6. AIR POLLUTION Air pollution is defined as the presence in atmosphere of substance which adversely affect living organism or their habitats.
i. Source Air pollution caused by mining and associated activities can be classified into:-
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a) Gaseous pollutants (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons).
b) Suspended particulate matter (silica, fluorides, asbestos and metallic mineral dust).
Air pollutants from mining come from two types of sources: Point and non-point source. Point source of air pollutants are from drilling, crushing and screening machinery, conveyors and transhipment points. The non- point source of air pollutants are from blasting (dust and combustion gases), haulage over internal and external roads, and general dust blow from working areas, dumps, stock piles, tailing dumps etc. From these, dust it the main pollutant.
ii. Measures for Control The measures which can be taken to control the air pollution are:-
a) Dust suppression and extraction system should be provided by providing blowers, cyclones and wet scrubbers at the ore handling plant i.e. crushing and grinding units.
b) In case of open-cast mines, the haul roads are to be sprayed with water to suppress dust.
c) Transportation of minerals from mines to plant is the main source of dust. To prevent dust from being air borne transport equipments like trucks, dumpers and railway wagons should be leak proof and properly covered. Alternatively suitable chemicals or water may be sprayed on the top in prevent dust effect. In the recent times wholly sealed containers have been mooted for transporting metallic concentrates.
d) To reduce the dust nuisance, measures like adoption of hoods at transfer points, proper design of chutes, vulcanising of conveyor belt joints, under belt cleaning devices should be adopted.
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e) Dense belt of trees should be planted on road sides. These trees would serve as dust arresters. Trees planted on one hectare can arrest about 50 tonnes of dust.
f) For controlling the dust on the tailing dumps revegetation or some other form of surface stabilization to growing grass or herbs is to be done.
7. WATER POLLUTION i. Source The sources of liquid effluents generated in mining operations are:-
a) Mine water pumped out during drainage operations.
b) Spent water from handling plants, dust extraction and dust suppression systems.
c) Effluents from beneficiation plants, leachates/wash offs from waste/tailing dumps.
ii. Measures for Control
a) All possible steps should be taken to prevent the discharge of toxic effluents into surface water bodies, ground water aquifers. All possible ways of reusing the waste water should be thought over.
b) Effluents general should be treated to conform the standards laid down by the Central and State Boards for prevention and control of water pollution before discharge.
c) Wherever practicable, the mine water should be used for irrigation of the plantations raised to stabilize the mine waste dumps.
d) Acid mine drainage can be controlled by the following methods:
i. By prevention of the formation of acid mine drainage at source itself. The technique include modified mining practices, sealing of abandoned mine entrances & drainage levels etc. Surface reclamation, water diversion, and 81 control of ground water flow system by well fills to prevent the exposure of ground water to sulphides in a mine, coating sources with gels.
ii. To control the acid mine drainage techniques like deep well injection, subsurface dams and grout curtains should be adopted.
iii. The acid mine drainage should be diluted to an acceptable effluent quality.
iv. Standard waste water treatment methods should be incorporated for neutralisation and removal of solids. The techniques are lime treatment followed by oxidation process to convert ferrous to ferric iron, neutralisation with soda ash, caustic soda and anhydrous ammonia, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, electrodialysis, evaporation, ozone oxidation, desulfating, sulfide iron removal, microbiological iron removal.
8. NUISANCE DUE TO TRANSPORT Mining operations require a two way flow of goods, material, and the products with the external community. The transport associated with this exchange inevitably represents an extension of mining activity into the external environment, and often directly confronts the general public with environmental problems. The seven most important types of mineral transport are by:-
a) road, b) rail, c) sea, d) inland waterways, e) aerial ropeway, f) conveyors, g) pipe lines.
i. Source Pollution problems are associated with all these types of transport as described above to some extent or other. Road transport method normally occasions the greatest number and range of environmental complaints. The principal areas of concern are public safety and inconvenience, noise and vibration, air pollution and visual intrusion. The main environmental disadvantages of rail transport are noise, 82 vibration and dust. The environmental problems connected with sea transport are at the loading and discharge points as similar to those of rail. Inland waterways transport also has the same type of environmental problems as described for sea transport. The pollution problems associated with the conveyors are dust and visual intrusion. In the same fashion for the aerial ropeways the problems are similar. Finally in the case of pipelines the only problem is the very slight possibilities of pollution from leaks.
ii. Measures for Control
a) Precautions for the transport of materials both as regards personal safety and minimisation of loss of values during operations can be handled routinely since the methodology and techniques exit. Modern practice tends towards the use of explosive slurries which are mixed with chemicals to render them harmless in transit. Some of the chemicals used in ore beneficiation are in some forms and usages dangerously toxic. The special precautions for transporting dangerous substances should be observed.
b) The concentrate after filtration being fairly dry can readily be dispersed by wind or spillage. When the concentrate has to be transported over long distances or shipped overseas, covered containers should be employed and precaution against spillage and wind blown dust should also be taken in unloading. Storage areas also ought to be covered and protected from the wind to avoid dispersal of the concentrate over the surrounding neighbourhood. This is more necessary in the case of lead bearing concentrates.
c) In case of dust problems in the conveyors and aerial ropeways, this can be controlled by the use of water sprays, regular maintenance or by total enclosure. Visual intrusion problem connected with conveyors and aerial ropeways can be solved by careful selection of the route and minimising the height of structures.
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9. ECOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE In the overwhelming majority of cases, the reclamation for whatever purpose of abandoned mineral workings require the establishment and maintenance of vegetation on the disturbed land. No other medium can achieve rapid visual reintegration, surface stabilisation or reductions in air and water pollution nor offer a wide variety of land use possibilities which can be achieved at acceptable cost. The design of the mining programme materially causes revegetation problems. In natural circumstances, plants exist in a soil, formed by weathering and biological processes from a parent rock which may or may not underlie it. The precise type of soil, which forms, depends upon the complex interactions between the parent rock, the climate, and the type of plants and animals which first colonise it.
i. Sources The problems which affect revegetation on mine waste are: a) Toxicity of metals and other contaminants, b) Water balances, c) Particle size of mine waste, d) Temperature, e) Wind turbulances, f) Compaction, g) Nutrient deficiencies, h) Surface instability due to wind or water erosion on slopes.
39. In the same book, learned authors; Mr. S.P. Baloni & Mr. Raj Tilak, in article "Mining and Ecological Impact on Himalaya" have held as under : -
Himalaya is sacred and important not merely for its aesthetic value but because it is the fount of life for the entire sub-continent. Instrumental in determining the climate of the region, it is a source of life-sustaining rivers and fertile alluvium besides being a treasure house of herbal and medicinal plants, minerals and a wealth of genetic plant and animal strains yet unknown to us.
Himalaya contains a large variety of minerals which are economically very viable. It contains minerals like limestone, magnesite, phospohorite, talc, gypsum, diaspore, 84 graphites and barite. The metalliferous minerals are copper, lead and zinc.
Limestone of different grades is present in large quantities in many parts of the Himalaya. The lime deposits around Mussoorie and in between Dehra Dun and Mussoorie are of extraordinary pure material. It has been found acceptable to sugar industry. Uttar Pradesh State Mining Development Corporation has established a lime based chemical industry at Dehra Dun. Deposits of magensite occur extensively in the U.P. Himalaya. This is used in the manufacture of fire-bricks employed in the steel industry. Phosphorite deposits are found in U.P. Himalaya and Himachal Pradesh. The pyrite phosphate is available in Mussoorie hills. Talc, also called steatite or soapstone, in found in small pockets in the Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya. Uranium deposits have been found in Ghansali area of Tehri- Garhwal. During the past half a century, these rich mineral resources of Himalaya have been exploited and besides, mining activity has been witnessed in Mussoorie hills. The general public and environmentalists have observed detrimental effect of mining and raised this issue with the highest authority in the Government and the judiciary. The Supreme Court of India has recently put a blanket ban on mining in Mussoorie hills. It is the endeavour of the authors to bring out the effects of mining on the environment of Himalaya in this paper.
Today, due to mining and deforestation, rivers cause devastating floods not only in the mountains but in the plains s well. Every year, hundreds of people are killed and a thousand more are rendered homeless. Thousands of tons of irreplaceable fertile topsoil is washed away, resulting in declining agricultural outputs, thereby adding further pressure on natural resources. Forest lands are deprived of soil holding vegetation. Hillsides are sinking and cracks have developed in the rocks. As such, the landslides have spoiled the character and beauty of the mountains.
85 Fragile Nature of Geological Structure of Himalaya The Himalaya is one of the youngest mountain systems of the world; it is geologically unstable and made up mostly of stratified and sedimentary rock formation. The instability of the Himalayan regions is exemplified by the occurrence of earthquakes; several earthquakes in recent times have affected vast areas in the Himalaya. It is anticipated that such violent movements will continue in future. To-day the fragile structure of the Himalaya is being further undermined by the construction of huge dams, mining, use of high potency explosives and the tunneling of deep surge shafts which will eventually channel great volume of water. These activities have shaken the loose rocks of the mountains.
Due to quarrying limestones in the hills of Mussoorie, the environment of Doon Valley has become imbalanced. It has disturbed the stability of the fragile ecosystem. The extraction of the minerals initially disturbs the land-soil-vegetation system by removal of vegetation and top soil. This phenomenon is associated with mining. The high rainfall (specially in monsoons) worsens the land instability introduced by mining. The extraction of limestone creates a deteriorating ecological impact on land resources. The use of explosives to remove the rocks weakens the already fragile rock structure. Landslides due to mining have further increased the silting in the rivers and streams of the Doon Valley. Increased silting has also been observed in Bhagirathi river due to construction activity in connection with a Dam at Tehri.
Turbidity and Its Effect on Aquatic Environment Turbidity or silting also adversely affects the fauna and flora of the streams and rivers. It also hinders in the process of photosynthesis among photoplanktons. The highest and lowest turbidity changes have been found to be associated with minima and maxima of phytoplanktons. In the Bhagirathi river, 86 downstream from Tehri, due to excessive turbidity by the construction of dam, there has been a continuous decrease in the quantity of phytoplanktons, zooplanktons and fish communities. The turbidity decreases dissolved oxygen and increases carbon dioxide in the river water. Fishes are unable to detect their food in turbid waters. The feeding activity gets reduced, the gut is either empty or with only a small amount of food material. This could be due to the following reasons.
The increased turbidity affects the feeding of the fishes. In most of the fish, the stomachs were found to be empty and devoid of any food item. It appears that the turbidity of the water is correlated with the decreased feeding activity of the fishes. In turbid waters, on the other hand, the fishes are unable to detect the food with ease.
The water resources of the Doon Valley are slowly and gradually drying up due to quarrying of the limestone deposits of the Mussoorie hills. The water retention power of the hills is exorbitantly reduced due to loss of top soil and vegetation cover and as such, the rain water quickly flows down the hills. As a result, the aquifers are not annually charged and the natural springs slowly die out. The valley is served mainly by streams originating in the Mussoorie hills. Calcium carbonate from lime based industries and dust from cement factory has polluted the environment of Doon Valley and the entire valley is turned into a gas chamber. The cement dust, which is a mixture of calcium carbonate and silica, affects the animal and plant life of this area. The dust layer on the plants (specially on the leaves) hinders the process of photosynthesis, transpiration and exchange of gases. Due to the layer of dust, the leaves do not get sun light (radiant energy) properly and slowly and gradually the chlorophyll pigment of the mesophyll tissue of the leaves gets disintegrated and ultimately the leaves become pale and yellow. The trees are unable to synthesise their food and as a result, they perish. This magnitude of pollution is also affecting the famous Basmati rice crop of 87 Dehra Dun. Quarrying for the limestone and phosphates have destroyed the green cover of the earth. The fertile top soil has been destroyed. It is estimated that one inch of natural soil formation takes place in 400- 1000 years. During the process of unscientific mining, this layer is destroyed within days. The mining is fast spreading over the Himalaya, unspectacularly but relentlessly.  The wildlife is getting exterminated. This ecological stress in the mountains has a destructive impact in the plains because of the fury of floods, the siltation of reservoirs and dams, the loos of agriculture leading to irrecoverable human and economic losses.
