Remark. They are consequently declined like deva, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
279. (III) Adverbial Derivatives from Numerals
280. Many important adverbs are derived from numerals by means of some suffixes.
281. By means of suffix dhā are formed adverbs signifying: ways, times, fold and sometimes kinds.
Examples
ekadhā, once.
dvidhā, in two ways; in two; of two kinds.
tidhā, in three ways; three-fold, in three parts.
282. The word guṇa, though not a suffix, is often employed like dhā with the meanings of times, fold. In the sense of times, it generally takes the Neuter form in aṃ.
Examples
dasaguṇaṃ, ten times; or ten-fold.
tiguṇaṃ, three times; or three-fold.
catuguṇaṃ, four times; or, four-fold.
Remark. In the sense of fold, the compound being an adjective, is treated as such and is declined like deva, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
283. dhā
is also used in the same way after a few adjectives:
bahudhā, in many ways.
anekadhā, in more than one way.
284. Distributive adverbs are formed from numerals by means of suffix so (Sansk. as).
Examples
ekaso, one by one.
pañcaso, five by five.
285. From khattuṃ, multiplicative adverbs are formed.
Examples
dvikkhattuṃ, twice.
sattakkhattuṃ, seven times.
satasahassakkhattuṃ, one hundred thousand times.
286. The two following suffixes, from substantives and adjectives ka and ya, form collective nouns and adjectives.
Examples
catukka, four-fold, consisting of four, a collection of four
things; a place where four roads meet.
dvaya, of two sorts, consisting of two a pair.
dvika, duka, consisting of two, a pair.
tika, taya, tayi, consisting of three, a triad, etc.
287. There is an adverb, meaning once, at once, never used in composition with numerals, it is sakiṃ, (Sansk, sak¨t). When used before words beginning with a vowel it sometimes takes the forms sakid or sakad.
Examples
sakiṃ passanto, seeing (him) once.
sakiṃ yeva, at once, simultaneously.
sakid eva, at once, simultaneously.
sakadāgamī (āgami), returning once only.
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 9
Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Pronominal Derivatives
288. (I) Personal Pronouns
289. Declension of Ahaṃ, I
| Of All Genders | |
| Singular | Plural |
| Nom. | |
| ahaṃ, I. | mayaṃ, we. amhe, we. vayaṃ, we. |
| Gen. | |
| mama, my, mine. mayhaṃ, my, mine. mamaṃ, my, mine. amhaṃ, my, mine. |
amhākaṃ,
our, ours. amhaṃ, our, ours. asmākaṃ, our, ours. no, our, ours. |
| Dat. | |
| mama, to me, for me. mayhaṃ, to me, for me. mamaṃ, to me, for me. amhaṃ, to me, for me. me, to me, for me. |
amhākaṃ, to us, for us amhaṃ, to us, for us. asmākam, to us, for us, no, to us, for us. |
| Acc. | |
| maṃ,
me. mamaṃ. me. |
amhe, us. amhākam, us. asme, us. amhe, us. no, us. |
| Ins. | |
| mayā, me, by me. | amhehi, by us. amhebhi, by us. no, by us. |
| Abl. | |
| mayā, me, from me. | amhehi, from us. amhebhi, from us. no, from us. |
| Loc. | |
| mayi, in, on, upon me. | amhesu, in, on, upon us. asmāsu, in, on, upon us. asmesu, in, on, upon us. |
Remarks.
(a) The singular base of ahaṃ is mad according to Sanskrit commentators; it is
properly ma and mam. Pronominal derivatives are, however, formed
from the three bases: mad, mam and ma, the latter sometimes with
the a lengthened: mā (See Pronominal Derivation at the end of the
present chapter.)
(b) The form me, of the Gen., Dat., Ins., Abl., Sing., is
enclitic; it is never used at the beginning of a sentence.
(c) The form no, of the same cases in the plural is also
enclitic, and never used at the beginning of a sentence.
(d) The plural base is amha, or amhad.
290.
(a) The bases are tad and ta (sometimes lengthened to tā, in
the singular).
(b) tumha (tumhad), is the plural base.
(c) te like me of ahaṃ, is an enclitic form and never begins a
sentence; so is vo for the plural.
