by Doug Lea
[A German adaptation and translation of this article appears in unix/mail December, 1996. This article is now out of date, and doesn't reflect details of current version of malloc.]
Memory allocators form interesting case studies in the engineering
of infrastructure software. I started writing one in 1987, and
have maintained and evolved it (with the help of many volunteer
contributors) ever since. This allocator provides implementations
of the the standard C routines malloc()
,
free()
, and realloc()
, as well as a few
auxiliary utility routines. The allocator has never been given a
specific name. Most people just call it Doug Lea's
Malloc, or dlmalloc for short.
The code for this allocator has been placed in the public domain (available from ftp://g.oswego.edu/pub/misc/malloc.c), and is apparently widely used: It serves as the default native version of malloc in some versions of Linux; it is compiled into several commonly available software packages (overriding the native malloc), and has been used in various PC environments as well as in embedded systems, and surely many other places I don't even know about.
I wrote the first version of the allocator after writing some C++
programs that almost exclusively relied on allocating dynamic
memory. I found that they ran much more slowly and/or with much
more total memory consumption than I expected them to. This was
due to characteristics of the memory allocators on the systems I
was running on (mainly the then-current versions of SunOs and BSD
). To counter this, at first I wrote a number of special-purpose
allocators in C++, normally by overloading operator
new
for various classes. Some of these are described in a
paper on C++ allocation techniques that was adapted into the 1989
C++ Report article Some
storage allocation techniques for container classes.
However, I soon realized that building a special allocator for each new class that tended to be dynamically allocated and heavily used was not a good strategy when building kinds of general-purpose programming support classes I was writing at the time. (From 1986 to 1991, I was the the primary author of libg++ , the GNU C++ library.) A broader solution was needed -- to write an allocator that was good enough under normal C++ and C loads so that programmers would not be tempted to write special-purpose allocators except under very special conditions.
This article presents a description of some of the main design goals, algorithms, and implementation considerations for this allocator. More detailed documentation can be found with the code distribution.
malloc()
, free()
and realloc
routines should be as fast as possible in the average case.
#define
and the like) or
dynamically (via control commands such as mallopt
).
Paul Wilson and colleagues have written an excellent survey paper on allocation techniques that discusses some of these goals in more detail. See Paul R. Wilson, Mark S. Johnstone, Michael Neely, and David Boles, ``Dynamic Storage Allocation: A Survey and Critical Review'' in International Workshop on Memory Management, September 1995 (also available via ftp). (Note that the version of my allocator they describe is not the most current one however.)
As they discuss, minimizing space by minimizing wastage (generally due to fragmentation) must be the primary goal in any allocator.
For an extreme example, among the fastest possible versions of
malloc()
is one that always allocates the next
sequential memory location available on the system, and the
corresponding fastest version of free()
is a no-op.
However, such an implementation is hardly ever acceptable: it will
cause a program to run out of memory quickly since it never
reclaims unused space. Wastages seen in some allocators used in
practice can be almost this extreme under some loads. As Wilson
also notes, wastage can be measured monetarily: Considered
globally, poor allocation schemes cost people perhaps even
billions of dollars in memory chips.
While time-space issues dominate, the set of trade-offs and compromises is nearly endless. Here are just a few of the many examples:
realloc
memory that had already been freed
. Until 1993,
I allowed this for the sake of compatibility.
(However, no one at all complained when this ``feature'' was dropped.)
No set of compromises along these lines can be perfect. However, over the years, the allocator has evolved to make trade-offs that the majority of users find to be acceptable. The driving forces that continue to impact the evolution of this malloc include:
The original versions implemented boundary tags exactly in this fashion. More recent versions omit trailer fields on chunks that are in use by the program. This is itself a minor trade-off: The fields are not ever used while chunks are active so need not be present. Eliminating them decreases overhead and wastage. However, lack of these fields weakens error detection a bit by making it impossible to check if users mistakenly overwrite fields that should have known values.
Until the versions released in 1995, chunks were left unsorted within bins, so that the best-fit strategy was only approximate. More recent versions instead sort chunks by size within bins, with ties broken by an oldest-first rule. (This was done after finding that the minor time investment was worth it to avoid observed bad cases.)
Thus, the general categorization of this algorithm is best-first with coalescing: Freed chunks are coalesced with neighboring ones, and held in bins that are searched in size order.
This approach leads to fixed bookkeeping overhead per chunk. Because both size information and bin links must be held in each available chunk, the smallest allocatable chunk is 16 bytes in systems with 32-bit pointers and 24 bytes in systems with 64-bit pointers. These minimum sizes are larger than most people would like to see -- they can lead to significant wastage for example in applications allocating many tiny linked-list nodes. However, the 16 bytes minimum at least is characteristic of any system requiring 8-byte alignment in which there is any malloc bookkeeping overhead.
This basic algorithm can be made to be very fast. Even though it rests upon a search mechanism to find best fits, the use of indexing techniques, exploitation of special cases, and careful coding lead to average cases requiring only a few dozen instructions, depending of course on the machine and the allocation pattern.
While coalescing via boundary tags and best-fit via binning represent the main ideas of the algorithm, further considerations lead to a number of heuristic improvements. They include locality preservation, wilderness preservation, memory mapping, and caching.
malloc
.
sbrk
in Unix) to be bigger than it is (unless
of course sbrk
fails because all memory has been
exhausted).
One way to deal with the wilderness chunk is to
handle it about the same way as any other chunk. (This
technique was used in most versions of this malloc until 1994).
While this simplifies and speeds up implementation, without care
it can lead to some very bad worst-case space characteristics:
Among other problems, if the wilderness chunk is used when
another available chunk exists, you increase the chances that a
later request will cause an otherwise preventable
sbrk
.
A better strategy is currently used: treat the wilderness chunk as ``bigger'' than all others, since it can be made so (up to system limitations) and use it as such in a best-first scan. This results in the wilderness chunk always being used only if no other chunk exists, further avoiding preventable fragmentation.
In addition to extending general-purpose allocation regions
via sbrk
, most versions of Unix support system
calls such as mmap
that allocate a separate
non-contiguous region of memory for use by a program. This
provides a second option within malloc
for
satisfying a memory request. Requesting and returning a
mmap
ed chunk can further reduce downstream
fragmentation, since a released memory map does not create a
``hole'' that would need to be managed. However, because of
built-in limitations and overheads associated with
mmap
, it is only worth doing this in very
restricted situations. For example, in all current systems,
mapped regions must be page-aligned. Also, invoking
mmap
and mfree
is much slower than
carving out an existing chunk of memory. For these reasons,
the current version of malloc relies on mmap
only
if (1) the request is greater than a (dynamically adjustable)
threshold size (currently by default 1MB) and (2) the space
requested is not already available in the existing arena so
would have to be obtained via sbrk
.
In part because mmap
is not always applicable in most
programs, the current version of malloc also supports
trimming of the main arena, which achieves one of the effects
of memory mapping -- releasing unused space back to the system. When
long-lived programs contain brief peaks where they allocate large
amounts of memory, followed by longer valleys where the have more
modest requirements, system performance as a whole can be improved
by releasing unused parts of the wilderness chunk back to
the system. (In nearly all versions of Unix, sbrk
can
be used with negative arguments to achieve this effect.) Releasing
space allows the underlying operating system to cut down on swap
space requirements and reuse memory mapping tables. However, as with
mmap
, the call itself can be expensive, so is only attempted
if trailing unused memory exceeds a tunable threshold.
In the most straightforward version of the basic algorithm, each freed chunk is immediately coalesced with neighbors to form the largest possible unused chunk. Similarly, chunks are created (by splitting larger chunks) only when explicitly requested.
Operations to split and to coalesce chunks take time. This time overhead can sometimes be avoided by using either of both of two caching strategies:
malloc
,
free
, or realloc
, corresponding caching
heuristics are easy to apply.
The effectiveness of caching obviously depends on the costs of splitting, coalescing, and searching relative to the work needed to track cached chunks. Additionally, effectiveness less obviously depends on the policy used in deciding when to cache versus coalesce them. .
Caching can be a good idea in programs that continuously
allocate and release chunks of only a few sizes.
For example, if you write a program that
allocates and frees many tree nodes, you might decide that is
worth it to cache some nodes, assuming you know of a fast way
to do this. However, without knowledge of the program,
malloc
cannot know whether it would be a good
idea to coalesce cached small chunks in order to satisfy a
larger request, or whether that larger request should be taken
from somewhere else. And it is difficult for the allocator to
make more informed guesses about this matter. For example, it
is just as costly for an allocator to determine how much total
contiguous space would be gained by coalescing chunks as it
would be to just coalesce them and then resplit them.
Previous versions of the allocator used a few search-ordering heuristics that made adequate guesses about caching, although with occasionally bad worst-case results. But across time, these heuristics appear to be decreasingly effective under real loads. This is probably because actual programs that rely heavily on malloc increasingly tend to use a larger variety of chunk sizes. For example, in C++ programs, this probably corresponds to a trend for programs to use an increasing number of classes. Different classes tend to have different sizes.
[Note: More recent versions of malloc DO cache, but only small chunks.]
There remains one kind of caching that is highly desirable in some applications but not implemented in this allocator -- lookasides for very small chunks. As mentioned above, the basic algorithm imposes a minimum chunk size that can be very wasteful for very small requests. For example, a linked list on a system with 4-byte pointers might allocate nodes holding only, say, two pointers, requiring only 8 bytes. Since the minimum chunk size is 16 bytes, user programs allocating only list nodes suffer 100% overhead.
Eliminating this problem while still maintaining portable alignment would require that the allocator not impose any overhead. Techniques for carrying this out exist. For example, chunks could be checked to see if they belong to a larger aggregated space via address comparisons. However, doing so can impose significant costs; in fact the cost would be unacceptable in this allocator. Chunks are not otherwise tracked by address, so unless arbitrarily limited, checking might lead to random searches through memory. Additionally, support requires the adoption of one or more policies controlling whether and how to ever coalesce small chunks.
Such issues and limitations lead to one of the very few kinds
of situations in which programmers should routinely write their
own special purpose memory management routines (by, for example
in C++ overloading operator new()
). Programs relying
on large but approximately known numbers of very small chunks
may find it profitable to build very simple allocators. For
example, chunks can be allocated out of a fixed array with
an embedded freelist, along with a provision to rely on
malloc
as a backup if the array becomes exhausted.
Somewhat more flexibly, these can be based on the C or C++
versions of obstack available with GNU gcc and libg++.


