--- layout: post title: Inherent in the System date: '2010-01-13 06:43:48 -0700' mt_id: 1422 blog_id: 1 post_id: 1422 basename: inherent-in-the-system categories: - essays ---
With few exceptions, every theory expounded regarding the cause of the Great Depression is wrong. More exactly, they all lack fundamentality—they can be explained by deeper causes. Nearly all place the blame squarely on the shoulders of the private sector—whether the stock market, monopolists, or the commercial banks. A deeper examination of the facts and a skeptical attitude towards the conventional wisdom are all that are necessary to expose the true protagonist: the government.
Conventional wisdom holds that government is what got America out of the Great Depression. Furthermore, a lack of governmental activism during the preceding decade is frequently cited as a contributing factor. Promiscuous speculation in the stock market and real estate are viewed as results of federal passivity during the Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover Administrations.  The collapse of the banking system is attributed to laxity of government oversight.
As with most of conventional wisdom, there is an element of truth to each of these assertions. Indeed, there was rampant stock and real estate speculation, but it did not arise from federal inaction. Overproduction did stagnate American companies, but it was not caused by businessmen or a spendthrift public. Finally, the banks did collapse—and this is very significant—but it was not because of regulatory incompetence. Each of these three very important was the result of precisely the thing most people would say was missing: government intervention.
The federal government has had a long and varied history of meddling with the money supply. Previous interference pales in comparison to the paradigm shift that occurred in 1913 with the passage of the Federal Reserve Act. The Federal Reserve System, in a single sweep, changed both the scope and the magnitude of government intervention in the banking and monetary systems. It had the power to regulate the size and growth of the money supply, thereby causing inflation or deflation in the economy. It is my contention that, through manipulation of credit, the Federal Reserve system empowered a credit expansion the likes of which were previously thought impossible. When the steadily expanding credit bubble finally burst—with the crash of the overinflated stock market it had created—the consequent credit contraction was more severe than any before.
Why should we study the Great Depression? Of what use is history? History is the study of the human past with an eye towards an application of its lessons to the our future. Ideas are the prime movers of history. As the philosopher Ayn Rand said, "If you know a man's convictions, you can predict his actions. If you understand the dominant philosophy of a society, you can predict its course."1 If we can understand the ideas and philosophy behind the Great Depression, we can seek to eradicate those ideas from our midst in order to stave off a repetition of their enaction. By examining the facts surrounding the monetary interventionism, we can see the logical consequences of the underlying ideas. We can then compare the past situation to our present and apply the lessons learnt from a study of the past to the reality of today. History is not a trivial, ivory tower study of past minutiæ. It is a useful endeavor essential to a long-range consciousness—a conceptual being.
Before we can examine the philosophical underpinnings of monetary interventionism, it is crucial to understand the concept of money. Money came about when men realized the limitations of barter—viz., that you had to find someone who had what you wanted and wanted what you had. This double coincidence of wants does not happen often. Therefore, people found something that everyone wanted that could be used in general exchanges. What this thing was varied, from stones to shells. Eventually, though, most civilizations latched onto gold as money since it is durable, divisible, and rare. This use of gold as money was not imposed on men by authorities; it was freely chosen.
It was accepted because every man recognized what it represented: productive work. When you accept payment via money for your services or product sold, you are implicitly operating under the assumption that you can then use that money received to purchase the fruits of someone else's labor.
The abandonment of the gold standard made it possible for the welfare statists to use the banking system as a means to an unlimited expansion of credit. They have created paper reserves in the form of government bonds which—through a complex series of steps—the banks accept in place of tangible assets and treat as if they were an actual deposit, i.e., as the equivalent of what was formerly a deposit of gold. The holder of a government bond or of a bank deposit created by paper reserves believes that he has a valid claim on a real asset. But the fact is that there are now more claims outstanding than real assets.2
What most of today's economists forget or overlook is that credit is not money. Where money allowed individuals to split a transaction physically—thus avoiding the double coincidence of wants—credit allows them to split a transaction temporally. "Credit is the promise to pay one trader accepts in lieu of immediate payment."3 There are many differences between credit and money. Most notably, it can be created at will between two traders. One trader gives another the fruits of his labor in exchange for a promise of repayment plus some amount to compensate for the risk the credit-granter is undertaking. It is non-transferable, being an obligation between two parties solely. Credit expansion does not devalue existing credit, as inflation does to the money supply. To sum, credit is simply a promise to repay the lender out of the future earnings of the debtor over a specific period of time.
When government debases the currency, either by running the presses or through seigniorage, it is subverting the very cornerstone of economic transactions. As Keynes said, "There is no subtler, no surer means of overturning the existing basis of society that to debauch the currency."4 Capitalism is the social system which recognizes the individual's rights to life, liberty, and property. It is a system the hallmark of which is the right of traders to freely negotiate to their mutual benefit—the trader principle. Its antipode—statism—holds that the state is supreme and that what rights you possess are granted by the state. The state can intervene however, whenever, and on whomever it pleases in whatever manner it finds expedient.
This political philosophy can be seen as the dominant trend of the twentieth century—properly called the Age of Statism. For our purposes, we will examine the intervention in one specific area: the money supply. By intervention, we are really talking about an abrogation of the property rights of individuals "specifically of those individuals who own banks and indirectly of those individuals who do business with banks."5
First, I will enumerate the means by which such interventions are effected. Second, I will show the results of such meddling in various sectors—banking, commerce, investments—during the Great Depression. Third, I will summarize alternative explanations for the Great Depression and their respective analytical failings. Finally, I will present the lessons to be learned for today.
The Federal Reserve System—enacted by Congress in 1913—was an attempt to smooth out the little-understood business cycles that plagued the American economy and were especially troubling to the banking system. It was charged with ensuring the appropriate reserves of its member banks, lending to shaky financial institutions to prevent closure, issuing government securities, and regulating the overall banking industry. Throughout the seventy-four year history of the System, the American currency and monetary system has undergone many changes, going from a relatively pure gold standard at its inception to an adulterated standard in the forties and finally eliminating any gilded ties in the seventies.
The Fed—as it is colloquially called—has assumed many more responsibilities than the drafters of the original legislation envisioned. Even so, its operations have changed very little over time. The most important, for our purposes, of its roles are: setter of reserve requirements, lender of last resort, and regulator of the money supply. It is through these three functions that the government manipulates the economy most fundamentally. Let's examine each function in greater detail.
Individuals lend banks money in the form of deposits. The banks issue the depositors something conveying a promise to pay on demand. Since the bank now owns this money, it can lend the money to others to earn some interest. In case the depositor wants his money back, the bank needs to hold some money back from its lending activities. These deposits held back are called reserves. The higher its reserves, the less it has to fear when there is a fluctuation in the daily needs. However, if the reserves are kept too high, the loan portfolio is not productive and profitable enough. Therefore, a balance must be struck.
Prior to the Federal Reserve, each bank had to be responsible for maintenance of its reserves—although there was an established legal floor. If the bank misjudged its needs, it either had to call its loans or cease transacting business. Poor judgment led to what is known as a run—which occurs when depositors lose confidence in the bank's ability to meet its obligations and seek to withdraw their money. If this happens with any prevalence, this can shake the stability of the banking system.
The central bank theorists presume that the bankers—if left to their own judgment—will stay fully loaned up to the legal reserve requirement floor, rather than maintaining a equalizing balance between loans and reserves. For this reason, the Federal Reserve System was granted the authority to centrally alter the reserve requirements of every bank. Far more important than this ability is its power to determine what constitutes reserves. Previously, individual banks kept reserves in their vaults and the reserves were simply gold or silver specie, depending on the era. With the advent of the Federal Reserve System, banks were compelled to maintain their reserves at the regional Federal Reserve Bank.
In so doing, the Fed also altered the nature of such reserves. As stated prior, reserves had taken the form of deposits withheld from lending operations. Shortly after its inception, the Fed allowed reserves to be kept in Federal Reserve notes (ostensibly representing a corresponding amount of gold) and government securities at a ratio fixed by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. This alteration accomplished two objectives: banks could purchase various vehicles for use as reserves and still be able to lend their deposits and the government had a ready buyer for any new issues of securities.
One cannot understate the importance of this fundamental change in the American system. Government expenditures could soar high above revenues and the Federal Reserve would aggressively market the deficit spending to an avaricious banking system eager to expand its ability to extend credit. Or, put another way, the government could create fiat money out of thin air—effectively, an edict by expenditure. Previously, the only means by which government expenditures could increase were by the politically-inexpedient tax hike. Now, it had the Federal Reserve as its overdraft protection and the Fed could draw from the productivity and wealth of the entire American banking system.
By manipulating the reserves of the banks, however, the Federal Reserve also contributed to the banking system's unsoundness. The last thing a bank needs is an aura of insolvency, yet that is precisely what the Federal Reserve System engenders. The Fed issues its Notes at an arbitrary ratio to its gold holdings; the banks then use these Federal Reserve Notes as reserves in another arbitrary ratio to its deposit base. Or, the banks use government securities—created out of thin air—as reserves and lend against them at a large multiple. The problem in this activity is that the underlying value of the reserves has gone from significant (in the case of actual money stored in a bank's vault) to insignificant (in the case of gold-based Notes) to none (in the case of fiat government securities). In the banking industry, this is called lower quality of liquidity.
Not only that, but the Fed also sets the reserve requirements in a vacuum of information. Bankers, by virtue of their daily contact and intimate knowledge of the local business community, are better able to assess the bank's balance sheet and respond accordingly.6 That is the way it attracts depositors and customers, by a reputation for fiscal soundness. When a bank is free to fail, the bank has an interest in maintaining liquidity. Its management must balance the assets and liabilities carefully and prudently. But the Fed acts in the aggregate in setting reserve requirements, thereby punishing the most able bankers (by setting their reserve requirement above what they would have) and rewarding the incompetent (by allowing them to keep lower reserves than necessary).
The Fed, in its original legislation, was charged with operating as "the lender of last resort." This meant that, if a bank found itself in an illiquid position, it could borrow from the Fed to see it through the situation. Initially, the bank had to pledge some valuable asset—such as commercial paper—as collateral to the Fed, but that requirement was soon dropped and now anything is eligible. Under this guise, the Federal Reserve sought to prevent the bank runs and systemic bank failures of past times. In effect, the Fed would prop up the banking system using its monopoly on money creation.
This, again, ties in with the above discussion on reserve requirements, since the lender of last resort function kicks in when the bank is in a jam. Each of these seeks to correct a "failure" of the nineteenth century's free-banking system. The former to forestall bank insolvency and the latter to avert bank panics. As with reserve requirements, there are considerable unforeseen consequences to the lender of last resort function. The first—and most obvious—problem is that it makes no distinction between illiquid banks and insolvent banks. The former are in a bind; the latter are in dire straits. The Federal Reserve qua lender of last resort would come to the rescue of each equally.7 The effect, then, is to further destabilize an already problematic situation.
Another problem is that this policy favors the risk-takers. Traditionally, bankers are viewed as a rather conservative lot. They invest depositor's funds in stable, safe instruments. This is true of most financial institutions; there are some, however, in search of higher yields and quicker returns that—armed with the knowledge that the Fed would bail them out—invest in riskier ventures. The Federal Reserve, as I said, does not differentiate between the temporarily illiquid and the fundamentally bankrupt.
The final function of the Federal Reserve that we will consider is its unique position as regulator of the money supply. A cursory examination of financial news coverage yields many pundits prognosticating the pronouncements of Greenspan. Measured answers to Congressional committees by the Fed Chairman can bring the bond market to its knees. The Fed determines interest rates; the Fed expands or contracts credit; the Fed inflates or deflates the money supply. All of these actions have inestimable consequences in the economy.
It is important to remember that credit is not necessarily a bad thing. It is simply a splitting of a transaction across time. It does not result in inflation, i.e., an increase in the money supply. If it is caused by production, it is perfectly legitimate and may be expanded indefinitely without any ill effects on the economy. Where credit runs into trouble is when it is caused by artificial and arbitrary reserve manipulations. As mentioned previously, when the reserve quality is diluted or the reserve ratios inappropriately lowered, money is conjured up and lent irresponsibly. For now, when I speak of credit expansions, I am dealing with the interventionist variety.
The Federal Reserve can affect credit levels of the banking industry through two means: the rediscount and open-market operations. During the period in consideration—1913 to 1933—the rediscount was the primary means of expanding the availability of credit. In that time, commercial loans were generally short-term. The bank would take its interest off the top of the loan, before it was ever given to the customer. This was called the discount. The customer was then responsible for paying the full value of the loan, i.e., what he borrowed plus the interest. While this loan was on the books of the bank, it tied up deposits that must be reserved. If the bank were hard-pressed to meet its transactional obligations, the Fed could purchase the loan at another discount, or rediscount, and relieve the reserve pressure. If the bank was seeking more loans, it had to wait for the loan to come due and then relend it. Or, it could use the rediscounting ability of the Fed to free up its reserves for another loan. "A rate below the market rate encourages borrowing, not merely for reserve compensation, but for acquiring excess reserves to relend at a profit."8 If the discount rate of the Fed is less than the prime rate at which the bank lends to its best customers, it can make further profit off the spread between the two rates and repay the Fed with the money from the new loan.9
This is an efficient way of expanding credit but, due to the short-term nature of the original loan, the rediscounting does not have much effect unless such pyramiding of loans is more or less constantly applied. If the discount rate is non-punitive, then it becomes profitable for the bank to sell all its loans to the Fed. However, "[t]he tradition had grown that a bank should not borrow for the purpose of relending at a profit. The tradition was strong that great city banks did not like to be in debt at all to the Federal Reserve banks…."10 Later we will revisit rediscounting as these traditions broke down.
By far the most prevalent means of credit manipulation is through open-market operations.11 This circumlocution simply designates the purchase or sale of government securities in the market, rather than through direct infusions from the Treasury. Since government securities fulfill the reserve requirements of the Fed, their accumulation enables credit expansion. Moreover, these operations establish a ready market for the rapid distribution of government debt. In its capacity as buyer and seller of the securities, the Federal Reserve obtains liquidity and stability for the government. Previous bond issues had to be publicly promoted and took awhile to be sold. The secondary trade was haphazard and done through commissioned agents.
With government spending becoming increasingly profligate, the power of the Federal Reserve System to absorb the deficit through purchases of government securities becomes increasingly more important. As show prior, though, such financing comes with a price far greater than the interest charged. The excess reserves thus generated are converted into available credit, which is lent to economic agents. As Dr. Anderson says,
When there is an excess of bank credit used as a substitute for savings, when bank credit goes in undue amounts into capital uses and speculative uses, impairing the liquidity of bank assets, or when the total volume of money and credit is expanded far beyond the growth of production and trade, disequilibria arise, and, above all, the quality of credit is impaired. Confidence may be suddenly shaken and a countermovement may set in.12
Cheap money—an effect of the open market operations—sends erroneous signals to whomever uses it. When interest rates are artificially low, which occurs with credit flooding, individuals believe that it is a sign of good times and a promising outlook on the future. Interest rates are a measure of risk and low ones signal good fortune. Therefore, investments are made based on this information. A "boom" ensues. This is followed, depending on the amount of credit expansion, by a burst, as the needle of disequilibrium pops the bubble of false expectations. In our examination of the period leading up to the Great Depression, we will see how this process unfolded and ultimately resulted in all the problems associated with that time.
Given the pervasiveness of the Fed's activity and the purview of the banking system in the American economy, the effects of the aforementioned practices is incredible. Three particular sectors stand out for further scrutiny: banking, commerce, and finance. These correspond to the most visible and memorable afflictions of the Great Depression: bank closures, unemployment, and the stock market crash, respectively. Each of these three effects of inflationary credit expansion have been alleged to have caused the Great Depression. As I shall make clear, they contributed to the severity of the Depression, but were not fundamental enough to be causal.
The enactment of the Federal Reserve brought almost immediate changes to the American banking system. Prior to the Federal Reserve Act, banks kept their own reserves in their own vaults. The reserve ratio hovered around 21.1 percent.13 By 1917, the Act had legislated the reserve requirement to a mere 10 percent.14 Furthermore, the gold standard was devalued, since the Federal Reserve was only required to keep gold reserves of 40 percent against the Federal Reserve Notes and 35 percent against its members' deposits.15 This all occurred within five years of the System's inception. The expansion amounted to $5.8 billion in deposits and $7 billion in loans and investments.16 This accommodated the financing of World War I in lieu of increased taxation and, at least, had some justification. What happened next is best summarized by Dr. Anderson:
We watched bank credit with fear and trembling as it expanded during World War I, because we knew then what we seem since to have forgotten, the dangers of overexpanded bank credit. We held it down all we could. But a great expansion was needed and we made it. It was enough. An expansion of $5.8 billion in deposits, with $7 billion in loans and investments, was enough.
Between the middle of 1922 and April 1928, without need, without justification, lightheartedly, irresponsibly, we expanded bank credit by more than twice as much, and in the years which followed we paid a terrible price for this.17
The episode he spoke of—the 1922-28 credit expansion—began in 1922 with the first large open-market purchase of government securities, increasing the holdings of government securities by the Federal Reserve from $250 million to approximately $650 million—an increase of 260 percent!18 This first large-scale operation was instigated, not for credit expansion or interest rate suppression, because rediscounting had slackened after the war and Federal Reserve reserves were faltering. The heady, unintended credit expansion was too profitable to make it a one-time deal. Consequently, two more major open-market purchases of government securities occurred in 1924 and 1927, each amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars—a scale unprecedented in the history of the United States. Plus, due to the multiplying effect of securities qua reserves, billions of dollars became available for lending—again, out of thin air. These purchases were motivated solely by credit expansion, without any thought to the "dangers of overexpanded bank credit."
By these open-market operations and reserve fiddling, bank credit had expanded $11.5 billion in only five years.19 If it had reflected a genuine need by businesses, it would have been welcome and salutary. Since commerce had no use for the available credit, banks sought other venues in which to channel the funds. The three primary vehicles were mortgages, financial instruments, and foreign loans. Each of these represented a deviation from traditional banking practices, viz., the financing of short-term commercial requests. Short-term, because it helped to maintain the liquid position of the bank; commercial, because these tended to be the borrowers best able to repay. Mortgages and financial instruments—like bonds and securities—are particularly susceptible to fluctuations in value. Loans made to foreign governments—predominantly Latin American ones— were risky, since revolution and instability were the norm.
