing purposes, or you are on a secure system.
If you don't specify a required password option on a command line, you will be prompted for it.
SEE ALSO
-
- o
- jar @ http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/tooldocs/solaris/jar.html tool documentation
- o
- jarsigner @ http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/tooldocs/solaris/jarsigner.html tool documentation
- o
- the Security @ http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/security/index.html trail of the Java Tutorial @ http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/trailmap.html for examples of the use of keytool
CHANGES
The command interface for keytool changed in Java SE 6.
keytool no longer displays password input when entered by users. Since password input can no longer be viewed when entered, users will be prompted to re-enter passwords any time a password is being set or changed (for example, when setting the initial keystore password, or when changing a key password).
Some commands have simply been renamed, and other commands deemed obsolete are no longer listed in this document. All previous commands (both renamed and obsolete) are still supported in this release and will continue to be supported in future releases. The following summarizes all of the changes made to the keytool command interface:
Renamed commands:
-
- o
- -export, renamed to -exportcert
- o
- -genkey, renamed to -genkeypair
- o
- -import, renamed to -importcert
Commands deemed obsolete and no longer documented:
Index
- NAME
- SYNOPSIS
- DESCRIPTION
- COMMAND AND OPTION NOTES
- COMMANDS
- EXAMPLES
- TERMINOLOGY and WARNINGS
- SEE ALSO
- CHANGES
This document was created by man2html, using the manual pages.
Time: 05:29:05 GMT, December 24, 2015


Home
Articles
Community
sign up
Create Account
You will be able to
share your story
comment on personal stories
send us a question
Suggest Edits to articles
Leave feedback
Name :
Email :
Password :
Confirm Password :
cancel
Create


Some hints and tips on security issues in setting up a web server. Some of the suggestions will be general, others specific to Apache.
In typical operation, Apache is started by the root
user, and it switches to the user defined by the User directive to serve hits.
As is the case with any command that root executes, you must take care
that it is protected from modification by non-root users. Not only
must the files themselves be writeable only by root, but so must the
directories, and parents of all directories. For example, if you
choose to place ServerRoot in /usr/local/apache
then it is
suggested that you create that directory as root, with commands
like these:
It is assumed that /, /usr, and /usr/local are only modifiable by root. When you install the httpd executable, you should ensure that it is similarly protected:mkdir /usr/local/apache cd /usr/local/apache mkdir bin conf logs chown 0 . bin conf logs chgrp 0 . bin conf logs chmod 755 . bin conf logs
cp httpd /usr/local/apache/sbin chown 0 /usr/local/apache/sbin/httpd chgrp 0 /usr/local/apache/sbin/httpd chmod 511 /usr/local/apache/sbin/httpd
You can create an htdocs subdirectory which is modifiable by other users -- since root never executes any files out of there, and shouldn't be creating files in there.
If you allow non-root users to modify any files that root either executes or writes on then you open your system to root compromises. For example, someone could replace the httpd binary so that the next time you start it, it will execute some arbitrary code. If the logs directory is writeable (by a non-root user), someone could replace a log file with a symlink to some other system file, and then root might overwrite that file with arbitrary data. If the log files themselves are writeable (by a non-root user), then someone may be able to overwrite the log itself with bogus data.
Server side includes (SSI) can be configured so that users can execute arbitrary programs on the server. That thought alone should send a shiver down the spine of any sys-admin.
One solution is to disable that part of SSI. To do that you use the IncludesNOEXEC option to the Options directive.
Allowing users to execute CGI scripts in any directory should only be considered if;
Limiting CGI to special directories gives the admin control over what goes into those directories. This is inevitably more secure than non script aliased CGI, but only if users with write access to the directories are trusted or the admin is willing to test each new CGI script/program for potential security holes.
Most sites choose this option over the non script aliased CGI approach.
Always remember that you must trust the writers of the CGI script/programs or your ability to spot potential security holes in CGI, whether they were deliberate or accidental.
