LESS
Section: User Commands (1)Updated: Version 436: 07 Jul 2009
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NAME
less - opposite of moreSYNOPSIS
less -?less --help
less -V
less --version
less [-[+]aBcCdeEfFgGiIJKLmMnNqQrRsSuUVwWX~]
[-b space] [-h lines] [-j line] [-k keyfile]
[-{oO} logfile] [-p pattern] [-P prompt] [-t tag]
[-T tagsfile] [-x tab,...] [-y lines] [-[z] lines]
[-# shift] [+[+]cmd] [--] [filename]...
(See the OPTIONS section for alternate option syntax with long option names.)
DESCRIPTION
Less is a program similar to more (1), but which allows backward movement in the file as well as forward movement. Also, less does not have to read the entire input file before starting, so with large input files it starts up faster than text editors like vi (1). Less uses termcap (or terminfo on some systems), so it can run on a variety of terminals. There is even limited support for hardcopy terminals. (On a hardcopy terminal, lines which should be printed at the top of the screen are prefixed with a caret.)Commands are based on both more and vi. Commands may be preceded by a decimal number, called N in the descriptions below. The number is used by some commands, as indicated.
COMMANDS
In the following descriptions, ^X means control-X. ESC stands for the ESCAPE key; for example ESC-v means the two character sequence "ESCAPE", then "v".- h or H
- Help: display a summary of these commands. If you forget all the other commands, remember this one.
- SPACE or ^V or f or ^F
- Scroll forward N lines, default one window (see option -z below). If N is more than the screen size, only the final screenful is displayed. Warning: some systems use ^V as a special literalization character.
- z
- Like SPACE, but if N is specified, it becomes the new window size.
- ESC-SPACE
- Like SPACE, but scrolls a full screenful, even if it reaches end-of-file in the process.
- RETURN or ^N or e or ^E or j or ^J
- Scroll forward N lines, default 1. The entire N lines are displayed, even if N is more than the screen size.
- d or ^D
- Scroll forward N lines, default one half of the screen size. If N is specified, it becomes the new default for subsequent d and u commands.
- b or ^B or ESC-v
- Scroll backward N lines, default one window (see option -z below). If N is more than the screen size, only the final screenful is displayed.
- w
- Like ESC-v, but if N is specified, it becomes the new window size.
- y or ^Y or ^P or k or ^K
- Scroll backward N lines, default 1. The entire N lines are displayed, even if N is more than the screen size. Warning: some systems use ^Y as a special job control character.
- u or ^U
- Scroll backward N lines, default one half of the screen size. If N is specified, it becomes the new default for subsequent d and u commands.
- ESC-) or RIGHTARROW
- Scroll horizontally right N characters, default half the screen width (see the -# option). If a number N is specified, it becomes the default for future RIGHTARROW and LEFTARROW commands. While the text is scrolled, it acts as though the -S option (chop lines) were in effect.
- ESC-( or LEFTARROW
- Scroll horizontally left N characters, default half the screen width (see the -# option). If a number N is specified, it becomes the default for future RIGHTARROW and LEFTARROW commands.
- r or ^R or ^L
- Repaint the screen.
- R
- Repaint the screen, discarding any buffered input. Useful if the file is changing while it is being viewed.
- F
- Scroll forward, and keep trying to read when the end of file is reached. Normally this command would be used when already at the end of the file. It is a way to monitor the tail of a file which is growing while it is being viewed. (The behavior is similar to the "tail -f" command.)
- g or < or ESC-<
- Go to line N in the file, default 1 (beginning of file). (Warning: this may be slow if N is large.)
- G or > or ESC->
- Go to line N in the file, default the end of the file. (Warning: this may be slow if N is large, or if N is not specified and standard input, rather than a file, is being read.)
- p or %
- Go to a position N percent into the file. N should be between 0 and 100, and may contain a decimal point.
- P
- Go to the line containing byte offset N in the file.
- {
- If a left curly bracket appears in the top line displayed on the screen, the { command will go to the matching right curly bracket. The matching right curly bracket is positioned on the bottom line of the screen. If there is more than one left curly bracket on the top line, a number N may be used to specify the N-th bracket on the line.
- }
- If a right curly bracket appears in the bottom line displayed on the screen, the } command will go to the matching left curly bracket. The matching left curly bracket is positioned on the top line of the screen. If there is more than one right curly bracket on the top line, a number N may be used to specify the N-th bracket on the line.
- (
- Like {, but applies to parentheses rather than curly brackets.
- )
- Like }, but applies to parentheses rather than curly brackets.
- [
- Like {, but applies to square brackets rather than curly brackets.
- ]
- Like }, but applies to square brackets rather than curly brackets.
- ESC-^F
- Followed by two characters, acts like {, but uses the two characters as open and close brackets, respectively. For example, "ESC ^F < >" could be used to go forward to the > which matches the < in the top displayed line.
- ESC-^B
- Followed by two characters, acts like }, but uses the two characters as open and close brackets, respectively. For example, "ESC ^B < >" could be used to go backward to the < which matches the > in the bottom displayed line.
- m
- Followed by any lowercase letter, marks the current position with that letter.
- '
- (Single quote.) Followed by any lowercase letter, returns to the position which was previously marked with that letter. Followed by another single quote, returns to the position at which the last "large" movement command was executed. Followed by a ^ or $, jumps to the beginning or end of the file respectively. Marks are preserved when a new file is examined, so the ' command can be used to switch between input files.
- ^X^X
- Same as single quote.
- /pattern
-
Search forward in the file for the N-th line containing the pattern.
N defaults to 1.
The pattern is a regular expression, as recognized by
the regular expression library supplied by your system.
The search starts at the second line displayed
(but see the -a and -j options, which change this).
Certain characters are special if entered at the beginning of the pattern; they modify the type of search rather than become part of the pattern:
-
- ^N or !
- Search for lines which do NOT match the pattern.
- ^E or *
- Search multiple files. That is, if the search reaches the END of the current file without finding a match, the search continues in the next file in the command line list.
- ^F or @
- Begin the search at the first line of the FIRST file in the command line list, regardless of what is currently displayed on the screen or the settings of the -a or -j options.
- ^K
- Highlight any text which matches the pattern on the current screen, but don't move to the first match (KEEP current position).
- ^R
- Don't interpret regular expression metacharacters; that is, do a simple textual comparison.
-
- ?pattern
-
Search backward in the file for the N-th line containing the pattern.
The search starts at the line immediately before the top line displayed.
Certain characters are special as in the / command:
-
- ^N or !
- Search for lines which do NOT match the pattern.
- ^E or *
- Search multiple files. That is, if the search reaches the beginning of the current file without finding a match, the search continues in the previous file in the command line list.
- ^F or @
- Begin the search at the last line of the last file in the command line list, regardless of what is currently displayed on the screen or the settings of the -a or -j options.
- ^K
- As in forward searches.
- ^R
- As in forward searches.
-
- ESC-/pattern
- Same as "/*".
- ESC-?pattern
- Same as "?*".
- n
- Repeat previous search, for N-th line containing the last pattern. If the previous search was modified by ^N, the search is made for the N-th line NOT containing the pattern. If the previous search was modified by ^E, the search continues in the next (or previous) file if not satisfied in the current file. If the previous search was modified by ^R, the search is done without using regular expressions. There is no effect if the previous search was modified by ^F or ^K.
- N
- Repeat previous search, but in the reverse direction.
- ESC-n
- Repeat previous search, but crossing file boundaries. The effect is as if the previous search were modified by *.
- ESC-N
- Repeat previous search, but in the reverse direction and crossing file boundaries.
- ESC-u
- Undo search highlighting. Turn off highlighting of strings matching the current search pattern. If highlighting is already off because of a previous ESC-u command, turn highlighting back on. Any search command will also turn highlighting back on. (Highlighting can also be disabled by toggling the -G option; in that case search commands do not turn highlighting back on.)
- &pattern
-
Display only lines which match the pattern;
lines which do not match the pattern are not displayed.
If pattern is empty (if you type & immediately followed by ENTER),
any filtering is turned off, and all lines are displayed.
While filtering is in effect, an ampersand is displayed at the
beginning of the prompt,
as a reminder that some lines in the file may be hidden.
Certain characters are special as in the / command:
-
- ^N or !
- Display only lines which do NOT match the pattern.
- ^R
- Don't interpret regular expression metacharacters; that is, do a simple textual comparison.
-
- :e [filename]
- Examine a new file. If the filename is missing, the "current" file (see the :n and :p commands below) from the list of files in the command line is re-examined. A percent sign (%) in the filename is replaced by the name of the current file. A pound sign (#) is replaced by the name of the previously examined file. However, two consecutive percent signs are simply replaced with a single percent sign. This allows you to enter a filename that contains a percent sign in the name. Similarly, two consecutive pound signs are replaced with a single pound sign. The filename is inserted into the command line list of files so that it can be seen by subsequent :n and :p commands. If the filename consists of several files, they are all inserted into the list of files and the first one is examined. If the filename contains one or more spaces, the entire filename should be enclosed in double quotes (also see the -" option).
- ^X^V or E
- Same as :e. Warning: some systems use ^V as a special literalization character. On such systems, you may not be able to use ^V.
- :n
- Examine the next file (from the list of files given in the command line). If a number N is specified, the N-th next file is examined.
- :p
- Examine the previous file in the command line list. If a number N is specified, the N-th previous file is examined.
- :x
- Examine the first file in the command line list. If a number N is specified, the N-th file in the list is examined.
- :d
- Remove the current file from the list of files.
- t
- Go to the next tag, if there were more than one matches for the current tag. See the -t option for more details about tags.
- T
- Go to the previous tag, if there were more than one matches for the current tag.
- = or ^G or :f
- Prints some information about the file being viewed, including its name and the line number and byte offset of the bottom line being displayed. If possible, it also prints the length of the file, the number of lines in the file and the percent of the file above the last displayed line.
- -
- Followed by one of the command line option letters (see OPTIONS below), this will change the setting of that option and print a message describing the new setting. If a ^P (CONTROL-P) is entered immediately after the dash, the setting of the option is changed but no message is printed. If the option letter has a numeric value (such as -b or -h), or a string value (such as -P or -t), a new value may be entered after the option letter. If no new value is entered, a message describing the current setting is printed and nothing is changed.
- --
- Like the - command, but takes a long option name (see OPTIONS below) rather than a single option letter. You must press RETURN after typing the option name. A ^P immediately after the second dash suppresses printing of a message describing the new setting, as in the - command.
- -+
- Followed by one of the command line option letters this will reset the option to its default setting and print a message describing the new setting. (The "-+X" command does the same thing as "-+X" on the command line.) This does not work for string-valued options.
- --+
- Like the -+ command, but takes a long option name rather than a single option letter.
- -!
- Followed by one of the command line option letters, this will reset the option to the "opposite" of its default setting and print a message describing the new setting. This does not work for numeric or string-valued options.
- --!
- Like the -! command, but takes a long option name rather than a single option letter.
- _
- (Underscore.) Followed by one of the command line option letters, this will print a message describing the current setting of that option. The setting of the option is not changed.
- __
- (Double underscore.) Like the _ (underscore) command, but takes a long option name rather than a single option letter. You must press RETURN after typing the option name.
- +cmd
- Causes the specified cmd to be executed each time a new file is examined. For example, +G causes less to initially display each file starting at the end rather than the beginning.
- V
- Prints the version number of less being run.
- q or Q or :q or :Q or ZZ
- Exits less.
The following four commands may or may not be valid, depending on your particular installation.
- v
- Invokes an editor to edit the current file being viewed. The editor is taken from the environment variable VISUAL if defined, or EDITOR if VISUAL is not defined, or defaults to "vi" if neither VISUAL nor EDITOR is defined. See also the discussion of LESSEDIT under the section on PROMPTS below.
- ! shell-command
- Invokes a shell to run the shell-command given. A percent sign (%) in the command is replaced by the name of the current file. A pound sign (#) is replaced by the name of the previously examined file. "!!" repeats the last shell command. "!" with no shell command simply invokes a shell. On Unix systems, the shell is taken from the environment variable SHELL, or defaults to "sh". On MS-DOS and OS/2 systems, the shell is the normal command processor.
- | <m> shell-command
- <m> represents any mark letter. Pipes a section of the input file to the given shell command. The section of the file to be piped is between the first line on the current screen and the position marked by the letter. <m> may also be ^ or $ to indicate beginning or end of file respectively. If <m> is . or newline, the current screen is piped.
- s filename
- Save the input to a file. This only works if the input is a pipe, not an ordinary file.
OPTIONS