Moreover, each of these types of loans is ineligible for rediscounting. Since rediscounting was the primary secondary reserve of the whole System, this meant that a significant portion of the bank's assets were constrained. As of June 30, 1926, the Federal Reserve released the following statement, "Of the total loans and investments of all member banks on June 30, 1926, sixteen percent was eligible for rediscount at the reserve banks…."20 With increased long-term holdings and decreased potential for rediscounting, the banks were in a pretty precarious position by the end of twenties. All that was needed was a scaling-down of the expansion—maybe even a contraction— thereby allowing banks to liquidate imprudent investments gradually. This could be accomplished by setting the rediscount rate above the market rate and strictly limiting the use of open-market operations.21
This, however, was exactly what the Federal Reserve Board did not do. In 1927, the Federal Reserve Board, under the Chairmanship of Benjamin Strong, inaugurated a new policy of cheap money to help the farmer.22 The Fed lowered the buying rate on acceptances—essentially future loan drafts—in the summer of 1927; sharply increased—by $320 million—its purchase of government securities through November; and lowered its systemwide rediscount rate to 3.5 percent by September of that year.23
This time, the credit expansion was funneled almost exclusively into stocks. While further comment will be reserved for later, it bears mention that this growth in stock market investment that started in 1927 continued right up until the Crash. The Federal Reserve authorities desperately tried to reverse their mistake, increasing the rediscount rate to five percent by July 1928 and selling over $400 million worth of government securities by June 1928. This divestiture reduced bank reserves, necessitating over $600 million in rediscounting—though not enough to fully account for the reduction in reserves.24
In the week following the stock market crash, the Fed doubled its holdings of government securities. The Fed was trying desperately to increase its reserve situation, but could barely keep its head above water due to the continuous outflow of gold to other nations.25 Throughout the crisis period—1929 to 1933—the Federal Reserve continued its inflationary policies in a futile attempt to initiate another boom akin to that of the twenties.
By the end of 1930, however, the fundamental instability of the Federal Reserve System became apparent. "The number of commercial banks in the United States stood at 29,087 on June 30, 1920 … [and] at 15,353 on June 30, 1934."26 In the period 1930-33 alone, a total of 9,106 banks failed.27 Bank failures had always been endemic to the Federal Reserve System, though, averaging 166 per year between 1913-1922 and 692 per year between 1923-1929.28 The reason for this should by now be clear.
In creating money from nothing for banks to lend, the government distorts the market processes that regulate the economy. Credit arises from production. It cannot be overextended by private institutions, since they do not possess the power to counterfeit and debase."The creation of credit by banks is a productive enterprise in which all participating parties hope to benefit, and in which non-participating parties are not directly affected."29 Banks, in selecting where to extend credit, must necessarily be choosy. They must maintain liquidity at all costs, while maximizing the return on their investments.
Under the Federal Reserve, however, the banks find themselves awash in credit, regardless of the financial needs of their customers. They feel pressure to lend, without the assistance of a customer seeking a loan. Thus, they seek out anyone willing to take the credit off their hands. In the competitive world of banking, quality and creditworthiness are luxuries they cannot afford to consider. As one banking historian put it, "numerous examiner reports cited bank failures as due to 'generosity to borrowers'…with insufficient attention paid to discipline, the result of which is detrimental to both borrowers and lenders in the long run."30 The banks end up carrying a portfolio of speculative stock and real estate loans, long-term mortgages, and loans to impoverished countries. When the public loses confidence in the financial establishment, the banking industry bleeds to death until wholesale liquidation ensues.
That is, unless the government frees the banking industry from meeting its obligations—through the banking holiday—or unless the government sets the money supply adrift—through the abandonment of the gold standard. Both of these things happened in 1933. These two events, then, were the culmination and the pinnacle of intervention in the banking system. They represent the logical outcome of manipulations of the type previously enumerated.
Another part of the economy that is deeply affected by Federal Reserve policies, albeit indirectly, is the private business sector. I am not speaking of any particular industry, but commerce as a whole. When we think of businesses in the Great Depression, we think of joblessness and overproduction. Not unemployment or large inventories on an individual, localized level, but on a nationwide scale. One must ask the question: how is it that problems can occur so? How can so many individual businessmen make erroneous judgments at the same time? This points to a more fundamental issue, one that can uniformly lead to miscalculation.
Once again, we find that the source of dislocation is expansion of bank credit divorced from any real source of expansion. In the boom, or inflationary, period, the businessman engages in a process of predicting the future return or value of present projects. One of the factors entering into his calculations is the interest rate—a measure of the cost of future goods versus present consumption. The drop in interest rates inherent in an inflationary environment31 interferes with the businessman's planning.32 It implies an increase in the rate of thrift—traditionally the source of available capital—by individuals and corporations. This causes a shift by the businessman from investment in consumer goods to investment in higher-order capital goods.33 "[A]n expansion in the production facilities and the production of the heavy industries, and in the production of durable producers' goods, is the most conspicuous mark of the boom."34
As the bubble fills, productive capacity is expanded. Capital goods are acquired and implemented. Money flows into the capital goods industry. This money, remember, is not the result of increased savings, but from "forced" savings, i.e., artificial creation of money by the government in the form of credit expansion. But this boom is illusory.
For, once workers in the higher-order industries receive income in the form of wages and salaries, 'they would immediately attempt to expand consumption to the usual proportions.' This sudden surge in consumption demand undercuts the demand for the still incomplete projects involving higher-order producer goods far removed from consumption, resulting in a slump in the capital-goods industries.35
In other words, because the savings qua capital is not genuine, the money sunk into higher-order goods is spent according to existing consumption/thrift ratios. Or: the money spent by the misinformed entrepreneur is ultimately transferred to the consumer goods industries, shifting demand for the capital good. That is, unless the borrowing firm returns to the bank for more credit and temporary salvation. The greater the credit expansion the longer it will last. When the expansion ceases, the boom complies. "The longer the boom goes on the more wasteful the errors committed, and the longer and more severe will be the necessary depression readjustment."36
If we look to the historical record, we see that the facts bear this analysis out. Productivity per person-hour increased 63 percent from 1920 to 1929.37 Stock prices quadrupled during the twenties—stock being the primary source of capital. Durable goods, as well as steel production, increased approximately 160 percent. Non-durables, largely consumer goods, increased only 60 percent. Moreover, wages in the capital goods industries were higher than wages in the consumer goods industries. According to the Conference Board index, hourly wages in manufacturing industries—such as meat packing, hardware, and clothing—increased an average of 12 percent while those in the capital goods industries rose even higher—12 percent in machine tools, 19 percent in lumber, 22 percent in chemicals, and 25 percent in steel.38
The period after the boom also corroborates Mises' and Rothbard's cycle theory. Industrial production was 114 in August 1929 and 54 in March 1933. Business construction totaled $8.7 billion in 1929 and $1.4 billion in 1933. There also occurred a 77 percent decline in durable goods manufacturing in the same four-year period. Unemployment rose from 3.2 percent in 1929 to 24.9 percent in 1933.39 Furthermore, from 1929 to 1932, the money supply was contracting, "and since wages are less elastic than prices, real wages were rising (unbeknownst to most workers), making it extremely difficult for business to employ people."40
Our last sector of concern is the investment sector, as distinct from the banking industry. Here I am talking about the the stock market, its brokerage houses, and individual investors. The image that comes to mind immediately is that of the Crash of 1929. It occurred because the general price-to-earnings ratios—a common estimate of value in a security—had soared far above any representation in reality. The reason for this inordinate rise was due to speculative fever within the general public. Everyone wanted a piece of the action and, largely, was able to buy into it. Again, a cursory examination of the situation yields this information and nothing more. Further probing finds the specter of the Fed artificially propping the market.
The Fed's purchase of government securities in 1924 already mentioned was the first instance when the additional bank credit was almost exclusively channeled into securities—partly into direct bond purchases by banks and partly into stock/bond collateral loans. "This immense expansion of bank credit, added to the ordinary sources of capital, created the illusion of unlimited capital and made it easy for our markets to absorb gigantic quantities of foreign securities as well as a greatly increased volume of American security issues."41 Although the 1924 issue was not the first instance of influence in the stock market, it was most definitely not the last.
The aforementioned 1927 cheap money policy of the Fed was the final turn that opened the floodgates of giddy speculation. By lowering the rediscount rates, the Fed allowed the member banks to lower their own interest rates on stock and bond collateral loans as well as brokers' loans. When the Fed reversed its policy late in 1927, it was too late. The psychological intoxication of the boom had taken hold of the American public.
Eager speculators ignored increasing interest rates and took greater volumes of brokers' loans. Even as member banks dried up the speculative security loans, new sources were utilized, viz., brokers' loans 'for account of others.'42 Previously, brokers' loans would be made for the bank's account or an out-of-town's account, with an occasional brokers' loan for other customers. At the beginning of 1926, such loans accounted for $564 million of a total of $3.141 billion in brokers' loans. By the summer of 1929, these loans totaled $3.372 billion of the total $6.085 billion in brokers' loans.43 Furthermore, call loan rates rarely exceeded 10 percent, except just prior to the Crash, when they finally were raised to 20 percent. This also served as a fresh source of speculation money.44
The effects of such ubiquitous investment were astounding. On November 15, 1922, the Dow-Jones Industrial Average closed at $95.11. By August 29, 1929, the Average had risen to $376.18. The Standard & Poor's Common Stocks Indices showed similar fantastic gains: the industrials, rails, and public utilities indices had risen from 44.4, 156.0, and 66.6, respectively, in 1921 to 172.5, 384.1, and 272.2 just six years later.45
When the bubble finally burst—in October of 1929—it shattered confidence in the economy. The intoxication of seven years of giddy inflationary credit expansion had resulted in an economic hangover of heretofore unseen proportions. The following year, 1930, marked a watershed. The government's response to the failings of the Federal Reserve would determine the severity of the necessary liquidation and recession. If the government allowed the market to correct itself, through interest rate hikes and bankruptcy, the consequent recession would be severe but brief. If, however, the government misjudged the nature of the market, the country would be in for a slow, arduous bloodletting and, ultimately, a future littered with cyclical depressions.
These three areas of the economy are the most important sectors and the ones most influenced by arbitrary credit expansion by the Federal Reserve. In each one, government monetary intervention led to dislocations, distortions, and disequilibria. However, it would be foolish to imply that the Federal Reserve System was the sole factor in the playing out of the Great Depression. For the purposes of this paper, though, I will specifically omit the sometimes drastic effects of the Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930, Britain's abandonment of the gold standard, reparations from defeated Germany, and other international elements that contributed to the extent and severity of the Depression of 1929-1940.
To be sure, historians and economists have not flocked to the Federal Reserve as fundamental determinant of the Depression. Except for the few authors whose works I have cited, the conventional wisdom holds that the Federal Reserve had little to do with the economic downturn. Although I think I have presented an airtight antithetical argument, I also believe it is important to survey other's contributions to the field for the purpose of contrariety and objectivity.
As I see it, there are two primary alternative explanations for causation of the Great Depression. First of the alternates is the theory that the maldistribution of income prevalent in American society prior to the Depression created a lack of purchasing power that shook the economy to its foundations. Second, that general overproduction resulted in systemic dislocations. I will now examine each in turn.
The first theory, best explicated by Robert S. McElvaine, asserts that there exists a general maldistribution of wealth in American society and that this inequity causes the economy to be reliant on significant spending by the well-to-do. As he puts it, "no cause of the Great Depression was of larger importance."46 The argument goes that, because total supply must equal total demand for the economy to be in equilibrium, a disparate burden was placed on the wealthy—as holders of a disproportionate share of income—to consume. But the wealthy spend only a small portion of their income in consumer goods, preferring to invest or save their money. But since the masses do not have the wealth necessary to purchase the residues of the total supply left unbought, the economy is easily destabilized. "If something caused a sudden loss of confidence by these affluent Americans, the whole economic structure might collapse…."47 The Crash of 1929 engendered just such a loss of confidence.
The major problem with this underconsumption theory is that it posits a zero-sum game. Any increase in the wealth of an individual must come from the wealth of another. This is simply not the case. The economy is dynamic and productive. The quantity of wealth is likewise not static; it can and is created readily through production. Moreover, the money that the wealthy accumulate is not acquired by theft, but by honest work and production. This is the true meaning of Say's Law: production causes consumption, for money cannot be spent without its being earned first—except when it is counterfeited or created by issuance of paper IOUs by the government. Thus in the long run total supply will equal total demand, providing the money supply is not tampered with, even though short-term supply and demand can fluctuate wildly.
Another objection, and no less important than the previous one, is that the historical record contradicts this theory. As I stated earlier, in a boom, capital goods industries prosper relative to consumer goods. In the subsequent depression, the situation is reversed and the capital goods industries falter proportionally to consumer goods. The underconsumption theory, however, posits that the consumer goods industries experience terrific surpluses in a depression, while the capital goods industries experience productivity increases and prosperity.48
Another significant explanation for the cause of the Great Depression is found in the flip side of the underconsumption coin: overproduction. Factories run full tilt during the boom period and sit idle during the bust, along with the workers and the inventories. Gradually and systematically, production is ceased and excess inventories are siphoned off until equilibrium is again attained and the process repeats.
What this theory ignores is the fact that such overproduction can still be sold. Price can be reduced to such a level that inventories would clear. So long as there still exists some money, this scenario can be curtailed. Even more important, the overproduction reeks of malinvestment. At some previous point in time, the producer thought that the stagnant endeavor would yield profits, i.e., the seller thought that future prices would cover costs of production. As we have seen, the significant cause of such miscalculation is artificial credit expansion and its concomitant malinvestments.49
As I stated in the Introduction, if we can understand the ideas and underlying philosophy the Great Depression, we can seek to eradicate those ideas from our midst and stave off a repetition of their actualization. The fundamental idea behind the Federal Reserve System is statism. It is the subjugation of individual freedoms and choices to the will and interests of the state or "public good."
In the case of the Federal Reserve, we can see that the Federal Reserve essentially dictates to the banking system what it can and cannot do. Consequently, individual depositors experience a reduction in choice among financial institutions, since they all are treated uniformly and it becomes impossible to determine the reserve quality and sufficiency of an individual bank. Furthermore, bankers are denied the possibility of issuing banknotes against real reserves and the element of control this encompasses. Businessmen are given mixed—and sometimes false—signals regarding the future cost of activities, leading to malinvestment and wasted capital. Finally, individuals are unable to assess the underlying value of the stock market, due to the dislocations produced by credit expansion on the part of the Fed. And volatility is officially sanctioned through the inflationary mechanism.
The lesson, then, of the Great Depression is that statism leads to unintended consequences and undesirable effects. It illustrates the fact that the government has no business interfering in the private dealings of individuals. If the government had adopted the laissez-faire program it is alleged to have adopted, the economy would have contracted, certainly, but its result would have been an economy strengthened and sounder. By its end, banks would have found appropriate reserve ratios and liquidated imprudent loans. Businesses would have converted misguided endeavors into productive uses and shaken off inefficiencies. Investors would be left with more accurately valued stockholdings and a renewed confidence in the financial status of the nation.
This, then, is the proper policy to follow in adjusting to a depression. It should be similarly obvious the method by which depressions may be averted. It is time for a separation of bank and state, akin to the separation of church and state and for the same reasons. An examination of free banking is beyond the scope of this essay, but suffice it to say that "[d]epositors lost more money in th[e] early phase of central banking (1913-1933) than earlier depositors had lost in the entire 75-year free banking period (1838-1913)."50
1 Rand, Ayn. "Is Atlas Shrugging?" The Objectivist Newsletter, August 1964, 6.
2 Greenspan, Alan. "Gold and Economic Freedom." Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. Signet: 1966, p. 101.
3 Jackson, Robin. Rational Economics. Philosophical Library: 1987, p. 50.
4 Spahr, Walter E. "Our Irredeemable Currency System." http://www.fame.org/research/wes-001.htm
5 Jackson, p. 76.
6 Salsman, Richard M. Breaking the Banks: Central Banking Problems and Free Banking Solutions. American Institute for Economic Research: 1990, p. 20.
7 Ibid., p. 23.
8 Selgin, George A. The Theory of Free Banking: Money Supply under Competitive Note Issue. Rowman & Littlefield: 1988, pp. 117-8.
9 Rothbard, Murray N. The Mystery of Banking. Richardson & Snyder: 1983, p. 154.
10 Anderson, Benjamin M. Economics and the Public Welfare: A Financial and Economic History of the United States, 1914-1946. LibertyPress: 1979, p. 154.
11 Rothbard, Murray N. America's Great Depression. Nash Publishing: 1972, p. 124.
12 Anderson, pp. 385-6.
13 Salsman, p. 43.
14 Rothbard, Mystery, p. 139.
15 Salsman, p. 43.
16 Anderson, p. 145.
17 Ibid., p. 146.
18 Anderson, p. 96
19 Anderson, p. 182. An excellent discussion of the effects of the cheap money policy during this period follows.
20 Thirteenth Annual Report of the Federal Reserve Board for the Year 1926. Government Printing Office, p.9. cited in Anderson, p. 183.
21 Anderson, p. 153.
22 In reality, the purpose of this new cheap money policy was to staunch the flow of gold from Great Britain by making it less profitable for gold to leak. Anderson, pp. 189-91.
23 Anderson, p. 191.
24 There was also a concomitant gold stock reduction, due to the return of France to the gold standard, that also affected bank reserves. It represented about $300 million in reserve depletions. Anderson, p. 193.
25 Rothbard, Great Depression, pp. 191-3.
26 Anderson, p. 309.
27 Salsman, p. 45.
28 Ibid., p. 44.
29 Jackson, p. 74.
30 Trescott, Paul B. Financing American Enterprise: The Story of Commercial Banking. Harper & Row: 1963, p. 111. cited in Salsman, p. 49.
31 A simple application of the law of supply and demand.
32 "What induces an entrepreneur to embark upon definite projects is neither high prices nor low prices as such, but a discrepancy between the costs of production, inclusive of interest on the capital required, and the anticipated prices of the products. A lowering of the gross market rate of interest as brought about by credit expansion always has the effect of making some projects appear profitable which did not appear so before." Mises, Ludwig von. Human Action. Yale University Press: 1949, pp. 558-9.
33 Rothbard, Great Depression, p. 19.
34 Mises, p. 557.
35 Skousen, Mark. The Structure of Production. New York University Press: 1990, p. 46-7. Skousen is citing Hayek, Frederich A. von. Prices and Production. George Routledge: 1935, p. 57.
36 Rothbard, Great Depression, p. 20.
37 McElvaine, Robert S. The Great Depression: America, 1929-1941. Times Books: 1993, p. 17. McElvaine also notes a general spendthrift trend present in the twenties, thus underscoring the "forced" nature of the savings.
38 Rothbard, Great Depression, pp. 154-5.
39 Johnson, Paul. Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Eighties. Harper & Row: 1983, p. 246.
40 Katz, Howard S. "Unemployment in the Depression." http://www.fame.org/research/library/hsk-0031.htm
41 Anderson, pp. 127-8.
42 Anderson, pp. 192-6.
43 Ibid., p. 200.
44 Rothbard, Great Depression, p. 116.
45 Anderson, p. 202.
46 McElvaine, p. 38.
47 Ibid., p. 41.
48 Rothbard, Great Depression, pp. 56-8.
49 Ibid., pp. 55-6.
50 Salsman, p. 44.