40. In the same book, learned authors; Mr. R.C. Upadhyaya & Mr. C.C. Pant, in article "Mining Activities in parts of Eastern Kumaun Himalaya and their Environmental Impact" have stated as under :-
Kumaun is rich in its mineral wealth, specially in magnesite, talc, dolomite, limestone and gypsum etc. Being bestowed with important mineral deposits, Kumaun is no exception to the problems of environmental degradation caused by the mining operations. Extraction of minerals in this part is not a recent phenomenon. Evidences of old workings are seen at various places, which signify the smelting operations in the past. The slug material is seen scattered on the hill slopes at various localities. Significantly this region a very advance copper and iron industry in the past, over three hundred years old. With the advent of modern industrial advancement, the Himalaya, in general, were searched for various industrial raw materials. The actual scientific mining however, started recently. Recent surveys by various government organizations and universities have proved that these mineral deposits, if properly utilised and assessed, can bring about an economic revolution for the region. Although the variety of minerals is not very much, however the important occurrences/deposits 88 of magnesite talc, limestone, dolomite, copper and lead are known (Fig 1). Significantly Kumaun has the richest magnesite deposits of the country, presently being mined at some place. Herbert (1842), Medlicot (1864), Auden (1935), Heim and Gansser (1939), Nautiyal (1942, 1953), Muktinath (1949), Muktinath and Wakhloo (1961), Misra and Valdiya (1961), Valdiya (1968, 1972), Safaya (1976) are pioneer workers, who described various mineral occurrences in Kumaun. Valdiya (1968) comprehensively described the various magnesite deposits of Kumaun stretching between the Kali river in the east and the Satluj river in the west.
The complex structural architecture of Kumaun Himalaya consits of all the four Himalayan physiographic-geologic sub- provinces. On being traced northward, these are (1) The Outer Himalaya or Sub Himalaya (2) Lower or Lesser Himalaya (3) Higher or Great Himalaya and (4) Trans or Tethyan Himalaya. The geological details are beyond the scope of the present paper and for more information, the work of Heim and Gansser (1939), Gansser (1961) and Valdiya (1980) could be referred.
Mineral Resources: Present Status and Future Prospects The chief mineral occurrences/deposits associated with these geotectonic units are described below in order of their abundance and distribution.
Limestone- The basal horizon of the Gangolihat dolomite is predominantly made up of limestone with thin bands of dolomitic limestone. In the Pithoragarh district three distinct belts of limestone are recognizable. The first, extending from Baste to Naulara (Ramganga valley) and further eastward is about 20 km long and 230 metres thick and consists of about 3.4 million tonnes of cement grade (CaO 74.2%, MgO 2.5 and insoluble residue 10-13%) limestone (Kumar et, al., 1970). Another band of cement grade limestone is recorded from Postala-Kulur Gad area. This belt is about 6 km long and 25 metres thick with a total estimated reserves of 89 16 million tonnes. A very significant band has been recorded south of Gangolihat. This is about 13 km long and 50 to 200 metres thick, extending along Nargol Gad, Bagaur, Chaunala and Suitola. Chemically it consits of Ca 45-50%, Mg 0.75 to 1.80%, and SiO2 5 to 13.20, with an average of about 10.38%. About 60 million tonnes of limestone has been estimated and the U.P. State Cement Corporation has proposed to establish a cement plant near Chaunela. The Calc-tuffa of the Krol Formation of Nainital area is of cement grade. About 55,000 tonnes reserves of calc-tuffa (CaO 32-53%, MgO 2%, Al2O3 3%, SiO2 1-10%) have been recognised from Chunakahan-Saulena-Adhaura area. Another marmorized limestone belt has been found north of Nainital, extending from Betalghat- Jaurasi to Nathuakhan. The average chemical composition of the limestone of the belt is CaO 46.06, Al2O31.53, SiO2 14.63, Fe2O3 1.211 and LOI 36.33 Kumaun has very rich limestone deposits. Detailed investigations are still to be carried out.
Dolomite- Dolomite is found in many parts of Kumaun. The Gangolihat Dolomite Formation of the eastern Kumaun Himalaya is predominantly made of dolomite. The deposits are vast and no systematic attempt has been made to calculate the reserves of dolomite deposits. The Krol Formation of Nainital area are predominantly made up of dolomite.
Dolomite is an important mineral used in refractory, and as flux material in steel, glass, paper and sugar industries.
Magnesite- The magnesite deposits of Kumaun are one of the biggest deposits in India. It is used in steel and cement industry for making refractory bricks. The coarse- grained Kumarun magnesite is found associated with the uppermost horizon of the carbonates of Gangolihat dolomite. The deposits stretch between the river Kali in the east and Alaknanda Valley in the west. (Valdiya, 1968).
North of Pithoragarh, an important deposit extending along Bisabajer, Chandak, Dharigaon, Baste has been located (Fig 1).
90 The average chemical composition of the deposit is MgO 42.3%, CaO 1.66%, SiO2 5.53%and R2O3 3.41% (Valdiya, 1976). In the east, another significant belt is found along Rithait-Fadyali-Dhuraphat upto Jhirauli. (The Jhirauli deposit consists of about 3.3 million toones of magnesite, economically being mined by M/s. Almora Magnesite Ltd., since 1974. The average chemical composition of the deposit is MgO 42.05%, CaO 1.22%, SiO2 2.5% and R2O3 3.10%. Another chain of magesite is found extending from Panthsera, Gandoli, Dungari, Dewalthal, Bora-Agar and Rain-Agar in the east, and extends west ward from Bhurgaon-Dewaldhar towards Girichhina. The average composition of the deposit is MgO 43.39%, CaO 1.40%, SiO2 2.83% and R2O3 1.71%. South of Main Central Thrust a chain of magnesite is also recorded extending from Paiya in the east and Tupar, Jakh and Jakheri in the west (Lahor Valley). The thickness of a few important magnesite deposits is given in Table 1.
Talc - It is found associated with the magnesite and dolomite. Preliminary surveys indicate occurrences of high grade talc in Almora, Pithoragarh and Chamoli district. The deposits of Jakhera, lahor Valley, Agar- Girichhina, Khuna, pachar, pungar Valley, Pinya-Pauri, Ritha Raintoli, Dewalthal, Rain Agar have proved to be economically exploitable. An estimated reserve of about 2 million tonnes have been calculated in the deposits of Girichhina, Badolisera, Chimta and Kanda. The Pangar and Lahor Valleys, deposits are estimated to have 4.1 million of talc. In the Pithoragarh district near Malajhula, about 4 km long and 60 metres thick talc and has been located (Valdiya, 1976). There are many known occurrences of talc but detailed investigations are still to be carried out.
Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities
Being bestowed with important mineral deposits Kumaun is no exception to the environmental degradation caused by their unscientific exploitation. In the present investigation a few mines such a Chandak 91 magnesite, Tarigaon magnesite, Jhirauli magnesite, Chharendev magnesite, Toli talc mine, and Dewalthal talc mines (Fig 1) and other small mines were investigated and the observations are described in the following pages.
Chandak Magnesite Mines (District Pithoragarh) North of Pithoragarh, around Chandak many magnesite and talc occurrences have been reported in the recent years. The Chandak mines are located about 156 km from the railhead Tanakpur. Some of the magnesite deposits around Chandak are being economically exploited such as near Tarigaon, Dharigaon, Dhunga. The magnesite is associated with stromatolitic dolomites and dolomitic limestones in the uppermost horizon of the Gangolihat Dolomites (= Deoban). In occurs in lenticular forms and is coarse-grained greyish, whitish and light pink in colour. The mining activities in these mines were started in 1973, by two private concerns namely M/s Himalayan Magnesite Ltd. and Orissa Industries Ltd.
The average chemical composition of the magnesite is MgO 42.3%, CaO 1.66% SiO2 5.53 and R2O3 3.51% (Valdiya, 1976) thus making it suitable for refractory bricks. The area has a total estimated reserve of 3 million tonnes. The annual production, during 1985, for different mines was - Chandak (231850.598 mt), Dhunga (6250 mt) Dharigaon (3185 mt) and in Tarigaon magnesite for 1984 the production was 180139.66 mt.
The mining is done by the opencast methods and the extraction is carried by dynamite blasting and handtools. The magnesite is slid down the hillslopes to the dumpars. In the process of excavation, benches and approach roads are made for an easy excavation of the material.
Environmental Problems The indiscriminate and unscientific methods of mining in the geodynamically sensitive 92 areas has caused serious environmental problems in this sector of Himalaya. The various aspects of environmental degradation, as observed during field work are described in the following pages.
Deforestation- Prior to the mining activities the vegetal cover is removed from the mining sites, accelerating erosion and mass movement. The scree which is allowed to slide down the hill slopes near Dhunga (Plate 3), Tarigaon and Chandak is harming and hampering the growth of trees, shrubs and grasses. The recent growth of xerophytic plants around Chandak area indicate emergence of semidesertic to desertic climatic conditions in the area caused by unscrupulous felling of trees.
Mass-Movement and siltation - In the process of excavation a huge amount of debris is allowed to roll down the valley slopes, accelerating the erosion. The scree originating from Chandak mines is swept away by the Papdev stream. During the last 13 years, more than 4 metres thick sediment load has been deposited in the stream, resulting in the widening of channel, flooding of low lying cultivated fields and accelerating bank erosion (Plate 2). The flash floods have completely destroyed the boundary walls and fencing of the cultivated fields such as seen near Papdev village, northwest of Pithoragarh township and along Rai gadhera. The very poorly maintained approach roads too contribute a large amount of mass wasting and sinking of the ground. On an average, construction of one kilometer road in the hills requires removal of about 40,000 to 80,000 m3 of debris (Valdiya, 1985). As such the unmetalled approach roads connecting the mines to the main roads, such as Chandak- Dharigaon (3 km) Pithoragarh town-Tarigaon (1.9 km) Chandak to Dhunga (2.5 km), generate a large amount of loose debris. The loose material is allowed to roll down the slopes triggering off the landslides, increasing mass movement and reactivating the erosion processes. Most affected areas are the banks of Rai gadhera and western slope of Mostmanu. The abandoned mining sites in 93 the area continue to present dangers because of unsealed shafts, sharp cliffs and unstable spoil piles etc. The villagers informed that many cattles die every year due to such mining menace.
Geohydrological impacts - The mining activities have largely affected the local surface drainage as well as the groundwater conditions in area. Few years back, before the mining operations started in the Dharigaon area, there used to be water mills along the Chhanna gadhera, but the excessive siltation and debris flows in the stream have completely changed the hydrological conditions and there is no water in the stream for running the mills (Plate 6). Moreover the excessive siltation has not only accelerated the erosion but has also destroyed the gradient required for running the mills, such as seen near Dharigaon. The blasting operations have affected the discharge of the springs, even some springs in Papdev, Chandak, Dharapani, Kimchaur, Bajethi, Kaphlani, Marhgaon, Mostmanu, Helpati, Dhari and Channa have dried up during last two decades.
Health Hazards - Large quantities of smoke and dust are produced during excavation, blasting and beneficiation processes. The inhalation of dusty air causes pneumoconosis and many lung diseases. Thin layers of silt could be seen upto many kilometers away from the excavation and beneficiation plant sites. The silt and carbon emanating from the beneficiation plant ultimately settles on the leaves of the herbs, shrubs and plants causing severe physiological disorders due to blocking of stromata, affecting transpiration and photosynthesis processes. This causes molting and premature yellowing of leaves. The growth of pine trees near the Chandak and Tarigaon beneficiation plants has been affected, causing premature mortality of the leaves. The noxious gases produced during blasting and from dead burn magnesite (DBM) near Tarigaon and Chandak adds up to the problem of atmospheric pollution. The main pollutant gases being nitrous oxide, carbon mono-oxide and carbon dioxide. The 94 area has also suffered to some extent due to the noise pollution.
Socio-economic impacts - The opening of the mining industries in this economically backward region of Himalaya has both positive and negative socio-economic implications. The mining activities have raised the income of local people and have to some extent also changed the social environment. The problem of rehabilitation, scarification of agricultural land due to mining and their socio economic impact must be studied in detail before the actual mining operations are taken up.
41. In the same book, learned author; Mr. G.S. Rajwar, in article "Limestone Quarrying -A hazard to Mussoorie Mountains and their Ecosystem" has opined as under :-
Mussoorie hills were developed as a base for trekkings and excursions by the parties from the plains of India and abroad about 50 years ago. The Mussoorie town situated at an altitude of 2000.5 m having a population of about 30,000 is no longer a queen of hills as these are badly scarred with irregular patches due to uncontrolled limestone quarrying and road construction to these quarries. This activity has posed a great threat to the ecosystem and stability of these mountains. The quarrying has resulted in the loss of top soil and vegetation cover thus increasing the soil erosion and landslides. The quarrying is being done in an unscientific manner and without any control measures for the protection of the ecosystem of these mountains. These hills need an immediate attention for the balance in the environment and the conservation of palnt, soil and water resources.