Command line options are described below. Most options may be changed while less is running, via the "-" command.Most options may be given in one of two forms: either a dash followed by a single letter, or two dashes followed by a long option name. A long option name may be abbreviated as long as the abbreviation is unambiguous. For example, --quit-at-eof may be abbreviated --quit, but not --qui, since both --quit-at-eof and --quiet begin with --qui. Some long option names are in uppercase, such as --QUIT-AT-EOF, as distinct from --quit-at-eof. Such option names need only have their first letter capitalized; the remainder of the name may be in either case. For example, --Quit-at-eof is equivalent to --QUIT-AT-EOF.
Options are also taken from the environment variable "LESS". For example, to avoid typing "less -options ..." each time less is invoked, you might tell csh:
setenv LESS "-options"
or if you use sh:
LESS="-options"; export LESS
On MS-DOS, you don't need the quotes, but you should replace any percent signs in the options string by double percent signs.
The environment variable is parsed before the command line, so command line options override the LESS environment variable. If an option appears in the LESS variable, it can be reset to its default value on the command line by beginning the command line option with "-+".
For options like -P or -D which take a following string, a dollar sign ($) must be used to signal the end of the string. For example, to set two -D options on MS-DOS, you must have a dollar sign between them, like this:
LESS="-Dn9.1$-Ds4.1"
- -? or --help
- This option displays a summary of the commands accepted by less (the same as the h command). (Depending on how your shell interprets the question mark, it may be necessary to quote the question mark, thus: "-\?".)
- -a or --search-skip-screen
- Causes searches to start after the last line displayed on the screen, thus skipping all lines displayed on the screen. By default, searches start at the second line on the screen (or after the last found line; see the -j option).
- -bn or --buffers=n
- Specifies the amount of buffer space less will use for each file, in units of kilobytes (1024 bytes). By default 64K of buffer space is used for each file (unless the file is a pipe; see the -B option). The -b option specifies instead that n kilobytes of buffer space should be used for each file. If n is -1, buffer space is unlimited; that is, the entire file can be read into memory.
- -B or --auto-buffers
- By default, when data is read from a pipe, buffers are allocated automatically as needed. If a large amount of data is read from the pipe, this can cause a large amount of memory to be allocated. The -B option disables this automatic allocation of buffers for pipes, so that only 64K (or the amount of space specified by the -b option) is used for the pipe. Warning: use of -B can result in erroneous display, since only the most recently viewed part of the piped data is kept in memory; any earlier data is lost.
- -c or --clear-screen
- Causes full screen repaints to be painted from the top line down. By default, full screen repaints are done by scrolling from the bottom of the screen.
- -C or --CLEAR-SCREEN
- Same as -c, for compatibility with older versions of less.
- -d or --dumb
- The -d option suppresses the error message normally displayed if the terminal is dumb; that is, lacks some important capability, such as the ability to clear the screen or scroll backward.
- -Dxcolor or --color=xcolor
-
[MS-DOS only]
Sets the color of the text displayed.
x is a single character which selects the type of text whose color is
being set: n=normal, s=standout, d=bold, u=underlined, k=blink.
color is a pair of numbers separated by a period.
The first number selects the foreground color and the second selects
the background color of the text.
A single number N is the same as N.M,
where M is the normal background color.
- -e or --quit-at-eof
- Causes less to automatically exit the second time it reaches end-of-file. By default, the only way to exit less is via the "q" command.
- -E or --QUIT-AT-EOF
- Causes less to automatically exit the first time it reaches end-of-file.
- -f or --force
- Forces non-regular files to be opened. (A non-regular file is a directory or a device special file.) Also suppresses the warning message when a binary file is opened. By default, less will refuse to open non-regular files. Note that some operating systems will not allow directories to be read, even if -f is set.
- -F or --quit-if-one-screen
- Causes less to automatically exit if the entire file can be displayed on the first screen.
- -g or --hilite-search
- Normally, less will highlight ALL strings which match the last search command. The -g option changes this behavior to highlight only the particular string which was found by the last search command. This can cause less to run somewhat faster than the default.
- -G or --HILITE-SEARCH
- The -G option suppresses all highlighting of strings found by search commands.
- --old-bot
- Reverts to the old bottom of screen behavior. This can be sometimes desirable if the long lines are not wrapped correctly when reaching the bottom of the terminal, while scrolling forward.
- -hn or --max-back-scroll=n
- Specifies a maximum number of lines to scroll backward. If it is necessary to scroll backward more than n lines, the screen is repainted in a forward direction instead. (If the terminal does not have the ability to scroll backward, -h0 is implied.)
- -i or --ignore-case
- Causes searches to ignore case; that is, uppercase and lowercase are considered identical. This option is ignored if any uppercase letters appear in the search pattern; in other words, if a pattern contains uppercase letters, then that search does not ignore case.
- -I or --IGNORE-CASE
- Like -i, but searches ignore case even if the pattern contains uppercase letters.
- -jn or --jump-target=n
- Specifies a line on the screen where the "target" line is to be positioned. The target line is the line specified by any command to search for a pattern, jump to a line number, jump to a file percentage or jump to a tag. The screen line may be specified by a number: the top line on the screen is 1, the next is 2, and so on. The number may be negative to specify a line relative to the bottom of the screen: the bottom line on the screen is -1, the second to the bottom is -2, and so on. Alternately, the screen line may be specified as a fraction of the height of the screen, starting with a decimal point: .5 is in the middle of the screen, .3 is three tenths down from the first line, and so on. If the line is specified as a fraction, the actual line number is recalculated if the terminal window is resized, so that the target line remains at the specified fraction of the screen height. If any form of the -j option is used, forward searches begin at the line immediately after the target line, and backward searches begin at the target line. For example, if "-j4" is used, the target line is the fourth line on the screen, so forward searches begin at the fifth line on the screen.
- -J or --status-column
- Displays a status column at the left edge of the screen. The status column shows the lines that matched the current search. The status column is also used if the -w or -W option is in effect.
- -kfilename or --lesskey-file=filename
- Causes less to open and interpret the named file as a lesskey (1) file. Multiple -k options may be specified. If the LESSKEY or LESSKEY_SYSTEM environment variable is set, or if a lesskey file is found in a standard place (see KEY BINDINGS), it is also used as a lesskey file.
- -K or --quit-on-intr
- Causes less to exit immediately when an interrupt character (usually ^C) is typed. Normally, an interrupt character causes less to stop whatever it is doing and return to its command prompt. Note that use of this option makes it impossible to return to the command prompt from the "F" command.
- -L or --no-lessopen
- Ignore the LESSOPEN environment variable (see the INPUT PREPROCESSOR section below). This option can be set from within less, but it will apply only to files opened subsequently, not to the file which is currently open.
- -m or --long-prompt
- Causes less to prompt verbosely (like more), with the percent into the file. By default, less prompts with a colon.
- -M or --LONG-PROMPT
- Causes less to prompt even more verbosely than more.
- -n or --line-numbers
- Suppresses line numbers. The default (to use line numbers) may cause less to run more slowly in some cases, especially with a very large input file. Suppressing line numbers with the -n option will avoid this problem. Using line numbers means: the line number will be displayed in the verbose prompt and in the = command, and the v command will pass the current line number to the editor (see also the discussion of LESSEDIT in PROMPTS below).
- -N or --LINE-NUMBERS
- Causes a line number to be displayed at the beginning of each line in the display.
- -ofilename or --log-file=filename
- Causes less to copy its input to the named file as it is being viewed. This applies only when the input file is a pipe, not an ordinary file. If the file already exists, less will ask for confirmation before overwriting it.
- -Ofilename or --LOG-FILE=filename
-
The -O option is like -o, but it will overwrite an existing
file without asking for confirmation.
If no log file has been specified, the -o and -O options can be used from within less to specify a log file. Without a file name, they will simply report the name of the log file. The "s" command is equivalent to specifying -o from within less.
- -ppattern or --pattern=pattern
- The -p option on the command line is equivalent to specifying +/pattern; that is, it tells less to start at the first occurrence of pattern in the file.
- -Pprompt or --prompt=prompt
- Provides a way to tailor the three prompt styles to your own preference. This option would normally be put in the LESS environment variable, rather than being typed in with each less command. Such an option must either be the last option in the LESS variable, or be terminated by a dollar sign. -Ps followed by a string changes the default (short) prompt to that string. -Pm changes the medium (-m) prompt. -PM changes the long (-M) prompt. -Ph changes the prompt for the help screen. -P= changes the message printed by the = command. -Pw changes the message printed while waiting for data (in the F command). All prompt strings consist of a sequence of letters and special escape sequences. See the section on PROMPTS for more details.
- -q or --quiet or --silent
- Causes moderately "quiet" operation: the terminal bell is not rung if an attempt is made to scroll past the end of the file or before the beginning of the file. If the terminal has a "visual bell", it is used instead. The bell will be rung on certain other errors, such as typing an invalid character. The default is to ring the terminal bell in all such cases.
- -Q or --QUIET or --SILENT
- Causes totally "quiet" operation: the terminal bell is never rung.
- -r or --raw-control-chars
- Causes "raw" control characters to be displayed. The default is to display control characters using the caret notation; for example, a control-A (octal 001) is displayed as "^A". Warning: when the -r option is used, less cannot keep track of the actual appearance of the screen (since this depends on how the screen responds to each type of control character). Thus, various display problems may result, such as long lines being split in the wrong place.
- -R or --RAW-CONTROL-CHARS
-
Like -r, but only ANSI "color" escape sequences are output in "raw" form.
Unlike -r, the screen appearance is maintained correctly in most cases.
ANSI "color" escape sequences are sequences of the form:
ESC [ ... m
where the "..." is zero or more color specification characters For the purpose of keeping track of screen appearance, ANSI color escape sequences are assumed to not move the cursor. You can make less think that characters other than "m" can end ANSI color escape sequences by setting the environment variable LESSANSIENDCHARS to the list of characters which can end a color escape sequence. And you can make less think that characters other than the standard ones may appear between the ESC and the m by setting the environment variable LESSANSIMIDCHARS to the list of characters which can appear.
- -s or --squeeze-blank-lines
- Causes consecutive blank lines to be squeezed into a single blank line. This is useful when viewing nroff output.
- -S or --chop-long-lines
- Causes lines longer than the screen width to be chopped rather than folded. That is, the portion of a long line that does not fit in the screen width is not shown. The default is to fold long lines; that is, display the remainder on the next line.
- -ttag or --tag=tag
- The -t option, followed immediately by a TAG, will edit the file containing that tag. For this to work, tag information must be available; for example, there may be a file in the current directory called "tags", which was previously built by ctags (1) or an equivalent command. If the environment variable LESSGLOBALTAGS is set, it is taken to be the name of a command compatible with global (1), and that command is executed to find the tag. (See http://www.gnu.org/software/global/global.html). The -t option may also be specified from within less (using the - command) as a way of examining a new file. The command ":t" is equivalent to specifying -t from within less.
- -Ttagsfile or --tag-file=tagsfile
- Specifies a tags file to be used instead of "tags".
- -u or --underline-special
- Causes backspaces and carriage returns to be treated as printable characters; that is, they are sent to the terminal when they appear in the input.
- -U or --UNDERLINE-SPECIAL
-
Causes backspaces, tabs and carriage returns to be
treated as control characters;
that is, they are handled as specified by the -r option.
By default, if neither -u nor -U is given, backspaces which appear adjacent to an underscore character are treated specially: the underlined text is displayed using the terminal's hardware underlining capability. Also, backspaces which appear between two identical characters are treated specially: the overstruck text is printed using the terminal's hardware boldface capability. Other backspaces are deleted, along with the preceding character. Carriage returns immediately followed by a newline are deleted. other carriage returns are handled as specified by the -r option. Text which is overstruck or underlined can be searched for if neither -u nor -U is in effect.
- -V or --version
- Displays the version number of less.
- -w or --hilite-unread
- Temporarily highlights the first "new" line after a forward movement of a full page. The first "new" line is the line immediately following the line previously at the bottom of the screen. Also highlights the target line after a g or p command. The highlight is removed at the next command which causes movement. The entire line is highlighted, unless the -J option is in effect, in which case only the status column is highlighted.
- -W or --HILITE-UNREAD
- Like -w, but temporarily highlights the first new line after any forward movement command larger than one line.
- -xn,... or --tabs=n,...
- Sets tab stops. If only one n is specified, tab stops are set at multiples of n. If multiple values separated by commas are specified, tab stops are set at those positions, and then continue with the same spacing as the last two. For example, -x9,17 will set tabs at positions 9, 17, 25, 33, etc. The default for n is 8.
- -X or --no-init
- Disables sending the termcap initialization and deinitialization strings to the terminal. This is sometimes desirable if the deinitialization string does something unnecessary, like clearing the screen.
- -yn or --max-forw-scroll=n