{% extends 'neighbour/base.html' %} {% load cloudinary %} {% load static %} {% load crispy_forms_tags %} {% block content %}
Police Contact {{neighbour.police}}
Hospital Contacts {{neighbour.health}}
Admin:{{user.username|title}}
Email: {{business.email}}
Description: {{business.description}}
Neighbourhood: {{ business.neighbourhood.name}}
Business Owner: {{ business.user.username|title }}
Health Contacts: {{ business.health }}
Police Contacts: {{ business.police }}
Posted By: {{ post.user|title }} Posted on:{{ post.date|date}}
Neighbourhood: {{ post.neighbourhood|title }} Posted on:{{ post.date|date}}


Elliot Ayrey
github.com/illej
Portfolio
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Who am I?
Born in Mexico and migrated to the US at the age of 8. Moved around alot and lived in most areas of California from Stockton to San Diego and everywhere in between. A sibling of 3 and being the only girl I learned to stand up for myself. Eventually I moved to Arizona at the start of my highschool year and lived there for over 24 years. I have 3 children 2 young adults and one highschooler.
Education
- Rio Salado Community College AAS degree in Computer Science.
- Grand Canyon University BSA Business Analytics
- Code Fellows
Work
- OptionCare -Reimbursement Manager
- BriovaRX -Reimbursement Manager
- HelmsBriscoe -Business Analyst
- First Hill Surgery Center -Revenue Cycle Analyst
During school and in my previous positions I was able to learn coding: HTML, CSS, Java, SQL and some VBA. This has really opened my eyes to what really drives me and it is exiting to change course and attend codefellows with the goal to become a software developer.
Top Ten Movies
- Alcatraz
- Footloose
- Silence of the lambs
- Empire Records
- Hannibal rising
- Shawshank Redemption
- Garden state
- Never ending story
- Harry potter (all the movies)
- Girl with the dragon tatoo (entire series swedish version)