All the CGI scripts will run as the same user, so they have potential to conflict (accidentally or deliberately) with other scripts e.g. User A hates User B, so he writes a script to trash User B's CGI database. One program which can be used to allow scripts to run as different users is suEXEC which is included with Apache as of 1.2 and is called from special hooks in the Apache server code. Another popular way of doing this is with CGIWrap.
To run a really tight ship, you'll want to stop users from setting
up .htaccess
files which can override security features
you've configured. Here's one way to do it...
In the server configuration file, put
<Directory />
AllowOverride None
Options None
allow from all
</Directory>
Then setup for specific directoriesThis stops all overrides, Includes and accesses in all directories apart from those named.
One aspect of Apache which is occasionally misunderstood is the feature of default access. That is, unless you take steps to change it, if the server can find its way to a file through normal URL mapping rules, it can serve it to clients.
For instance, consider the following example:
This would allow clients to walk through the entire filesystem. To work around this, add the following block to your server's configuration:
<Directory /> Order deny,allow Deny from all </Directory>
This will forbid default access to filesystem locations. Add appropriate <Directory> blocks to allow access only in those areas you wish. For example,
<Directory /usr/users/*/public_html> Order deny,allow Allow from all </Directory> <Directory /usr/local/httpd> Order deny,allow Allow from all </Directory>
Pay particular attention to the interactions of <Location> and <Directory> directives; for instance, even if <Directory /> denies access, a <Location /> directive might overturn it.
Also be wary of playing games with the UserDir directive; setting it to something like "./" would have the same effect, for root, as the first example above. If you are using Apache 1.3 or above, we strongly recommend that you include the following line in your server configuration files:
Please send any other useful security tips to The Apache Group by filling out a problem report. Serious security matters should of course be sent to security@apache.org.


from __future__ import print_function, division
from sympy.core import S, sympify
from sympy.core.add import Add
from sympy.core.containers import Tuple
from sympy.core.operations import LatticeOp, ShortCircuit
from sympy.core.function import Application, Lambda, ArgumentIndexError
from sympy.core.expr import Expr
from sympy.core.mul import Mul
from sympy.core.numbers import Rational
from sympy.core.power import Pow
from sympy.core.relational import Equality
from sympy.core.singleton import Singleton
from sympy.core.symbol import Dummy
from sympy.core.rules import Transform
from sympy.core.compatibility import as_int, with_metaclass, range
from sympy.core.logic import fuzzy_and, fuzzy_or, _torf
from sympy.functions.elementary.integers import floor
from sympy.logic.boolalg import And
[docs]class IdentityFunction(with_metaclass(Singleton, Lambda)):
"""
The identity function
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import Id, Symbol
>>> x = Symbol('x')
>>> Id(x)
x
"""
def __new__(cls):
from sympy.sets.sets import FiniteSet
x = Dummy('x')
#construct "by hand" to avoid infinite loop
obj = Expr.__new__(cls, Tuple(x), x)
obj.nargs = FiniteSet(1)
return obj
Id = S.IdentityFunction
###############################################################################
############################# ROOT and SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION ###################
###############################################################################
[docs]def sqrt(arg):
"""The square root function
sqrt(x) -> Returns the principal square root of x.
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import sqrt, Symbol
>>> x = Symbol('x')
>>> sqrt(x)
sqrt(x)
>>> sqrt(x)**2
x
Note that sqrt(x**2) does not simplify to x.
>>> sqrt(x**2)
sqrt(x**2)
This is because the two are not equal to each other in general.