(d) vo is also found in the Nom. plural.
(e) lt will be remarked that Pronouns have no forms for the
Vocative case.
291. (II) Demonstrative Personal Pronouns
Declension of So, Sā, Taṃ: This, That, He, She, It
292. Masculine: So, he, this, that
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | so, sa. | te. |
| Gen. | tassa. | tesaṃ, tesānaṃ. |
| Dat. | tassa. | tesaṃ, tesānaṃ. |
| Acc. | taṃ. | te. |
| Ins. | tena. | tehi, tebhi. |
| Abl. | tasmā, tamhā. | tehi, tebhi. |
| Loc. | tasmiṃ, tamhi. | tesu. |
293. Feminine: Sā, she, this, that
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | sā. | tā, tāyo. |
| Gen. | tassā, tassāya, tissā, tissāya, tāya. | tāsaṃ, tāsānam. |
| Dat. | tassā, tassāya, tissā, tissāya, tāya. | tāsaṃ, tāsānam. |
| Acc. | taṃ. | tā, tāyo. |
| Ins. | tāya. | tāhi, tābhi. |
| Abl. | tāya. | tāhi, tābhi. |
| Loc. | tassaṃ, tissaṃ, tāyaṃ. | tāsu. |
294. Neuter: Taṃ, it, this, that
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | taṃ, tad. | tāni. |
| Gen. | tassa. | tesaṃ, tesānaṃ. |
| Dat. | tassa. | tesaṃ, tesānaṃ. |
| Acc. | taṃ, tad. | tāni. |
| Ins. | tena. | tehi, tebhi. |
| Abl. | tasmā, tamhā. | tehi, tebhi. |
| Loc. | tasmiṃ, tamhi. | tesu. |
Remarks.
(a) In the Gen., Dat., Abl., and Loc. singular for the Masc, and
Neut, a form from pronominal stem: a, is also used: assa, asmā,
asmiṃ in the Feminine too, for the Gen., Dat. and Loc.
singular: assā, assaṃ (Loc.).
(b) ln the Neuter, the form tad is used mostly in compound words,
as:
tad (=taṃ) karo=takkaro, "doing this", and also
before a vowel.
(c) It will have been remarked that the stem ta, 3rd personal
pronoun (so, sā, taṃ), is also used as a demonstrative.
(d) ta is the base or stem of so, sā, taṃ; as
above said (Note b), the form tad of the base is also used.
(e) Very often, the above pronoun may be translated as the
Definite Pronoun.
(f) It is, too, often used pleonastically with the pronouns ahaṃ and tvaṃ, as are,
in fact, most Demonstrative Pronouns; for instance:
so'haṃ = this I, viz., I.
tassa me (Dat.) = to this me, viz., to me.
sā'yam (=sā ayaṃ) taṇhā = This longing.
(g) attā self; own (154), is, in its oblique cases, very
much used in a reflexive sense, instead of the three Personal
Pronouns.
295. There is a common substitute of so, sā, taṃ, obtained by replacing t wherever it occurs, by n, for the three genders. Thus we have:
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
| nassa=tassa. | nāya=tāya. | naṃ=taṃ. |
| nena=tena. | nassā=tassā. | nena=tena. |
| naṃ=taṃ. | nassāya=tassāya. | naṃ=taṃ. |
| nasmā=tasmā. | nassaṃ=tassaṃ. | nasmā=tasmā. |
| nasmiṃ=tasmiṃ. | nāyaṃ=tāyaṃ. | nasmiṃ=tasmiṃ. |
| ne=te. | nā=tā, tāyo. | ne=te. |
| nehi=tehi. | nāhi=tāhi. | nehi=tehi. |
| nesaṃ=tesaṃ. | nāsaṃ=tāsaṃ. | nesaṃ=tesaṃ. |
| nesu=tesu. | nāsu=tāsu. | nesu=tesu. |
296. The forms with n
as above given are generally used when a noun which has been
already mentioned, is referred to; as,
taṃ khādāpessāmi nan 'ti, I'll make you eat him (viz., a monkey
previously mentioned).