|
MOTS Finder
Find non-star-shaped MOTSs
|
Base class for all evaluator classes. More...
Public Member Functions | |
| def | __init__ (self, expr, sub_evaluators=None) |
| Base class init for evaluators. More... | |
| def | domain (self) |
| Domain of this evaluator. More... | |
| def | domain (self, domain) |
| def | is_zero_function (self, n=0) |
| Return whether the n'th derivative of this evaluator is identically zero. More... | |
| def | store_domain (self, obj) |
| Store the domain of this evaluator on the given object. More... | |
Public Attributes | |
| domain | |
Private Attributes | |
| _domain | |
| _sub_evaluators | |
Base class for all evaluator classes.
Users of the expression system who don't need to implement their own new expression don't need to deal with how evaluators are implemented at all.
Basically, these are very light-weight objects that can store interim computations to efficiently compute values once requested.
Evaluators are expected to be callable, which should evaluate the expression and return a numeric value. They should also have a diff(x, n=1)
function evaluating the n'th derivative at the point x
. Furthermore, a function function(n=0)
should return a callable for the n'th derivative. Evaluators are free to expect a scalar x
or some other input, like a vector or list/tuple.
Each evaluator will have a domain
attribute, which is populated with the original expressions domain at initialization time.
| def __init__ | ( | self, | |
| expr, | |||
sub_evaluators = None |
|||
| ) |
Base class init for evaluators.
| expr | The expression object for which this evaluator is created. |
| sub_evaluators | List of further evaluators required to evaluate this one. Currently this list is stored but not used. |
| def domain | ( | self | ) |
Domain of this evaluator.
| def is_zero_function | ( | self, | |
n = 0 |
|||
| ) |
Return whether the n'th derivative of this evaluator is identically zero.
| def store_domain | ( | self, | |
| obj | |||
| ) |
Store the domain of this evaluator on the given object.