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I am a graduate of the University of Pittsburgh School of Computing and Information.
I graduated with my Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) in August of 2018.
My coursework and practical experience focused on Digital Scholarship and Systems Librarianship in an academic setting.
I currently live in Chattanooga, Tennessee but I am willing to relocate as necessary for work.
I aim to work with in either Digital Scholarhip or Systems at a small to medium sized University.
I created this page to showcase my work experience, skill, coursework, and projects I have worked on.
I also included links to download a PDF of my resume, and much of this work.
Thank you for taking the time to view my work, if you are intersted in learning more or have any questions please feel free to contact me!
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--- title: MapReduce Patterns, Algorithms, and Use Cases layout: post ---
Great list of map/reduce patterns that everyone can use.


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Package Hierarchies:
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld
,
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter
,
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space
,
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.time
,
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface
,
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.util
,
starwars
,
starwars.actions
,
starwars.entities
,
starwars.entities.actors
,
starwars.entities.actors.behaviors
,
starwars.swinterfaces
,
starwars.userinterfaces
Class Hierarchy
java.lang.Object
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
Action
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
ActionInterface
)
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
Affordance
starwars.
SWAffordance
(implements starwars.
SWActionInterface
)
starwars.actions.
Absorb
starwars.actions.
Attack
(implements starwars.
SWActionInterface
)
starwars.actions.
Buy
starwars.actions.
Dip
(implements starwars.
SWActionInterface
)
starwars.actions.
Fill
starwars.actions.
GetMoney
starwars.actions.
Leave
starwars.actions.
Take
starwars.actions.
Thrown
starwars.actions.
Train
starwars.
SWAction
(implements starwars.
SWActionInterface
)
starwars.actions.
Move
starwars.actions.
Transfer
starwars.actions.
Enter
starwars.actions.
Exit
starwars.
Application
starwars.entities.actors.behaviors.
AttackInformation
starwars.entities.actors.behaviors.
AttackNeighbours
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.util.
BiMultiMap
<K,V> (implements java.util.Map<K,V>)
starwars.entities.actors.behaviors.
CatchNeighbours
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
Entity
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
EntityInterface
)
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
Actor
<T>
starwars.
SWActor
(implements starwars.
SWEntityInterface
)
starwars.entities.actors.
Droid
starwars.entities.actors.
Player
starwars.
SWActorWorldable
starwars.entities.actors.
Sandcrawler
starwars.
SWLegend
starwars.entities.actors.
BenKenobi
starwars.entities.actors.
TestActor
starwars.entities.actors.
TuskenRaider
starwars.
SWEntity
(implements starwars.
SWEntityInterface
)
starwars.entities.
Blaster
starwars.entities.
Canteen
(implements starwars.entities.
Fillable
)
starwars.entities.
Force
starwars.entities.
Grenade
starwars.entities.
LightSaber
starwars.entities.
Money
starwars.entities.
Reservoir
starwars.entities.
Shop
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
EntityManager
<E,L>
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
Location
starwars.
SWLocation
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
LocationContainer
<T>
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
Grid
<T>
starwars.
SWGrid
java.util.Observable
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
World
starwars.
SWWorldBase
starwars.
SWInnerWorld
starwars.
SWWorld
starwars.entities.actors.behaviors.
Patrol
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.time.
Scheduler
starwars.swinterfaces.
SWGridController
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
GridController
)
starwars.swinterfaces.
SWGridTextInterface
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
GridRenderer
)
starwars.
SWLocation.SWLocationMaker
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
LocationMaker
<T>)
starwars.userinterfaces.
TextInterface
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MapRenderer
, edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MessageRenderer
, edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
SimulationController
)
Interface Hierarchy
java.lang.Comparable<T>
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
ActionInterface
starwars.
SWActionInterface
starwars.
SWActionInterface
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
Direction
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.matter.
EntityInterface
starwars.
SWEntityInterface
starwars.entities.
Fillable
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
GridRenderer
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
LocationMaker
<T>
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MapRenderer
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
GridController
(also extends edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MessageRenderer
, edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
SimulationController
)
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MessageRenderer
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
GridController
(also extends edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MapRenderer
, edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
SimulationController
)
edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
SimulationController
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
GridController
(also extends edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MapRenderer
, edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.userInterface.
MessageRenderer
)
Enum Hierarchy
java.lang.Object
java.lang.Enum<E> (implements java.lang.Comparable<T>, java.io.Serializable)
starwars.
Team
starwars.
Capability
edu.monash.fit2099.gridworld.
Grid.CompassBearing
(implements edu.monash.fit2099.simulator.space.
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JMovies IMDb Data Provider Library
A IMDb data provider library written for .NET Standart platform that uses screen scraping to gather the data from IMDb on demand.
How to Use?
- Simple Usage: After initializing the provider, simply by passing the movie ID, its details can be fetched. This will use a the most basic scraping and will provide only the information available on the production/person page.
IIMDbDataProvider imdbDataProvider = new IMDbScraperDataProvider();
Movie movie = imdbDataProvider.GetMovie(232500);
- Detailed Scraping: GetMovie (also similar methods for other purposes) method optionally accepts a "DataFetchSettings" object. The scraper comes with a number of preset settings, by using "FullProductionDataFetchSettings"; it can be configured to visit all the related pages of the product and get the details from there and include in the movie object.
IIMDbDataProvider imdbDataProvider = new IMDbScraperDataProvider();
Movie movie = imdbDataProvider.GetMovie(232500, new FullProductionDataFetchSettings());
- Scraping in any other language: As mentioned above, scrapers behaviour can be changed by providing a settings object. Any preset can be changed and simply by setting "PreferredCulture" as the culture name of the language which should be used while scraping, the scraper can be configured to use that language to get the results. Note that movie names etc. would be coming in that language.
IIMDbDataProvider imdbDataProvider = new IMDbScraperDataProvider();
Entities.Movies.Movie movie = imdbDataProvider.GetMovie(232500, new BasicProductionDataFetchSettings
{
PreferredCulture = "tr-TR"
}); // https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0232500/
Under the hood
JMovies.IMDb uses .NET standart Http Web Requests to fetch the IMDB pages and parse them using HtmlAgilityPack+Fizzler.
Maintenance
I will personaly maintain the project as much as i can but as it uses Screen Scraping it is possible that it will require some changes along the way, so every issue report and pull request is welcome!
Code Documentation
Documentation website can be found under JMovies.IMDb GitHub Pages.
Warning
Please know that this library is not intended for bulk data scraping from IMDb and it is restricted by them. Also note that this library is not affliated with IMDB and you need to use it at your own risk/responsibility.


Pictures
Reviews
Restaurant Information
Extras
Tue-Sun : 11:00 AM - 8:30 PM
Monday: Closed
Tue-Sun : 11:00 AM - 8:30 PM
Monday: Closed
941-303-5073
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>525a US Hwy 41 Bypass
North Venice, FL 34285
No plagarism is intended. All text and pictures are cited. Reference


Update ref
by adding value
to it.
tf.compat.v1.assign_add( ref, value, use_locking=None, name=None )
This operation outputs "ref" after the update is done.
This makes it easier to chain operations that need to use the reset value.
Unlike tf.math.add
, this op does not broadcast. ref
and value
must have
the same shape.
ref
: A mutable Tensor
. Must be one of the following types: float32
,
float64
, int64
, int32
, uint8
, uint16
, int16
, int8
,
complex64
, complex128
, qint8
, quint8
, qint32
, half
. Should be
from a Variable
node.value
: A Tensor
. Must have the same shape and dtype as ref
. The value to
be added to the variable.use_locking
: An optional bool
. Defaults to False
. If True, the addition
will be protected by a lock; otherwise the behavior is undefined, but may
exhibit less contention.name
: A name for the operation (optional).Same as "ref". Returned as a convenience for operations that want to use the new value after the variable has been updated.