- Specifies a maximum number of lines to scroll forward. If it is necessary to scroll forward more than n lines, the screen is repainted instead. The -c or -C option may be used to repaint from the top of the screen if desired. By default, any forward movement causes scrolling.
- -[z]n or --window=n
- Changes the default scrolling window size to n lines. The default is one screenful. The z and w commands can also be used to change the window size. The "z" may be omitted for compatibility with some versions of more. If the number n is negative, it indicates n lines less than the current screen size. For example, if the screen is 24 lines, -z-4 sets the scrolling window to 20 lines. If the screen is resized to 40 lines, the scrolling window automatically changes to 36 lines.
- -dqcc or --quotes=cc
- Changes the filename quoting character. This may be necessary if you are trying to name a file which contains both spaces and quote characters. Followed by a single character, this changes the quote character to that character. Filenames containing a space should then be surrounded by that character rather than by double quotes. Followed by two characters, changes the open quote to the first character, and the close quote to the second character. Filenames containing a space should then be preceded by the open quote character and followed by the close quote character. Note that even after the quote characters are changed, this option remains -" (a dash followed by a double quote).
- -~ or --tilde
- Normally lines after end of file are displayed as a single tilde (~). This option causes lines after end of file to be displayed as blank lines.
- -# or --shift
- Specifies the default number of positions to scroll horizontally in the RIGHTARROW and LEFTARROW commands. If the number specified is zero, it sets the default number of positions to one half of the screen width. Alternately, the number may be specified as a fraction of the width of the screen, starting with a decimal point: .5 is half of the screen width, .3 is three tenths of the screen width, and so on. If the number is specified as a fraction, the actual number of scroll positions is recalculated if the terminal window is resized, so that the actual scroll remains at the specified fraction of the screen width.
- --no-keypad
- Disables sending the keypad initialization and deinitialization strings to the terminal. This is sometimes useful if the keypad strings make the numeric keypad behave in an undesirable manner.
- --follow-name
- Normally, if the input file is renamed while an F command is executing, less will continue to display the contents of the original file despite its name change. If --follow-name is specified, during an F command less will periodically attempt to reopen the file by name. If the reopen succeeds and the file is a different file from the original (which means that a new file has been created with the same name as the original (now renamed) file), less will display the contents of that new file.
- --
- A command line argument of "--" marks the end of option arguments. Any arguments following this are interpreted as filenames. This can be useful when viewing a file whose name begins with a "-" or "+".
- +
-
If a command line option begins with +,
the remainder of that option is taken to be an initial command to
less.
For example, +G tells
less
to start at the end of the file rather than the beginning,
and +/xyz tells it to start at the first occurrence of "xyz" in the file.
As a special case, +<number> acts like +<number>g;
that is, it starts the display at the specified line number
(however, see the caveat under the "g" command above).
If the option starts with ++, the initial command applies to
every file being viewed, not just the first one.
The + command described previously
may also be used to set (or change) an initial command for every file.
LINE EDITING
When entering command line at the bottom of the screen (for example, a filename for the :e command, or the pattern for a search command), certain keys can be used to manipulate the command line. Most commands have an alternate form in [ brackets ] which can be used if a key does not exist on a particular keyboard. (Note that the forms beginning with ESC do not work in some MS-DOS and Windows systems because ESC is the line erase character.) Any of these special keys may be entered literally by preceding it with the "literal" character, either ^V or ^A. A backslash itself may also be entered literally by entering two backslashes.- LEFTARROW [ ESC-h ]
- Move the cursor one space to the left.
- RIGHTARROW [ ESC-l ]
- Move the cursor one space to the right.
- ^LEFTARROW [ ESC-b or ESC-LEFTARROW ]
- (That is, CONTROL and LEFTARROW simultaneously.) Move the cursor one word to the left.
- ^RIGHTARROW [ ESC-w or ESC-RIGHTARROW ]
- (That is, CONTROL and RIGHTARROW simultaneously.) Move the cursor one word to the right.
- HOME [ ESC-0 ]
- Move the cursor to the beginning of the line.
- END [ ESC-$ ]
- Move the cursor to the end of the line.
- BACKSPACE
- Delete the character to the left of the cursor, or cancel the command if the command line is empty.
- DELETE or [ ESC-x ]
- Delete the character under the cursor.
- ^BACKSPACE [ ESC-BACKSPACE ]
- (That is, CONTROL and BACKSPACE simultaneously.) Delete the word to the left of the cursor.
- ^DELETE [ ESC-X or ESC-DELETE ]
- (That is, CONTROL and DELETE simultaneously.) Delete the word under the cursor.
- UPARROW [ ESC-k ]
- Retrieve the previous command line.
- DOWNARROW [ ESC-j ]
- Retrieve the next command line.
- TAB
- Complete the partial filename to the left of the cursor. If it matches more than one filename, the first match is entered into the command line. Repeated TABs will cycle thru the other matching filenames. If the completed filename is a directory, a "/" is appended to the filename. (On MS-DOS systems, a "\" is appended.) The environment variable LESSSEPARATOR can be used to specify a different character to append to a directory name.
- BACKTAB [ ESC-TAB ]
- Like, TAB, but cycles in the reverse direction thru the matching filenames.
- ^L
- Complete the partial filename to the left of the cursor. If it matches more than one filename, all matches are entered into the command line (if they fit).
- ^U (Unix and OS/2) or ESC (MS-DOS)
-
Delete the entire command line,
or cancel the command if the command line is empty.
If you have changed your line-kill character in Unix to something
other than ^U, that character is used instead of ^U.
KEY BINDINGS
You may define your own less commands by using the program lesskey (1) to create a lesskey file. This file specifies a set of command keys and an action associated with each key. You may also use lesskey to change the line-editing keys (see LINE EDITING), and to set environment variables. If the environment variable LESSKEY is set, less uses that as the name of the lesskey file. Otherwise, less looks in a standard place for the lesskey file: On Unix systems, less looks for a lesskey file called "$HOME/.less". On MS-DOS and Windows systems, less looks for a lesskey file called "$HOME/_less", and if it is not found there, then looks for a lesskey file called "_less" in any directory specified in the PATH environment variable. On OS/2 systems, less looks for a lesskey file called "$HOME/less.ini", and if it is not found, then looks for a lesskey file called "less.ini" in any directory specified in the INIT environment variable, and if it not found there, then looks for a lesskey file called "less.ini" in any directory specified in the PATH environment variable. See the lesskey manual page for more details. A system-wide lesskey file may also be set up to provide key bindings. If a key is defined in both a local lesskey file and in the system-wide file, key bindings in the local file take precedence over those in the system-wide file. If the environment variable LESSKEY_SYSTEM is set, less uses that as the name of the system-wide lesskey file. Otherwise, less looks in a standard place for the system-wide lesskey file: On Unix systems, the system-wide lesskey file is /usr/local/etc/sysless. (However, if less was built with a different sysconf directory than /usr/local/etc, that directory is where the sysless file is found.) On MS-DOS and Windows systems, the system-wide lesskey file is c:\_sysless. On OS/2 systems, the system-wide lesskey file is c:\sysless.ini.INPUT PREPROCESSOR
You may define an "input preprocessor" for less. Before less opens a file, it first gives your input preprocessor a chance to modify the way the contents of the file are displayed. An input preprocessor is simply an executable program (or shell script), which writes the contents of the file to a different file, called the replacement file. The contents of the replacement file are then displayed in place of the contents of the original file. However, it will appear to the user as if the original file is opened; that is, less will display the original filename as the name of the current file.An input preprocessor receives one command line argument, the original filename, as entered by the user. It should create the replacement file, and when finished, print the name of the replacement file to its standard output. If the input preprocessor does not output a replacement filename, less uses the original file, as normal. The input preprocessor is not called when viewing standard input. To set up an input preprocessor, set the LESSOPEN environment variable to a command line which will invoke your input preprocessor. This command line should include one occurrence of the string "%s", which will be replaced by the filename when the input preprocessor command is invoked.
When less closes a file opened in such a way, it will call another program, called the input postprocessor, which may perform any desired clean-up action (such as deleting the replacement file created by LESSOPEN). This program receives two command line arguments, the original filename as entered by the user, and the name of the replacement file. To set up an input postprocessor, set the LESSCLOSE environment variable to a command line which will invoke your input postprocessor. It may include two occurrences of the string "%s"; the first is replaced with the original name of the file and the second with the name of the replacement file, which was output by LESSOPEN.
For example, on many Unix systems, these two scripts will allow you to keep files in compressed format, but still let less view them directly:
lessopen.sh:
#! /bin/sh
case "$1" in
*.Z) uncompress - $1 >/tmp/less.$$ 2>/dev/null
if [ -s /tmp/less.$$ ]; then
echo /tmp/less.$$
else
rm -f /tmp/less.$$
fi
;;
esac
lessclose.sh:
#! /bin/sh
rm $2
To use these scripts, put them both where they can be executed and set LESSOPEN="lessopen.sh %s", and LESSCLOSE="lessclose.sh %s %s". More complex LESSOPEN and LESSCLOSE scripts may be written to accept other types of compressed files, and so on.
It is also possible to set up an input preprocessor to pipe the file data directly to less, rather than putting the data into a replacement file. This avoids the need to decompress the entire file before starting to view it. An input preprocessor that works this way is called an input pipe. An input pipe, instead of writing the name of a replacement file on its standard output, writes the entire contents of the replacement file on its standard output. If the input pipe does not write any characters on its standard output, then there is no replacement file and less uses the original file, as normal. To use an input pipe, make the first character in the LESSOPEN environment variable a vertical bar (|) to signify that the input preprocessor is an input pipe.
For example, on many Unix systems, this script will work like the previous example scripts:
lesspipe.sh:
#! /bin/sh
case "$1" in
*.Z) uncompress -c $1 2>/dev/null
;;
esac
To use this script, put it where it can be executed and set LESSOPEN="|lesspipe.sh %s". When an input pipe is used, a LESSCLOSE postprocessor can be used, but it is usually not necessary since there is no replacement file to clean up. In this case, the replacement file name passed to the LESSCLOSE postprocessor is "-".
For compatibility with previous versions of less, the input preprocessor or pipe is not used if less is viewing standard input. However, if the first character of LESSOPEN is a dash (-), the input preprocessor is used on standard input as well as other files. In this case, the dash is not considered to be part of the preprocessor command. If standard input is being viewed, the input preprocessor is passed a file name consisting of a single dash. Similarly, if the first two characters of LESSOPEN are vertical bar and dash (|-), the input pipe is used on standard input as well as other files. Again, in this case the dash is not considered to be part of the input pipe command.
NATIONAL CHARACTER SETS
There are three types of characters in the input file:- normal characters
- can be displayed directly to the screen.
- control characters
- should not be displayed directly, but are expected to be found in ordinary text files (such as backspace and tab).
- binary characters
- should not be displayed directly and are not expected to be found in text files.
A "character set" is simply a description of which characters are to be considered normal, control, and binary. The LESSCHARSET environment variable may be used to select a character set. Possible values for LESSCHARSET are:
- ascii
- BS, TAB, NL, CR, and formfeed are control characters, all chars with values between 32 and 126 are normal, and all others are binary.
- iso8859
- Selects an ISO 8859 character set. This is the same as ASCII, except characters between 160 and 255 are treated as normal characters.
- latin1
- Same as iso8859.
- latin9
- Same as iso8859.
- dos
- Selects a character set appropriate for MS-DOS.
- ebcdic
- Selects an EBCDIC character set.
- IBM-1047
- Selects an EBCDIC character set used by OS/390 Unix Services. This is the EBCDIC analogue of latin1. You get similar results by setting either LESSCHARSET=IBM-1047 or LC_CTYPE=en_US in your environment.
- koi8-r
- Selects a Russian character set.
- next
- Selects a character set appropriate for NeXT computers.
- utf-8
- Selects the UTF-8 encoding of the ISO 10646 character set. UTF-8 is special in that it supports multi-byte characters in the input file. It is the only character set that supports multi-byte characters.
- windows
- Selects a character set appropriate for Microsoft Windows (cp 1251).
In rare cases, it may be desired to tailor less to use a character set other than the ones definable by LESSCHARSET. In this case, the environment variable LESSCHARDEF can be used to define a character set. It should be set to a string where each character in the string represents one character in the character set. The character "." is used for a normal character, "c" for control, and "b" for binary. A decimal number may be used for repetition. For example, "bccc4b." would mean character 0 is binary, 1, 2 and 3 are control, 4, 5, 6 and 7 are binary, and 8 is normal. All characters after the last are taken to be the same as the last, so characters 9 through 255 would be normal. (This is an example, and does not necessarily represent any real character set.)
This table shows the value of LESSCHARDEF which is equivalent to each of the possible values for LESSCHARSET:
ascii 8bcccbcc18b95.b
dos 8bcccbcc12bc5b95.b.
ebcdic 5bc6bcc7bcc41b.9b7.9b5.b..8b6.10b6.b9.7b
9.8b8.17b3.3b9.7b9.8b8.6b10.b.b.b.
IBM-1047 4cbcbc3b9cbccbccbb4c6bcc5b3cbbc4bc4bccbc
191.b