import DefaultServicesPlugin from 'devapt-core-services/js/default_plugins/services_default_plugin.js'
DefaultServicesPlugin
Extends:
devapt-core-common/dist/js/plugins/services_plugin~ServicesPlugin → DefaultServicesPlugin
Plugin class for default services.
Constructor Summary
| Public Constructor | ||
| public |
constructor(arg_runtime: RuntimeBase, arg_manager: PluginsManager): nothing Create a DefaultServicesPlugin instance. |
Member Summary
| Private Members | ||
| private |
Services classes. |
Method Summary
| Public Methods | ||
| public |
Create a component instance. |
|
| public |
get_feature_class(arg_class_name: string): object Get a feature class. |
|
| public |
Test if a feature class is known into self contained plugins. |
Public Constructors
public constructor(arg_runtime: RuntimeBase, arg_manager: PluginsManager): nothing source
Create a DefaultServicesPlugin instance.
Params:
| Name | Type | Attribute | Description |
| arg_runtime | RuntimeBase | runtime instance. |
|
| arg_manager | PluginsManager | plugins manager. |
Return:
| nothing |
Public Methods
public create(arg_class_name: string, arg_name: string, arg_settings: object, arg_state: object): object source
Create a component instance.


rosetta solutions by Other Raku Contributors
99 bottles of beer
abc problem
9 billion names of god the integer
abundant odd numbers
abbreviations
100 doors
amicable pairs
100 prisoners
ackermann function
15 puzzle game
almost prime


May 2004 Archives by author
Starting: Sat May 1 13:50:47 CEST 2004
Ending: Thu May 27 13:02:18 CEST 2004
Messages: 48
- [Gecode] Found problem with dynamic linking on Windows and gcc
Denys Duchier
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
Denys Duchier
- [Gecode] Succeded with DLLs
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Some issues in the code you contributed...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Autoconf: incomplete, works, how?
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Kill name virtual methods...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] count propagators won't build
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Major design flaw and solution
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Some more details on posting...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Some more details on posting...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Indexed dependencies
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] DllExport not yet okay on Windows...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Indexed dependencies for Sets
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Some more tips for coding style...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Reified nary equality
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Clarification about posting again...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] GCC and Windows....
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] A nice gotcha to be prevented...
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Found problem with dynamic linking on Windows and gcc
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Found problem with dynamic linking on Windows and gcc
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Overflow problem in mult
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Memory leak fixed: Important, read carefully
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] INT module is _not_ always there!
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Equality, variable aliasing and AllDistinct
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Equality, variable aliasing and AllDistinct
Christian Schulte
- [Gecode] Some issues in the code you contributed...
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Autoconf: incomplete, works, how?
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Succeded with DLLs
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] count propagators won't build
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] count propagators won't build
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Some more details on posting...
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Some more details on posting...
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Reified nary equality
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Found problem with dynamic linking on Windows and gcc
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Overflow problem in mult
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Memory leak fixed: Important, read carefully
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] INT module is _not_ always there!
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Bugzilla
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] Equality, variable aliasing and AllDistinct
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] CVS compile problem, friend class Variable without template
Guido Tack
- [Gecode] GCC and Windows....
duchier at ps.uni-sb.de
- [Gecode] Bug tracking?
duchier at ps.uni-sb.de
- [Gecode] Equality, variable aliasing and AllDistinct
duchier at ps.uni-sb.de
Last message date:
Thu May 27 13:02:18 CEST 2004
Archived on: Thu Nov 26 21:07:33 CET 2009
This archive was generated by
Pipermail 0.09 (Mailman edition).


Throughout this WIKI BLOG assignment, I was able to learn more in-depth on how a gyroscope is used in the aviation industry. The creation of gyroscopes has really widened the navigation and flight assistant capabilities of the aircraft's flight instruments to what we have today in the modernised generation.
What has actually gotten me more interested in the design of the gyroscope is on how it is able to derive the position of the plane just by using a few gimbals and rings. I am glad to have contributed to this WIKI BLOG which has allowed me to understand the use of a gyroscope better.
This wiki blog assignment has helped me to understand better about gyroscopes. The history behind it and how aircraft started using gyroscopes on aircraft to help improve the flight instrument. Beside that the technology now like out mobile phones and watches are also using gyroscope. The construction of the gyroscope is really interesting as when the rings rotate the gyroscope is able to stay upright without falling.
Through this I learned that not only aircraft use the gyroscope and there are also many different kinds of gyroscope that are being used currently. With the team effort we all gain something from this wiki blog assignment and it will be beneficial for us in the future.
This wiki project has expanded my knowledge of the uses on the gyroscope in the aircraft, such as the instrumentation and avionics system like the heading indicator, turn coordinator and also the attitude indicator. It also amazed me on how a gyroscope design can be so simple with just a few gimbals and rings and it is able to derive the position of the aircraft.
Beside that, I was able to explore how to create a website using HTML and CSS codes for this wiki project, which was a fun experience as I got to play around with the code to create a website for our needs.
Through this project, I was able to discover that there are many different types of gyroscope each with its own pros and cons. It led me to further research on the theory and application of the fundamentals of gyroscopic precession. Concepts such as fibre optic gyroscopes sound absurd and impossible but are widely used in aviation. It is undeniable that gyroscope technology is still at its infancy with MEMS gyroscope still developing for aviation use. It could be a huge game changer once breakthrough for MEMS technology is realized. This effectively brings down fuel cost and increased storage capacity.
Apart from learning about gyroscopes through this project. I was also able to take this opportunity to learn about MEMS gyroscope for practical usages in personal projects such as integrating it together with an arduino board as well. It was a rather interesting side project to work on, which taught me quite a lot on the working principles of gyroscopes.