From traditional to modern, get a whole lot more than you expected!
by Homes TeamExtensive complex offers both living and business accommodation
This is an unmissable opportunity to acquire a complex of properties which is ideal for a home business or for a large family.
It comprises of an original farmhouse, newly-built characterful detached property, an annexe/guesthouse, two garages and an office block, all of which are situated in a quiet courtyard setting offering a high degree of privacy and with great outdoor space.
The farmhouse hosts a medley of modern and traditional features throughout and the accommodation consists of an entrance hallway; country-style kitchen with matching wall and base units with rolled over edge worksurfaces and tiled splashbacks, composite one and a half bowl sink and drainer with a mixer tap; Rangemaster cooker and extractor, space for a fridge freezer and integrated dishwasher.
There is also a dining room; main lounge; reception room/study; snug; downstairs WC; four double bedrooms; two en suites, a family bathroom and a utility room.
The newly-built detached property boasts light and space and offers a great opportunity to have an input on the internal design.
The layout consists of entrance hallway; main lounge; second reception room; large open-plan living kitchen; downstairs WC, four double bedrooms and four en suites.
Additionally, the complex includes a one-bedroom annexe/guesthouse finished to a high standard throughout and offers a great living space, as well as two large garages and offices.
Address: Ribbleton Avenue, Preston
Price: £745,000
Agent: Dewhurst Homes, 01772 788811


Enjoy2 1.2.1 is a point update to 1.2 that includes auto-update functionality, courtesy of Sparkle (
sparkle-project.org
).
Automatic checking for and installation of updates
#16
fixes mouse movement not working in Mavericks/Yosemite due to App Nap


Hello Paper World!
Press Ctrl+p to print with print preview
Press Ctrl+Shift+p to print without print preview
Click the button to print using JavaScript
Print Now


European Market and Deli
List
Home
Departments
Beverages
Catering
About
European Market and Deli
Home
Departments
Beverages
Catering
About


My pa use to work as fisherman and he'd bring back salmon everyday after his shift for the family. We had salmon for breakfast, lunch, dinner. Salmon with eggs, salmon sandwiches, salmon pizza, salmon salad, salmon biscuits. Anything. You name it! My ma was a sharp as a blade and can whip up anything with salmon and we never grew tired of it.
One day, my ma made salmon cookies for me and my school buddies. They loved it. Loved it so much that we started to sell them to raise money for college. Folks ate em up!
My ma died years ago and we honor her, Patricia, with her famous Salmon Cookies. We grind up the salmon, and bake with butter, sugar, and little love. Just like ma use to.
To sell salmon cookies with the best quality ingredients and excellent customer service.


|
G P T A L
${form.g} ${form.p} ${form.t} ${form.a} ${form.l} |
WHEN WAS THE LAST PERIOD?
${form.lastPeriod}
|
AGE AT FIRST PERIOD
${form.ageFirstPeriod}
|
|
PREGNANT
|
BREASTFEEDING
${form.breastfeeding}
|
MONTHS
${form.breastfeedingMonths}
|
|
PAP SMEAR EVER
${form.papSmearStatus}
|
BIRTH CONTROL
${form.birthControlStatus}
|
TYPE
${form.birthControlType}
|
|
OTHER PAST GYNECOLOGICAL HISTORY
${form.historyOther ? form.historyOther : '___________________'}
|


Reports
.wait()
being called while the current thread is holding two locks. Since the call to
.wait()
only frees locks on the its target, waiting with two locks held can easily lead to deadlock.
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John Brown went off to war to fight on a foreign shore,
His mama sure was proud of him.
He stood so straight and tall in his uniform and all,
His mama's face broke out into a grin.

Do what the captain says, lotta medals you will get,
We'll put 'em on the wall when you get home."

She made well sure her neighbors understood.
She got a letter once in a while, her face broke into a smile,
She showed 'em to the people from next door.
They bragged about her son with his uniform and gun
In this thing
1 she called a good, old-fashioned war.
Then the letters ceased to come, for a long time they did not come,
Ceased to come for about ten months or more.

She smiled and she went right down, she looked up and all around,
She did not see her soldier son in sight.
When all the people passed, she saw her son at last.
When she did, she could not believe her eyes.

He whispered kind of slow in a voice she didn't know
And she couldn't even recognize his face.
"Oh, tell me, my darling son, tell me what they've done.
How is it that you've come to be this way?"
He tried his best to talk, but his mouth could hardly move
And his mother had to turn her face away.
"Don't you remember, ma, when I went off to war,
You thought it was the best thing I could do?
I was on the battleground, you were home acting proud,
You wasn't there standing in my shoes."
"Well, I thought when I was there, Lord, what am I doing here
Trying to kill somebody or die trying?
But the thing that scared me most, when my enemy came close,
I could see that his face looked just like mine."
"And I could not help but think through the thunder-rolling stink
That I was just a puppet in a play
And through the roar and smoke the string, it finally broke
And a cannonball blew my eyes away."
As he turned away to go, his mother was acting slow
Seeing the metal brace that helped him stand,
But, as he turned to leave, he called his mother close
And he dropped his medals down into her hand.
1
It is difficult to tell one one way or the other, but this phrase has been transcribed elsewhere as "[a]nd these things".