iso8859 8bcccbcc18b95.33b.
koi8-r 8bcccbcc18b95.b128.
latin1 8bcccbcc18b95.33b.
next 8bcccbcc18b95.bb125.bb
If neither LESSCHARSET nor LESSCHARDEF is set, but any of the strings "UTF-8", "UTF8", "utf-8" or "utf8" is found in the LC_ALL, LC_TYPE or LANG environment variables, then the default character set is utf-8.
If that string is not found, but your system supports the setlocale interface, less will use setlocale to determine the character set. setlocale is controlled by setting the LANG or LC_CTYPE environment variables.
Finally, if the setlocale interface is also not available, the default character set is latin1.
Control and binary characters are displayed in standout (reverse video). Each such character is displayed in caret notation if possible (e.g. ^A for control-A). Caret notation is used only if inverting the 0100 bit results in a normal printable character. Otherwise, the character is displayed as a hex number in angle brackets. This format can be changed by setting the LESSBINFMT environment variable. LESSBINFMT may begin with a "*" and one character to select the display attribute: "*k" is blinking, "*d" is bold, "*u" is underlined, "*s" is standout, and "*n" is normal. If LESSBINFMT does not begin with a "*", normal attribute is assumed. The remainder of LESSBINFMT is a string which may include one printf-style escape sequence (a % followed by x, X, o, d, etc.). For example, if LESSBINFMT is "*u[%x]", binary characters are displayed in underlined hexadecimal surrounded by brackets. The default if no LESSBINFMT is specified is "*s<%02X>". Warning: the result of expanding the character via LESSBINFMT must be less than 31 characters.
When the character set is utf-8, the LESSUTFBINFMT environment variable acts similarly to LESSBINFMT but it applies to Unicode code points that were successfully decoded but are unsuitable for display (e.g., unassigned code points). Its default value is "<U+%04lX>". Note that LESSUTFBINFMT and LESSBINFMT share their display attribute setting ("*x") so specifying one will affect both; LESSUTFBINFMT is read after LESSBINFMT so its setting, if any, will have priority. Problematic octets in a UTF-8 file (octets of a truncated sequence, octets of a complete but non-shortest form sequence, illegal octets, and stray trailing octets) are displayed individually using LESSBINFMT so as to facilitate diagnostic of how the UTF-8 file is ill-formed.
PROMPTS
The -P option allows you to tailor the prompt to your preference. The string given to the -P option replaces the specified prompt string. Certain characters in the string are interpreted specially. The prompt mechanism is rather complicated to provide flexibility, but the ordinary user need not understand the details of constructing personalized prompt strings.A percent sign followed by a single character is expanded according to what the following character is:
- %bX
- Replaced by the byte offset into the current input file. The b is followed by a single character (shown as X above) which specifies the line whose byte offset is to be used. If the character is a "t", the byte offset of the top line in the display is used, an "m" means use the middle line, a "b" means use the bottom line, a "B" means use the line just after the bottom line, and a "j" means use the "target" line, as specified by the -j option.
- %B
- Replaced by the size of the current input file.
- %c
- Replaced by the column number of the text appearing in the first column of the screen.
- %dX
- Replaced by the page number of a line in the input file. The line to be used is determined by the X, as with the %b option.
- %D
- Replaced by the number of pages in the input file, or equivalently, the page number of the last line in the input file.
- %E
- Replaced by the name of the editor (from the VISUAL environment variable, or the EDITOR environment variable if VISUAL is not defined). See the discussion of the LESSEDIT feature below.
- %f
- Replaced by the name of the current input file.
- %i
- Replaced by the index of the current file in the list of input files.
- %lX
- Replaced by the line number of a line in the input file. The line to be used is determined by the X, as with the %b option.
- %L
- Replaced by the line number of the last line in the input file.
- %m
- Replaced by the total number of input files.
- %pX
- Replaced by the percent into the current input file, based on byte offsets. The line used is determined by the X as with the %b option.
- %PX
- Replaced by the percent into the current input file, based on line numbers. The line used is determined by the X as with the %b option.
- %s
- Same as %B.
- %t
- Causes any trailing spaces to be removed. Usually used at the end of the string, but may appear anywhere.
- %x
- Replaced by the name of the next input file in the list.
If any item is unknown (for example, the file size if input is a pipe), a question mark is printed instead.
The format of the prompt string can be changed depending on certain conditions. A question mark followed by a single character acts like an "IF": depending on the following character, a condition is evaluated. If the condition is true, any characters following the question mark and condition character, up to a period, are included in the prompt. If the condition is false, such characters are not included. A colon appearing between the question mark and the period can be used to establish an "ELSE": any characters between the colon and the period are included in the string if and only if the IF condition is false. Condition characters (which follow a question mark) may be:
- ?a
- True if any characters have been included in the prompt so far.
- ?bX
- True if the byte offset of the specified line is known.
- ?B
- True if the size of current input file is known.
- ?c
- True if the text is horizontally shifted (%c is not zero).
- ?dX
- True if the page number of the specified line is known.
- ?e
- True if at end-of-file.
- ?f
- True if there is an input filename (that is, if input is not a pipe).
- ?lX
- True if the line number of the specified line is known.
- ?L
- True if the line number of the last line in the file is known.
- ?m
- True if there is more than one input file.
- ?n
- True if this is the first prompt in a new input file.
- ?pX
- True if the percent into the current input file, based on byte offsets, of the specified line is known.
- ?PX
- True if the percent into the current input file, based on line numbers, of the specified line is known.
- ?s
- Same as "?B".
- ?x
- True if there is a next input file (that is, if the current input file is not the last one).
Any characters other than the special ones (question mark, colon, period, percent, and backslash) become literally part of the prompt. Any of the special characters may be included in the prompt literally by preceding it with a backslash.
Some examples:
?f%f:Standard input.
This prompt prints the filename, if known; otherwise the string "Standard input".
?f%f .?ltLine %lt:?pt%pt\%:?btByte %bt:-...
This prompt would print the filename, if known. The filename is followed by the line number, if known, otherwise the percent if known, otherwise the byte offset if known. Otherwise, a dash is printed. Notice how each question mark has a matching period, and how the % after the %pt is included literally by escaping it with a backslash.
?n?f%f .?m(file %i of %m) ..?e(END) ?x- Next\: %x..%t
This prints the filename if this is the first prompt in a file, followed by the "file N of N" message if there is more than one input file. Then, if we are at end-of-file, the string "(END)" is printed followed by the name of the next file, if there is one. Finally, any trailing spaces are truncated. This is the default prompt. For reference, here are the defaults for the other two prompts (-m and -M respectively). Each is broken into two lines here for readability only.
?n?f%f .?m(file %i of %m) ..?e(END) ?x- Next\: %x.: ?pB%pB\%:byte %bB?s/%s...%t ?f%f .?n?m(file %i of %m) ..?ltlines %lt-%lb?L/%L. : byte %bB?s/%s. .?e(END) ?x- Next\: %x.:?pB%pB\%..%tAnd here is the default message produced by the = command:
?f%f .?m(file %i of %m) .?ltlines %lt-%lb?L/%L. . byte %bB?s/%s. ?e(END) :?pB%pB\%..%t
The prompt expansion features are also used for another purpose: if an environment variable LESSEDIT is defined, it is used as the command to be executed when the v command is invoked. The LESSEDIT string is expanded in the same way as the prompt strings. The default value for LESSEDIT is:
%E ?lm+%lm. %fNote that this expands to the editor name, followed by a + and the line number, followed by the file name. If your editor does not accept the "+linenumber" syntax, or has other differences in invocation syntax, the LESSEDIT variable can be changed to modify this default.
SECURITY
When the environment variable LESSSECURE is set to 1, less runs in a "secure" mode. This means these features are disabled:-
- !
- the shell command
- |
- the pipe command
- :e
- the examine command.
- v
- the editing command
- s -o
- log files
- -k
- use of lesskey files
- -t
- use of tags files
- metacharacters in filenames, such as *
- filename completion (TAB, ^L)
Less can also be compiled to be permanently in "secure" mode.
COMPATIBILITY WITH MORE
If the environment variable LESS_IS_MORE is set to 1, or if the program is invoked via a file link named "more", less behaves (mostly) in conformance with the POSIX "more" command specification. In this mode, less behaves differently in these ways:The -e option works differently. If the -e option is not set, less behaves as if the -E option were set. If the -e option is set, less behaves as if the -e and -F options were set.
The -m option works differently. If the -m option is not set, the medium prompt is used, and it is prefixed with the string "--More--". If the -m option is set, the short prompt is used.
The -n option acts like the -z option. The normal behavior of the -n option is unavailable in this mode.
The parameter to the -p option is taken to be a less command rather than a search pattern.
The LESS environment variable is ignored, and the MORE environment variable is used in its place.
ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
Environment variables may be specified either in the system environment as usual, or in a lesskey (1) file. If environment variables are defined in more than one place, variables defined in a local lesskey file take precedence over variables defined in the system environment, which take precedence over variables defined in the system-wide lesskey file.- COLUMNS
- Sets the number of columns on the screen. Takes precedence over the number of columns specified by the TERM variable. (But if you have a windowing system which supports TIOCGWINSZ or WIOCGETD, the window system's idea of the screen size takes precedence over the LINES and COLUMNS environment variables.)
- EDITOR
- The name of the editor (used for the v command).
- HOME
- Name of the user's home directory (used to find a lesskey file on Unix and OS/2 systems).
- HOMEDRIVE, HOMEPATH
- Concatenation of the HOMEDRIVE and HOMEPATH environment variables is the name of the user's home directory if the HOME variable is not set (only in the Windows version).
- INIT
- Name of the user's init directory (used to find a lesskey file on OS/2 systems).
- LANG
- Language for determining the character set.
- LC_CTYPE
- Language for determining the character set.
- LESS
- Options which are passed to less automatically.
- LESSANSIENDCHARS
- Characters which may end an ANSI color escape sequence (default "m").
- LESSANSIMIDCHARS
- Characters which may appear between the ESC character and the end character in an ANSI color escape sequence (default "0123456789;[?!"'#%()*+ ".
- LESSBINFMT
- Format for displaying non-printable, non-control characters.
- LESSCHARDEF
- Defines a character set.
- LESSCHARSET
- Selects a predefined character set.
- LESSCLOSE
- Command line to invoke the (optional) input-postprocessor.
- LESSECHO
- Name of the lessecho program (default "lessecho"). The lessecho program is needed to expand metacharacters, such as * and ?, in filenames on Unix systems.
- LESSEDIT
- Editor prototype string (used for the v command). See discussion under PROMPTS.
- LESSGLOBALTAGS
- Name of the command used by the -t option to find global tags. Normally should be set to "global" if your system has the global (1) command. If not set, global tags are not used.
- LESSHISTFILE
- Name of the history file used to remember search commands and shell commands between invocations of less. If set to "-" or "/dev/null", a history file is not used. The default is "$HOME/.lesshst" on Unix systems, "$HOME/_lesshst" on DOS and Windows systems, or "$HOME/lesshst.ini" or "$INIT/lesshst.ini" on OS/2 systems.
- LESSHISTSIZE
- The maximum number of commands to save in the history file. The default is 100.
- LESSKEY
- Name of the default lesskey(1) file.
- LESSKEY_SYSTEM
- Name of the default system-wide lesskey(1) file.
- LESSMETACHARS
- List of characters which are considered "metacharacters" by the shell.
- LESSMETAESCAPE
- Prefix which less will add before each metacharacter in a command sent to the shell. If LESSMETAESCAPE is an empty string, commands containing metacharacters will not be passed to the shell.
- LESSOPEN
- Command line to invoke the (optional) input-preprocessor.
- LESSSECURE
- Runs less in "secure" mode. See discussion under SECURITY.
- LESSSEPARATOR
- String to be appended to a directory name in filename completion.
- LESSUTFBINFMT
- Format for displaying non-printable Unicode code points.
- LESS_IS_MORE
- Emulate the more (1) command.
- LINES
- Sets the number of lines on the screen. Takes precedence over the number of lines specified by the TERM variable. (But if you have a windowing system which supports TIOCGWINSZ or WIOCGETD, the window system's idea of the screen size takes precedence over the LINES and COLUMNS environment variables.)
- PATH
- User's search path (used to find a lesskey file on MS-DOS and OS/2 systems).
- SHELL
- The shell used to execute the ! command, as well as to expand filenames.
- TERM
- The type of terminal on which less is being run.
- VISUAL
-
The name of the editor (used for the v command).
SEE ALSO
lesskey(1)COPYRIGHT
Copyright (C) 1984-2009 Mark Nudelmanless is part of the GNU project and is free software. You can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of either (1) the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; or (2) the Less License. See the file README in the less distribution for more details regarding redistribution. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with the source for less; see the file COPYING. If not, write to the Free Software Foundation, 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. You should also have received a copy of the Less License; see the file LICENSE.
less is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details.
AUTHOR
Mark Nudelman<EMAIL_ADDRESS>See http://www.greenwoodsoftware.com/less/bugs.html for the latest list of known bugs in less.
Send bug reports or comments to the above address or to
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>For more information, see the less homepage at
http://www.greenwoodsoftware.com/less.
Index
- NAME
- SYNOPSIS
- DESCRIPTION
- COMMANDS
- OPTIONS
- LINE EDITING
- KEY BINDINGS
- INPUT PREPROCESSOR
- NATIONAL CHARACTER SETS
- PROMPTS
- SECURITY
- COMPATIBILITY WITH MORE
- ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
- SEE ALSO
- COPYRIGHT
- AUTHOR
This document was created by man2html, using the manual pages.
Time: 05:29:05 GMT, December 24, 2015