For example, consider x == -1:
>>> from sympy import Eq
>>> Eq(sqrt(x**2), x).subs(x, -1)
False
This is because sqrt computes the principal square root, so the square may
put the argument in a different branch. This identity does hold if x is
positive:
>>> y = Symbol('y', positive=True)
>>> sqrt(y**2)
y
You can force this simplification by using the powdenest() function with
the force option set to True:
>>> from sympy import powdenest
>>> sqrt(x**2)
sqrt(x**2)
>>> powdenest(sqrt(x**2), force=True)
x
To get both branches of the square root you can use the rootof function:
>>> from sympy import rootof
>>> [rootof(x**2-3,i) for i in (0,1)]
[-sqrt(3), sqrt(3)]
See Also
========
sympy.polys.rootoftools.rootof, root, real_root
References
==========
.. [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root
.. [2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_value
"""
# arg = sympify(arg) is handled by Pow
return Pow(arg, S.Half)
def cbrt(arg):
"""This function computes the principial cube root of `arg`, so
it's just a shortcut for `arg**Rational(1, 3)`.
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import cbrt, Symbol
>>> x = Symbol('x')
>>> cbrt(x)
x**(1/3)
>>> cbrt(x)**3
x
Note that cbrt(x**3) does not simplify to x.
>>> cbrt(x**3)
(x**3)**(1/3)
This is because the two are not equal to each other in general.
For example, consider `x == -1`:
>>> from sympy import Eq
>>> Eq(cbrt(x**3), x).subs(x, -1)
False
This is because cbrt computes the principal cube root, this
identity does hold if `x` is positive:
>>> y = Symbol('y', positive=True)
>>> cbrt(y**3)
y
See Also
========
sympy.polys.rootoftools.rootof, root, real_root
References
==========
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_value
"""
return Pow(arg, Rational(1, 3))
[docs]def root(arg, n, k=0):
"""root(x, n, k) -> Returns the k-th n-th root of x, defaulting to the
principle root (k=0).
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import root, Rational
>>> from sympy.abc import x, n
>>> root(x, 2)
sqrt(x)
>>> root(x, 3)
x**(1/3)
>>> root(x, n)
x**(1/n)
>>> root(x, -Rational(2, 3))
x**(-3/2)
To get the k-th n-th root, specify k:
>>> root(-2, 3, 2)
-(-1)**(2/3)*2**(1/3)
To get all n n-th roots you can use the rootof function.
The following examples show the roots of unity for n
equal 2, 3 and 4:
>>> from sympy import rootof, I
>>> [rootof(x**2 - 1, i) for i in range(2)]
[-1, 1]
>>> [rootof(x**3 - 1,i) for i in range(3)]
[1, -1/2 - sqrt(3)*I/2, -1/2 + sqrt(3)*I/2]
>>> [rootof(x**4 - 1,i) for i in range(4)]
[-1, 1, -I, I]
SymPy, like other symbolic algebra systems, returns the
complex root of negative numbers. This is the principal
root and differs from the text-book result that one might
be expecting. For example, the cube root of -8 does not
come back as -2:
>>> root(-8, 3)
2*(-1)**(1/3)
The real_root function can be used to either make the principle
result real (or simply to return the real root directly):
>>> from sympy import real_root
>>> real_root(_)
-2
>>> real_root(-32, 5)
-2
Alternatively, the n//2-th n-th root of a negative number can be
computed with root:
>>> root(-32, 5, 5//2)
-2
See Also
========
sympy.polys.rootoftools.rootof
sympy.core.power.integer_nthroot
sqrt, real_root
References
==========
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_root
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_of_unity
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_value
* http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubeRoot.html
"""
n = sympify(n)
if k:
return Pow(arg, S.One/n)*S.NegativeOne**(2*k/n)
return Pow(arg, 1/n)
def real_root(arg, n=None):
"""Return the real nth-root of arg if possible. If n is omitted then
all instances of (-n)**(1/odd) will be changed to -n**(1/odd); this
will only create a real root of a principle root -- the presence of
other factors may cause the result to not be real.