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Created by Fluffy Rockstar


Why did I stop writing fiction after The Passage came out? To that question there is no answer at all; I have been racking my brains and can find no reply to this very reasonable question. I can only suggest that the fictional part of me dried up.
E. M. Forster to Wilfred Stone, 18 February, 1966 1
Had Jane Austen not died at 42—had she lived instead to 90—she could have written twelve more books. Think what this would have done for English fiction: imagine Jane Austen refining the novel even beyond the fineness of Persuasion, seeing it through the hard years of the 1830s, heartening the Brontës, spoofing Dickens, cautioning the aesthetes, and even applying Darwin. Imagine such things and you have to regret the loss of those unwritten novels.
Austen's fans can say that only death could have stopped her—she who forced out work even as Addison's disease shook her pen. The same cannot be said about E. M. Forster, whose fans can only ask: why, if he lived to be 90, did he give up fiction at 45? In the second half of his life he could have written twelve more novels, too: imagine him bringing the wisdom of Howards End and A Passage to India to bear upon Indian independence, fascism, or the cold war; imagine him saving the English novel from its dwindling, or—and here is where so many of Forster's fans inquire more plaintively—fathering a gay literature. For he might have applied his vast moral and aesthetic resources to the problem of homosexuality. He might have given his rich Austenian inheritance to the culture of Stonewall, giving gay writing respectability and a crucial head start.  And they do not even have death to blame.
Sometimes they blame something that shares death's deterrence. In his diary for 16 June, 1911, Forster writes of a "weariness of the only subject I both can and may treat—the love of men for women and vice versa". 2 In this and other such moments of disaffection readers have heard a worthy reason for Forster's refusal to write: a protest against compulsory heterosexuality. From 45 to 90, we might say, Forster did after all do something for the English novel: by not writing, he proved that one could not fit new gay life into old heterosexual forms, even if one were England's greatest living novelist.
For some readers, then, Forster's unwritten novels speak insurgent silence. Silence is no statement, however, for those who believe that Forster could have published gay novels had he only been brave enough—that he could have made a real political difference, and that "compulsory heterosexuality" really had little of death's deterrence. These other readers lay the blame elsewhere: like so many of his contemporaries, some say, Forster wanted to treat politics more directly, in a way fiction-writing could not; or he had finally found personal "equilibrium," and so lost the compulsion to write; or he just peaked early and then lived too long—made his mark, lost interest, and spent a long dotage enjoying his eminence grise. However much "the love of men for women & vice versa" may have wearied him, it alone did not drain his energy for fiction. The less dramatic truth here, it seems, is that what "dried up" the fictional part of him was various—variously composed of any number of resentments, changes, and alternative aspirations.
So it seems—however disappointing it is to give up on the more heroical and dramatic story of oppression, integrity, and forsaking. Unless we let a little piece of writing change our minds again. In the Forster collection at the Modern Archive Centre at King's College, Cambridge, there is a memoir Forster wrote in the years between 1922 and 1929—the years in which he finished writing A Passage to India and finished his fiction-writing career. In this memoir there is cause for Forster's desertion of fiction that has all anyone could ever want of drama: for it turns out, after all, to be a story of forbidden love, untimely death, and noble renunciation.
The memoir takes the form of a letter, to a young man Forster had met during his time in Egypt. This young man, Mohammed el Adl, had been Forster's lover until his death of tuberculosis in 1922. The "letter" Forster wrote to him is a sort of record of mourning, beginning in 1922 in the full flush of grief and ending after seven years' abatement have accomplished mourning's reparations. This transformation, however, is not one that the letter seems to welcome. Forster, it seems, wanted to refuse to mourn, because mourning would recast his strange and unnameable feelings for Mohammed as "love"; he found himself melancholy instead. In that mode, he was not fit for fiction, and no longer happy with its powers to turn one thing into another. His "letter" to Mohammed documents for us the development of what we might call melancholy realism—the generic mode that would, for the next 45 years, produce only unwritten novels.
In 1915, travel to Italy seemed dangerous, so Forster went to Alexandria instead. There he worked as a "Red Cross Searcher," questioning wounded soldiers about missing comrades. The work left him time to grow fond of the city, where he would stay not for the expected three months but for the duration of the war. He had not initially liked Alexandria. The place seemed "vastly inferior to India" and the natives like "mud moving, and exasperating in the extreme" (SLOEMF, I 233). But before too long he found cause to change his mind—in the "brown splendour" of boys swimming "naked and unrebuked" and in the larger diversity of the population (SLOEMF, I 237). Forster found that the cosmopolitan mixture of Alexandria's people symbolized "a mixture, a bastardy, an idea which I find congenial and opposed to that sterile idea of 100% in something which has impressed the modern world and forms the backbone of its blustering nationalism." 3 This change of heart partook of what would characterize Forster's fateful transformation; it predicted the change that would later make fiction-writing, too, sound like so much bluster.
Neither change would have taken place had Alexandria been what he had expected. Gertrude Bell, an expert on the region, had told him that he would have no opportunity to get to know the locals: according to Bell, "I should only see them in the streets as I went to and fro to work" (MBOEMF, 291). So Forster had not bargained for the encounter on the tram he took to and from work. The tram had Egyptian conductors, and one "fresh and sunny" morning in the spring of 1916 Forster looked up from his seat to see a conductor who made him think: "nice." 4 This conductor, it seems, was very young, and the only one who moved past passengers without stepping on their feet. He was charming; and so Forster made a point of taking his tram regularly. One cold winter night the conductor spoke: he asked Forster to get up, because his coat was under Forster's seat. The moment was pivotal: "You half saluted me at the Terminus after this if your tram came along, I half responded. Each knew the other wasn't someone else. No more"("M," 5).
This was eighteen-year-old Mohammed el Adl, native of Mansura, a butcher's son, who would soon risk his job to see to it that Forster would henceforth ride for free. Soon he would take Forster to what he called his "Home of Misery"—his "slum" home, where he kept his belongings all in a little trunk ("not much, but all clean") (SLOEMF, I 263). First—on their first night together—Mohammed took Forster to the Chatby Gardens, and then was sullen because Forster offered him cake. It seems he resented being bound to reciprocate. So he sneered and called the cake stale and said he was afraid it might poison him. But Forster won him over, calling him "gentleboy" ("M," 9), despite his caste, and making him smile. They went to the House of Misery; they went to Forster's rooms, and it was there that the "caresses started": "I think we had been playing chess. Then we reclined on the bed spread, I neared the wall. I touched your knee—you inclined toward me. . . Our first kiss follows . . ." ("M," 14). Despite the promising start things went badly. "For the rest, the evening was a muddle" ("M," 15): Forster made advances, Mohammed retreated and resisted, and things even got violent: "When I touched you again you defended yourself and hurt my hand.  That sobered us" ("M," 15).
They laughed about it later, and eventually had less confused intimacy. But in a certain sense the whole affair was a muddle. Secrecy required meeting only every other week—and then the two soon had to part for good. Forster found Mohammed an army job that meant relocating and then Mohammed got married. Such obstacles could only limit the relationship and subject it always to random or fateful contingencies, keeping it from becoming anything we would really call a romance.
But this was just what Forster loved about his relationship with Mohammed. Random and fateful contingencies were the beauty of it. The muddle that followed the first kiss, for example, sounds disastrous, but to Forster it was wonderful because honest, rough, and real. Virtually every time he described Mohammed Forster dwells upon caprice, surprise, strangeness, even to the point of taking pleasure in ruin. Liking it when Mohammed sneers at his cakes; liking it also when "I asked you to remove your specs, because I found you more beautiful without them, and you refused irritably" ("M," 7-8); glad when Mohammed says, "I must be independent—if I do not want to meet you, I must say 'I do not,' if am not sure, I must be able to say 'perhaps'" (SLOEMF, I 271); pleased to note that Mohammed will sometimes refuse a kiss (calling him "foolish") but then at other times give "a kiss sudden and hard on the lips" ("M," 16); pleased with "an indescribable mixture of detachment and tenderness" (SLOEMF, I 272); and in general perfectly happy to do without romance. For what Forster valued here was what he himself called realism. Romance would have had coherence of feelings, effects, intentions; this relationship was all in the stray, purposeless, arbitrary detail. And every detail "sprang right from the judgment of a sincere heart," "so off the accredited lines . . . with so much cheerfulness in it," and "none of the solemnity which Christianity has thought essential to Romance" (SLOEMF, I 258). Some of the pleasure came simply from the departure from "respectability," the freedom from the standard plan. But it seemed to derive more essentially from a greater proximity to reality—almost as if Mohammed were a disproof of metaphysics.
It is therefore no surprise that Mohammed changed Forster's way of thinking. In a letter to Florence Barger describing the relationship, Forster explains how Mohammed's realism revamped ideals he had long held but never fully mastered. First, he emphasizes, in typical terms, the realism of this romance: "What I so value in him is his realism and solidity. He has heaps of romance but no sentimentality consequently" (SLOEMF, I 268). In what follows, Forster draws a connection between this realism and the refutation of racism:
Whenever I speak honestly he understands; and despite his maxim—"I find a certain amount of lies necessary to life"—is perfectly honest to me.—Does this read odd? It would read odder, indeed incredibly, to anyone who knew the country. Natives, especially of the lower city class, are dirty in body and mind, incapable of fineness, and only out for what they can get. This is the theory to which, after some reluctance, I had fully subscribed, and like all theories it has broken down. (SLOEMF, I 268)