The vegetation of Mussoorie hills has been described by Osmaston (1927), Gupta (1928), Raizada (1959), Saxena and Srivastava (1973), Rajwar (1976) and Raizada and Saxena (1978). Some of the ecological problems of these hills have been studied by Rajwar (1981-82, 1982). The geological study 95 of these quarries has been made by Negi (1982).
Mussoorie hills fall within the district Dehra Dun of Western Himalaya. During the fifth decade of the present century the quarrying was confined to a few places. Since the lime extracted in Mussoorie and Dehra Dun valley is the best in India, the demand for it grew fast and leases for quarrying were given by the Government. The protests of the local people were ignored while issuing and renewing the leases. The quarrying in Mussoorie hills is carried out for the extraction of limestone, marble, dolomite, gypsum and a phosphate called Mussoorie phos. The quarrying in these hills is done by the private contractors and a Government of India Undertaking - Pyrites, Phosphates and Chemcials Limited. As a result of intensive quarrying, one views a shocking glimpse of the fading beauty of these mountains from Dehra Dun valley. Both the northern and the southern slopes have become badly scarred with wide, irregular patches making blots on these mountains. For the extraction of various minerals, the hills are quarried at random with the help of blasts using explosives. The quarries are situated at Hathipaon, Bhatta village, Durmala, below Mossey Fall, Near Kempty Falls, on the east and south of Jharipani, north of Rajpur and on all sides of Sahastradhara. There are about 60 temporary roads constructed for the carrier trucks from these quarries to the main roads.
Topography and Geology The topography of these mountains is hilly with deep gorges and gullies. The rivers are smaller and pass through the narrow ravines in north-south direction. Most of the quarries are situated on the southern slopes which consist of less thicker vegetation as compared to the northern ones.
The rocks of these mountains are divided into Tertiary and pre-Tertiary groups. The Main Boundary Thrust separates the pre-Tertiary from Tertiary formation. This thrust is 96 disturbed by a series of faults. These faults and the Main Boundary Thrust make a disturbance zone. In this zone a part of quarrying has been taking place in the foothills area. The pre-Tertiary rocks constitute the Mussoorie hills whereas the Tertiary rock are confined to the Dehra Dun valley and Siwaliks. There are two belts in the Tertiary rocks - Mandali and Krol belts. The quarries occurin Krol belt. The Chandpur slate, consisting mainly of grey, green, purple, red and black coloured slates occupy the bottom of the rock formation. This slate is covered by pink, white and cream coloured quartzites in the sequence of rock geology. The Krol formation consist of limestone, dolomite and marble. The red shales comprise the lower units. The Krol formation is separated from the overlying Tal formation by a band of black coloured phosphorite. This rock part is quarried at Durmala to extract a rock phosphate called Mussoorie phos. The Tal formation consists of shales and quartzites.
Effects of quarrying on the ecosystem The Mussoorie hills are badly denuded by quarrying and the construction of temporary roads to these quarries affecting the ecosystem of these mountains adversely. The quarrying has resulted in the loss of vegetation and top soil, decreased the water table and accelerated the soil erosion and landslides. The explosions for the blasting of rocks have weakened the faults and rock formations as a result of which the slope failures occur and these increase the probability of landslides.
The quarrying activities are going on in an unscientific manner as the check dams have not been constructed below these quarries to prevent the soil erosion. The mineral belt is exposed by random quarrying which clears the vegetation and top soil of these mountains. The blasting has activated the faults and the Main Boundary Thrust forming a disturbance zone in the middle area. This zone is prone to soil erosion and landslides due to slope failure. The hills are quarried 97 indiscriminately without following any measures to prevent the ecological balance in the ecosystem. The quarry owners do not take any interest in maintaining a balance in the ecosystem.
In the upper areas such as at Hathipaon, Durmala and Kempty Falls there has been a continuous decrease in the water table. The water resources in these areas have decreased in the recent years. The quarrying activities near the Mussoorie town and surrounding villages have threatened their stability. The accelerated soil erosion and landslides have resulted in the silting up of rivers and agricultural fields. The amount of silt has been increasing in the rivers at Rajpur and Sahastradhara. The waterfalls on the north of Sahastradhara have dried up due to quarrying on all sides of this area. The agricultural fields on the east and north of Sahastradhara have been filled up with the silt during the rains. The erosion and silting up of rivers have also caused the water pollution and the floods in Dehra Dun valley since 1978. The residential houses and agricultural area near Bhatta village, mossey Fall and below Hathipaon have been threatened due to quarrying in their upper parts. There has been an increase in the dust count of the air at various quarrying places. The maximum dust count has been recorded at Jharipani (89.7 per cubic feet of air) and Sahastradhara (98.6 per cubic feet of air). The amount of dust deposition on the vegetation has also been found in an appropriate quantity to affect the physiology of plants near the quarries and temporary roads. The amount of dust on the leaves of different species has recorded as 20 to 90 cm in 24 hours. The dust particles block the stomata of these plants and ultimately kill them by affecting their physiology adversely. The maximum temperature of Mussoorie town has increased by 8 degrees in 1981 as against the maximum temperature in 1950 (25.80C).
The quarrying has caused a severe damage to the temperate and subtropical vegetation of the area. In the upper areas the forests of Quercus incana, Q. dilatata, Rhododendron 98 arboretum and their undergrowth has been reduced at Hathipaon in particular. Other temperate forests near Bhatta village and Haripani have been affected adversely. The forests of Olea glandulifera, Machilus odoratissima, Bauhinia retusa, Cornus oblonga, Pinus roxburghii, Engelhardtia colebrookiana, Acer oblongum, Phoebe lanceolata and Cestrum aurantiacum have been cleared near Jharipani. The subtropical forests near Rajpur and Sahastradhara affected by quarrying include the forests of Shorea robusta, Toona ciliate and Qugeinia oojenensis. The vegetation loss has also resulted in the emergence and growth of xerophytes such as Euphorbia royleana, Lantana camara and Tagetes minuta in the lower areas.
The quarrying has endangered the stability of residential and agricultural area and the stability of these mountains. The main Dehra Dun-Mussoorie road may sink due to quarrying near Bhatta village. If the present system of quarrying continues, the consequences will cause more environmental pollution and instability of the Mussoorie mountains.
Measures for Conservation The Mussoorie mountains need an immediate attention for the maintenance of ecosystem and the conservation of soil and vegetation cover. The local people of Mussoorie and Surrounding villages have raised their voice for the protection of these hills under the banner of the Save Mussoorie Society, but at present the first need is to prevent the denuded hills from erosion and landslides.
The quarrying should not be allowed near the Mussoorie town and villages. The distance of quarries should be more than 8 km from the human settlements. The minimum distance between two quarries should be 4 km. The quarrying should not be allowed on the slopes where vegetation loss and soil erosion has taken place. The check dams should be made below the quarries. The blasted areas should be declared at the reserve areas by putting 99 them under afforestation programmes for at least 10 years. In these plantation programmes first the trees suited to drier conditions should be planted for example Toona Ciliata, Ougeinia oojenensis and Erythrina sp. followed by the broad leaved other trees.
A 4-5 km wide zone on either side of the main Boundary Thrust should be declared as a zone of no blasting. This would help in minimizing the slope failures. The present open quarrying method should be switched over to tunneling or underground method to protect the top soil and vegetation cover. These conservation measures are essential to prevent the ecosystem damage and for the maintenance of stability and beauty of these Himalayan mountains.
42. In the same book, learned authors; Mr. R.C. Misra, Mr. R.C. Mehrotra & Mr. M.N. Joshi, in article "Perception of Environmental Hazards In Dehradun Valley Due to Exploitation of Natural Resources" have opined as under :-
The 'Dun', a characteristic geomorphological entity of Himalaya, is significant for its natural resources particularly the minerals, soil, forest and water. The exploitation programmes for these have, however, been observed to influence adversely the ecosystem of the region. The Dehradun Valley, is structurally a synclinal trough within the Siwalik system of rocks. The youngest formation in the region are the river terraces formed of the Dun gravels. The land is very fertile and is a bonanza of rich forest wealth. The occurrences of limestone, gypsum, phospherite marble barite, galena and building stones are noteworthy.
The study has revealed that unscrupulous exploitation of these resources has caused alarming environmental degradation. Therefore, the developmental plans of the region are required to be guided by environmental management and scientific planning. Hence, the results of the chemical, physical and data based investigation have been presented here. It is suggested that 100 suitable measures be adopted before and during the exploitation programme.
Introduction In the Himalayan region a series of narrow elongated longitudinal valleys characteristically designated as 'Duns' form important geomorphological features. They owe their origin primarily to the structural features rather than the erosional processes. The Dehradun, one such important valley is bounded by Lesser Himalaya in north and younger Siwalik mollasse in south and is limited by the rivers Ganga and Yamuna in east and west respectively. It lies between Long. 77035 to 78024 east and Lat. 29055 to 30030 north and covers an area of more than 2,000 sq km. The elevation ranges from 315 to 2,400 m, with gradient varying between 7 to 10 m/km. The annual rainfall is 2,145 mm and the maximum and minimum temperatures are 42 and 4 C respectively 0 0 (Sexena, Anantharaman & Pandey, 1979).
The Dehradun valley could boast of the most pleasant climate, prolific growth of forests, a natural shelter for the wild life and most fertile agricultural lands, besides promising mineral resources. All these gifts of the nature were to be utilized by the man for his own prosperity which he gallantly did, nut, in his over enthusiasm to plunder the earth's assests, he had been recklessly overlooking the consequences. The complex environmental phenomenon can be defined by the mutual interaction between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and the atmosphere1. In so far as this interaction was controlled by the natural agencies, an adequate eco-balance was maintained but it started to deteriorate when the needy and greedy man came into picture2. Lately the significance of the problem of the environmental hazards has been perceived. The object here is to exemplify this very perception of environmental degradation particularly in the Dehradun valley.
101 Geological and Geomorphological Model of the Valley Geologically the Dehradun valley is a synclinal trough within the Siwalik formation. The limbs of the syncline consist of the Middle and Upper Siwalik rocks followed by the northerly dipping Pre-Tertiary formations of Lesser Himalaya in north. On all these older formations are deposited the Pliestocene and Recent sediments, the Dun gravels. Towards north, unlike to the other part of Himalaya, the Siwaliks directly come in contact with the rocks of Krol nappe and thus the superposition of the krol thrust on the Main Boundary Fault is exhibited. Main Boundary Fault appears to be neotectonically active as revealed by changes in the river courses and movement of hills blocks, landslides etc. The oldest lithounit of the Lesser Himalayan succession in the present area is the Precambrian Chandpur Formation overlain by the Precambrian to Lower Palaeozoic Nagthat, Blaini, Infra-Krol, Krol and Tal Formation successively which form the northerly dipping southern limb of Mussoorie syncline.
The geomorphic features of the valley are the ultimate net result of the geological structures, lithology, erosional and depositional processes, climate and drainage pattern. Geomorphologically also the valley can be divided into the northern lesser Himalayan zone, the southern Siwalik zone and the central valley zone, the three more or less coinciding with the synclinal-anticlinal pattern of the valley. Anatharaman (1981) has given a detailed classification of the various geomorphic regions of the Dehradun valley. viz. (i). Lesser Himalayan Structural Hills, (ii). Piedmont colluvial tract, (iii). Dun gravels and
(iv). Siwalik structural denudation hills.
The drainage pattern in the valley is also quite significant. There is main water divided trending more or less N-S and passing through the city of Dehra Dun and it separates the Ganga and Yamuna water systems. The rivers commonly exhibit intermittent drainage network.
102 Natural Resources and their Exploitation The Chandpur phyllites, Nagthat quartzites, Blaini conglomerates and the Infra-Krol slates of the valley are broadly speaking barren as far as the mineral resources are concerned. However, some of the quartizite is locally used for building purposes but no economic significance can be given to it. One the contrary the Krol formation, particularly the massive as well as bedded limestone of the Upper Krol extensively exposed in the area formed the backbone of the mineral based industry in the Dehra Dun valley. Most of the limestone mined was till recent past being used from manufacture of lime but the cement grade and chemical grade varieties also occur and possibilities to establish suitable industries to use them could have been considered. A small-scale cement factory was already in operation in the region, but its closure has been ordered. There are a few workable pockets of gypsum within the Krols such as those near Sahastradhara, Chiphaldi etc. which are being currently mined by the private enterprises.