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import root, real_root, Rational
>>> from sympy.abc import x, n
>>> real_root(-8, 3)
-2
>>> root(-8, 3)
2*(-1)**(1/3)
>>> real_root(_)
-2
If one creates a non-principle root and applies real_root, the
result will not be real (so use with caution):
>>> root(-8, 3, 2)
-2*(-1)**(2/3)
>>> real_root(_)
-2*(-1)**(2/3)
See Also
========
sympy.polys.rootoftools.rootof
sympy.core.power.integer_nthroot
root, sqrt
"""
from sympy import im, Piecewise
if n is not None:
try:
n = as_int(n)
arg = sympify(arg)
if arg.is_positive or arg.is_negative:
rv = root(arg, n)
else:
raise ValueError
except ValueError:
return root(arg, n)*Piecewise(
(S.One, ~Equality(im(arg), 0)),
(Pow(S.NegativeOne, S.One/n)**(2*floor(n/2)), And(
Equality(n % 2, 1),
arg < 0)),
(S.One, True))
else:
rv = sympify(arg)
n1pow = Transform(lambda x: -(-x.base)**x.exp,
lambda x:
x.is_Pow and
x.base.is_negative and
x.exp.is_Rational and
x.exp.p == 1 and x.exp.q % 2)
return rv.xreplace(n1pow)
###############################################################################
############################# MINIMUM and MAXIMUM #############################
###############################################################################
class MinMaxBase(Expr, LatticeOp):
def __new__(cls, *args, **assumptions):
if not args:
raise ValueError("The Max/Min functions must have arguments.")
args = (sympify(arg) for arg in args)
# first standard filter, for cls.zero and cls.identity
# also reshape Max(a, Max(b, c)) to Max(a, b, c)
try:
_args = frozenset(cls._new_args_filter(args))
except ShortCircuit:
return cls.zero
# second filter
# variant I: remove ones which can be removed
# args = cls._collapse_arguments(set(_args), **assumptions)
# variant II: find local zeros
args = cls._find_localzeros(set(_args), **assumptions)
if not args:
return cls.identity
elif len(args) == 1:
return args.pop()
else:
# base creation
# XXX should _args be made canonical with sorting?
_args = frozenset(args)
obj = Expr.__new__(cls, _args, **assumptions)
obj._argset = _args
return obj
@classmethod
def _new_args_filter(cls, arg_sequence):
"""
Generator filtering args.
first standard filter, for cls.zero and cls.identity.
Also reshape Max(a, Max(b, c)) to Max(a, b, c),
and check arguments for comparability
"""
for arg in arg_sequence:
# pre-filter, checking comparability of arguments
if (not isinstance(arg, Expr)) or (arg.is_real is False) or (arg is S.ComplexInfinity):
raise ValueError("The argument '%s' is not comparable." % arg)
if arg == cls.zero:
raise ShortCircuit(arg)
elif arg == cls.identity:
continue
elif arg.func == cls:
for x in arg.args:
yield x
else:
yield arg
@classmethod
def _find_localzeros(cls, values, **options):
"""
Sequentially allocate values to localzeros.
When a value is identified as being more extreme than another member it
replaces that member; if this is never true, then the value is simply
appended to the localzeros.
"""
localzeros = set()
for v in values:
is_newzero = True
localzeros_ = list(localzeros)
for z in localzeros_:
if id(v) == id(z):
is_newzero = False
else:
con = cls._is_connected(v, z)
if con:
is_newzero = False
if con is True or con == cls:
localzeros.remove(z)
localzeros.update([v])
if is_newzero:
localzeros.update([v])
return localzeros
@classmethod
def _is_connected(cls, x, y):
"""
Check if x and y are connected somehow.