On the one hand we have here an unimpressive change—from racism to condescension. But on the other hand we have an important view of the workings of truth, lie, and theory. What makes Mohammed proof that natives are not "incapable of fineness" strangely is his inconsistency. He lies; he is perfectly honest. That both are true means he is neither the "native" of racism nor that of romance. He is simply real, and this reality in him breaks down "theory," not just because it disproves the theory that natives are incapable of fineness, but because it disallows theory altogether. There is no way, it seems, to theorize about him, and that is what makes him both captivating and instructive.
A similar effect follows Forster's extrapolation of his happiness to that of others:
. . . it is such a triumph over nonsense and artificial difficulties: it is a sample of the other triumphs that I am sure come off but of which we hear nothing through the brassy rattle of civilisation so called; triumphs varying greatly in form, but in spirit all the same. When I am with him, smoking or talking quietly ahead, or whatever it may be, I see, beyond my own happiness and intimacy, occasional glimpses of the happiness of 1000s of others whose names I shall never hear, and know that there is a great unrecorded history. (SLOEMF, I 269)
Just as Mohammed's inconsistencies debunked "theory," the specificity of the pleasures he produces dispel historical generality. Recorded history tells only of the sort of love one hears about. But sensitive now to the terms of "real" love, Forster develops an ear for "whatever it may be"—for unheard of happinesses, felt in forms too various to fit the forms provided. Once again it is as if Forster had come upon a new style of experience. This is not just something he has never done before, but something different in kind, like a new medium.
This is to say that Mohammed meant not only a change from celibacy to sexuality, and not only an initiation into homosexuality, but an epistemological change—a change of mode. This shift is embodied, in a sense, in something Mohammed said to Forster to brush him off at the moment of that muddled first kiss. Forster, it seems, had taken Mohammed's erection as a sign of interest, but Mohammed said, "My damned prick always stands up whoever it is, it means nothing" ("M," 16). The meaninglessness here is all: like inconsistency, like unrecordable history, it indicates nothing larger, and is therefore at once pure pleasure and real information. It is important to notice here exactly what drew Forster's interest, and what therefore ultimately drew it away from his novels' style of creativity: not homosexuality as opposed to heterosexuality; not the freedom to engage in and speak of love for men; but rather a way of "connecting" that wholly dispenses with predetermined feelings and acts, doing things instead according to the radical feel of the moment and the real needs of body and soul. This radical realism would naturally have presented itself in homosexual relations, because these would have had less predetermined about them, but the sexuality Forster valued so much here had much less to do with object-choice and much more to do with contingency, spontaneity, and caprice.
It might seem foolish to stress radical realism here, given the fact that Forster fits Mohammed fairly crudely into what we call the "romance of alterity," that exoticism whereby Westeners pretend at love for those "others" they conquer. Is this not a colonialist fantasy? Is not the Egyptian boy to the British man what the colonies were to the crown—something subordinate, phantasmal, and exploited?  But it is the aftermath that justifies the claim here, for Forster does not just get in and then get out: had his cultural life persisted as before despite his sexual adventure, Forster might have been but a sexual imperialist; but the change that follows proves that Mohammed's alterity had very real effects not only on Forster himself but on the literary culture to which he had already become indispensable.
What became of Mohammed's mode of realism when he died? How do you mourn for someone who "meant nothing"? How, that is, do you feel grief as such when what you have lost was something you enjoyed not having? These are the questions that Forster's "letter" to Mohammed exists to answer. And the answers explain why Forster stopped writing fiction.
The letter is an elegy. It uses the conventions of elegy to structure and work through grief. But it is only ostensibly elegiac—or only elegiac once it gets to its ending. At first, and principally, it forestalls and refuses mourning. Its mode is different: it refuses to let go of the particulars that made Mohammed so wonderfully meaningless. In so doing it trades mourning for melancholy. Mohammed's sexuality had been one of pragmatic realism. Forster loved it, and took it on, but then grief made it recalcitrant. Its attachment to real detail became a melancholy refusal of unreality—a refusal of the fictions of healthy mourning, and ultimately a refusal of fiction itself.
In the beginning of 1919—three years before Mohammed's death—Forster left Alexandria. In the preceding months, he had visited Mansurah and found Mohammed in tough shape, fatigued from long hours in the cotton markets and already beginning to suffer from the disease that would kill him. But in the years that followed the relationship went on in its original mode. It was, as before, what time, circumstances, and mood permitted, and not much more. From 1919 to 1922, Forster would help Mohammed in what ways he could; often he would long to be with him, but never did he think of the relationship as anything primary or deep. Distance and dying did nothing to strengthen the bond; rather, it helped Forster persevere in unsentimentality and to correct lapses from realism : "Very difficult to know what the lover is like—or rather how he feels and behaves toward the lover. Determined my life should contain one success I have concealed from myself and others M's frequent coldness to me. And his occasional warmth may be due to politeness, gratitude, or pity. The prospect of his death gives me no pain" (D, 11 May 1922). What sounds callous is in fact deeply considerate: it is Forster admitting that he has tried to falsify Mohammed, to make of him a fiction of "success," and resolving now to affirm the reality. Frequently in these weeks Forster worries about feeling "love": writing things like "latterly my great love prevents my feeling that he is real" (D, 7 May 1922), Forster discovers the odd conflict between love and realism and has to t to keep the former from taking over.
So what begins to emerge, in these months before Mohammed's death, is a sort of rift: there are the truths about Mohammed, made up of his frequent coldnessess and other refusals, and endorsing an outlook so rich in reality; and then there are the fictions of success, love, and romance, made up by Forster himself when indulgent or lazy or when he wanted to tell himself and others a more satisfying story. On one side, the realism; on the other side, the fictionality. The two pressed apart even beyond their long-standing opposition, and did not allow for the sort of reconciliation, also long-standing, which has allowed writers in particular to say that fiction produces reality. For no such philosophies could really distract Forster from his love for the way Mohammed evaded him.
Once Mohammed died the rift widened; the "reality" receded, sharpening Forster's longing for it. This sharpened longing prompted the letter to Mohammed. And it was the source of the letter's strange characteristic feature: its approach to grief. Wanting to resist fictions of love and to maintain a sense of Mohammed's reality, Forster refuses to undergo mourning. He refuses, that is, to accept the loss, but this does not mean that he pretends Mohammed has not died, or that he does not care. Rather, it means that he does not allow mourning to transform the brutal real fact of death. The best example of this refusal, as we shall see, is the way he dwells upon the grotesque reality of Mohammed's decomposing corpse. The counterpart to the pleasure Forster had taken before in Mohammed's reality, this new realism has the character of what we call melancholy.
In a paper published the year Forster met Mohammed, Freud described melancholia as a pathological stopping-short before mourning. In his account, melancholy occurs when the ambivalence natural to the love-relationship becomes, after the death of the beloved, a form of self-reproach: the melancholic's ambivalence becomes a kind of anger directed against the self—even to the point where the self might "consent to its own destruction" in suicide. 5 The dynamic Freud describes takes place almost willfully in Forster. His ambivalence about the love-relationship was, as we have seen, something he cultivated. And it very directly became self-reproach in his determination to stay ambivalent: whenever Forster scolds himself for pretending his relationship with Mohammed was a sure thing, he directs anger against himself in the Freudian fashion. Of course he never does so to the point of "consenting to his own destruction." But does he not perhaps consent to the destruction of "the fictional part of me"? That is, might not Forster's melancholy have directed destructive anger against its enemy—the fictions of romance which, especially in mourning, would have worked through what had been so rapturously unworkable? Melancholia overdevelops the conscience, or that faculty through which we subject ourselves to critical scrutiny. Forster, in his melancholic response to Mohammed's death, overdeveloped his writerly conscience to the point where it regarded his fictional self with a too-factual and withering skepticism.
Mohammed died with Forster knowing only vaguely how and when and not knowing what grief would follow. The grief surprised him, by coming only after a delay: he got confirmation of Mohammed's death on 27 June, 1922, passed a month in the sort of "painless" apathy he had been feeling before, but then felt that apathy transform. On 5 August, compelled by some ever-worsening "oppression," he began to write out that apathy's transformation into melancholy and beyond.
Forster begins the letter worrying he will get things wrong and falsify Mohammed's realism. Since "now you are not here to correct me when I think of you not as you are but as I should like to think of you" ("M," 13), Forster risks writing not fact but fiction, and he therefore seems to resolve from the beginning to "correct" himself as far as possible. This means, paradoxically, pretending that Mohammed is still with him.  But to have both the realism (which requires Mohammed's attention) and the truth (which means his death) Forster has to strike a strange compromise: "I pretend that you are still alive, because it is only thus that I can think of you as real, although I know that a putrid scrap in the Monsourah burial ground is all that was you" ("M," 3). In a harrowing double-bind, Forster finds that being true to Mohammed means thinking of his corpse; consistency compels grotesque visions, and Forster's realism goes gothic. It also begins to seem unspeakable. The melancholy of dwelling on the reality of the dead begins now to put Forster out of patience with language itself, for language takes the side of falseness, mourning, and fiction, against the finer truths of sex, decay, melancholy, and fact.
We see all this right away as Forster tries in his letter to record the relationship's initial moments. He writes of his first glimpse of Mohammed aboard the Bogos tram; of trying to catch that same tram on subsequent days; Mohammed's polite ways with passengers, the night he first spoke to Forster, and the day in March of 1917 when he said, "You shall never pay" ("M," 5). He writes of these things but then breaks off and pauses to voice what will become his letter's perpetual dissatisfaction:
Mohammed I try to keep this real, but my own words get in the way, and you are decayed to terrible things by this time—dead six months. I do not mind that, but I fear you becoming unreal, so that all our talks together and the occasional nights we have slept in one bed will seem to belong to other people. So I can't write this letter to you long. It is an effort for you are not even a ghost now and I am invoking my own memories. Dear boy, I want those memories to be of you, not stained by me. I do not want to prate of perfect love, only to write of you as if you are real. So I try to think of you in your grave sometimes. It is real, and contemporary with me, it leads me back to the real you. ("M," 6--7)
What leads Forster back to Mohammed is not writing about him: in other times and places writing might have the power to evoke and to recall, but here it is just "prating," as if writing cannot help but fall into the sort of standard patterns that tell of perfect love. Writing can only "belong to other people," because it cannot help but obey convention. What leads back to Mohammed—to that reality he so richly embodied—is the mere intractable, unspeakable fact of his corpse, terrible in decay but wonderful still in singularity. Here there is of course a problem for a writer. To some degree, the dilemma is eminently typical: it is the problem, most notably, of those approaches to language and meaning that emphasize the gaps that come between realities and our words about them—of poststructuralist philosophies, most recently, and of the modernist theories that came before them. But the problem troubles Forster in peculiar ways, with unique results.
For it is, first of all, a very specific reality that seems unavailable to writing: it is the reality of sexual desire free of any story, free of "perfect love" or "grande passion" as any sexuality would plot it. Moreover, the fact that the reality is unavailable to writing is, in this case, not at all welcome. No poststructuralist avant la lettre, Forster sees no playful advantage in the sort of gap he discovers here. His liberalism commits him instead to strong belief in communicative rationality. And it keeps him from becoming what other modernists similarly awakened had become. Whereas Joyce, for example, pressed the quest for new reality into linguistic dislocation, Forster had too much esteem for norms of public speech to violate them as far as he would have to have done to clean them of their "stain." So what results for Forster—from this sexualized obsession with "reality," from his consequent problem with words—is a unique form of writing. When he says, "I cannot write this letter to you long," he refers to a very strange new choice of mode: he will not write at length, but only in short bursts, as if to try to use language just enough to invoke Mohammed but not long enough to make him begin to "become unreal." And these short bursts of writing will perpetually turn on themselves, curtailing whenever writerly momentum starts to carry them away.
The unique result of Forster's grief, in other words, is a strange melancholic form of writing. In the short run, this melancholic form produced the letter to Mohammed, a document unusual for its very slow accretion of short bits: written over the course of seven years, the letter nevertheless amounts to only twenty manuscript pages, with short passages dwarfed by the passage of time intervening between them. In the long run, this melancholic form seems to have brought Forster to a kind of silence analogous to the letter itself: what fictions Forster might have begun curtailed themselves instantly, washing back into "reality," and leaving ever longer spaces of time between them.
This silence appears in the letter as a strong anti-linguistic caution. Forster sounds like a man walking a thin line, for as he notes "one slip of my mind would fake a spook of you" ("M," 12): one slip into fiction would falsify; Mohammed would become a romantic spirit, and the love story would get written. So Forster uses his words very sparingly—typically to note in gnomic phrases the times and ways Mohammed disallowed love. We get short references to muddles, irritations, refusals, always with the knowledge that "if I miss things like these you will not be real" ("M," 8). Getting a feel for these gnomic phrases and their justification, one develops an ear for the silence that characterizes the second half of Forster's career: both have a sort of gruff resignation, trying to indicate without words something better than fiction; and both defer to the pragmatic mode of nonfiction that would become Forster's exclusive kind of writing. You can hear the Forster who gave up fiction in the Forster who writes these fragments. Moreover, you can hear the protest—so compelling for the way it mixes grief, desire, and regret; so sorry for its loss of literary faith and its new sullen brutality; so much like Forster trying to be Proust, sounding more like Hemingway, and on the way out of the business altogether.
But the most poignant thing of all here is Forster's inability to keep it up. Years of melancholy keep him laconic and austere and able to express himself in the mode appropriate to Mohammed's pragmatic sexuality; but as years pass, melancholy does give way to mourning, and fiction-writing ensues after all. The change is poignant because it finds Forster regretting his relative contentment: at first he is melancholy and grotesque and taciturn but true; as time goes on, and constructive mourning becomes possible, things become brighter and fonder but false, and Forster knows to regret the loss of realism that comes as a consequence. It is as if he had found, in spite of himself, the truest way to write, and then lost the knack even as he regained his equanimity. The irony of that give-and-take could only redouble his suspicion of fiction-making.
Here is how the letter to Mohammed documents the change in question. On page thirteen of the letter Forster writes of his great regret that words get in the way, still worrying about losing Mohammed's reality. On the three or four pages that follow, he describes that first muddled sexual encounter—the one that left Mohammed with a bloody eye. Next come hopes dashed—hopes for more extensive sexual intimacy disappointed by distance and illness, but, again, with fascination for the honest realities these failures involved. Then Mohammed suddenly becomes a fading memory. It is not possible to fix dates, or to know for sure how much time has passed since Mohammed's death or between installments, but Forster writes, "months have gone by since I wrote the above. You are dimmer. I knew it would happen" ("M," 17). The change seems unavoidable—the inevitable result of passing years and the way they must make even the most graphic realities unreal. Forster, however, suggests that something else has been responsible for letting unreality in. That something is a sort of epistemological paradox: when Mohammed's reality was fresh, Forster could not write about it at length for fear of falsifying it into a fiction; now that Mohammed has faded, however, and that danger no longer seems so great, Forster lacks the written record necessary to serve as a reminder. At this point Forster writes, "I shall never describe every moment of our intercourse, as I had hoped" ("M," 17). The regret here runs up against the paradox in question, whereby description then would have been but a rewriting of those moments of intercourse, but could have served now as the best hope for accurate recollection. Between that then and this now Forster seems to locate fiction's failure. As he builds towards the finish of the memoir-writing, finally, "you must join my dead" ("M," 19)—he seems to finish writing something that is much less an elegy for Mohammed and much more an elegy for the vocation that has so gracelessly let him down.
"I have fallen in love through you, but falling in love has obscured you" ("M," 17): in life as in the letter, what Mohammed represents gives way to its negation, and so his status has changed. No longer a singular phenomenon, he has become "part of my development" ("M," 18)—a moment in the larger plot through which Forster can now feel and really act upon love for another man. As part of this plot, Forster knows, Mohammed will "shrink to nothing" ("M," 18). And as he so shrinks Forster will be able to rise above the frozen depths of melancholy realism, finish the memoir, and write with more lively fancy. "This letter shall be finished tonight. It is over seven years since it was begun, and it was time that it was signed" ("M," 18): here there is relief, pleasure, and no small regret for the way mourning's end marks a failure. On the one hand, the grief is gone, but on the other hand the process has derealized Mohammed, and Forster virtually says as much when he says, mingling boast with regret, "You have sunk into a grande passion—I knew you would . . ." ("M," 19). This is just the outcome Forster had hoped to avoid—this sentimentality, through which Mohammed, who really "was not deeply attached to me" ("M," 19), becomes a player in romantic tragedy. But such is the work of writing, it seems, which has now fully begun. Last traces of the older mode—the melancholic refusal—persist, for "I am still able to write 'you' instead of 'him'" ("M," 19) and still able to say bracingly blunt things like, "you were not deeply attached to me" ("M," 18) and "[I] am pretty certain not to think of you when I die" ("M," 20). But such traces vanish when Forster writes, "tomorrow you must join my dead" and signs the letter to "Mohammed el Adl-my love" ("M," 20).
This is not to say, however, that writing really recovers itself here, for while it regains the strength of the grand passion it does not regain authenticity. Forster cannot help but let it do its work, since the realism that was its alternative has lost its hold on him, but his cynicism about it persists. In fact the readiness of writing to take the recalcitrant Mohammed and make him "my love" seems to become, for Forster, a great absurdity. He indulges it here, to get the memoir done, but elsewhere we see signs that it turns into an object of criticism and finally the cause of disenchantment. The signs appear at first in two pieces of writing: in A Passage to India, where melancholy realism does finally win the day, and in Forster's review of Proust, which questions the way that fiction remakes the facts of life. 6
Forster's letter to Mohammed owes a great debt to Proust. Showing how Mohammed's memory changes over time, able to find in its last moments what it cannot find in its first, concerned specifically with the way that fiction remakes old reality, the letter is like Proust's À la Recherche du temps perdu in miniature. And in fact Forster wrote the letter and read Proust in the same seven years—beginning both projects in 1922 and finishing them in 1929. In 1929, he wrote a review of Proust, telling for its concern with the same issues that Forster had taken up in the letter. He stresses three things: that Proust "achieved a new view of the impermanence of the human race" ("P," 99); that he knew that "the fonder we are of people the less we understand them" ("P," 100); and that Proust had the genius and patience for a "double curiosity" ("P," 101). Forster was not much like Swann or Charlus in love, but he suffered as they do from the double sadness of the first two of these things, knowing that impermanence and fondness, each in their opposite way, keep us from truly knowing people. But it is the third thing—the "double curiosity"—that is the key preoccupation. Here is Forster's description of it:
His book is the product of a double curiosity. The initial curiosity was social; he went to all those awful parties and had those barren relationships and expensive illnesses, and knew in his own person what it is to be a snob, a jealous lover, an orphan, and an invalid with a red nose. And then came the second curiosity, the artistic. He recollected the parties, and robbed them of their stings; they hurt him no longer, and were for the first time useful. Even love, that most distressing of all illusions, can be useful, and A and B, subjected to analysis, can be seen functioning like bacteria in a test-tube, innocuous at last, and suitable characters for a book. ("P," 101)
The same double curiosity occurs in Forster's letter to Mohammed. The initial curiosity is a matter of unwilled pragmatic experience, knowledge in one's person, diverse and unpredictable; the second curiosity (that of the "grande passion") is detached, artistic, and the creator of useful illusions. The distinction is like that which Forster makes between "what happened" and "what I write," and it may well have been what finally helped Forster to mourn. It helped him heal the breach, for Proust showed him (as he has shown so many others) how writing can overcome the problem of expressing reality by creating its past. The result, in Forster's letter, was Proustian, insofar as the letter presents not only the second curiosity (the useful illusion of love) but the primary curiosity (the hurtful stings) as well. The letter is a Proustian solution to the problem of melancholy.
It is not therefore something good: Forster has no full admiration for the artistic process through which Proust (and he himself) turns old stings into useful illusions. Forster's distrust comes through in the reference to bacteria—the bacteria made innocuous so that they become like characters in a book; and it comes through in the way Forster ends the essay: "Almost, though not entirely, does he represent us; to the historian, the similarity will be sufficient, and the epic quality of the work will be acknowledged" ("P," 102). Having himself so strongly felt the representational gap between writing and the reality of "us," Forster seems to see in Proust a certain falsity, and to see his gift for doubleness as a kind of duplicity. Couple that perception with Forster's feeling about sexuality in Proust and it starts to seem that Proust's solution could not be Forster's: "I have never tried to turn a man into a girl, as Proust did with Albertine, for this seemed derogatory to me as a writer" (MBOEMF, 336). Here Forster has less regard for Proustian transformations, and suggests that rather than making writing great, they degrade it, at least when aspects of sexuality are in play. In these criticisms of Proust, we begin to see signs that it is not the case that Forster's memoir is a Proustian solution to the problem of melancholy; we begin to see signs that the problem of melancholy discredits the Proustian solution. And we begin to see the memoir almost as a parody of Proust: whereas in Proust a long extent of writing allows for a slow shift from primary to secondary curiosity, in the memoir a quicker change seems far less credible, and therefore a product of doubt rather than imitation.
So rather than choosing to write fiction like Proust, Forster chooses not to write fiction at all—because secondary curiosity, as a writerly practice and as a way of dealing with desire, transforms reality into incomplete representation. But this is something Forster had begun to discover as soon as he felt the urge to recast Mohammed as a lover, and we can see the signs of his resistance to secondary curiosity even as early as A Passage to India.
We see it at the end of that novel, in the "half-kiss" between Fielding and Aziz that indicates a firm refusal to take a sunny view of the Anglo-Indian future. Fielding has been fair-minded and compassionate in his treatment of Aziz and by the end of the novel seems fully ready to befriend him; and Aziz seems ready, too—to forget even the "stings" of his harrowing time as the imperialists' scapegoat. And yet the two do not finally come together: in that blundered half-kiss, as the two men collide and separate and their horses swerve apart, as the earth says, "No, not yet," and the sky says, "No, not there" (APTO, 362), Forster chooses no closing benevolence. Instead he replays the way Mohammed would and would not kiss him: in both cases ambivalent affections realistically combine attraction and repulsion, making the combination proof against false romance. Melancholy here becomes refusal to imagine post-Imperial harmony, an insistence upon the wisdom of primary curiosity, against the falsifications of fictional longing.
Melancholy realism is also the mode of the Marabar Caves. They share the "putrescence" of Mohammed's decaying corpse; they are also a kind of mystery gone bad, an otherness that has been a source of excitement but becomes a site of terrible meaninglessness. Like Mohammed's corpse, the Caves show what happens when one ascribes to the view that "everything exists, nothing has value" (APTI, 165)—the truth that the echo of the caves teaches Mrs. Moore. And if that echo "undermine[s] her hold on life" (APTI, 165) it does so perhaps because it was also undermining the life of the fiction she inhabits. That fiction—Forster's fiction—was also at that moments suffering ever-greater self-doubt, set against itself by the worry that truth is a thing buried away like a corpse or a cave. "Nothing, nothing attaches to them, and their reputation—for they have one—does not depend upon human speech" (APTI, 137): the caves are "difficult to discuss" (APTI, 137), as was Mohammed, and when things go bad they embody, as he did, an extreme refusal to console (APTI, 137). Like Forster's "words" for Mohammed the echo of the caves then speak against writing: "Whatever is said, the same monotonous voice replies . . . Hope, politeness, the blowing of a nose, the squeak of a boot, all produce 'boum'" (APTI, 163).
These, then, are some of the signs that melancholy has turned its destructive reproaches against the consolations of fiction itself; that "the fictional part of me dried up" in the aridity of melancholy realism—and signs that sexuality, after all, did in certain ways end Forster's career as a novelist. Not, as we have thought, because compulsory heterosexuality kept him from choosing what subjects he wanted, but because a certain style of homosexuality confronted Forster with a realism better than anything fiction could give him. Mohammed's pragmatic sexuality confronted Forster with the reality of arbitrary, patternless, immediate desire; that reality eclipsed all others; and clarified itself in death, demanding in death a strict and melancholy relation to its truths. Faithful to it, Forster sacrifices his fiction. The death of his writing self begins in A Passage to India, where the melancholy refusal booms out its monotonous voice from the Caves to the novel's conclusion; it signals itself in Forster's mixed review of Proust; and it is memorialized, finally, in Forster's unwritten novels. So we might say after all that those novels do speak a kind of insurgent silence, insofar as they borrow the voice of the Marabar Caves to protest against our fictions of desire.
But can they speak so to us? Can we take this consolation, hearing insurgence in those forty years of silence? I think we can, if we hear it as an encouragement to be melancholy readers. Forster's unwritten novels may mean a lot if we let them make us skeptical readers, who wonder always whether the novels we read ought to have been written. For the most part we believe that any expression is better than nothing, or, more specifically, that any fictional record of the self is worthwhile if it brings coherence to what would otherwise be a random life. But with Forster in mind we might be more critical—and read with the critical reproaches of the melancholy self—by subjecting what we read to a different kind of test. When, for example, we read a book that aims to sum up an experience or a life, we might ask if its summation is any better than random unknowing. We might ask if there might be greater truth in nothing. When we read a book about love, especially a love that claims our attention because of its departure from norms, Forster's melancholy realism might usefully put it to the test that asks if writing can really follow the departure.
Forster's memoir to Mohammed does not quite end in 1929. In 1958, while going through personal effects, Forster rediscovered the letters Mohammed wrote to him in his last weeks. These he transcribed into the book in which, thirty years before, he had recorded the moment in which Mohammed finally joined his dead. He wrote to his biographer, P. N. Furbank, about the rediscovery:
If there seems time, I want to tell you of a strong experience or rather re-experience that I have just had. I am destroying or rearranging letters, and came across those from Mohammed el Adl—I may not even have mentioned his name to you, he was a tram-conductor whom I met in Alex[andria] 1917-1919, and again saw in 1922, soon before his death. I assumed the letters would be nothing much, but gave a glance before destroying them and was amazed—all the things I adore most glittering in them . . . They have given me the oddest feeling, and one which I am very fortunate to have. (SLOEMF, II 271)
That odd feeling recurs, and is explained, when Forster again returns
to the "scraps surviving from him" in 1963, and calls them "shymaking
and threnodic" (SLOEMF, II 287). It is interesting that Mohammed
still has this particular impact—glittering, and giving an odd
feeling, which mixes emotions. And it is interesting too that Forster
rather sentimentally says now that "with one exception—and
that a tremendous one—he has been the greatest thing in my life"
(SLOEMF, II 287). What we get, in this last reflection on Mohammed
and his meaning, is a mitigated sentimentality, which does justice to
the beloved, one last time, by remembering to refuse him.
Jesse Matz is Assistant Professor of English at Kenyon College. He is the author of Literary Impressionism and Modernist Aesthetics (Cambridge 2001) and The Modern Novel: A Short Introduction (forthcoming from Blackwell).
1. E. M. Forster, Selected Letters of E. M. Forster, 2 vols., ed. Mary Lago and P. N. Furbank (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), II 289. Henceforth abbreviated as SLOEMF.
2. E. M. Forster, Diaries (16 June 1911), Locked Journal, Forster Collection, Modern Archive Centre, King's College Library, Cambridge. Henceforth abbreviated as D.
I would like to thank the Society of Authors as agent for the Provost and Scholars of King's College Cambridge for giving me permission to quote from the journals and diaries.
3. Nicola Beauman, Morgan: A Biography of E. M. Forster (New York: Random House, 1994), 293. Henceforth abbreviated as MBOEMF.
4. E. M. Forster, "Memoir: Mohammed el Adl," Forster Collection, Modern Archive Centre, King's College, Cambridge. Henceforth abbreviated in the text as "M."
5. Sigmund Freud, "Mourning and Melancholia", in Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. and trans. James Strachey (London: The Hogarth Press, 1957), vol. 14, 252.
6. E. M. Forster, A Passage to India (1924; New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984), henceforth abbreviated APTI; and "Proust" , in Abinger Harvest (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1936), 96-102; henceforth abbreviated as "P."