The Krol-Tal contact in the Mussoorie syncline is marked by the presence of 3 to 3.5 m, thick phosphorite belt which has been found to be a most suitable natural fetiliser particularly for acidic soils. The mining is being carried out at Maldeota and Durmala by the PPCL, a Government of India undertaking. The other prospective deposits are located at Paritibba, Chamasari, Chiphaldi and Bhusti, the exploitation of which may be taken up in due course of time.
The younger Siwalik rocks supply good building material. The Upper Siwalik sandstone in the valley is suitable to be mixed up with some of the Krol limestone for the manufacture of Portland Cement. The Dun gravels supply material to be used for building purposes.
Besides these, there are some minor occurrences of minerals like barite, galena, marble and lignite from various formations, the economic importance of which has not yet 103 been established. Show the important mineral localities in the Dehradun valley and adjoining areas.
The forest of Dehradun valley occupy more than 60% area and is represented by different types of herbs, shrubs and trees. Babu (1977) has given an elaborate list of some of the noteworthy plants which proves that the Dehradun forest is extremely rich for wood industries, fruit production and therapeutic applications besides the wild life protections. The species of deodar, sal, oak, walnut, semal, khair, gular, kans, munj, strawberry, kunj etc., are worth mentioning.
So far as the soil resources are concerned, the valley comprises both denudational and depositional soils. The Dun gravels form older and younger terraces of different rivers of both Ganga and Yamuna system.
Sedimentological studies have shown that the older Pleistocene terraces are fluvioglacial whereas the younger Holocene terraces are fluvial (Prasad and Verma, 1974). The soil of the region has been proved to be very fertile for the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, fruits and vegetables.
Even in case of water resources the valley is quite prosperous. The annual rain-fall is so high that the water poured in the valley has to follow various river channels to feedup the two major rivers Ganga and Yamuna. It is only the topography of the region which is responsible for the intermittence in the surface runoff. Ground water level is transected for the water to come out in the form of springs and seepages. Nossin (1971) points out that it is fortunate for the valley to have the Dun-Aquifer-zone which more or less coincides with the limits of Dun fan formation. Further, the Lesser Himalayan zone is characterised by the presence of extensive limestone formation of the Krols. This also gives rise to a number of spring zones in the valley which according to Saxena, Anantharaman and Pande (1979) can be classified in the following zones:
Candrabhaga-Rishikesh spring zone; Dun- aquifer zone; Swarna-Ghuchupani-Bhogpur-
104 Ogal spring zone; Aglar-Khattapani-Bidhalana spring zone, and Ghattudhar-Murray spring zone.
Thus it is obvious that as far as the natural resources are concerned the valley is highly prosperous to feedup the regional requirements of both the mountainous and plain habitations. However, as in other cases, in exploitation of these resources also, it is essential that a proper balance is maintained so that it does not hamper the natural environment. Ironically the various developmental programmes being carried out in the valley were not observing the environmental planning schemes till recent past. Although, now the situation is slightly changed due to the alert and conscious pursuation by various social, scientific and academic agencies as also due to strict steps taken by the government, there are still some voices of concern regarding the economic development of the valley and related social and socio-economical problems. So it is self evident that a perception of environmental degradation and the economical growth should be developed in a balanced manner.
Perception of Eco-Imbalance Substantial contributions have been made by the geoscientists in perception studies as a part of hazard research which was initially confined to natural hazards Poerter1 has enlarged the scope of hazard perception research by introducing environmental hazards as a recognition of the human and social contribution to the existence of hazards. Technological hazards also form a part of environmental hazards as the former is a concomitant of technological contributions to the creation of a desirable man - environment relationship. But mismanagement of technology has been greatly responsible to create technological hazards which, in many cases, become more damaging than the natural hazards. Burton and Kates (1978) stated that in resource management activities, inadequate knowledge of environment leads to extreme hazardous conditions. Mehrotra and Joshi1, while 105 reviewing the environmental degradation in Himalaya have also shown that the relatively young and tectonically weak mountain system is in itself prone to natural hazards which become more damaging by the addition of server technological hazards caused by the mineral exploitation activities. Subsequently Mehrotra and Bahukhandi (1982) have carried out detailed investigations of Eastern Himalayan sector and have substantially proved that there also the natural hazards have been accelerated due to technological applications.
From this point of view when one looks at Dehradun valley, he immediately discerns the grave situation of both natural and technological hazards in this region too. The slope failure and landsliding has been a common phenomenon in this region and the incompetent rocks like phyllites, slates and shales accompanied with highly jointed quartzites and sandstones were being most susceptible to large-scale erosion causing severe damages, (Sah, Pal & Mazari, 1982). Similarly the neotectonic activity bringing upheaval of the valley and changing the courses of the rivers and creating fluctuations in the rate of erosion were also bringing about additive effects. Besides, a major portion of the area is occupied by the limestones which being relatively susceptible to water action creates numerous cavities and caverns ultimately weakening the region. The Rajpur - Mussoorie tract Saura viilage Dwara village Ichari dam site are some of the important examples of such natural hazards.
Soil erosion is also enhanced by various natural activities such as the high rainfall, landslides, network of torrents and the sloppy terrains (Bharadwaj, 1982). Similarly the landsliding and slope failure cause natural deforestation also. Another intends to emphasise here that although hazards do occur naturally but the nature has got the tendency to compensate the loss and maintain the ecobalance by soil accumulation and afforestation.
On the contrary man creates technological hazards ignoring the compensation. The 106 quarrying for limestone from the hills and along the northern border of the valley is a glaring example. Whosoever had visited the beautiful Sahastradhara tourist resort a few years back will be shocked to see the unscrupulous mining operations which have extensive wastelands and bare hills. The overburden was dumped in the Baldi river valley not only damaging the greenery but also causing water pollution. Apart from being a beauty spot the Sahastradhara spring water has been found similar in composition to that of Trinquelle (Germany) and the white sulphur spring (USA) which are used for the cure of skin diseases (Saxena, Anantharaman and Pande, (1979). If such highly medicinal water instead of being used for the specific purpose gets polluted it's significance will be totally lost.
At Maldeota quarrying for phosphorite is going on. Although water pollution in the Bandal river is being induced by the steams flowing from the mine site but the PPCL seems to be cautious regarding the problem. They have built barrages to check the waste accumulation and are trying to some extent recultivation of forests. However, it is necessary to accelerate this process, as the measures being taken are quite insignificant comparing the loss. Huge boulders are being eroded blocking the valleys. At Durmala phosphorite quarry also, suitable precautionary measures are being applied and the removed overburden is begin accumulated in the dry valley gaps, thus strengthening the slopes.
At Bhatta, situated between Dehradun and Mussoorie, quarrying for marble on a large- scale was being done by private enterprises. Bhatta marbles form the basement for a part of Dehradun-Mussoorie highway. Therefore, continuous mining operations proved a threat to it.
Not only the quarrying of limestones was creating technological hazards in the region but also the limestone processing plants were damaging the environment more severely. The lime kilns are located within the residential areas for example on Rajpur road and 107 Sahastradhara road within Dehradun city. These kilns were continuously producing the toxic gases and smoke polluting the surroundings. Further, these kilns are situated along the bank of river Rispana and during rainy season pollute it's water as well.
Almost all the roads leading to various quarries and kilns are non-metalled, hence the vehicles continuously plying on the tract cause constant dust pollution. The private mine owners were not such particular in maintaining the vehicles and other instruments in perfect working conditions. Therefore, often they create a lot of noise pollution. It has shown that the noise pollution is also a severe damage to a healthy environment.
Cultivation, overgrazing and felling of trees has been important factors responsible for deforestation. Although 60% area of Dehradun valley is forest but only trees are left in parts and the herbs and shrubs have all been destroyed.
Precautionary and Remedial Measures In so far as the protection of natural environment is the duty of the humanity, it should always be borne is mind that our own prosperity depends on developmental programmes. Because of the environmental degradation in the valley the executive and legal authorities of the country have taken very strict steps and presently most of the developmental activities are discontinued. This may turn out to be another extreme stage which may not be agreeable in due course of time. As already observed, a clear cut priority policy should be drawn to assess the real need of the nation and then to formulate the guidelines for the exploitation of resources required for it. Sah et al (1982) again stress the significance of maintaining the eco-balance without jeopardizing the developmental programmes. To achieve this a few remedial measures are being proposed which are as follows:
108 Remedial Measures
- A programme like environmental awareness should be adopted and private mine owners should be trained.
- Strip mining should be stopped and regular mining opted.

- Metalled roads should be constructed to approach the quarry sites, if, ropeways, conveyer belts facilities are not available.
- The lime kilns and crushers should preferably be shifted in places far off the towns, if possible, in forest areas where pollution may be minimised.
- Afforestation of mined areas should be taken up vigorously.
- Enforcement of mines legislation by Government of India.
- Reclamation of land and conservation of soil should be speeded up and the area should be terraced to avoid slope failures.
- Gully erosion should be checked by erecting the check dams and retaining walls etc.
- Grazing should be stopped in erosion prone areas.
- Toe walls along the foot of the slope should be erected to check further soil erosion and siltation of rivers.
- Permeable barriers should be made to make run off smooth and to retain the debris, siltation pits (catch-pits) should be constructed.
43. In the same book, learned author; Mr. Shekhar Pathak, in article "Mining In The Himalaya - Some Socio-
legal and Environmental aspects" has observed as under :-
109 "The controversy over mining in the U.P. Himalaya turns on the complex issue of conflicting government policies and private interests. The government is pursuing two policies: one is to exploit mineral resources in the interest of industrial development, while the other is to restore the hill environment in the interest of both of the natural economy of the hills and the agricultural economy of North Indian plains. Both of these policies are supposed to be in the national interest but is clear that unless mining of minerals in the hills is very carefully controlled, it will damage the very environment that is also sought to be preserved. The profit oriented interests of mining companies frequently leads them to ignore the controls imposed by the government and to ignore the disturbance to the lives of the hill people in the vicinity of the mines...."
-Madhava Ashish: 19 May 1986: Kausani.
The contentment among petitioners, environmentalists and general public after the Supreme Court decision (12 March, 1985) that the mining in 54 limestone quarries of Mussoorie - Dehradun region be stopped, was quite obivious. Perhaps this was the first occasion when judiciary came forward to protect the decaying environment of the Himalaya.
A bench of three judges, including Justice P.N. Bhagwati has been set up as a committee under the rural development secretary D. Bandopadhyaya. The committee shall report whether mining could be permitted in any particular limestone quarry? If not why? This committee shall also look into the pattern, extent, rate and consequences of the violation of the Mining Act 1952, Mining Regulation of 1961 and other law, and prepare a comprehensive plan for regulated mining. Central and quarries should be given priorities in the matters of contract and employment respectively, when and wherever new mining sites are given on lease. In these areas, degraded by mining, immediate steps towards afforestation and soil conservation will have to be undertaken.
110 But despite this important decision, the past and present of mining in the hills remains a sordid saga. Similarly there does not emerge any hope about the rejuvenation of the badly polluted water and air and stability of the soild around the mines in the Mussoorie - Dehradun and Almora - Pithoragarh regions. While welcoming the decision, we must look into the history and the present reality of the mining in the hills of Uttarakhand.
One may ask - is not the destruction and defilement of environment something inherent in the developmental model, our politico - economic system has choose? Wanton felling of the trees, pillage of herbs and plants is going on. Big dams are being constructed against the geo-seismic structure of the region. Mining activities are going on in a callous and unscientific way. At this juncture, mass Supreme Court alone may not be efficacious. Moreover, it is not certain whether it will effect other areas similarly affected. It should also be remembered that the decision of Supreme Court is not a final one.
A Peep into the Past The coming of East India Company to this region in 1815 was the beginning of the opening of the Himalaya. The colonial rulers cast longing eyes on the natural wealth of the Himalayan region and beyond. The search for resin, timber and minerals had begun before they actually reached here. The travelers and hunters who came here in that period did not forest to mention the forest and mineral wealth of the region, apart from the general wilderness of the Himalaya. Francis White (1837) was possibly the first traveler who mentioned about the vast reserves of limestone in the Mussoorie region. Those were the years when Mussoorie was in its infancy. In the lap of the hills over which the 'queen of mountains' settled down, the minerals remained unexploited for the next hundred years. The harmonious relationship between man and nature remained undisturbed and water resources from the nearby hills to Sahastradhara undefiled. The Britishers kept the region in good shape, particularly the hill 111 stations - while they did not hesitate to overexploit other adjoining regions.