"""
from sympy.core.exprtools import factor_terms
def hit(v, t, f):
if not v.is_Relational:
return t if v else f
for i in range(2):
if x == y:
return True
r = hit(x >= y, Max, Min)
if r is not None:
return r
r = hit(y <= x, Max, Min)
if r is not None:
return r
r = hit(x <= y, Min, Max)
if r is not None:
return r
r = hit(y >= x, Min, Max)
if r is not None:
return r
# simplification can be expensive, so be conservative
# in what is attempted
x = factor_terms(x - y)
y = S.Zero
return False
def _eval_derivative(self, s):
# f(x).diff(s) -> x.diff(s) * f.fdiff(1)(s)
i = 0
l = []
for a in self.args:
i += 1
da = a.diff(s)
if da is S.Zero:
continue
try:
df = self.fdiff(i)
except ArgumentIndexError:
df = Function.fdiff(self, i)
l.append(df * da)
return Add(*l)
def evalf(self, prec=None, **options):
return self.func(*[a.evalf(prec, options) for a in self.args])
n = evalf
_eval_is_algebraic = lambda s: _torf(i.is_algebraic for i in s.args)
_eval_is_antihermitian = lambda s: _torf(i.is_antihermitian for i in s.args)
_eval_is_commutative = lambda s: _torf(i.is_commutative for i in s.args)
_eval_is_complex = lambda s: _torf(i.is_complex for i in s.args)
_eval_is_composite = lambda s: _torf(i.is_composite for i in s.args)
_eval_is_even = lambda s: _torf(i.is_even for i in s.args)
_eval_is_finite = lambda s: _torf(i.is_finite for i in s.args)
_eval_is_hermitian = lambda s: _torf(i.is_hermitian for i in s.args)
_eval_is_imaginary = lambda s: _torf(i.is_imaginary for i in s.args)
_eval_is_infinite = lambda s: _torf(i.is_infinite for i in s.args)
_eval_is_integer = lambda s: _torf(i.is_integer for i in s.args)
_eval_is_irrational = lambda s: _torf(i.is_irrational for i in s.args)
_eval_is_negative = lambda s: _torf(i.is_negative for i in s.args)
_eval_is_noninteger = lambda s: _torf(i.is_noninteger for i in s.args)
_eval_is_nonnegative = lambda s: _torf(i.is_nonnegative for i in s.args)
_eval_is_nonpositive = lambda s: _torf(i.is_nonpositive for i in s.args)
_eval_is_nonzero = lambda s: _torf(i.is_nonzero for i in s.args)
_eval_is_odd = lambda s: _torf(i.is_odd for i in s.args)
_eval_is_polar = lambda s: _torf(i.is_polar for i in s.args)
_eval_is_positive = lambda s: _torf(i.is_positive for i in s.args)
_eval_is_prime = lambda s: _torf(i.is_prime for i in s.args)
_eval_is_rational = lambda s: _torf(i.is_rational for i in s.args)
_eval_is_real = lambda s: _torf(i.is_real for i in s.args)
_eval_is_transcendental = lambda s: _torf(i.is_transcendental for i in s.args)
_eval_is_zero = lambda s: _torf(i.is_zero for i in s.args)
[docs]class Max(MinMaxBase, Application):
"""
Return, if possible, the maximum value of the list.
When number of arguments is equal one, then
return this argument.
When number of arguments is equal two, then
return, if possible, the value from (a, b) that is >= the other.
In common case, when the length of list greater than 2, the task
is more complicated. Return only the arguments, which are greater
than others, if it is possible to determine directional relation.
If is not possible to determine such a relation, return a partially
evaluated result.
Assumptions are used to make the decision too.
Also, only comparable arguments are permitted.
It is named ``Max`` and not ``max`` to avoid conflicts
with the built-in function ``max``.
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import Max, Symbol, oo
>>> from sympy.abc import x, y
>>> p = Symbol('p', positive=True)
>>> n = Symbol('n', negative=True)
>>> Max(x, -2) #doctest: +SKIP
Max(x, -2)
>>> Max(x, -2).subs(x, 3)
3
>>> Max(p, -2)
p
>>> Max(x, y) #doctest: +SKIP
Max(x, y)
>>> Max(x, y) == Max(y, x)
True
>>> Max(x, Max(y, z)) #doctest: +SKIP
Max(x, y, z)
>>> Max(n, 8, p, 7, -oo) #doctest: +SKIP
Max(8, p)
>>> Max (1, x, oo)
oo
* Algorithm
The task can be considered as searching of supremums in the
directed complete partial orders [1]_.