The congress.api.webservice
Module¶
-
class
congress.api.webservice.
AbstractApiHandler
(path_regex)¶ Bases:
object
Abstract handler for API requests.
- Attributes:
- path_regex: The regular expression matching paths supported by this
- handler.
-
handle_request
(request)¶ Handle a REST request.
- Args:
- request: A webob request object.
- Returns:
- A webob response object.
-
handles_request
(request)¶ Return true iff handler supports the request.
-
class
congress.api.webservice.
CollectionHandler
(path_regex, model, allow_named_create=True, allow_list=True, allow_create=True, allow_update=False)¶ Bases:
congress.api.webservice.AbstractApiHandler
API handler for REST collection resources.
REST collections represent collections of entities in the data model, and often support the following operations:
- List elements in the collection
- Create new element in the collection
- The following less-common collection operations are NOT SUPPORTED:
- Replace all elements in the collection
- Delete all elements in the collection
-
create_member
(request, id_=None)¶
-
handle_request
(request)¶ Handle a REST request.
- Args:
- request: A webob request object.
- Returns:
- A webob response object.
-
list_members
(request)¶
-
update_members
(request)¶
-
exception
congress.api.webservice.
DataModelException
(error_code, description, data=None, http_status_code=400)¶ Bases:
exceptions.Exception
Congress API Data Model Exception
Custom exception raised by API Data Model methods to communicate errors to the API framework.
-
classmethod
create
(error)¶ Generate a DataModelException from an existing CongressException.
:param error has a ‘name’ field corresponding to an error_codes error-name. It may also have a ‘data’ field. Returns a DataModelException properly populated.
-
rest_response
()¶
-
classmethod
-
class
congress.api.webservice.
ElementHandler
(path_regex, model, collection_handler=None, allow_read=True, allow_actions=True, allow_replace=True, allow_update=True, allow_delete=True)¶ Bases:
congress.api.webservice.AbstractApiHandler
API handler for REST element resources.
REST elements represent individual entities in the data model, and often support the following operations:
- Read a representation of the element
- Update (replace) the entire element with a new version
- Update (patch) parts of the element with new values
- Delete the element
Elements may also exhibit ‘controller’ semantics for RPC-style method invocation, however this is not currently supported.
-
action
(request)¶
-
delete
(request)¶
-
handle_request
(request)¶ Handle a REST request.
- Args:
- request: A webob request object.
- Returns:
- A webob response object.
-
read
(request)¶
-
replace
(request)¶
-
update
(request)¶
-
class
congress.api.webservice.
SimpleDataModel
(model_name)¶ Bases:
object
A container providing access to a single type of data.
-
add_item
(item, params, id_=None, context=None)¶ Add item to model.
- Args:
item: The item to add to the model params: A dict-like object containing parameters
from the request query string and body.id_: The ID of the item, or None if an ID should be generated context: Key-values providing frame of reference of request
- Returns:
- Tuple of (ID, newly_created_item)
- Raises:
- KeyError: ID already exists. DataModelException: Addition cannot be performed.
-
delete_item
(id_, params, context=None)¶ Remove item from model.
-
get_items
(params, context=None)¶ Get items in model.
- Args:
- params: A dict-like object containing parameters
- from the request query string and body.
context: Key-values providing frame of reference of request
- Returns: A dict containing at least a ‘results’ key whose value is
- a list of items in the model. Additional keys set in the dict will also be rendered for the user.
-
update_item
(id_, item, params, context=None)¶ Update item with id_ with new data.
- Args:
id_: The ID of the item to be updated item: The new item params: A dict-like object containing parameters
from the request query string and body.context: Key-values providing frame of reference of request
- Returns:
- The updated item.
- Raises:
- KeyError: Item with specified id_ not present. DataModelException: Update cannot be performed.
-
update_items
(items, params, context=None)¶ Update items in the model.
- Args:
- items: A dict-like object containing new data params: A dict-like object containing parameters context: Key-values providing frame of reference of request
- Returns:
- None.
-
-
congress.api.webservice.
error_response
(status, error_code, description, data=None)¶ Construct and return an error response.
- Args:
- status: The HTTP status code of the response. error_code: The application-specific error code. description: Friendly G11N-enabled string corresponding to error_code. data: Additional data (not G11N-enabled) for the API consumer.
-
congress.api.webservice.
original_msg
(e)¶ Undo oslo-messaging added traceback to return original exception msg


The next time you hit a creature with a weapon attack before this spell ends, the w eapon gleams with astral radiance as you strike. The attack deals an extra 2d6 radiant damage to the target, which becomes visible if it's invisible, and the target sheds dim light in a 5-foot radius and can't become invisible until the spell ends.
At Higher Levels. When you cast this spell using a spell slot of 3rd level or higher, the extra damage increases by 1d6 for each slot level above 2nd.


I can build and modify websites to contain a shopify style store with credit card payments, customer service, text message verification.
I have built all the required projects as done in the UCSD WEB development coding bootcamp Summer of 2018.

Phase 2 will add a social community to the real estate CRM and a direct link to facebook marketing via Zapier, we will have complete marketing programs with inhouse services. Also have full app development completed.
Legal/Sales/Marketing/Lead Developer/CEO
Legal/Sales/Marketing/CEO
This project is a dream of mine! I have taken a huge risk going to this school. I pray and hope that my dreams and yours come true!


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Sensitivity of laboratory HCMV strains and patient isolates to ganciclovir and cidofovir as indicated by HCMV LA expression in human foreskin fibroblasts infected at MOI 0.02 120 h post infection. Concentrations that reduce LA expression by 50% (IC 50) are provided.
* mutation in the HCMV DNA polymerase UL54, which confers resistance to ganciclovir and cidofovir [ 42, 43]. ** mutation in the HCMV kinase UL97, which is associated with ganciclovir resistance [ 44, 45].


Shiloh 2: Shiloh Season
A Film Review by Mark O'Hara
It's a sure bet the family will enjoy 'Shiloh 2', the film based Phyllis Reynolds Naylor's 'Shiloh Season', the second book of the 'Shiloh' trilogy.
Young Marty Preston (Zachary Browne) has saved the beagle Shiloh from the clutches of a ne'er-do-well neighbor, Judd Travers (Scott Wilson). But Judd resurfaces, his drunkenness and bad temper escalating. Marty's father Ray (Michael Moriarty) believes Judd is hunting without permission on Preston land, and to make things worse, Judd makes overtures toward reclaiming Shiloh. At one point Judd's dogs run loose, and one of Marty's sisters is bitten on the leg. Clearly, Judd is a threatening presence.
Then something happens to Judd Travers. Lassie-like, Shiloh leads Marty to Judd's overturned truck, saving the man's life. Will Judd ever lose his apparent hatred? Marty sets out trying to befriend him, following the example of his loving dog Shiloh.
As Marty, Zachary Browne is mostly convincing; he is even endearing during his confrontations with Judd Travers, Browne's eyes full of sincerity and fear.
As Ray Preston, Michael Moriarty turns in an average performance. His acting skills are apparent, yet he plays the role with little or no expression: too low-key are his replies and warnings in conversations with other characters. His wife Louise, played by Ann Dowd, is much stronger in her portrayal of a concerned parent. In one scene, protecting her daughter and other children from the vicious dog, Mrs. Preston swings a broom with frantic protectiveness. Just as she is believable in her disdain of Judd, her husband Ray acts unbelievably laid-back toward the main who seems to pose a threat to the family.
Rod Steiger plays Doc Wallace, the wise mentor to many of the area children. Steiger's experience is visible in his natural manner, even in his expert blocking: the scenes in which he appears are very watchable and well-directed.
Scott Wilson sketches Judd Travers with convincing hatefulness. His drunken staggers are not overdone (although his frequent drunk driving without a sheriff giving chase is inexcusable).
What is not so well done is the portrayal of seventh graders. One scene has all the children on a school bus, talking civilly and woodenly about the dog attack. The kids in Marty's class are entirely too quiet and cooperative with their new teacher, Miss Talbot.
As one might expect, there are many opportunities for sentiment in the story. But in general, director Dale Rosenbloom keeps the tone from becoming too sickly sweet.
Music by Joel Goldsmith assists the story unobtrusively, and a theme song by Rita Coolidge does a nice job of closing the narrative.
A warm-hearted story with an all-important message, 'Shiloh 2: Shiloh Season' will capture the fondness of any viewer. With a story that only seems simple, the film is a solid bet for family enjoyment. In an age in which so many filmmakers refuse to target children, 'Shiloh 2' captivates with a mixture of fun and intelligence.
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
review and has no editorial control. Unless stated otherwise, the copyright
belongs to the author.
Please direct comments/criticisms of the review to relevant newsgroups.
Broken URLs inthe reviews are the responsibility of the author.
The formatting of the review is likely to differ from the original due
to ASCII to HTML conversion.
Related links: index of all rec.arts.movies.reviews reviews


"Independence Day" (1996)
A Film Review by Jason Wallis
"Independence Day" * * 1/2 (out of four) Starring Will Smith, Bill Pullman, Jeff Goldblum, Mary McDonnell, Judd Hirsch, Brent Spiner and Randy Quaid Directed by Roland Emmerich
Anyone who knows me is aware of my hatred for comtemporary Hollywood. I loathe almost every big budget Hollywood production I come across.  And the only reason these exceptions are actually good is because of character development or just sheer cleverness. Well, Roland Emmerich's "Independence Day" posseses neither of these qualities. But I was shocked to discover that, although in a very guilty-pleasurish way, I actually kinnda dug it.  I particularly liked (as I'm sure everyone did) the character played by Will Smith. I was never a big fan of his TV show "The Fresh Prince of Bel Air" and have never seen nor have any desire to see "Bad Boys" (mostly because of Martin Lawrence - can't stand the guy), but here, he shows that he was some real talent that other action stars like Sylvester Stalone or Ah-nold Schwarzenegger very rarely get to display. And when he made the fantastic "Men in Black" the following year, he proved to the world (or me, at least) that he truly deserves his star status. Judd Hirsch and Randy Quaid are also great in their roles, by the way. But, having said that, there are not enough strong points in "Independence Day" for me to really recommend it. Many great actors are wasted in this film, especially Brent Spiner. Now I've never been a huge Trekie, but anyone who's seen even a single episode of "Star Trek: The Next Generation" can see that Spiner is an excellent actor (he even had a cool cameo in "Phenomenon"). But no, instead of taking a well-written role to make make a cameo appearence, he has to choose to play the sterotypical nutcase scientist. In "Star Trek", even though he played an android, you could see underlying emotions that not very many other actors could pull-off.   He shines in almost every film he's in and I think he even deserves an Oscar nomination for his recent role in "Lost Highway".  And it's not that his acting sucks, it's that his character is very poorly written and extrememly one-dimentional. However, you can't really blame poor Bill because, despite how good of an actor you are, if you're given a bad character, you can't be expected to perform. Just look at Jack Nicholson in "Mars Attacks!". Even though he's the greatest actor to ever live, he couldn't get anything out of his character (or characters, in his case). And as for Roland Emmerich, he just needs to find a good story to film. With his earlier "Stargate", even though the actual final product was horrible, he showed amazing skill as a director. Oh, and I almost forgot to mention all the people who were calling this piece of psuedocrap "Star Wars" for the 90s. Do yourself a favor and watch it again, only this time on video. Just 'cause a movie is loud and shakes your seat in the theater, that doesn't mean it can be compared to a classic like "Star Wars" or any of it's sequels. That just isn't right. So, I actually almost-sorta-kinnda recommend "Independence Day" just for the performances from Will Smith, Judd Hirsch and Randy Quaid and maybe even for some of the one-liners. But I still don't see how the American public can make this one of the top grossing films of all time. Maybe it's not up to me to understand...
Visit Jason Wallis' "Filmaholics Anonymous" web page at http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Boulevard/7475
The review above was posted to the
rec.arts.movies.reviews newsgroup (de.rec.film.kritiken for German reviews).
The Internet Movie Database accepts no responsibility for the contents of the
review and has no editorial control. Unless stated otherwise, the copyright
belongs to the author.
Please direct comments/criticisms of the review to relevant newsgroups.
Broken URLs inthe reviews are the responsibility of the author.
The formatting of the review is likely to differ from the original due
to ASCII to HTML conversion.
Related links: index of all rec.arts.movies.reviews reviews


{% extends 'base.html' %} {% from "macros.html" import grouped_entries with context %} {% block title %}Aberdeen Harbour Historic Arrival Vessel Registered Ports of Origin List{% endblock %}
Click on a port name to see all the records that it appears in.
{% block content %} {{ grouped_entries('Ports of Origin', 'from_port', from_ports) }} {% endblock %}


Sunflowers are one of the fastest growing plants and they grow tall. On an average they grow up to 8-12 feet within six months.
A single sunflower can have up to 2000 seeds.
While a few sunflower varieties do not need any staking, it is a good idea to support plants that grow over 3 feet tall or are multi-branched.
It takes 7-10 days for a seed to sprout, and 80-120 days to reach maturity.
Sunflowers do not require fertilizer, unless planted in nutrient-poor, thin soil.