Sporadic mining started after 1940. The refugees coming here after partition accelerated the process. In a short time, 20 families having cordial relationship with both politics and administration monopolized mining in the region. In 1961, the State Government resolved to regulate miming under the Mineral Act of 1957 and allowed 19 sites on lease for a period of 20 years. This act of State Government confined the mining rights in the hands of 14 families. The refugees of yesteryears became neo rich. But the colonial outlook of the government persisted.
From Injury to Sickness Now, Dehradun known for its litchi and basmati and Mussoorie for its wood and snows, began to grow and develop. For making luck from mining and forests, indiscriminate felling of the trees and over- use of dynamites for mining became a common feature. The population of Mussoorie was 500 in 1840, 5000 in 1881, and it swelled to 18,241, in 1981, while that of Dehradun went up from 2,126 in 1827, 20,683 in 1881 to 2,93,628 in 1981. The unregulated mining caused landslides, soil- erosion and floods-a recurrent and dreadful phenomenon. But for a long time public opposition against the formidable contractor lobby was pail and unorganized. Even the decisions taken by the Chief Minister Sri. H.N. Bahuguna (1976) against renewal of leases could not be implemented because of the influence of the contractor lobby. Although now the public was not a mute spectator and the issue was raised by journalists and scientists but is was of no avail. The landslides and soil erosion in Mussoorie area made floods in Dehradun more gruesome. The volume of silt in Balti and Rispana rivers become unprecedented and the water source of Sahastradhara, also known for its medicinal value, dried up. Since the cement and lime factories were gulping half of the city's drinking water, water crisis further worsened, irrigation system suffered, 112 while dust pushed up air pollution from normal 100 to 368 microgram per cubic metre. The clouds of danger began to hover over the flora and fauna of the Mussoorie hills and the Doon valley.
While it was realized in the Geological Congress of 1982 and pollution was mounting in the Doon valley, but because of the electoral and political reasons, Dehradun, the most developed town and district of U.P., was declared industrially backward. Hazardous lime-cement, and chemical industries were set up instead of industries suitable for the region like electronics. In a short span, the number of crushes and kilns increased to
210. Mrs. India Gandhi was very much concerned after seeing the favourate resort of her father so degraded and destructed. She expressed concern in the Parliament on 28 July 1983. But general polities and opinion about this issue remained confused and even in the much talked about Garhwal election, environment could not become an important issue. As public remained unorganized the contractors went on exploiting the minerals recklessly.
Finally, in 1983, 'Rural Litigation and Entitlement Centre', Dehradun moved the Supreme Court under PIL and filed a writ (No. 82K09/83). While on the one hand, the Supreme Court set up an enquiry committee and the Prime Minister expressed her concern in this regard, on the other hand, a few leaders of ruling party were hobnobbing with contractors. Thus, disregarding the master plan of Dehradun and against the views of the local Municipal Board two influential industrialists were permitted to set up cement and calcium-carbide plants at Dehradun- Mussoorie road (It may be mentioned here that the establishment of Union Carbide factory at Bhopal had a similar background). This made the air more polluted within no time and the dust of these plants started turning vast agricultural land into waste-land and affected the flora and fauna at Malasi Park. The news of the death of 8 men and dozens of animals also came into light. After the submission of the report of afore-
113 mentioned committee, came the decision of the Supreme Court.
Decision: Important but not Sufficient The decision of the Supreme Court is undoubtedly important but not sufficient. Therefore, there is hardly any room for complaicency because, firstly: illicit mining is still going on in Mussoorie-Dehradun valley, secondly - it has come after the near depletion of the water resources and forests of the region. Moreover, legal mining is to go on in 8 mines. Thirdly the decision is not likely to make any direct and immediate impact on the mining activities in Almora-Pithoragarh regions and elsewhere in the Himalaya.
This decision was not enforceable to 8 mines lying outside the jurisdiction of Mussoorie Municipality, as the Mining Act 1982 is not enforceable in those areas - as if the environment of the rural and urban parts of Mussoorie-Dehradun were two different things and rural environment is of less importance.
In the eastern part of Uttarakhand, mining is going on for more than a decade. It was started in Pithoragarh and Almora respectively in 1973 and 1974. In Almora, Almora Magnesite-Jhiroli, in Pithoragarh, Magnesite and Minerals Co. Chandak, Himalayan Magnasite Ltd. Tarigaon and Devalthal Magnasite Ltd.Devalthal are the leading companies. Share-holders of Almora Magnasite are TATA, SAIL and U.P. Government, while mining at Pithoragarh is in the hands of industrialists like Khetan, and Jhunjhuwala and Bharat refractories is operating as a public sector undertaking at Devalthal. From Devalthal only raw magnesite is transported. Limestone mines of Chaunala (Gangolihat) region in Pithoragarh and Khairna and Chaunala (Gangolihat) region in Pithoragarh and Khairnain Nainital districts have been allowed to the private sector for use in cement industry. Construction of one such cement factory has already started in the picturesque town of Lohaghat. But is has presently been deferred due to public opposition.
114 Mining, silting and dynamiting is drying up the water resources of Jhiroli, Matela, Bilori, Chhana, Kafligari, Baskhola, Bunga, Hartola villages in Almora district; Chandak, Bhurmuni, Nakena, Chhana, Dharigaon, Bakarkatiya, Halpati, Tarigaon, Gadia, Chhera, Bajethi, Devalthal and surrounding areas in Pithoragarh. Forest cover is fastly vanishing and encroachment of silt in the human settlement and agricultural lands is alarmingly increasing. The water, air and soil around Jhiroli, Chandak and Tarigaon have been polluted by magnesite dust (magnesium oxide) and other poisonous gases. A cement- like layer in the field around the magnesite factories could easily be seen. Important flora and fauna, ranging from moss, lichen and bryophytes-to fish and butterflies, are slowly dying. The prosperous valleys of Kafligair, Gurang and Shore are beset with danger and likely to meet the fate of Mussoorie, if we do not take a lesson from the Mussoorie- Dehradun area. Experts believe that mining at Almora Magnesite alone is systematic and planned, although the real situation does not fully testify this fact.
Soapstone: The White Gold Soapstone (talc) is yet another important mineral being recklessly exploited in the remote regions of Uttarakhand. Mining and environmental laws do not restrict this ind8iscriminate exploitation. For more than a decade, the mining of soapstone is being carried out in Garia-Gadera, Chaurathal, Basguna, Kheerakote Knada and Kiroli etc., in Almora Huna in Chamoli, villages of Goriganga valley-Sabli, Guriyali, Paturil Khatyad, Lavadhar, Jhoprayali - in Pithoragarh, villages of Hevalghati in Tehri and nahikala-Barkote etc. in Dehradun districts. The mineral is rapidly being exploited and exported to many parts of the world since its demand in the international market is very high. The mining of soapstone has enabled the criminals and exploiters to penetrate into the remote villages and combined with activities of the criminal contractors this has damaged the rural fabric in more than one way. Most of the mining 115 operation are in rural areas, where the people are generally unaware of their rights and suffer from lack of their ability to protest effectively, when they are harmed by the decisions of the government and actions of the mining licencees. But it is also true that in some rural areas, such as Huna, Gariagadera, Kheerakote and, Hevalghati etc., mining has either been retarded or stopped due to local protests. Very recently, anti- mining agitation have come up in Chaurathal (Almora), Nahikalabarkote (Dehradun) and an anti-cement factory agitation in Lohaghat (Pithoragarh). But at other places, mining is still taking place drastically and unscientifically with the connaivance of politicians and administrators, close to the contractor-capitalist lobby. Especially where the big industrialists have monopolized mining and allied industries, local protests and environmental consciousness, both are being suppressed.
The chief components of environment - air, water and soil - are being destroyed rapidly in the above mentioned mining regions. The local people, labourers and small contractors are simultaneously exploited. There are no specific mining or environmental laws. Even the general laws are not followed strictly. Open blasting, providing mining contracts to the petty contractors to avoid labour problems, inadequate pollution control measures, provoking local anti-social elements to suppress the local protests, all these have become a very common practice. Neither any study of the effects and impacts of mining on agriculture, forests, water, air and impact of mining on agriculture, forests, water air and local social milieu has been made nor any attempt of rehabilitation of badly affected villages has ever been thought, though all the mining sites are either almost close to the densely populated areas or around very sensitive and landslide prone zones like Tawaghat, Tham, Loharkhet, Karmi, Baghar or Hevalghati etc. Under such an alarming situation, it should be a accepted that mineral exploitation in Uttarakhand should now be restricted unless it is essential in the national interest. The fact that a quarry 116 or mine could yield a lot of profit to an industrialist and employment to a few people does not in itself make a national need.
Uncertain Smile and Certain Slow Death Even if we dare to overlook the long-term devastation effects of mining, we find that the immediate benefits are grasped by tiny influential fringe, while the local people are the loosers. The people in politics and administration have stood firmly in favour of mining contractors and factory owners. For a short while, the local populace might hail such mining projects illusioned by the phenomenon that these would get employment at home. But in due course, the cracking houses, increasing infertility of land, hazardous water and air pollution, the confiscation of village land-holdings and forests, soon makes them realize that their earlier days were better. The subsequent ill effects of mining, for what they take part to earn their livelihood, gradually entrap them causing a slow death. Even the natural guarantee of pure air and water becomes the reality of remote past. As the people come to know about the real dimensions of these hazards it often becomes too late.
The Supreme Court decision has not inflicted any impact upon the cement and calcium- carbide factories which are devastating the local environment. In the above mines and factories, those who were killed or have been handicapped or burnt to death or have been victims of fatal diseases, such as tuberculosis etc., would never be taken into account. Nobody knows how far this decision would benefit those who have lost their cattle, agricultural fields and water resources. But with all these short comings, the decision may be considered a constructive beginning by those who are interested in the conservation of whatever has now been left safe, if at all they visualize the decision as the result of people's growing consciousness.
The decision, while on the one hand will accelerate the environmental consciousness, it will also have a retarding effect on mining or processing agencies. There are indications 117 of such changes in contract and temporary labour system in Pithoragarh mines. The local populace is demanding the replacement of magnesite kilns. Almora magnesite has established a 20 member 'Pollution Control Group'. But the remote soapstone mining occupations, however, are unaffected from this decision. It should also be mentioned here that in the VIIth plan Rs. 82.7 crore has been sanctioned for mining in Uttarakhand. It is notable that only 1,350 people are likely get employment from this investment.
Whole and the Parts Actually, the unwilling construction of high dams, the over exploitation of forests and medicinal herbs, the popularity of alcohol in the remotest villages, the establishment of magnesite, lime, cement or paper mills/factories in the name of industrialization of backward hill regions, facilitating the big industrialists to exploit the natural wealth of the Himalaya, all are the different aspects of the some problem. Therefore, partial solutions cannot bring any real change in the system. The issue of mining is related with just one aspect of the environment while we have to care for all other aspects.
In our existing system, an equitable distribution of wealth and natural resources is not possible. Whenever acceleration in the exploitation of natural resources is needed, the capitalists and the political system works unitedly. The nature and the people both are affected simultaneously by this. We have to realise this interrelationship.
The need of the hour therefore is to stir up the mass consciousness and to develop a people, science movement, which can clearly understand and analyse the interrelationship of natural, socio-economic and political environments. Only an awakened society can acquire the co-operation of judiciary, journalism and science to meet its aspirations.
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44. In the same book, learned author; Mr. P.C. Chatterji, in article "Mine-Spoils And Their Rehabilitation" has held as under :-
Introduction Economic development of any region largely depends upon the availability of resources and their exploitation to the optimum capacity which is of paramount importance. This also applies to the minerals and rocks. Minerals are required for the industrial use whereas rocks are required for the rural, urban and industrial developments. Such activities reduce or destruct the biological potential of the land which can ultimately lead to disturb the otherwise balanced ecosystem thereby creating "wasteland". Though the mining areas are not covered under the definition of wasteland, but such activities when carried out irrationally by the man for their own needs, develops focil of desertification during and after the mining activity (Man and Chatterji, 1978). The mining activity is increasing day by day e.g. in Rajasthan during the last decade the mining activity has spread over to double the area, and with this rate of increase in area likely to be effected by the year 2000 will about three folds (based on the growth rate between 1970 and 1976 (Saxena and Chatterj, 1985). As per the estimates of the Department of Environment, Government of Rajasthan, the State has 37.8% area as wasteland as compared to country's average of 16.21%. Even in the higher rainfall areas of Udaipur and Bhilwara district the wasteland cover 38% and 40% areas respectively which is due to more mining activity.