The source values are sequentially allocated by the isolated subsets
in which supremums are searched and result as Max arguments.
If the resulted supremum is single, then it is returned.
The isolated subsets are the sets of values which are only the comparable
with each other in the current set. E.g. natural numbers are comparable with
each other, but not comparable with the `x` symbol. Another example: the
symbol `x` with negative assumption is comparable with a natural number.
Also there are "least" elements, which are comparable with all others,
and have a zero property (maximum or minimum for all elements). E.g. `oo`.
In case of it the allocation operation is terminated and only this value is
returned.
Assumption:
- if A > B > C then A > C
- if A == B then B can be removed
References
==========
.. [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_complete_partial_order
.. [2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_%28order%29
See Also
========
Min : find minimum values
"""
zero = S.Infinity
identity = S.NegativeInfinity
def fdiff( self, argindex ):
from sympy import Heaviside
n = len(self.args)
if 0 < argindex and argindex <= n:
argindex -= 1
if n == 2:
return Heaviside(self.args[argindex] - self.args[1 - argindex])
newargs = tuple([self.args[i] for i in range(n) if i != argindex])
return Heaviside(self.args[argindex] - Max(*newargs))
else:
raise ArgumentIndexError(self, argindex)
def _eval_rewrite_as_Heaviside(self, *args):
from sympy import Heaviside
return Add(*[j*Mul(*[Heaviside(j - i) for i in args if i!=j]) \
for j in args])
def _eval_is_positive(self):
return fuzzy_or(a.is_positive for a in self.args)
def _eval_is_nonnegative(self):
return fuzzy_or(a.is_nonnegative for a in self.args)
def _eval_is_negative(self):
return fuzzy_and(a.is_negative for a in self.args)
[docs]class Min(MinMaxBase, Application):
"""
Return, if possible, the minimum value of the list.
It is named ``Min`` and not ``min`` to avoid conflicts
with the built-in function ``min``.
Examples
========
>>> from sympy import Min, Symbol, oo
>>> from sympy.abc import x, y
>>> p = Symbol('p', positive=True)
>>> n = Symbol('n', negative=True)
>>> Min(x, -2) #doctest: +SKIP
Min(x, -2)
>>> Min(x, -2).subs(x, 3)
-2
>>> Min(p, -3)
-3
>>> Min(x, y) #doctest: +SKIP
Min(x, y)
>>> Min(n, 8, p, -7, p, oo) #doctest: +SKIP
Min(n, -7)
See Also
========
Max : find maximum values
"""
zero = S.NegativeInfinity
identity = S.Infinity
def fdiff( self, argindex ):
from sympy import Heaviside
n = len(self.args)
if 0 < argindex and argindex <= n:
argindex -= 1
if n == 2:
return Heaviside( self.args[1-argindex] - self.args[argindex] )
newargs = tuple([ self.args[i] for i in range(n) if i != argindex])
return Heaviside( Min(*newargs) - self.args[argindex] )
else:
raise ArgumentIndexError(self, argindex)
def _eval_rewrite_as_Heaviside(self, *args):
from sympy import Heaviside
return Add(*[j*Mul(*[Heaviside(i-j) for i in args if i!=j]) \
for j in args])
def _eval_is_positive(self):
return fuzzy_and(a.is_positive for a in self.args)
def _eval_is_nonnegative(self):
return fuzzy_and(a.is_nonnegative for a in self.args)
def _eval_is_negative(self):
return fuzzy_or(a.is_negative for a in self.args)


Keep in mind that this is a work in progress. It has many problems right now. What you are currently seeing now will probably be completely rewritten before we're done. This is a very rough draft.
Report problems or changes
No navigation bar.
No navigation bar. No search.
No navigation bar. No Login.
No navigation bar. No search. No Login.
Four links in navigation bar.
Six links in navigation bar, one selected.


Policies
100% refund if cancelled at least 60 days before arrival date.
You will be responsible for any damage to the rental property that is caused by you or your party during your stay.