Hot Topic, a store that sells music and band inspired fashion like band shirts, jewelry, clothing and much more!
Hot Topic came to the malls in 1988. It opened up as a music inspired accessory store, something that wasn't too common. This store attracted many teens as well as many music fans. They started selling merchandise, attracting even more customers. Now, Hot Topic offers band related apparel and accessories, licensed merchandise, and fashion apparel and accessories. There are more that 600 stores around and customers can shop online as well!


open science is badly needed
Retractions
science should be reproducible!
but doing for real is another issue
Emergent findings
open data can make a new finding possible
Open science as a lego set
Open science as a lego set
open science may be hard to do
but - you can work on different components
and - individual components are useful on their own
Open Data
make your data open
funders/journals often requiring this anyway
future self will thank you
Open Access
make your papers open
funders often requiring this anyway
talk to your librarians!
Versioning: code/data/text
Versioning: code/data/text
failure proofs your work
experiment freely!
git and R help
Do all work programatically
Key to reproduciblity
Most important person that wants to reproduce your work is you!
Do all work programatically
you and yourself
- one week from now
- two months from now
- & so on
Wellcome Trust
N=583 (N=259 ESRC)
link
Wellcome Trust: Open Access
OA part of open science held back by impact factors
“As much as I love the idea, my long term career prospects currently depend on obtaining high impact papers, so fully Open Access journals have to be of comparable merit.”
Wellcome Trust: Open Data
"The majority of respondents make datasets available as open access (80%), 19% make data available upon request via an application procedure, 10% restrict access to immediate collaborators and 9% restrict access to registered users."
No!!!
Wellcome Trust: Open Code
"only 12% ... indicated they had a bad experience when sharing code ... BUT the majority of ESRC-funded respondents did not recognise any personal benefits from code sharing activities"
scientific programming languages
are:
the canvas on which to do science
important scientific programming languages
Jupyter Notebooks
link
reproducing a Jupyter notebook
reproducing a Jupyter notebook
R language
R homepage
used widely in biology, psychology, medicine, etc.
rapidly growing user base, companies surrounding it
includes all tools for open science workflow
though work to be done ...
Open science ecosytsem
the research workflow
Data acquisition
data manipulation/analysis/viz
writing
publish
the research workflow
Data acquisition
data manipulation/analysis/viz
writing
publish
the research workflow
Data acquisition
data manipulation/analysis/viz
writing
publish
the research workflow
Data acquisition
data manipulation/analysis/viz
writing
publish
the research workflow
Data acquisition
data manipulation/analysis/viz
writing
publish
We make data driven stories easier to tell
here are some stories ...
Wrap Up
Open science is essential
Open science tools are useful on their own
rOpenSci: one of the tool makers
Challenges going forward
Largely cultural - will slowly change
Wrap Up
rOpenSci is a community project
Let us know what you need
Help us make better tools