Mining for mineral and lock is known from the ancient times. However, most of these activities were on small scale, sporadic and intermittent. The mining activity gained impetus during the world war II. At that time no regulations regarding the conservation, optimum development and utilization of deposits were introduced. Consequently the mining activity was mostly indiscriminate and unscientific commonly known as "Fox mining 119 method". It is only after India attained Independence in 1947 that mining regulations and mineral conservation ordinance came into existence and improved the mining activity to some extent.
Land damaged by the mining and other allied activities must be reclaimed to the possible extent so that we do not handover a desertified and complete wasteland to the future generation. This would only be possible if the mine owners, who are accruing profits out of these activities, invest a percentage of profit to rehabilitate and restore the ecological balance or to make these land productive in other sense. Some large mine owners having mineral based industries have recently initiated to follow the conservation and rehabilitation plans but small mine owners which are in large number and scattered over whole of the country, do not follow any conservation norms. Moreover road material mining leaves behind numerous shallow pits of 1-2 metre depth and covers wider area poses a potential threat (Saxena and Chatterji, 1985). In arid and semi-arid areas, the ecosystem is so fragile that when disturbed; its restoration becomes a herculean task. Imbalanced conditions of such disturbed ecosystem are largely governed by the type of mining, scale of mining, resulting topography, physical and chemical nature of the mine waste and procedure of their disposal.
Discussions Types of mining Broadly the mining activity could be classified into three groups i.e. (i) alluvial, (ii) open cast and (iii) underground. These could be small manual operations or large scale semi or fully mechanised depending upon the extent of ore/mineral/rock deposits and its use.
Whatsoever may be the type or magnitude of mining operation it will have detrimental effect on the ecosystem by way of (i) removal of vegetation i.e. tree, shrub and grasses, (ii) if there is any surface overburden over the body it will have to be removed and dumped 120 elsewhere, (iii) the entire mined out portion is never usable and a sizable percentage has to be scrapped and dumped on the surface near about the mining area and (iv) the low grade ore/mineral etc. which do not have immediate market value have to be also dumped separately.
Impact of mining All of the above processes have the undermentioned adverse impact on the existing balance of ecosystem and causes land of degradation (Saxena and Chatterji, 1986).
(1) Reduction of land: Due to mining operation undertaken on the fertile/productive land the areas available for cultivation, forestry and grassland are reduced. Even when the mining activity are on the rocky areas, these reduce the forest and pasture land. In both of the cases disposal of surface material, mine wasteland low grade product pose a still greater threat in reducing the productive land.
(2) Pollution hazards: Mining activity causes three types of pollution hazards.
(a) Air: The fine mineral/ore/rock particulates released during the process of blasting are released to the atmosphere. These in turn cause health hazards to the miners, animals and people inhabiting in the adjoining areas, retards and destroys the plant growth (Vyas et al, 1985) and when it ultimately settles down on land also adverse effects in several ways.
(b) Land surface: When the atmospheric particulates settles down on the land surface and also minewaste which spreads all over the mining area, changes the land capability class and the productivity of the land is reduced. Moreover these are being transported by the surface runoff during the rains and pollute the surface water resources like lakes, rivers etc.
(c) Underground: The toxic and harmful metal and mineral which gets dissolved in the rain 121 water percolates down to the aquifer within the mining area and also in the adjoining areas thereby deteriorating the ground water quality which has again its adverse effects depending upon the use and may turn them into wastelands.
(3) Degradation of land capability class: The removal of productive top soil development of gullies and exposure of rock/hard pan on the surface, deposition of fine particulates from the air and contamination of the surface and ground water resources reduce the productivity of the land and thereby reduce the land capability class.
(4) Development of salinity: The fine particulates which get accumulated on the land surface gradually reduce the permeability of the top soil formation thereby the recharge to the aquifer is reduced and during rainy season the area gets water logged. This in turn releases the mineral/metal contents of the particulate and develops the salinity in the soil.
(5) Deterioration of hydrological conditions: Due to mining activity and disposal of minewaste, especially in case of surface mining, the surface drainages are disturbed and blocked. Due to which the surface storage in the adjoining areas, which receive water from these drainages, are affected. Also the blocking of the drainage channels and structurally weak joints reduce the recharge to the aquifer. As a result the yield from the wells and quality of ground water are affected.
(6) Land subsidence: This takes place only in case of underground mining, specially on the sensation of mining activity i.e. when all of the underground support structum are withdrawn. Thereby causing a scar in the land surface small or big depending upon the magnitude of the underground excavated area.
(7) Development of pits: This is associated with the alluvial and open cast mining methods, size of which depends upon the magnitude of mining activity.
122 All of the above degradational processes either singularly or collectively causes to degrade the land and develop 'wasteland'.
Allied activity Most of the mining activities are associated with beneficiation or upgrading and processing activities. Because most of the mining products are not directly used, these have to be either upgraded, concentrated or processed for use by the industry or other. The beneficiation process is composed of crushing, sizing classification, washing and scrubbing, floatation and separation components. Likewise the processing is also composed of crushing, cutting, grinding and polishing and chemical processing components. It is not essential that all of the components are always associated with each beneficiation and processing activity.
Impact of Allied Activity Both of the above processes affect the ecosystem in three ways i.e. (1) Atmospheric This can be classified into two groups:
(a) Suspended particulates: These are emitted from the crushing, sizing and classification and cutting processes. These pollute the atmosphere and also degrade the land when it settles down on land and vegetation.
(b) Chemical fumes: These are emitted from the floatation, separation and chemical processing stages where chemical reactions are involved. These are detrimental for the health of the inhabitants and vegetation.
(2) Ground level: This effect is of three types i.e.
(a) Disposal waste products: Disposal of waste product needs extra productive land and changes the topography and drainage of the area.
(b) Contamination of water: The toxic minerals and metals spread over the area are transported by runoff water during rainy 123 season and contaminate the surface water resources. These are also dissolved with the water and contaminate the ground water during the process of recharge. This contamination affects the use of water.
(c) Disposal of tailing: These need extra productive land for disposal. As these are rock crushed product ahs practically no binding material like clay and silt. As a result are subjected to spreading and covering more area during strong wind regimes.
(3) Underground: The various atmospheric and ground level effects discussed above induces two type of subsurface effects i.e.
(a) The soil profile is adversely affected reducing the productivity of the soil and the toxic metals, are recycled in the vegetation.
(b) The ground water is contaminated which affects its use. Also the toxic metal contents are recycled when used for irrigation.
All of the above three factors affects the ecosystems in various ways i.e. either collectively or singularly. These effects are shown in Table 1.
All of the above degradational processes of the allied activities of the mining leads to make the land unproductive for future generation and create "wasteland".
45. In the same book, learned author; Mr. Y.M.L. Sharma, in article "Environmental Control in Mining" has stated as under :-
Mining and Environment
a) What is environment? Environment as one understands is the status of various factors which contribute towards healthy living, the nature of land, air noise, water and other factors. Irregular or improper handling of any one of these attributes upsets the equilibrium. Though these elements had been damages or disturbed over the years the cumulative effect of these has created a persetible change in the conditions around 124 us, that the awareness has only been recent. There are many causes for disturbance of these natural factor and one significant cause of upsetting of environment has been the mining operations. Metals and minerals have been part of the human needs from times immemorial but the recent upsurge in population, industrialisation and the need for raw material have been the cause of increased exploitation of metals and minerals. Coal, lignite, iron, manganese, lead and zinc and copper and a host of such commodities are needed for a large number of uses in any developed and developing countries. There have been large scale exports and these to developed countries due to lack of technology in the processing as well as money to do so and sooner we become self sufficient in our requirements and export processed minerals and metals the stronger would our country be.
b) Metals and minerals are invariably or largely situated in forest areas of different densities, especially in areas very vulnerable to environmental degradation, like top of hills watersheds and valleys. This has led to conflicts. There has always been a controversy about location of mining or nay other projects in forest areas. There are reasons for this. The country's forest resources were very rich. After independence we have lost more than 4.3 million hectares of forests due to release for agricultural extension, development of communications and power, submersion due to power and irrigation projects, development of command areas, release of forests for rehabilitation of repatriates from Ceylon, Tibetan people and East Pakistan displaced persons, indiscriminate exploitation of Zamindari areas before being handed over to Forest Department, mining etc.. It is not only mining that has destroyed the forest. It is the cumulative effect of all these which have been responsible for reduction of forest area. Though about 1/3 of land area has to be under forest, the area of forests is about 23% according to Forest Department while NRS agency shows it as hardly 12%. This is a very alarming situation as we need more forests to 125 cater to the increasing needs of timber, fuel, usufruchts and a host of materials required by the people, raw materials needed for industries, protection of watersheds and conserving the soil. It is in this context that the Government is now insisting towards more trees, and for restoration of mined out sites and for adopting measures against soil erosion, preventing floods and maintaining proper conditions to improve the health and quality of life of the people living around mined areas. It is thus a duty on the part of all of us to face the challenge and avoid conflicts.
A balanced outlook is thus needed. We need forests and trees etc. We also need metals and minerals for a developing country. We need to prevent degradation of environment. We need to generate employment oriented projects. This being so, it is essential that environmental improvement works are taken up and implemented with the same zeal and enthusiasm as production of metals and minerals. It has now become incumbent on the part of mining organisations to submit environmental management plans simultaneously with the detailed project has to clear the project before final clearance. It would be worthwhile to work out the percentage of expenditure that is being spent on environmental safeguards and restoration of mined land to as near its original form. The figures would be shocking. It thus calls for an immediate reorientation of thinking in these matters.
Impact of mining Mining results in despoliation of land, creates ugly scars and leaves the area with large lakes, hillocks rendering the area useless for any other purpose.
a) Loss of forests: Mining directly affects forests when located in a wooded area. There is loss of timber and fuel resources, usufruchts, minor forest produce and loss of habitat for wild life. The vegetation has to be cleared and this results in irregular exploitation of forest contrary to accepted principles of removal of wood equivalent in 126 volume to that of increment put on by forests in a year. The destruction of forests is more evident in an area when open cast mining is resorted to. In the case of underground mines land subsidence when it occurs becomes significant but it is equally serious. Mining also results in loss of genetic resources.
b) Loss of agricultural lands: Mining invariably, if forests are absent, affects agricultural lands. It may be rainfed, or irrigated or garden lands or orchards which are valuables grown over the years out of soil and soiling their hands. Their acquisition is resented as such cannot be built over a short period however high the compensation may be. It is a highly sensitive issue.
c) Loss of home - rehabilitation: Mining results in the displacement of people and their vacating the villages and homes where they have lived over the year, as well as their lands. This is the most sensitive aspect of the project - any project. They resent, and if there is a strong political backing, the project may not come through. If the area lies in a tribal belt and the tribal people resent, there is difficulty in the projects going through. Should the project be approved the selection of an alternative area to rehabilitate the displaced people is a vexed problem. Proximity to different facilities, water supply, sanitation, proper housing, medical facilities, providing other infrastructural facilities, roads etc., are important considerations in chosing the sites for rehabilitation. Of course if the site is in forests, there is the problem of getting clearance. Best is to avoid locating forest lands for this and other infrastructural facilities. Either rehabilitation colonies are built or compensation with a site given to the families. The payment of compensation is beset with difficulties as the youth are likely to misuse the funds for various purposes. This is a matter of policy of the organisation. Secondly, the displaced people invariably request employment of atleast one member of the family in the mining project which I hear now, is discouraged due to surplus labour in the coal sector. In the matter of rehabilitation, data has to be collected carefully and when 127 one goes to do that, villagers drive out the staff since they are against the project coming up. A considerable P. R. work is also needed and a proper planning is necessary. People locally living and even State Governments resent to such projects which supply coal to thermal stations in other States, and supply of power to other States at their cost.
d) Air pollution: Mining results in serious disturbance of soil involving digging, transport and dumping. This leads to considerable dust generation at all levels inspite of the provisions of safeguards. When mines are situated on hill tops and the speed of the wind is high, the dust generated in the mines is carried far and wide affecting the atmosphere and the life of the local workers and people living around the mine. Inhalation of the fine dust results in development of pulmonary diseases and the control of dust has to be minimised to a great extent if it is not possible to totally control it.
e) Noise pollution: Noise above a particular level is detrimental to human health. A lot of noise is caused by heavy machinery operating in the mine, transport carriers like dumpers, trucks and blasting operations. Noise levels have to be reduced which should be compatible to the human system. There are several measures adopted for reduction of noise and an all out effort should be made to reduce noise level.