Preparation time
less than 30 mins
Cooking time
10 to 30 mins
Serves
Serves 4
Sear the salmon in a hot frying pan and finish off in the oven at 180C/350F/Gas 4, cooking for 5-8 minutes.
Squeeze the lemon and spoon the vinaigrette over the salmon. Allow to cool, place in a container and refrigerate.
For the pesto, mix all the ingredients in a bowl and season. Put in a container and refrigerate.
For the salad, wash and pick the leaves and place in a container.
To serve, place the salmon on a plate, drizzle with chunky pesto and dress the mixed leaf salad with vinaigrette.


{% include head.html critical-css="critical-blog-post.css" prefetch-blog=false %}
{% include blog-masthead.html track-category=site.data.tracking.category.cookie_policy %}Last updated: (20th November 2017) Fabrizio Duroni uses cookies on "Fabrizio Duroni" (the "Service"). By using the Service, you consent to the use of cookies. My Cookies Policy explains what cookies are, how I use cookies, how thirdparties I may partner with may use cookies on the Service, your choices regarding cookies and further information about cookies.
Cookies are small pieces of text sent by your web browser by a website you visit. A cookie file is stored in your web browser and allows the Service or a thirdparty to recognize you and make your next visit easier and the Service more useful to you. Cookies can be "persistent" or "session" cookies.
When you use and access the Service, I may place a number of cookies files in your web browser. I use cookies for the following purposes: to enable certain functions of the Service, to provide analytics, to store your preferences, to enable advertisements delivery, including behavioral advertising. I use both session and persistent cookies on the Service and I use different types of cookies to run the Service:
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If you'd like to delete cookies or instruct your web browser to delete or refuse cookies, please visit the help pages of your web browser. Please note, however, that if you delete cookies or refuse to accept them, you might not be able to use all of the features I offer, you may not be able to store your preferences, and some of my pages might not display properly.
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Kihon — styling from the ground up
by saltymouseYou probably don't need Bootstrap/Tailwind/Sass and other frameworks and tools for your blog and landing-pages. So often we reach into the yarn add bootstrap
package bucket without thinking of the transmission size down the line. Modern, standards-based CSS is capable of doing all the fancy things you probably want to do.
There are a lot of minimalist CSS starters out there, but Kihon tries to strike a balance between minimal yet modern and usable. The page you're reading now is styled with Kihon.
Overview
Take a peek at the source-code to follow along. It's only ~100 lines (one "page")!
- Mobile-first (responsive)
- Dark-mode
Kihon uses hand-picked colours for dark-mode, but if you're not in the colour-picking mood, you can always use the mix-blend-mode
overlay hack.
@media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { body::after { background-color: oldlace; content: ''; display: block; height: 100vh; left: 0; mix-blend-mode: difference; position: fixed; pointer-events: none; top: 0; width: 100vw; } }


---
title: "How to Make Perfect Marinated Wild Salmon Tasty"
slug: marinated-wild-salmon
description: "Marinated Wild Salmon Recipe - A delicious, healthy lemon-garlic marinade for salmon with cilantro and red chili flakes. Marinate at least 6 hours. Broil in the oven or grill 7 to 8 minutes per side. How to Prepare Quick Marinated Wild Salmon Tasty"
date: 2021-04-29T23:30:04Z
image: https://cdn.statically.io/img/images.media-allrecipes.com/userphotos/16767.jpg
thumbnail: https://cdn.statically.io/img/images.media-allrecipes.com/userphotos/16767.jpg
cover: https://cdn.statically.io/img/images.media-allrecipes.com/userphotos/16767.jpg
author: Suartini
ratingvalue: 4.7
reviewcount: 944
recipeingredient:
- "4 salmon fillets"
- "salt and pepper to taste"
- "1 tablespoon onion powder"
- "1 teaspoon crushed red pepper flakes"
- "¼ cup olive oil"
- "¼ cup fresh lemon juice"
- "4 cloves garlic, minced"
- "3 tablespoons white balsamic vinegar"
- "2 tablespoons white sugar"
- "2 tablespoons chopped green onions"
- "2 tablespoons chopped cilantro"
recipeinstructions:
- "Season fillets with salt and pepper, onion powder, and red pepper flakes. Set aside in a baking dish."
- "In a medium bowl, mix together olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, balsamic vinegar, sugar, green onions, and cilantro. Pour marinade over salmon; cover, and refrigerate overnight, or at least 6 hours."
- "Preheat oven to 450 degrees F (230 degrees C)."
- "Arrange salmon on a broiling sheet. Place in a preheated oven, and bake for 5 minutes. Increase heat to 500 degrees F (260 degrees C), turn fillets, and broil 5 minutes more."
categories:
- "Main Dish Recipes"
- "Seafood Main Dish Recipes"
- "Salmon"
- "Broiled Salmon Recipes"
- "Recipes"
tags:
- "main dish recipes"
- "seafood main dish recipes"
- "salmon"
- "broiled salmon recipes"
katakunci: marinated wild salmon, main dish recipes, seafood main dish recipes, salmon, broiled salmon recipes, .
nutrition: 378.9 calories
recipecuisine: Western
preptime: "P0DT0H15M"
cooktime: "P0DT0H15M"
totaltime: "P0DT0H30M"
recipeyield: "4 salmon fillets"
recipecategory:
- Main Dish Recipes
- Seafood Main Dish Recipes
- Salmon
- Broiled Salmon Recipes
quotes: There is no love more sincere than my love for food.
---
Marinated Wild Salmon - Hey everyone, I hope you are having an incredible day today. Its me again Suartini , welcome to my recipe site. Today, we are going to make a distinctive dish, Marinated Wild Salmon. One of my favorites recipes. This time, I will make it a little bit unique. This will be really delicious.
Marinated Wild Salmon is A delicious, healthy lemon-garlic marinade for salmon with cilantro and red chili flakes. Marinate at least 6 hours. Broil in the oven or grill 7 to 8 minutes per side.
Marinated Wild Salmon is one of the most well liked of current trending meals in the world. its easy, its fast, it tastes delicious. its appreciated by millions daily. It is easy, it is quick, it tastes delicious. Marinated Wild Salmon is something that I have loved my whole life. They re nice and they look wonderful. They re fine and they look wonderful. Marinated Wild Salmon is something that I ve loved my whole life.
Recipe of Any-night-of-the-week Marinated Wild Salmon Tasty
To begin with this particular recipe, we must first prepare a few components. You can have Marinated Wild Salmon using 11 ingredients and 4 steps. Here is how you can achieve it.
The ingredients needed to make Marinated Wild Salmon:
-
Prepare 4 salmon fillets
-
Get salt and pepper to taste
-
Make ready 1 tablespoon onion powder
-
Prepare 1 teaspoon crushed red pepper flakes
-
Get ¼ cup olive oil
-
Get ¼ cup fresh lemon juice
-
Make ready 4 cloves garlic, minced
-
Get 3 tablespoons white balsamic vinegar
-
Make ready 2 tablespoons white sugar
-
Get 2 tablespoons chopped green onions
-
Prepare 2 tablespoons chopped cilantro
Step by Step to create Marinated Wild Salmon:
-
Season fillets with salt and pepper, onion powder, and red pepper flakes. Set aside in a baking dish.
-
In a medium bowl, mix together olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, balsamic vinegar, sugar, green onions, and cilantro. Pour marinade over salmon; cover, and refrigerate overnight, or at least 6 hours.
-
Preheat oven to 450 degrees F (230 degrees C).
-
Arrange salmon on a broiling sheet. Place in a preheated oven, and bake for 5 minutes. Increase heat to 500 degrees F (260 degrees C), turn fillets, and broil 5 minutes more.
So thats going to wrap it up with this exceptional food Marinated Wild Salmon recipe. Thank you very much for reading. I am confident that you can make this at home. There is gonna be more interesting food in home recipes coming up. Dont forget to save this page on your browser, and share it to your loved ones, friends and colleague. Thank you for reading. Go on get cooking!
Reviews of Marinated Wild Salmon:
-
Sharon - this was PHENOMENAL!!!! I just dumped all the ingredients in a big plastic bag and marinated the salmon 6 hours and it was SOOOO delicious!!! very fresh, rich tasting. I added the juice of 2 limes instead of lemon and added about 2 tsps of chili pepper. I used regular balsamic instead of white and it still all came out fabulous! I grilled mine in a pan and cooked the remaining marinade in a small sauce pan until it boiled and added a little cornstarch to thicken it- truly made the dish!
-
Michelle Bonham - This dish is so delicious!!! I love salmon, and this is one of the best recipes. I have to say it is great broiled, but it is simply wonderful on the grill. I marinated the whole fillet with the skin and put it on some foil and it was great.***Update***I used some leftovers to make salmon patties & it was out of this world! Simply mix with seasoned bread crumbs, beaten egg, diced onion, green peppers, spices & brown in the skillet. Excellent!
-
Michelle Ramey - This was good, I really enjoyed the cilantro flavor. We had it with grilled asparagus, grilled orange peppers, and some garlic bread.
-
Missuzj - Best salmon I have ever eaten. The only changes I made were to omit the red pepper flakes and substitute white wine vinegar for the white balsamic (couldn't find it). Also I cooked mine on the grill. I highly recommend it.
-
andreax101 - It was easy to make! and the dish was delicious! I added extra cilantro and green onions, used 1 tbsp red wine vinegar, and half the amount of white balsamic vinegar. I don't have a broiler, so I just baked the salmon uncovered on 450 for about 17 minutes. I marinated for only 2 hours and it still was fantastic!
-
Jesus loves You! - This was an excellent flavor for Salmon! I followed exactly - my demise though was it was over cooked. I think the total cooking time is 10 min but was unsure the way it was written. I cooked for 15...too much:( Still a great recipe though! Thanks!
-
YOGABLISS78 - Great recipe. Tastes awsome on the grill. The only thing i left out was the cilantro and it was still delicious! I always use this marinade for salmon now when bbq'ing.
-
Brittany Robertson - I recently got married and have been trying out new recipes on my husband and he LOVED this one! He ate so much of it that when we went to the gym later on he felt sick. But never regretted eating the yummy salmon. It was very moist flavorful and easy to prepare. The only disappointing part about it was that it has to marinate for so long because once you smell it you want to eat it right away!
-
JADEDZZ - YUM! This recipe is effortless and can be done within minutes. Great last minute fix! (though the suggested marinating time is ideal) Healthy and satisfying =)
-
MBCORNS - I really didn't like this. It was a little too sweet and lemony for my taste.