Developer, Designer, Footballer
Hello World ! My name is Vibhaw Priansh Curretly studying in Indian Institute of Information Technology in the city of Kalyani.
I am a very creative individual with quick learning skills and I enjoy coming up with creative solutions at work. I always try to find that one angle that no one has considered to address an issue before and to figure out a way to make that work. I think that, at the end of the day, this can help you win over the client every time.
Some of the UI app development in mini college projects .
Studying Data Science under Corsera.
Wed development for my personal website.
Under development of Mobile app.
Bundle of photographs capture all around.


If desired, content can be wrapped in fluid, centered containers. The containers will expand to the max-width specified in the table below. This page has been wrapped in a container-xl
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Hi friend!
My name is Paweł and I do web development.
 One day it will have a nice blog and a list of projects I did. I hope so.
Drop me a line if you want.


NodeJS Express Demo App
This app was made during a ITOT Africa Dev training and knowledge transfer session
Check out the other rout of the app:
/home
/today
/months
/people
Author:
Yann Mulonda


Row 1 : transparent border on mouseover.
Row 2: transparent border on mouseover on a background;
Row 3: border with balck-background on mouseover
Row 4: Border with black-background on mouseove on a background.


--- layout: page title: Repository Connector - FAQs and Advanced ---
If you add locales to your project you will need to update your translation configuration file and add the new locales to the array. When the configuration file is uploaded, the Repository Connector will automatically update files in the Smartling dashboard based on your new settings.
The Repository Connector cannot automatically distinguish between an original file and a translated file in the repository. The Connector uploads files based on the value of resourceSets.pathRegex
in your translation configuration file. If your regular expression makes use of wildcards or your translated files are downloaded to the same folder as your original files, it may be that both original and translated files will match the regular expression. To avoid this problem, alter the structure of your repository or tighten your regular expression.
You can alter the translation configuration file while the connector is running. If it is hosted in your code repository, any new commit to this file will trigger an automatic update to the Smartling dashboard. However, changes to the repo-connector.conf
file require a restart to come into effect.
Smartling gives you a few advanced options for configuring how you get your translated files back from Smartling. To set these up, you need to add a downloadTranslations
node to your repo-connector.conf. The downloadTranslations
node can contain the following parameters:
trigger
- COMPLETED
or ONCHANGE
- determines when to download translated files from Smartling. COMPLETED
downloads files only when all translations are complete. ONCHANGE
downloads translated files whenever they are updated. Default is COMPLETED.
retrievalType
- Sets type of translation for downloaded files. Allowed values are PUBLISHED
(default), PENDING
, and PSEUDO
. See Download Files for more information on retrieval type.
includeOriginalStrings
- If TRUE
, Smartling returns the original string if there is no translations available. If FALSE
, Smartling returns a blank string if there is no translations. Defaults to TRUE
On average, memory consumption for an instance of the Repository Connector is around 40M. We recommend having at least 64M available. You can define maximum memory allocation for the connector by starting with the -Xmx
flag on startup. For example, to set the max memory to 64M: java -Xmx64M -jar repo-connector-1.4.2.jar -start
The Repository Connector uses logback. You can configure the length of history and the file size of your logs by editing the logback.xml
file in the cfg
directory. See the Logback documentation for full options.
Space requirements for the Repository Connector are not high. For most use cases, a micro instance will be sufficient.
For most use cases, we recommend using the standard cron checker to look for completed applications. However, it is possible to configure callbacks, as long as you can open a port for an http listener.
To configure callbacks, you need to add an "http" section to the repo-connector.conf file. It should look like this:
"http": {
"host": "localhost",
"port": "5555",
"protocol": "http",
"callbackUrl": "http://callback.mydomain.com"
}
Parameters:
host
- the host name, set by default to localhost. Public server may require value to be set to ‘<IP_ADDRESS>’
port
- the local port for the http listener. Any free port can be assigned.
protocol
- can be set to http
or https
depending on the requirements of your server.
callbackURL
- URL for your instance of the Repository Connector. This is the URL that Smartling will send a callback to on completion of translation for a file.
We recommend still running a regular Cron checker in case there are errors with your callbacks.
Sure! Download this complete repo-connector.conf example file, see comments for how each optional parameter is used. Recommended for advanced users only. If you use this file as a template to fill in your own information, remember to rename the file to repo-connector.conf
.


Cuba Pulled 226 Doctors from Bolivia
A group of 226 Cuban doctors are returning from Bolivia to Cuba after a decision by the Havana authorities taken due to a change in Bolivia's governance, according to BGNES.
Rolando Millares, Interpol's Bolivian spokesman, said a plane with 226 Cuban nationals had flown to Cuba, adding that all the passengers were doctors returning to Cuba.
The group is part of 726 Cubans sent by Havana authorities to help Bolivia.


- Explaining my guessing game:
1. You have to enter your name to start the game.
2. Read carefully and guess the right answer.
3. You will have 7 Questions to answer.
4. In Question 6 you will have 4 attempets to guess the correct answer about my age.
5. In question 7 you will have 6 attempets to guess the correct answer about my favorite places.


| The Benefits of Music | |
|---|---|
| Providence Health is here to provide the best care for the patients that are coming in and out of the hospital. One way we are providing care for the patient and their families as soon as they walk in the facilities is music. We have music playing in the background to help comfort the people that are coming in and out of the hospital. Music has lots of benefits for us, and it can help us to be calm and feel at ease. The following list below shows the major benefits of how music is beneficial to us: |
|
| Improves mood. Studies show that listening to music can benefit overall well-being, help regulate emotions,, and create happiness and relaxation in everyday life. |
|
| -Reduces stress. Listening to ‘relaxing’ music (generally considered to have slow tempo, low pitch, and no lyrics) has been shown to reduce stress and anxiety in healthy people and in people undergoing medical procedures (e.g., surgery, dental, colonoscopy). |
|
| -Lessens anxiety. In studies of people with cancer, listening to music combines memory. Research has shown that the repetitive elements of rhythm and melody help our brains form patterns that enhance memory. In a study of stroke survivors, listening to music helped them experience more verbal memory, less confusion, and better focused attention.ed with standard care reduced anxiety compared to those who received standard care alone. |
|
| -Improves exercise. Studies suggest that music can enhance aerobic exercise, boost mental and physical stimulation, and increase overall performance. |
|
| -In studies of patients recovering from surgery, those who listened to music before, during, or after surgery had less pain and more overall satisfaction compared with patients who did not listen to music as part of their care. |
|
| -Provides comfort. Music therapy has also been used to help enhance communication, coping, and expression of feelings such as fear, loneliness, and anger in patients who have a serious illness, and who are in end-of-life care. |
|
| -Improves cognition. Listening to music can also help people with Alzheimer’s recall seemingly lost memories and even help maintain some mental abilities. |
|
| -Helps children with autism spectrum disorder. Studies of children with autism spectrum disorder who received music therapy showed improvement in social responses, communication skills, and attention skills. |
|
| -Soothes premature babies. Live music and lullabies may impact vital signs, improve feeding behaviors and sucking patterns in premature infants, and may increase prolonged periods of quiet–alert states. |


COP LAND (1997) A Film Review by Ted Prigge Copyright 1997 Ted Prigge
Writer/Director: James Mangold Starring: Sylvester Stallone, Harvey Keitel, Ray Liotta, Robert DeNiro, Annabella Sciorra, Robert Patrick, Peter Berg, Michael Rapaport, Jeaneane Garafolo, Cathy Moriarty, Noah Emmerich, Deborah Harry, Frank Vincent
"Stallone. There's the quintessential thespian. This guy's got as much range as a daisy air-rifle," said Dennis Miller numerous times. Well, Stallone may have drudged through countless Rambo-esque roles, occasionally taking a "break" from them to do horrible comedy (but I am still going to say that I enjoyed "Oscar." Sorry.), always emerging rich but constantly ostricized by his peers (i.e. Mr. Miller).
When his follow-up film to "Daylight" (*snicker*) was announced as a drama and the sophomoric film by writer/director James Mangold (of "Heavy," a film I didn't see), who actually cast Sly in the lead, surrounding him with actors like DeNiro, Keitel, Liotta, and Sciorra, I know I'm not the only one who got a good laugh. But as the months wore on after the announcement, I began to sit on the fence on the topic and wait till it actually comes out before I either crucify him or build some kind of monument to the guy that's not in front of the Philadelphia Art Museum. And now that I've seen it...
Well, lemme sadistically hold you in suspense for a second here. The story revolves around the slow-moving, kinda-deaf sheriff of Garrison, NJ, Freddy Heflin (Sly), and his kafkaesque problem he has to deal with. Now Garrison is a town where almost the entire population is an NYPD cop - where the cops come for some form of safety out of the boundaries of the nasty city. The unquestionable and unnofficial leader of them is Ray (Keitel), who arranged everything and runs it like some kind of Don Corleone who hangs out in bars with his men.
Freddy watches them with envy but with some distance. See, he went and saved a girl when he was young (who would grow up to be Sciorra, who kinda resembles Talia Shire a bit in this flick), and, on account of his bum ear, was not allowed to be a cop. And since 99% of the population is either cop or wife/kin-of-cop, there's really not much to do. There are only two other officers (Jeneane Garafolo and Noah Emmerich) and there duties include dealing with garbage disputes and uselessy doing speed checks on a bunch of cops who just tell them "Just say 'Oops, we nabbed some good guys. I think I'll go look for some bad guys.'"
But an Internal Affairs man, Moe Tilden (DeNiro), shows up in town and talks to Freddy about the corruption that he already knows about.  The guy then jumped off the bridge...or did he? Since Freddy knows all about it and is kind of scared to go take on all his friends, he has a giant moral delimna on his shoulders. One angel is scared, the other is speaking the element of justice, truth, and good to him. Also on the scared angel is a bunch of people telling him to not screw with the Garrison community which has been expertly financed by Ray to ensure a kind of hypocritical peace, ruled by a mafia of New York's finest.
 The actual film's exciting and riveting enough - but the topping is exciting and riveting no matter how good or bad it is. So this whole "Can Sly do it?" topping is just right.
Well, here it is - Sly rocks. Period. They guy creates an emmotional character who you care about, identify with, and sometimes even almost cry with. Freddy's much like any of us: alone in our principles and scared to be alone to do anything about them. He's such a well-written character for the sole reason that he's human. And Sly, who is almost the character anyway, does a fantastically moving job with the role. No more grunting and saying cheesy one-liners. No more pushing some guy up into a staligmate (or is it the other one that points downwards?). Just Sly in his buff - 40 pounds heavier and 1000 times better than he's ever been. This is not only his best performance in years, but simply his best performance.
Will Stallone get an Oscar nomination? I dunno. If the Oscars were nominated right now, he'd definitely be up there. But I have a feeling this film will actually revitalize his sagging career and he might just nab a nomination since, well, it's Sly and he actually rocked for a change.
The supporting cast is amazing and all, but nothing can stand up to Stallone's, probably because most of them are not real humans.
All the elements create an interesting character study whic borrows elements from "High Noon," "Rio Bravo," and "Straw Dogs." But the plot and everything just affects Freddy's character, who finds himself in the parallel sitution to his saving-the-girl situation earlier in his life. There, he acted quickly and lost his hearing. Decades later, he's afraid to bust the move and is pretty content to just lay home on his couch and listen to Springsteen (yuck). The Freddy character is what will make this film endure.
 It's intense, interesting, and always entertaining. And the thought of these cops doing some of the stuff they do is just plain creepy. So, as I said, the Freddy character and Stallone's performance is what just adds to this amazing film, which is one of the better films I've seen all year.
MY RATING (out of 5): ****
Homepage at: http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Hills/8335/
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