f) Water pollution: Mining sometimes destroys water sources. The soil is disturbed. In hilly terrain, the loosened soil is not only washed downhill choking water courses or habitations, and silting of tanks, reservoirs etc., the wash off soil also results in the raising of river beds and consequent flooding of agricultural garden lands and villages. If it is heavy rainfall zone, may also wash down the fines into streams and rivers. The water thus gets contaminated. Acid mine water is also injurious to the health of local people. Aquifers exist in some areas and pose a problem in drawing out the mines when they are open cast and below the surface of the ground. Such surplus water should be used for forestry, agriculture, rural and urban 128 water supply. Fresh water should not be wasted, as water is not a cheap commodity today.
g) Unplanned development: The development of jhuggies/slums around mining complexes is another impact. Insanitary conditions prevail when ill planned and unauthorise structures come up. Hawkers, traders, their attendant paraphernalia like cattle and goats also come in. Problems of grazing arise for original and migratory cattle and goat population, leading to destruction of vegetation and affecting afforestation schemes taken up. This leads to costly methods like barbed wire fencing, rubble walls around planted areas.
h) Transmission of power: The establishment of a mine involves great power requirement conveyed through long high tension lines. These power lines riddle the country-side and mining complexes and sometimes involve clearance of forests and trees which produces a dreary atmosphere.
i) Blasting: Quarrying locally and in nearby forest areas, or excavation of tailing dams causes serious disturbance of soil, loss of vegetation and affect wild life if the forest area is nearby. They also affect nearby habitations. They affect free movement of wild life and are detrimental to sancturies and game preserves if they are close as wild life migrates away. They may also affect the endangered species.
j) Infrastructural facilities: The construction of roads, establishment, of colonies, processing plants, crushers, tailing dams cause destruction of vegetation, loosen the soil especially in hill regions leading to soil erosion, requiring costly operations like stabilisation of slopes and other works.
k) On quality of life: The establishment of mining industry results in changes in life style of the people, especially tribals and this results in hitherto peaceful inhabitants resorting to fast life especially youth affecting their health. Benefits, no doubt, are there like all round development of the economy of the 129 area, opening of communications, health centres and better medical facilities etc. "Annexure 1"
Role of Forest in Maintenance of Ecology and Environment Ecology has been receiving increased attention in recent years. The place of man in nature, his influence on the environment and the influence of the total environment on man are objects of increasing study and thought. Forests intercept incoming and outgoing radiation, precipitation, and winds and have thus a marked effect on the microclimate. They filter dust from the air and absorb it. It is known that a stand of one hectare of spruce collects about 32 tonnes of dust from the air, one of pine 36.4 tonnes and a like one of beech (a broad leaved tree) 68 tonnes till the needles and leave can hold no more dust. The dust carrying winds invade the forest and deposit the dust on the leaves, branches and stems. By the mechanical obstacles the wind also loses much energy. Its velocity is reduced resulting in an increased dust precipitation. During the rains the dust is washed to the ground, where, due to moisture, it loses its flying capacity and is thus bound. This can be termed as "active filtering". Dense forest stands which the wind cannot penetrate have a positive effect on the purification of the air. The wind's ascent in front and the descent behind the obstacle, create air currents, jams and vortices causing increased dust sedimentation. This is called "passive protection". The forest serves also in removing dust source. Best results have been obtained by extensive afforestation on the dumps of the lignite districts of the Rhine land in Germany. The air cleaning capacity of the forest has indirect positive effects in so far as the condensation nuclei, necessary for fog formation, are absorbed form the air. Thus the frequency and density of fog formation is reduced. This has a direct bearing on the occurrence of fog on the ore body in Kudremukn during December and January. Dust particles absorb sunlight and reduce ultra-violet radiation.
130 A special property of the forest is that the leaves and needles can absorb upto 50% of the collected radio iodine. The forest protects man against radio active radiation as it screens fields and pastures against radio active dust, saving man from incorporation radio activity contaminated nutrition.
For mental recreation the forest is ideal. In the quiet of the forest the hunted man finds peace. Freed from the anonymity of the mass he finds himself again. There nature is observed in its various aspects. He often gets to inner contemplation. The continuously changing views divert him from the sorrows of daily life.
Forests intercept incoming and outgoing radiation, precipitation and wind and have a marked effect on the microclimate. They affect soils by their effect on microclimate moisture regime, amount and kind of soil organic matter supplied, animal and plant life in the soil layers and depth of rooting. Soils under tropical forests have thin organic layers resulting in a rapid decomposition of organic matter and recirculation of nutrients. Forest soils in comparison with grasslands soils, have greater porosity and tend to encourage infiltration and absorption of water and to increase underground supplies. Forests reduce extremes of soil temperature partly by canopy action and partly by the action of the forest floor.
It is reported that in the taiga zone, run off coefficients (percentage of precipitation measure as stream flow) on loamy podzol soils decreased with increasing forestation from 0.42 for non-forested catchments. Considerable work has been done in S. Urals Kirghizia, forest-steppe belt etc. in USSR which indicates that the run off of water is checked effectively by afforestation. Forests have a marked effect in altering the manner in which water is delivered from catchments, most especially in tempering flood flows.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, 2 million tonnes of solids are expelled annually from smoke stacks. Forest trees filter the air and collect the dust to the tune of some 32 to 80 131 tonnes per hectare. Later this dust is washed to the ground by rains. Filtering of dust by trees removes water condensation nuclei and reduces fog which often contains concentrations of health damaging nuclei and reduces fog which often contains concentrations of health damaging gases. Dust in the air reduces ultraviolet radiation diminishing the formation of Vitamin D and the germicidal and healing effect of sunlight. A negative psychic effect may result from dust. Forests control erosion as the soil is protected from rain drop splash and surface run off become minimum. Forest soils, well stocked with deep rooted trees, have a storage capacity estimated to be 50,000 to 2000,000 m3 of water per km2.
The essential point in environmental administration is that costs cannot be reckoned merely one economic basis. It must include the external costs such as damages caused to the environment and to other species in the ecology and should take into account aesthetic wants derived from conserving the environment. The idea underlying Japanese laws related to pollution is that the polluter should pay the costs for environmental protection of polluter Pay principle (PPP). This covers restoration of normal environment (installation of green buffer zones, dredging of rivers, lakes, harbours etc.,) where pollution causing substances are deposited. This is in addition to various other laws.
Noise raises blood pressure, pulse rate and affects frame of mind resulting in depression and dulling of the spirits. Excessive fatigue, emaciation and headaches result from noise. Children are especially sensitive to noise, which affects hearing. Noise can be other noise. Measured in decibels (db) or in DIN phon respectively. When a sound absorbing capacity of the forest depends on its structure. The denser the undergrowth and the ground vegetation the more pronounced the vertical closure of forest stand, the higher is its sound absorbing capacity equal frequencies provided. A park of 50 m wide can reduce traffic noise by 20 to 30 decibels. The 132 forest also provides indirect protection against noise.
Against this context, KIOCL has planned a programme of forestry to maintain the environment, prevent soil wash and pollution and silting of the rivers. The problems of environmental disruption the KIOCL is faced with and measures the Company proposes to undertake are those of a pioneer in this field.
he people of Kumaun used to mine iron and copper for domestic consumption since ancient times, until availability in the market of relatively cheaper exported metals rendered indigenous production an uneconomic proposition. There is a record of allotment of land to Vishnu Upadhyay for copper mining in Athigaon area by King Prithvi Chand (of Chand dynasty). Grouping of Mineral Resources can be classified in the following categories :- (i) minerals which occur in great abundance and the commercial exploitation of which would be highly profitable. In this category are included magnesite, talc-steatite, limestones, dolomites and building and roofing material; (ii) Minerals, the deposits of which are too small to be commercially profitable, but which are of great strategic and industrial value. In this class come ores of uranium, copper, lead, pyrite, and also the deposits of phosphorite, gypsum and graphite; (iii) In the third category, those minerals can be included, which are known but no serious attempts have been made to search for their larger deposits, i.e. Garnet, Kyanite, Barite, Asbestos and Glass-sand. Discontinuation chains of lentiform deposits of coarsely crystalline magnesite extend for approximately 150 km. from the Kali valley northwest to the Mandakini valley. Talc and steatite occur in two ways, as veins and lentils and pockets within magnesite and in the bedded form. Some of larger deposits are of economic value and are being exploited profitably. Among notable deposits are those of Jakhera, Harap, Maulagar, Biskhal and Surag in the Lahor valley, NNE of Baijnath, Agar- Girichhina E of Someshwar. Phosphorite and phosphatic deposits occur in two different stratigraphic units of two different geographic areas. The first formation is the Precambrian 133 Gangolihat Dolomite (Deoban) of the Pithoragarh area. The second stratigraphic formation which includes phosphorite is the lower Permian jogria member of the Tal Formation in the Mussoorie Hills near Dehradun. Copper minerals occur mainly in three lithostratigraphic units; in the dolomites, magnesite and talc schist. These are found at east of Kanalichhina in the Dundu valley. Uranium mineralization has been noticed along the line of old copper workings in the fault-and shear-zones in the Chamethi-Pokhri-Tungi belt in the District Chamoli. Limestone and marble constitute the third import group of mineral material of Kumaun. These are found in District Pithoragarh and in the Ramganga valley. Dolomites are found in Gangolihat and Upper Krol formations. Graphite is found in Kalmatiya, Sirar, Petsal and Banini Devi. The Gypusm is found in the middle and upper Krol Dolomite near Khurpatal and Dhapila (Nihal valley) in Nainital. The mining activities carried in the fragile of Himalaya and plains of Uttarakhand have led to ecological disturbance. It has led to air pollution, water pollution, shrinking of agriculture land and displacement of persons from the villages. The forest wealth has already been destroyed. The rivers, canals, streams have been polluted in an unscientific manner. The mining activities have also affected the public health. The flora and the fauna is also adversely affected. There is a large scale of erosion of land. The green cover is reduced. The dust layer on the plants hinders the process of photosynthesis, transpiration and exchange of gases. Due to the layer of dust, the leaves do not get sun light (radiant energy) properly. Trees are unable to synthesise their food and as a result, they perish. The water retention power of the hills is exorbitantly reduced due to loss of top soil and vegetation cover.
46. The preamble and principles formulated by United Nations Conference on Environment and Development states that the forestry issues and opportunities should be examined in a holistic and balanced manner within the overall context of environment and development, taking into 134 consideration the multiple functions and uses of forests, including traditional uses, and the likely economic and social stress when these uses are constrained or restricted. All types of forests embody complex and unique ecological processes which are the basis for their present and potential capacity to provided resources to satisfy human needs as well as environmental values. Forests are essential to economic development and the maintenance of all forms of life. Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual human needs of present and future generations. These needs are for forest products and services, such as wood and wood products, water, food, fodder, medicine, fuel, shelter, employment, recreation, habitats for wildlife, landscape diversity, carbon sinks and reservoirs, and for other forest products. Appropriate measures should be taken to protect forests against harmful effects of pollution, including air- borne pollution, fires, pests and diseases, in order to maintain their full multiple value. The provision of timely, reliable and accurate information on forests and forest ecosystems is essential for public understanding and informed decision-making and should be ensured. Governments should promote and provide opportunities for the participation of interested parties, including local communities and forest dwellers and women, in the development, implementation and planning of national forest policies. National policies and strategies should provide a framework for increased efforts, including the development and strengthening of institutions.
47. The vital role of all types of forests in maintaining the ecological processes and balance at the local, national, regional and global levels should be recognized. National forest policies should recognize and duly support the identity, culture and the rights of indigenous people, their 135 communities and other communities and forest dwellers. The full participation of women in all aspects of the management, conservation and sustainable development of forests should be actively promoted. The forests play an important role in meeting energy requirements through the provision of a renewable source of bio-energy. The role of planted forests and permanent agricultural crops as sustainable and environmentally sound be recognized, enhanced and promoted. Their contribution to the maintenance of ecological processes, to offsetting pressure on primary/old-growth forest and to providing regional employment and development with the adequate involvement of local inhabitants should be recognized and enhanced. Natural forests also constitute a source of goods and services, and their conservation, sustainable management and use should be promoted. Efforts should be made for increasing the forest productivity.
48. National policies and/or legislation aimed at management, conservation and sustainable development of forests should include the protection of ecologically viable representative or unique examples of forests, including primary/or-growth forests, cultural, spiritual, historical, religious and other unique and valued forests of national importance. National policies should ensure that environmental impact assessments should be carried out where actions are likely to have significant adverse impacts on important forest resources. National policy should be formulated with respect to all types of forests taking into account of the pressures and demands imposed on forest ecosystems.