297. Demonstrative Pronouns
298. Declension of Eso, Esā, Etaṃ: This
299. The student will readily perceive that the above Demonstratives are formed simply by prefixing e to so, sā and taṃ. They are declined exactly like so, sā, taṃ.
300. As in the case of so, sā and taṃ, so also with eso, esā and etaṃ, the t may be replaced all through by n, so that we obtain the forms: enena, enaṃ, enāya, etc., whose declension presents no difficulty whatever. These forms are also used in referring to a noun aleady mentioned.
301. eso, esā, etaṃ may be translated by "that" sometimes.
302. The Neuter etad (=etaṃ) is used in composition before a vowel.
303. This Pronoun is also used pleonastically with a Personal Pronoun (294, f).
304. e, is considered as the base of Pronouns ena, eta etc. It is much used in derivation.
Declension of Ayaṃ: This; This here
305. Masculine
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | ayaṃ. | ime. |
| Gen. | assa, imassa. | imesānaṃ, imesaṃ, esānaṃ, esaṃ. |
| Dat. | assa, imassa. | imesānaṃ, imesaṃ, esānaṃ, esaṃ. |
| Acc. | imaṃ. | ime. |
| Ins. | anena, iminā. | imehi, imebhi, ehi, ebhi. |
| Abl. | asmā, imasmā, imamhā. | imehi, imebhi, ehi, ebhi. |
| Loc. | asmiṃ, imasmiṃ, imamhi. | imesu, esu. |
306. Feminine
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | ayaṃ. | imā, imāyo. |
| Gen. | assāya, assā, imissāya, imissā, imāya. | imāsānaṃ, imāsaṃ. |
| Dat. | assāya, assā, imissāya, imissā, imāya. | imāsānaṃ, imāsaṃ. |
| Acc. | imaṃ. | imā, imāyo. |
| Ins. | imāya, assā, imissā. | imāhi, imābhi. |
| Abl. | imāya, assā, imissā. | imāhi, imābhi. |
| Loc. | assaṃ, imissaṃ, assā, imissā, imāyaṃ, imāya. | imāsu. |
307. Neuter
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | idaṃ, imaṃ. | imāni. |
| Gen. | imassa, assa. | imesaṃ, imesānaṃ, esānaṃ, esaṃ. |
| Dat. | imassa, assa. | imesaṃ, imesānaṃ, esānaṃ, esaṃ. |
| Acc. | idaṃ, imaṃ. | imāni. |
| Ins. | iminā, anena. | imehi, imebhi, ehi, ebhi. |
| Abl. | imasmā, amhā, asmā. | imehi, imebhi, ehi, ebhi. |
| Loc. | imasmiṃ, asmiṃ, imamhi. | imesu, esu. |
Remarks.
(a) The student will remark that the declension of ayaṃ is based
on two stems: a and i.
(b) Ayaṃ is used substantively as well as pronominally.
Declension of Asu, That
308. Masculine
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | asu. | amū, amuyo. |
| Gen. | amussa, adussa, amuno. | amūsaṃ, amūsānaṃ. |
| Dat. | amussa, adussa, amuno. | amūsaṃ, amūsānaṃ. |
| Acc. | amuṃ. | amū, amuyo. |
| Ins. | amunā. | amūhi, amūbhi. |
| Abl. | amusmā, amumhā, amunā. | amūhi, amūbhi. |
| Loc. | amusmiṃ, amumhi. | amūsu. |
309. Feminine
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | asu. | amū, amuyo. |
| Gen. | amussā, amuyā. | amūsaṃ, amūsānaṃ. |
| Dat. | amussā, amuyā. | amūsaṃ, amūsānaṃ. |
| Acc. | amuṃ. | amū, amuyo. |
| Ins. | amuyā. | amūhi, amūbhi. |
| Abl. | amuyā. | amūhi, amūbhi. |
| Loc. | amussaṃ, amuyaṃ. | amūsu. |
310. Neuter
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | aduṃ, amuṃ. | amūni, amū. |
| Gen. | amussa, adussa. | amūsaṃ, amūsānaṃ. |
| Dat. | amussa, adussa. | amūsaṃ, amūsānaṃ. |
| Acc. | aduṃ, amuṃ. | amūni, amū. |
| Ins. | amunā. | amūhi, amūbhi. |
| Abl. | amusmā, amumhā, amunā. | amūhi, amūbhi. |
| Loc. | amusmiṃ, amumhi. | amūsu. |
Remarks.