No pets
No smoking
Children friendly
Max guests:
18
(16 adults, 2 children)
Contact Us
Name:
Valid.
Please fill out this field.
Email:
Valid.
Please fill out this field.
Message
Valid.
Please fill out this field.
Submit


Why can Russia still play in Euro 2020 despite World Cup 2022 ban?
Russia have been handed a WADA ban ruling them out of the Tokyo Olympics and 2022 World Cup - but they will still be able to play in Euro 2020 next summer
by Rich Jones, https://www.mirror.co.uk/authors/rich-jones/Russia has been banned from major international sporting events for four years after being found guilty of manipulating laboratory doping data.
The World Anti-Doping Agency confirmed the punishment in Lausanne after considering recommendations from its independent compliance review committee (CRC).
The judgement means Russia will be banned from the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics and the 2022 Football World Cup in Qatar.
Individual Russian athletes untainted by the scandal will able to compete independently under a neutral flag.
And despite being ruled out of the next World Cup, Russia will be clear to compete at Euro 2020 next summer, where Saint Petersburg will host three group games and a quarter-final.
Why can they play at Euro 2020?
Russia will be free to take their place at Euro 2020 because the tournament is organised by UEFA.
Despite being one of the world's biggest sporting events, European football's governing body does not fall under the definition of a Major Events Organisation under the international compliance code.
As a result, it does not fall under the "major international sporting events" definition when punishments for doping violations are being enforced.
Will they still host games?
Yes, for the same reasons as above.
They have been punished with a ban from hosting major sporting events, but UEFA does not fall under the criteria and therefore is exempt from the punishment.
Could they still play in the World Cup?
This is where it gets slightly complicated. The ban on the Russian flag and anthem means that individual athletes can compete as 'neutrals' in events such as the Olympics.
But in a team sport, it is hard to see any way around the punishment to get the Russia football team to Qatar should they qualify.
Any mechanism put in place would require WADA's control and approval and not feature the Russian flag or anthem.
A successful appeal could also lead to them being allowed into the World Cup.
What happens next?
WADA said the decision was unanimous, but Russia's Anti Doping Agency (RUSADA) has 21 days to appeal against the ban.
If it does so, the appeal will be referred to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS).
There's also the prospect of alternative arrangements being put into place by FIFA alongside WADA controls to allow Russian athletes to have some involvement without their flag or anthem.
Players would need to prove they are not implicated in the doping scandal, and it remains to be seen if a solution could be found to allow them to compete.


Back in April, when I posted the words of “Dismantled Wooden Myrna Loy”, I suggested to Outa_Spaceman that perhaps the world was ready for a new setting of this traditional folk song. And lo! he has recorded a splendid version with The Midnight Car Park Ramblers. Listen and, with the aide memoire of the words reposted below, sing along…
Dismantled Wooden Myrna Loy by Outa_Spaceman
He came, clutching an Alpenstock, from the far Tyrol.
He joined the Baader-Meinhof Gang, along with Astrid Proll.
He joined an English folk group, and sang a Fol De Rol.
And no one ever realised that he was a wooden doll.
His name was not Pinocchio, a different wooden boy.
Our hero's name, quite weirdly, he shared with Myrna Loy,
That siren of the silver screen who brought filmgoers much joy.
Our Myrna was a terrorist and a folkie, a simple wooden toy.
Pinocchio's nose, you will recall, grew longer as he lied.
But Myrna Loy's did not, he took truth as his guide.
Well, he only did so after Ulrike Meinhof died.
For on that day his revolutionary fervour was cast aside.
He cast aside the folk group too, hey nonny nonny no.
He met a man in a field, one man who went to mow.
He lay down on the fresh-mown grass, he had nowhere else to go
And Myrna Loy, when winter came, was buried under snow.
He lay there until springtime, a wooden boy, frozen, dead
Until he was found by urchins, who carried him to a shed.
They dismantled him piece by piece, the urchins Lars and Ned.
And then they had a game of football with his wooden head.