49. Lord Gautam Budha and Lord Mahavira also sat under the trees for enlightenment. The trees in India are worshipped as incarnations of the goddess: Bamani Rupeshwari, Vandurga. The goddess of the forest, Aranyi, has 136 inspired a whole body of texts, known as 'Aranyi Sanskriti'. It means, "the Civilisation of Forest".
50. The term of ecology, eco-system, environment, environment engineering including environment ecology have been explained in "MacGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, read as under :-
Ecology The subdiscipline of biology that concentrates on the relationships between organisms and their environments; it is also called environmental biology. Ecology is concerned with patterns of distribution (where organism occur) and with patterns of abundance (how many organisms occur) in space and time. It seeks to explain the factors that determine the range of environments that organisms occupy and that determine how abundant organisms are within those ranges. It also emphasizes functional interactions between co- occuring organisms. In addition to its character as a unique component of the biological sciences, ecology is both a synthetic and an integrative science since it often draws upon information and concepts in other sciences, ranging from physiology to meteorology, to explain the complex organization of nature.
Environment is all of those factors external to an organism that affect its survival growth, development, and reproduction. It can be subdivided into physical, or abiotic, factors, and biological, or biotic, factors. The physical components of the environment include the organisms. A somewhat more general term is habitat, which refers in a general way to where an organism occurs and the environmental factors present there.
137 Applied Ecology Applied ecology is that branch of ecology dealing with practical problems of immediate social importance. Ecology is often confused in the minds of laypersons with the environmental movement, a social interest group concerned with environmental degradation and problems of resource supply to human societies. Applied ecology makes a fundamental contribution to those social and political concerns by identifying environmental problems, gaging their significance, and suggesting potential solutions. Among the environmental issues to which ecology had made an important contribution have been problems of population growth and resource supply, acid rain, eutrophication, consequences of pollution, biological control of crop pests, range management, forestry, and the ecological consequences of nuclear war. From T.R. Mathus's essay on human population growth to recent scientific evaluations of nuclear war, ecology has always been concerned with problems that are important to the affairs of humans.
Ecosystem ecology Ecological systems, or ecosystems, are complexes of plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans, together with their environment. Environment includes all those factors, physical, chemical, biological, sociocultural, which affect the ecosystem. The complex of life and environment exists as an interacting system and is unique for each part of the Earth. The unique geological features, soils, climate, and availability of plants, animals, and microorganisms create a variety of different types of ecosystems, such as forests, fields, lakes, rivers, and oceans. Each ecological system may be composed of hundreds to thousands of biological species which interact with each other through the transfer of energy, chemical materials, and information. The interconnecting networks 138 which characterize ecosystems are often called food webs (Fig. 1). It is obvious from this structural feature of interaction that a disturbance to one population within an ecosystem could potentially affect many other populations. From another point of view, ecosystems are composed of chemical elements, arranged in a variety of organic complexes. There is a continual process of loss and uptake of chemicals to and from the environment as populations are born, grow and die, and are decomposed. Ecosystems operate on energy derived from photosynthesis (called primary production) and from other energy exchanges. The functional attributes of ecosystems, such as productivity, energy flow, and cycling of chemical elements, depend upon the biological species in the ecosystem and the limiting conditions of the environment. See BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY; ECOLOGICAL ENERGETICS; FOOD WEB.
Ecological systems develop in accord with the regional environment. Although these systems have evolved to resist the normal expected perturbations encountered in the environment, unusual disturbances and catastrophic events can upset and even destroy the system. In this case, recovery can occur after the disturbance stops. Recovery is termed ecological succession since it comprises a sequence of communities which succeed each other until a dynamic steady state is reestablished. See ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION.
Populations in these ecosystems fill a variety of structural and functional roles within the system. Often, groups of populations coevolve, so that they form a more or less isolated subunit. For examples, the pollinators of a plant species, and their predators and parasites, form such a guild. Populations continually adapt and develop through natural selection, expanding to the limit of their resources. Population growth is, therefore, due to an increase in 139 resources or a relaxation of limiting factors. See ECOSYSTEM; POPULATION ECOLOGY.
Atmospheric problems The atmosphere is one of the most important components of the environment to consider from the viewpoint of applied ecology since it connects all portions of the Earth into one ecosystem. The atmosphere is composed of a variety of gases, of which oxygen and nitrogen make up the largest percentage. It is not uniform in its depth or its composition, but is divided into several layers or zones which differ in density and composition. Although most interaction with humans occurs in the zone nearest Earth, the most distant parts of the atmosphere are also important since they affect the heat balance of the Earth and the quality of radiant energy striking the surface. Disturbances to these portions of the atmosphere could affect the entire biosphere. See ATMOSPHERE.
The composition of the atmosphere varies according to location. The qualities of minor gases such as carbon dioxide, the amounts of various metallic elements, and the quantity of water vapor and dust all may differ, depending on the relative distance from land or sea. But, in addition, the atmospheric composition may change in time. For example, over the history of the planet, the percentage composition of oxygen has changed from a very oxgen-poor environment by volume. See ATMOSPHERE, EVOLUTION OF; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY.
Human activities may introduce a variety of pollutants into the atmosphere. The principal pollutants are carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, solid particles (particulates), and heat. The amounts of pollutants that are produced may be quite large, especially in local 140 areas, and have increased in amount as industrialization has become more widespread. Industrial and domestic activities have also been estimated to put 2.18 × 108 tons (1.96 × 108 metric tons) of sulfur into the atmosphere per year. In most cases, these pollutants have increased during the recent past, and in many areas have become a serious problem. See AIR POLLUTION.
Atmospheric problems can have a variety of impacts on humans. Numerous observers have attributed climatic change to atmospheric alteration, since any change in the gaseous envelope of the Earth could alter the heat balance and the climate. The Earth's climate is not constant, and it is difficult to establish an exact correlation between pollution and variation in temperature or solar radiation at the Earth's surface. The pollutants most likely to have an effect on climate are carbon dioxide and solid particles. Pollution may also affect the chemical balance of regions of the Earth. These effects may be extremely complicated. For example, it has been reported that sulfur oxides produced in the industrial districts of northern Europe have moved north in the atmosphere over Scandinavia. The sulfur oxides react with water to form sulfuric acid, which rains out in precipitation. The acid rain changes the acidity of the soil in this region and may depress the activity of blue-green algae, with fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Acid rain appears to cause reduction in the growth of trees. Other pollutants may act in a similar complicated fashion through the network of interactions in the Earth ecosystem. See ACID RAIN.
Finally, atmospheric pollution has direct effects on plants and animals and human activities. Pollutants, like other materials, can act as limiting influences on the growth, reproduction, and survival of plants and animals. A variety of plants, such as lichens and mosses, that are extremely 141 sensitive to pollution can be used to indicate the degree of atmospheric deterioration. In some severe cases, all vegetation and animal life may be destroyed in the vicinity of the polluting industry. Gases and solids are taken into the lungs of humans, and cause disease or discomfort. In cities, such pollutants as asbestos and lead are exceedingly dangerous to the population. And finally, the impact of pollutants on buildings, clothes, artwork, and machines is costly.
Control of atmospheric pollution requires interception of pollutants at the point of discharge. Industrial control can be achieved by the use of special filters, precipitators and other devices. Control of pollution for automobiles also may involve special equipment, as well as redesign of engines and fuel. Reduction in dust and similar general sources of air pollution may demand a change in the operation producing the problem.
Water problems The aquatic environment is of equal importance to applied ecology since most of the Earth's surface is covered by the oceans, and the land is connected to the oceans by streams and rivers. Thus, like the atmosphere, the waters are a connection between distant parts of the biosphere and can carry a disturbance from its origin to another region.
Ecosystem A functional system that includes an ecological community of organisms together with the physical environment, interacting as a unit. Ecosystems are characterized by flow of energy through food webs, production and degradation of organic matter, and transformation and cycling of nutrient elements. This production of organic molecules serves as the 142 energy base for all biological activity within ecosystems. The consumption of plants by herbivores (organisms that consume living plants or algae) and detritivores (organisms that consume dead organic matter) serves to transfer energy stored in photosynthetically produced organic molecules to other organisms. Coupled to the production of organic matter and flow of energy is the cycling of elements. See ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES; ENVIRONMENT.
Environment The sum of all external factors, both biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving), to which an organism is exposed. Biotic factors include influences by members of the same and other species on the development and survival of the individual. Primary abiotic factors are light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases, and ionizing radiation, influencing the form and function of the individual.
For each environment factor, an organism has a tolerance range, in which it is able to survive. The intercept of these ranges constitutes the ecological niche of the organism. Different individuals or species have different tolerance ranges for particular environmental factors - this variation represents the adaptation of the organism to its environment. The ability of an organism to modify its tolerance of certain environmental factors in response to a change in them represents the plasticity of that organism. Alterations in environmental tolerance are termed acclimation. Exposure to environmental conditions at the limit of an individual's tolerance range represents environment stress. See ADAPTATION (BIOLIGY); ECOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGY (ANIMAL); PHYSIOLOGICAL ECOLOGY (PLANT).
143 Environment engineering The division of engineering concerned with the environment and management of natural resources. The environmental engineer places special attention on the biological, chemical, and physical reactions in the air, land, and water environments and on improved technology for integrated management systems, including reuse, recycling, and recovery measures.
Scope Environmental engineering began with the need for acceptable drinking water and for management of liquid and solid wastes. In fact, the terms public health and sanitary were used to identify the engineers seeking solutions for eliminating waterborne disease in the 1800s. Later, urbanization and industrialization contributed significantly to the formation of unsanitary conditions in many areas. Abatement of air and land contamination became new challenges for the environmental engineer, followed by toxic- waste and hazardous-waste concerns. The environmental engineer is also instrumental in the mitigation and protection of wildlife habitat, preservation of species, and the overall well-being of ecosystems.
During project development, environmental engineers conduct a life-cycle analysis (cost-effectiveness analysis) of project alternatives that consider the capital and the operation and maintenance costs over the life of the project. The National Environmental Policy Act and other legislation, regulations, and policies contain provisions to expand the alternative analysis to reduce ecological, health, and safety risks during project development. This process embraces the concepts often called green engineering.
144 Green engineering is the early application of environmentally favorable engineering project concepts in the design and development of processes, products, and facilities. Embracing the basic concepts of pollution prevention and waste minimization, green engineering considers innovative and alternative technologies. The project should be feasible and economical, while minimizing the generation of air, water, and solid-waste pollution at the source, as well as the risk to public health and the environment.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has a Design for the Environment (DfE) program that includes a life-cycle assessment. This process provides a tool to examine the environmental impacts of products over their entire life cycle from materials acquisition to manufacturing, use, and disposition. Design for the Environment provides decision- makers with information, tools, and incentives to make informed decisions that integrate risk, performance, and cost issues. The life-cycle analysis evaluates impacts on human health, atmospheric resources/air quality, water quality, ecological health, and natural resource consumption.
Education of professionals. Traditionally, environmental engineers drew their basic education and training from civil engineering programs. In order to broaden their perspective and capabilities, contemporary environmental engineers undertake course work and postgraduate training in a number of professional areas, including biology, epidemiology, chemical engineering, chemistry, and hydrology. Since environmental engineers deal with sensitive public issues, training in public education, risk assessment, public policy, and social sciences is desirable.
After satisfying experience and testing requirements, the environmental engineer obtains professional engineering registration. Professional associations of interest to the 145 environmental engineer include the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, the Air and Waste management Association, the American Water Works Association, the Water Environment Federation, and the solid Waste Association of North America.
Professional activities. Principal areas of employment for practicing environmental engineers include consulting, industry, and government. Other environmental engineers are academic or research faculty, or they direct the development and production of pollution-control equipment.
Consulting environmental engineers apply their knowledge and experience under contract to public and private clients. Their services may range from studies to preliminary design, final design, construction management, and operation and maintenance services. Specific areas of service studies and assessments, assistance in obtaining permits, and expert witness testimony.
Within the industrial sector, there is considerable demand for environmental professionals to achieve and maintain compliance with environmental statutes and regulations. Increasing public sensitivity to the environment and demand for a clean environment have expanded industry's need for environmental engineering technology.
Environmental engineers in public service provide technical expertise in all levels of government. Though most publicized for their role in the development of regulations and in enforcement, they also are involved in numerous research and development programs and technology transfer activities.