Repos
Loading...
Add Repo
Add a comment with a link to the Trello card when attaching commits, issues, and pull requests.


JsGames Project
Developed By Mario HD
x
3
0000000
00:00
Your browser does not support HTML5 Canvas.
How to play
Credits


Allocate any amount from your recurring investment into your favorite stocks,
starting from 1 USD.
Getting Started
in 3 simple steps, start automating your own personalised index fund, and never have to
worry about investing again
Create a portfolio with target investment amount and frequency.
Pick the assets to be included in the portfolio.
Allocate amount for each asset.
Create a portfolio with target investment amount and frequency.
Pick the assets to be included in the portfolio.
Allocate amount for each asset.
Hear What People Say
I love the fact that US stocks are Zero-Commission, and I can now buy fractions
of my favorite shares on a regular basis automatically! This really solves my
pain point of having to
dollar-cost average manually. I can easily rebalance it after a few years too.
Can't wait for the actual launch.
I'm into long term investing because I don't want to spend too much time on
researching and investing, and I also feel that most ETFs are overly
diversified.
Being able to customize what stocks to automatically invest into helps me solve
my problem.


Print-testing for nimib
What is print-testing? Testing by comparing printed output of a file with a versioned reference (see treeform/ptest).
Test Results ✅
| skip | fail | pass | total |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 | 9 | 9 |
[OK] numerical.nim [OK] penguins.nim [OK] hello.nim [OK] nolan.nim [OK] mostaccio.nim [OK] index.nim [OK] pythno.nim [OK] cheatsheet.nim [OK] far/from/home.nim
Implementation
The following is an adaption of treeform's ptest.nim taking into account specifics of nimib files: they already produce an output (html file).
Imports and global variables:
import
os, osproc, strformat, strutils, nimib / paths, nimib / gits
type
SkipReason* = enum
srNotSkipped, srNotTrackedInGit, srNoHtmlFound, srChangedInGit
TestCase* = ref object ## ref to make it easy to mutate while in a container
file*: AbsoluteFile
skip*: bool
skipReason*: SkipReason
fail*: bool
func find*(s: seq[TestCase]; file: AbsoluteFile; test: var TestCase): bool =
for t in s:
if t.file == file:
test = t
return true
func spanColor*(text, color: string): string =
"" & text & ""
func aLink*(text, link: string): string =
"" & text & ""
func stats*(tests: seq[TestCase]): tuple[skip, fail, pass: int] =
for test in tests:
if test.skip:
inc result.skip
continue
elif test.fail:
inc result.fail
else:
inc result.pass
var
test: TestCase
tests: seq[TestCase]
test cases
for every file ending in nim (and not starting with ptest) in nbHomeDir (test cases)
- a test case will be skipped if it is not tracked in git
- a test case will be skipped if it does not have a corresponding html
- a test case will be skipped if it is modified/added in git
for file in walkDirRec(nbHomeDir):
## note that file is an AbsoluteFile (since nbHomeDir is an AbsoluteDir)
if file.endsWith(".nim") and not file.name.startsWith("ptest"):
test = TestCase(file: file)
stdout.write "added test candidate: ", file.relPath
else:
continue
let html = changeFileExt(file, ".html")
if not file.isGitTracked:
test.skip = true
test.skipReason = srNotTrackedInGit
echo " -> skipped since it is not tracked in git"
elif not html.fileExists or not html.isGitTracked:
test.skip = true
test.skipReason = srNoHtmlFound
echo " -> skipped since it does not have a corresponding (git tracked) html file"
elif file.isGitChanged:
test.skip = true
test.skipReason = srChangedInGit
echo " -> skipped since it is changed in git"
else:
echo ""
tests.add test
added test candidate: numerical.nim added test candidate: penguins.nim added test candidate: hello.nim added test candidate: nolan.nim added test candidate: mostaccio.nim added test candidate: index.nim added test candidate: pythno.nim added test candidate: cheatsheet.nim added test candidate: far/from/home.nim
performing test
for every non-skipped test case:
- if the corresponding html output is changed in git the test is failed
- copy the corresponding html to a tmp file
- find and execute the corresponding nim file
- if an error is found while compiling/executing, report a failure
- if a difference is reported between the corresponding html file and the temporary copy a failure is reported
- if no failure has been reported the test is reported as passed (and the temporary file is cleaned up)
for test in tests:
var
output: string
err: int
let
html = test.file.changeFileExt(".html")
tmp = test.file.changeFileExt(".tmp.html")
fileWithLink = test.file.relPath.aLink html.relPath
if test.skip:
stdout.write "[SKIP]".spanColor "blue"
echo " " & fileWithLink
continue
if html.isGitChanged:
test.fail = true
stdout.write "[FAIL]".spanColor "red"
echo " " & fileWithLink
echo "html file is changed in git. commit or revert and rerun test"
continue
copyFile(source = html, dest = tmp)
(output, err) = execCmdEx &"nim --verbosity:0 --hints:off r {test.file}"
if err != 0:
test.fail = true
stdout.write "[FAIL]".spanColor "red"
echo " " & fileWithLink
echo "Error during compile/run"
echo "output\n:", output
echo "err\n:", err
continue
(output, err) = execCmdEx(&"git diff --no-index {html} {tmp}")
if err != 0:
test.fail = true
stdout.write "[FAIL]".spanColor "red"
echo " " & fileWithLink
echo "Differences found in html file"
echo "output\n:", output
echo "err\n:", err
continue
stdout.write "[OK]".spanColor "green"
echo " " & fileWithLink
removeFile(tmp)
[OK] numerical.nim [OK] penguins.nim [OK] hello.nim [OK] nolan.nim [OK] mostaccio.nim [OK] index.nim [OK] pythno.nim [OK] cheatsheet.nim [OK] far/from/home.nim
results are appended to previously save resultsBlock
let (skip, fail, pass) = tests.stats
if fail > 0:
resultsBlock.output.add " ❌"
else:
resultsBlock.output.add " ✅"
let
skipHeader = "skip".spanColor "blue"
failHeader = "fail".spanColor "red"
passHeader = "pass".spanColor "green"
resultsBlock.output.add &"\n|{skipHeader}|{failHeader}|{passHeader}|total|"
resultsBlock.output.add &"\n|---|---|---|---|"
resultsBlock.output.add &"\n|{skip}|{fail}|{pass}|{skip + fail + pass}|"
resultsBlock.output.add &"\n\n{details.renderHtmlCodeOutput}"