So when you tour, with your Alpenstock, the fabled far Tyrol,
Say a prayer for Myrna Loy, the dismantled wooden doll.


CS Sparks is an initiative which will bring girls in Transition Year from DEIS schools in South Dublin into the School of Computer Science in UCD to participate in coding in a fun and exciting way which will also highlight Computer Science as a career with diverse applications and a broad potential for positive societal impact. Our aim is for the participants to consider studying CS at third level which we believe will provide exciting and rewarding career opportunities.
The Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) program was introduced by the Irish Government to provide additional educational supports to primary and post-primary schools with the highest levels of disadvantage. These students are 50% less likely to make the transition to third level education than their non-DEIS counterparts. We want to support and encourage more of these students to continue their education after secondary school. We specifically want to encourage more female students to continue their education through their participation in a computer science (CS) outreach program.
The video is temporarily omitted. It will be store when the video is statically hosted


Input Number Polyfill Demo
This is a normal HTML5 input number :
This is a modified input that supports ie8 and styling :


HOUSESITTER A film review by Ken Johnson Copyright 1992 Ken Johnson
105 min., PG, Comedy, 1992 Director: Frank Oz Cast: Steve Martin, Goldie Hawn, Dana Delany, Peter MacNichol, Robert B. Shull, Laurel Cronin, Julie Harris, Donald Moffat
Steve Martin first meets Goldie Hawn at a party and then later waitressing at a restaurant. He gets invited into her house and tells her about a house he owns that is empty. The next day, unknown to Martin, Hawn moves into the empty house. She starts making up stories about her and Martin to explain why she is there. Martin is in love with Dana Delany, who is in the town that the house is located in. Martin finds out what Hawn has done and tries to use her to get Delany.
I saw HOUSESITTER the weekend that it opened and am just getting around to finishing my review on it. HOUSESITTER is a very funny film and is well worth seeing. I don't know whether to recommend that you see it in the theater or wait for the video. The film will lose nothing on video, but if you can't wait to see it you would be better off going to the theater to see it. I give HOUSESITTER a four on a scale of zero to five. HOUSESITTER is rated PG for adult situations and explicit language.
HOUSESITTER is the first of two films coming out this summer with Goldie Hawn, the second is DEATH BECOMES HER. I have always been a fan of Goldie Hawn's films and sometimes of Steve Martin's, so I hurried out to see this one. Both Goldie Hawn and Steve Martin did a great job acting. They were both funny, but not in an obnoxious sort of way, like Steve Martin sometimes is. Dana Delany does a great job in her supporting role and adds a lot to the film. The two bums, Robert B. Shull and Laurel Cronin, I think, were excellent. Peter MacNichol's character was, in my opinion, a very annoying character, but then again that is all MacNichol seems to play. Steve Martin's father, I don't know who played him, was excellent and very convincing. The jokes in this film were, for the most part, hidden under the surface and just sat there allowing you to laugh if you caught it and if you missed it there is another waiting just around the turn of the film reel instead of forcing you to laugh like slapstick comedies do.
The film is well written and doesn't have many holes in it. It definitely keeps you entertained. The characters are interesting and well molded. They seem to come alive on the screen and do their own things. The sets and locations are great. The town where the house is located looks like any little town and is simple in its ways. The house itself I don't think was well designed, however, at least I wouldn't want to live in it (maybe it's just me).
Ken J<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
review and has no editorial control. Unless stated otherwise, the copyright
belongs to the author.
Please direct comments/criticisms of the review to relevant newsgroups.
Broken URLs inthe reviews are the responsibility of the author.
The formatting of the review is likely to differ from the original due
to ASCII to HTML conversion.
Related links: index of all rec.arts.movies.reviews reviews


Plugin Information |
|---|
View Flock Notification on the plugin site for more information. |
Installation
- Go to 'Manage Jenkins' from the Jenkins homepage.
- Navigate to
Manage Plugins
- Change the tab to
Available
- Search for
Flock
- Check the box next to install.