| Video resolution HERO3+Black | |
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| Video resolution HERO2 and HERO3 Silver | |
| Video Protune resolutions Black ed: ONLY IF PROTUNE ON | |
| Video Protune resolutions HERO2 and HERO3 Silver | |
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Source code for pythoncyc.config
# Copyright (c) 2014, SRI International
#
# Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
# a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
# "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
# without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
# distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
# permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
# the following conditions:
#
# The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
# included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
#
# THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
# EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
# MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
# NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
# LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
# OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
# WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
# ----------------------------------------------------------------------
"""
This module can be used to set various parameters for PythonCyc,
in particular to set debug on or off, the host name and port number
of the running Pathway Tools' Python server. By default, the Pathway Tools
Python server is running locally on port 5008.
"""
_debug = False
_hostname = "localhost"
_hostport = 5008
[docs]def set_debug_on():
"""
Turn on debug mode for PythonCyc.
Turning on debugging should turn on output tracings of the communications between PythonCyc and Pathway Tools.
"""
global _debug
_debug = True
print 'Debug on.'
[docs]def set_debug_off():
"""
Turn off debug mode for PythonCyc.
Turning off debugging should turn off all output tracings of the communications between PythonCyc and Pathway Tools.
"""
global _debug
_debug = False
print 'Debug off.'
[docs]def set_host_name(hostname):
global _hostname
_hostname = hostname
print 'PythonCyc will communicate with Pathway Tools running on host name ',_hostname
[docs]def set_host_port(hostport):
global _hostport
_hostport = hostport
print 'PythonCyc will communicate with Pathway Tools running on host port ',_hostport


CVMBF - Constant Variables Must Be Final
Local variables that never get their values changed must
be declared final
. By explicitly declaring them in such a
way, a reader of the source code get some information of
how the variable is supposed to be used.
Wrong
int var1 = 10;
int var2 = 20;
var1 = var2;
System.out.println(attr1);
}
Tip: Make all variables
which are never changed final
.
Right
int var1 = 10;
final int var2 = 20;
var1 = var2;
System.out.println(attr1);
}


UK police formally identify 39 bodies found in truck, victims confirmed to be Vietnamese
LONDON: British police said on Thursday (Nov 7) that they had formally identified the 39 people found dead in the back of a truck near London in October and their families had been notified.
"This is an important step in the investigation and enables us to work with our Vietnamese police colleagues to support the families of those victims," the senior officer in charge of the enquiry, Essex Assistant Chief Constable Tim Smith, said.
READ: Vietnam 'strongly condemns' human trafficking after UK truck tragedy
READ: Second man charged over 39 UK truck deaths; Vietnam makes arrests
Vietnamese police have also confirmed that all the victims were Vietnamese.
The victims came from six provinces - Haiphong, Hai Duong, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh and Hue - the Ministry of Public Security said in a statement.
"As of 8pm, on Nov 7, Vietnam's Ministry of Public Security and British authorities had been able to confirm that all of the 39 victims found dead in Essex on Oct 23 were Vietnamese," the ministry said in a statement.
The Vietnamese embassy in London said it was "in deep sorrow" over the confirmation.
"Once again, we would like to convey our profound condolences and sympathy to the bereaved families," it said in a statement.
It added that its staff and a Vietnamese government delegation would "provide consular protection and support for the bereaved families in order to bring their loved ones home at the earliest time".
The bodies - 31 men and eight women - were discovered in the back of a refrigerated truck in an industrial estate in Grays, Essex. The container had arrived from Belgium and was picked up at Purfleet dock, east of London.
Police originally said the victims were believed to be Chinese. The exact nature of the deaths is yet to be confirmed.
The discovery of the bodies put the spotlight on the illicit trade that sends the poor of Asia, the Middle East and Africa on dangerous journeys to the West.
Police in Britain have charged the 25-year-old driver of the refrigerated lorry, from Northern Ireland, with manslaughter, money laundering and conspiracy to assist unlawful immigration.
They are also in the process of extraditing another suspect from Ireland and searching for others potentially involved.
Vietnam has held 11 people in connection with the deaths for helping people travel abroad with the intention of staying overseas illegally. None have been formally charged.


Wintria 2.0
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WITNESS LIST Natural Resources Committee April 11, 2005-2:00P HB 1047 For: Webb, Bill (Texas Motor Transportation Association) HB 1054 For: Marks, David (Mike Manners, Landowners) HB 1055 For: Marks, David (Mike Manner, Landowners) HB 1226 For: Baker, Carole (The Subsidence District and Texas Section American Water Works Association) Buckner, Luana (Edwards Aquifer Authority) Buckner, Luana (Medina County Groundwater Conservation District) Finch, Calvin R. (San Antonio Water System) Kramer, Ken (Lone Star Chapter, Sierra Club) Petersen, Ken (Texas Rural Water Association) Richter, Krista (Texas On-Site Waste Water Association) Suchecki, Ron (Texas On-Site Waste Water Association, National On-Site Waste Water Recycling Association) Williams, C.E. (Panhandle Groundwater District) HB 1680 For: Box, Jim (Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District) Houston, Jace (Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District) Neighbors, Ronald (Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District, Fort Bend Subsidence District) HB 1902 For: Marks, David (Benjamin Cheng, Landowner) HB 1903 For: Marks, David (Benjamin Cheng, Landowner) HB 1904 For: Marks, David (Benjamin Cheng, Landowner) HB 1906 For: Marks, David (Benjamin Cheng, Landowner) HB 1907 For: Marks, David (John Dalton, Landowner) HB 1908 For: Marks, David (John Dalton, Landowner) HB 1909 For: Marks, David (John Dalton, Landowner) HB 2084 Against: Bowers, Richard (North Plains Groundwater Conservation District) Honaker, Glenn (Middle Pecos Groundwater Conservation District) Houston, Jace (Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District) Mahoney, Mike (Evergreen Underground Water Conservation District) Matthies, Zan (Self and Middle Pecos Groundwater Conservation District) Williams, C.E. (Texas Groundwater Coalition) Williams, C.E. (Self and Panhandle Groundwater District) HB 2301 For: Nelson, Paul R. (City of Houston) Pous, Jacob (City of Houston) HB 2585 Against: Lewis, Glen E. (Law Offices of Mark H. Zeppa PC) On: Barrett, Andy (Aqua Texas) HB 2639 For: Oliver, James M. (Tarrant Regional Water District) HB 2914 For: Baker, Carole D. (Self) Finch, PhD, Calvin R. (San Antonio Water System) Goodwin, Doug (Self) Lewis, Jerry (Self and Lone Star Irrigation Association) Montalvo, Romeo (Self) Single, Glenda (Self and Houston Gulf Coast Irrigation Association) Stewart, Karen (City of Austin) Suchecki, Ron (Texas On-Site Waste Water Association) HB 3029 For: Brown, Johnny (Self) Brown, Joseph Calvin (Self) Brown, Nettie (Self and Northridge Acres Homeowner's Association) Petersen, Ken (Texas Rural Water Association) Smith, Daniel R. (Travis County Judge Sam Biscoe) Snyder, Kenneth (Self) Wray, Dorothy (Self) On: Holcomb, Doug (Texas Commission on Environmental Quality) Ward, J. Kevin (Texas Water Development Board) HB 3181 For: Houston, Jace (Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District) HB 3423 For: Burns, Gary (Victoria County Commissioners Court) HB 3478 For: Groves, Brad (Trinity Glen Rose Groundwater Conservation District) Kasprowicz, Daniel (Fair Oaks Ranch) HB 3487 For: Gray, David (Gunn-Whittington Development) HB 3490 For: Stepherson, Angela (Custer Road Partners, L.P.)


All Seasons Landscape Management
El Dorado County landscape installations and maintenance services
Landscaping Integrity
Our landscaping practices focus on creating and maintaining a healthy larger environment. We use integrated pest management, the latest low water irrigation technology and sustainable plant choices. These practices help build and maintain living soil and provide rich habitat for pollinators and wildlife.
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