--- layout: page title: Draft of home page. DO NOT DELETE. date: type: page published: false status: draft categories: [] tags: [] meta: _custom_background: a:5:{s:3:"url";s:0:"";s:16:"background-color";s:0:"";s:17:"background-repeat";s:6:"repeat";s:21:"background-attachment";s:6:"scroll";s:19:"background-position";s:8:"left top";} _dependencies: s:6:"a:0:{}"; U_S_C_message: '' _edit_last: '3109' _intro_text: default _intro_custom_banner: a:1:{s:3:"url";s:0:"";} _wp_page_template: default U_S_C_roles: a:1:{i:0;s:13:"Administrator";} _layout: full_width custom_permalink: draft-of-home-page-do-not-delete/ author: login: bjkitchin email<EMAIL_ADDRESS>display_name: bjkitchin first_name: Robert last_name: Kitchin, Jr ---
[one_fourth]
[titled_box title="What is DDD?" bgColor="#27A9E1" textColor="#000000"]What is Domain-Driven Design[/titled_box]
[titled_box title="Learning DDD" bgColor="#8CC63E" textColor="#000000"]Materials to help you learn Domain Driven Design.[/titled_box]
[titled_box title="Strategic Design" bgColor="#FAA72B" textColor="#000000"]Presentations and articles on Strategic Design, the subject of Part IV of the book Domain-Driven Design by Eric Evans[/titled_box]
[titled_box title="Frameworks & Architecture" bgColor="#CDA4E0" textColor="#000000"]Content related to Frameworks & Architecture. [/titled_box]
[titled_box title="Even Sourcing & CQRS" bgColor="#e0e0e0" textColor="#000000"]CQRS & Event Sourcing are two closely related architectural approaches to DDD and they are the hottest topics in DDD of the last couple of years.[/titled_box]
[titled_box title="Resources" bgColor="#27A9E1" textColor="#000000"]Domain Driven Design Resources.[/titled_box]
[titled_box title="Local Meetups" bgColor="#8CC63E" textColor="#000000"]
DDD-NYC
Denver Meetup
Belgian DDD Community
Kraków Meetup
[/titled_box]
[divider]
[widget id="tag_cloud-2"]
[/one_fourth]
[one_half]
[blog_list thumb="medium" showposts="1" post_content="excerpt" category_in="47" pagination="false"]
[/one_half]
[one_fourth_last]
| [tweet username="DDDesignNews" layout="horizontal" text="#dddesign"] | [fblike layout="button_count"] |
| [googleplusone size = "medium"] |
DDD Training from the source. Registrations open for DDD training in New York, Denver, London, and Stockholm.” To learn more follow this link.
[/one_fourth_last]


--- layout: post title: Managing Environment Variables in Node.js with dotenv date: '2020-02-24T14:22:00.000+05:30' author: Sahil Rajput tags: modified_time: '2020-02-24T14:23:11.848+05:30' blogger_id: tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5250005448924290719.post-465153230631307862 blogger_orig_url: https://www.jaadujinn.ml/2020/02/managing-environment-variables-in.html ---


---
title: Computational Linear Algebra by Fast.ai
keywords: fastai
sidebar: home_sidebar
summary: "This project contains my work on Fast.ai's Computational Linear Algebra Course along with my own explorations of the subject.
"
---
This is a work in progress. This website be updated as and when I make more progress towards the course.


Our Mission- we want to make you the team you always wanted to be.
Imagine a workplace where everything runs like a new car motor. You don't have to think about how it's not working or when the next time it'll break down: you can trust in its capability because it's parts are solid.
This is how your team will be after an Unplugged retreat. Every team needs a little work now and then and with our help, your team will be running as smooth as possible, leaving the focus to be on the work.
Contact us, because you all need this.
General information
333 Main St, Lake Geneva, WI
555-555-5555
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Chat with a facilitator
555-555-5555
facilitator@unplugged.com


easy - excursion (p11559)
As you didn’t show up to the yearly general meeting of the Nordic Club of Pin Collectors, you were unanimously elected to organize this years excursion to Pin City. You are free to choose from a number of weekends this autumn, and have to find a suitable hotel to stay at, preferably as cheap as possible.
You have some constraints: The total cost of the trip must be within budget, of course. All participants must stay at the same hotel, to avoid last years catastrophe, where some members got lost in the city, never being seen again.
Input
The input file contains several test cases, each of them as described below.
The first line of input consists of four integers: 1 ≤ N ≤ 200, the number of participants, 1 ≤ B ≤ 500000, the budget, 1 ≤ H ≤ 18, the number of hotels to consider, and 1 ≤ W ≤ 13, the number of weeks you can choose between. Then follow two lines for each of the H hotels. The first gives 1 ≤ p ≤ 10000, the price for one person staying the weekend at the hotel. The second contains W integers, 0 ≤ a ≤ 1000, giving the number of available beds for each weekend at the hotel.
Output
For each test case, write to the output the minimum cost of the stay for your group, or “stay home” if nothing can be found within the budget, on a line by itself.
Sample Input
Put the following in an input textfile and rename it excursion_in.txt .
3 1000 2 3
200
0 2 2
300
27 3 20
5 2000 2 4
300
4 3 0 4
450
7 8 0 13
Sample Output
Output the following in the terminal
900
stay home
Codepost Guide
Create a program to solve the problem and rename it to excursion.cpp. Upload the file to codepost.io An input textfile named excursion_in.txt shall be used by codepost to auto check your submission.
sample compile command:
g++ -o excursion excursion.cpp
sample run command:
./car excursion_in.txt
corresponding output:
900
stay home
Working Code Template
/*******************************************************
*
* easy - excursion (p11559)
*
* determine the best price for the hotel stay
* given the input textfile
*
sample compile command:
g++ -o excursion excursion.cpp
sample run command:
./excursion excursion_in.txt
corresponding output:
900
stay home
*
* ****************************************************/
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
int participants=0;
int budget=0;
int hotels=0;
int bed_count=0;
int min_cost = 0;
int cost=0;
int main (int input_count, char* input_array[])
{
ifstream file( input_array[1] );
// loop through the test cases
while(!file.eof()){
file >> participants;
file >> budget;
file >> hotels;
file >> bed_count;
min_cost = 0;
// change the code below to solve the problem.
cout << "Case: " << participants << " " << budget << " " << hotels << " " << bed_count << endl;
// loop through the hotels
for (int i=0; i< hotels; i++){
file >> cost;
cout << "hotel: " << cost << endl;
cout << "beds: " ;
// loop through the bed count
for(int j=0; j<bed_count; j++){
int beds;
file >> beds;
cout << beds << " " ;
}
cout << endl;
}
}
file.close();
}
Sir Roy's Solution
/*******************************************************
*
* easy - excursion (p11559)
*
* determine the best price for the hotel stay
* given the input textfile
*
sample compile command:
g++ -o excursion excursion.cpp
sample run command:
./excursion excursion_in.txt
corresponding output:
900
stay home
*
* ****************************************************/
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
int participants=0;
int budget=0;
int hotels=0;
int bed_count=0;
int min_cost = 0;
int cost=0;
bool over_budget(){
return cost*participants > budget ? true: false;
}
int main (int input_count, char* input_array[])
{
ifstream file("excursion_in.txt");
// loop through the test cases
while(!file.eof()){
file >> participants;
file >> budget;
file >> hotels;
file >> bed_count;
min_cost = 0;
// cout << participants << " " << budget << " " << hotels << " " << bed_count << endl;
// loop through the hotels
for (int i=0; i< hotels; i++){
file >> cost;
// cout << "hotel: " << cost << endl;
// cout << "beds: " ;
// loop through the bed count
for(int j=0; j<bed_count; j++){
int beds;
file >> beds;
// cout << beds << " " ;
if (beds < participants){
// continue;
}
else{
if (!over_budget()){
if (min_cost == 0 || (participants*cost) < min_cost ) {
min_cost = participants * cost;
//break;
}
}
}
}
// cout << endl;
}
if (min_cost != 0) {
cout << min_cost << endl ;
}
else{
cout << "stay home" << endl;
}
//return 1;
}
file.close();
}


IP stands for Internet Protocol. The internet is actually a design philosophy and an architecture expressed in a set of protocols.
A protocol is a well known set of rules and standards used to communicate across machines. In order for a new technology to use the internet, it just needs to know which protocols to work with.
Every device has a different addresses, which is a set of numbers unique to each device on the network. The addressing system for computers on the internet forms the internet protocol or IP.
This is a breakdown of an IP address
An IP address is a group of numbers, organized in a hierarchy. Each number is made up of bits; there are normally 32 bits or 8 bits per each part of the address.
The numbers are broken down by networks, subnetworks, and finally the specific address. This naming convention is called IPv4 and it provides for more than 4 billion unique addresses. With the tremendous growth in both internet users and devices, IPv4 will not have enough unique addresses to last. We are transitioning to a longer IP address format called IPv6, which will use 128 bits per address. This provides 340 undecillion unique addresses, or more than enough for every grain of sand on earth to have its own address.
Visiting a website is really just your computer asking another computer for information. Your computer sends a message to the other computer's IP address and it also sends its origin address so the other computer knows where to send information to.
A packet is a piece of information that is routed from one computer to another. Packets are used to deliver data reliably.They include the origin and destination addresses.
You can think of a packet like a car. The packet moves the data from the origin to its destination. The way that the information is transferred is not a fixed path. A packet may change its path based upon many reasons, just as you would change in your path while driving depending upon a circumstance like traffic or road conditions.
This gif demonstrates how a packet moves throughout the internet.
Many types of information can be sent with packets, but there are some size limits. If there is have a large amount of data, the information you are trying to send may be too much for one packet. To resolve this problem, the information is broken into many smaller packets which are sent separately.
A router is a device that directs the signal to/from multiple computers to multiple internet sites. Routers act like traffic managers to keep packets moving through the network smoothly.
This diagram describes what is inside a router.
Different packets may take different routes and they may arrive at the destination at different times or out of order. As part of the IP, routers keep track of many paths for sending packets. They choose the cheapest path to get the data to its destination. In this case, cheapest does not mean least expensive. Cheapest considers time, politics, and relationships between companies. Often times, the best route for data to travel is not the most direct. Because there are path options, the internet is fault tolerant meaning the internet can keep sending packets even if something goes horribly wrong somewhere. This equals reliability!
This is a router.
Routers are like traffic managers for packets!


This is the dashboard of Fireball, you can take these actions by click the tab on the left sidebar to get started:
- Open a project that has been recently opened.
- Create a new project from one of game engine runtimes.
- Open a project anywhere on your disk by browsing.
To learn how to use Fireball, checkout the following links:


1. Use `pokemon.json` to calculate the following items:
- Calculate the average weight (lbs) and height (in inches) of the pokemon. Note you will have to convert the units to lbs and inches.
- What is the total egg distance (value on egg property) for all pokemon who have a weakness of 'Psychic'. 'Weaknesses' is a property on each pokemon object that contains a list of strings. Note: some 'egg' properties say 'Not in Eggs'. consider this value a -1 in your summation.
- Determine which type of pokemon has the most weaknesses on average. List the types of pokemon and the number of their weaknesses in a list in descending order. Note: a pokemon can have more than one type. Because of this the same pokemon can be counted for more than one type. For example: the first object with id:1 would count as both 'Grass' and 'Poison' type.
- Break the pokemon down into 5 equal buckets of weight classes and then average the spawn_time (show in minutes) of each weight class


Frozen 2: Mahesh Babu Shares An Adorable Picture Of ‘Younger Elsa’ Daughter Sitara & ‘Grown Up Elsa’ Nithya Menen
Talking about Frozen 2, the animation film is a sequel to 2013 released phenomenal Frozen.
by Koimoi.com TeamTollywood superstar Mahesh Babu’s daughter Sitara Ghattamaneni has been in news from a past number of days following the much-awaited animation film, Frozen 2. Sitara has lent her voice for the baby version of the lead character Elsa from the film in its Telugu version.
It was yesterday evening when Mahesh took on Twitter to share an adorable picture of his daughter. Giving Sitara a company in the picture is none other than versatile actress Nithya Menen who has lent her voice for the grown-up character of Elsa in the Telugu version.
The Maharshi actor along with the picture tweeted: Can’t get better…Elsa and baby Elsa @MenenNithya @DisneyIndia
Talking about Frozen 2, the animation film is a sequel to 2013 released phenomenal Frozen.
The second part of the Disney franchise is believed to be more intense as it traces the past of Princesses Elsa and Anna.
In the original i.e English version Hollywood actresses Idina Menzel and Kristen Bell have lent their voice for Elsa and Anna respectively.
Apart from English and Telugu, Frozen 2 will also hit big screens in India in Tamil and Hindi languages.
Frozen 2 is been directed by Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee.
The musical fantasy film is been produced by Peter Del Vecho under Walt Disney Pictures and Walt Disney Animation Studios.
The film is slated to hit big screens in India on 22nd November.


the hair cycle:
Telogen is the resting phase which lasts approximately 100 days The hair cycle growth phase begins with anagen. For scalp follicles, this phase can last two to five years, with the length of the hair proportional to the duration of anagen. There is then a brief transition phase, catagen, which lasts only 10 days. The resting phase, telogen, lasts around three months, after which the hair is shed (exogen).
- Follicular openings are normally present in non-scarring hair loss and absent in scarring hair loss
Alopecia Areata
-
localised
-
polygenic autoimmune: associated with atopy/autoimmune disease
-
no apparent inflammation of skin
-
most common cause of patchy hair loss
-
mucosal involvement not feature of alopecia areata
-
can affect any hair: eyelashes, eyebrows, body, nasal
-
weeks to months
-
stable
- regrowth 6-12/12
Exclamation mark hairs - broken off stubby ends
associated with pitting of nail plate
-
if after puberty >80% regrow hairs
-
recurrence common
-
no specific treatment
-
can try topical dithranol - not first line
-
Diphencyprone; potent contact sensitiser: may be useful in extensive disease
-
-
not scaly
Pattern hair loss
-
most common
-
combined:
-
genetics
-
action of androgen on hair follicles
-
Men:
-
bitemporal recession
-
frontal +/- vertex
-
loss of all hair
- except occipital/temporal margin -> “Hippocratic wreath”
-
Testosterone -> DHEAS
Women:
-
parietal and temporal recession
- not usually major feature
-
starts from vertex
-
minor hit thinning most common
-
check: acne, hirsuitism, irregular menses
- androgen excess
-
Hair loss on the occipital scalp is never a feature of female pattern hairless
Skin = noraml
Hair: finer (shorter + red. diameter)
in time becomes vellus and eventually atrophies completely
Management:
-
oral finasteride
-
1mg po od = propecia (NS)
-
slows hair loss 3/12
-
no action on other androgen targets
-
issues:
- 2% dec. libido and erectile dysfunction: reversible
-
no evidence for use in female pattern hair loss
-
-
Topical minoxidil 5% = Regaine/Rogaine (NS)
-
Antiandrogen
-
cypertone
-
fluta
-
cimitadine
-
-
Wig
-
Surgical
Telogen effluvium
-
transient inc. shedding of normal club hairs from resting scalp follicle
-
normally 40-80 hairs are shed from scalp/day
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in TE : 100-200 hairs/day
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inc. patchy hair loss and if severe diffuse thinning
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reaction pattern to variety of stressors:
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endocrine (hypothyroid)
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Nutrition
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physical
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psych
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Tallium/mercury/arsenic
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drugs
-
-
second most common cause
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6-12 /12 to return to baseline
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rarely >90%
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noraml scalp
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inc. hairs on hair pull
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Beaus’s lines
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no infection
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DDx
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anaemia
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thyroid dysfunction
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drugs
- FBC, Haematinics, TFTs
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Trichotillomania
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habit and impulse disorder
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hair loss never complete
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short, broken hairs are not easily extracted
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may eat hair -> trichobezoar/hair ball in stomach
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in children : prognosis = good
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often in tonsure pattern
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when children present: exclude fungal infection and allopeica
the hair cycle:
Telogen is the resting phase which lasts approximately 100 days The hair cycle growth phase begins with anagen. For scalp follicles, this phase can last two to five years, with the length of the hair proportional to the duration of anagen. There is then a brief transition phase, catagen, which lasts only 10 days. The resting phase, telogen, lasts around three months, after which the hair is shed (exogen).


If You Want To Enjoy Your Woman In Bed, Romance Her With Money – Singer Reveals
by vanessa nordziMayfred Osei Tuffour Ampong, known showbiz as Akua Mayday, is a Ghanaian
Canadian rising Afro-pop, hip-hop musician and dancer.
Known for her exceptional dance skills, Mayfred has made some serious revelations about how men can please women sexually.
According to Mayfred in a recent interview with Daily View GH, money is the only way to make a woman become wet for a glorious sexual encounter.
“Only money can make a woman wet without touching her. Give your woman money and experience rain drops of sweetness. Romance is not all about having sex but by showering her with plenty money.” She disclosed.
Mayfred further disclosed that even though she loves the man she is currently dating, she will easily become “wet” when he gives her money.
Mayfred is currently promoting her new single titled “Ouu Gaga Zanku” featuring BFour.