(a) Some native grammarians also give amu for the Nom. Sing. in
the Masculine and Feminine.
(b) It will be noticed that the stem is amu; in the Neuter, there
are a few forms on the stem adu.
(c) To express: such, so and so ka is added to the stem, as,
asuka, amuka.
(d) The forms asuka and amuka are often used to express some
contempt.
(e) These two forms have in the plural Masc. and Neut acc. asuke,
amuke.
311. Relative Pronouns
Declensions of Yo, Yā, Yaṃ
312. Masculine: Yo, who; he who; whoever; what
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | yo. | ye. |
| Gen. | yassa. | yesaṃ. |
| Dat. | yassa. | yesaṃ. |
| Acc. | yaṃ. | ye. |
| Ins. | yena. | yehi, yebhi. |
| Abl. | yasmā, yamhā. | yehi, yebhi. |
| Loc. | yasmiṃ, yamhi. | yesu. |
313. Feminine: Yā, she; she who; whoever; what
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | yā. | yā, yāyo. |
| Gen. | yāya, yassā. | yāsaṃ. |
| Dat. | yāya, yassā. | yāsaṃ. |
| Acc. | yaṃ. | yā, yāyo. |
| Ins. | yāya. | yāhi, yābhi. |
| Abl. | yāya. | yāhi, yābhi. |
| Loc. | yāyaṃ, yassaṃ. | yāsu. |
314. Neuter: Yaṃ, it; which; that which
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | yaṃ, yad. | yāni. |
| Gen. | yassa. | yesaṃ. |
| Dat. | yassa. | yesaṃ. |
| Acc. | yaṃ, yad. | yāni. |
| Ins. | yena. | yehi, yebhi. |
| Abl. | yasmā, yamhā. | yehi, yebhi. |
| Loc. | yasmiṃ, yamhi. | yesu. |
Remarks.
(a) For the sake of greater emphasis, the Personal Pronouns, and
also so ayaṃ and eso are used pleonastically with yo.
(b) Yo is used with koci (323), in the three Genders as yo koci,
yena kenaci, yaṃ kiñci, etc., both pronouns together meaning:
whosoever, whoever, whatever, anyone, anything, etc.
(c) The form yad of the Neuter singular, is used before vowels
and in composition.
(d) The base of yo is ya.
315. Interogative Pronouns
Declension of Ko, Kā, Kiṃ
316. Masculine: Ko, who? what?
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | ko. | ke. |
| Gen. | kassa, kissa. | kesaṃ, kesānaṃ. |
| Dat. | kassa, kissa. | kesaṃ, kesānaṃ. |
| Acc. | kaṃ. | ke. |
| Ins. | kena. | kehi, kebhi. |
| Abl. | kasmā, kamhā. | kehi, kebhi. |
| Loc. | kasmiṃ, kamhi, kismiṃ, kimhi. | kesu. |
317. Feminine: Kā, who? what?
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | kā. | kā, kāyo. |
| Gen. | kāya, kassā. | kāsaṃ, kasānaṃ. |
| Dat. | kāya, kassā. | kāsaṃ, kasānaṃ. |
| Acc. | kaṃ. | kā, kāyo. |
| Ins. | kāya. | kāhi, kābhi. |
| Abl. | kāya. | kāhi, kābhi. |
| Loc. | kāya, kassā, kāyaṃ, kassaṃ. | kāsu. |
318. Neuter: kiṃ, what?
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | kiṃ. | kāni. |
| Gen. | kissa, kassa. | kesaṃ, kesānaṃ. |
| Dat. | kissa, kassa. | kesaṃ, kesānaṃ. |
| Acc. | kiṃ. | kāni. |
| Ins. | kena. | kehi, kebhi. |
| Abl. | kasmā, kamhā. | kehi, kebhi. |
| Loc. | kasmiṃ, kamhi, kismiṃ, kimhi. | kesu. |
Remarks.
(a) The base of ko assumes several forms: ka, ku (kud), ki (kid).
(b) kud and kid are used before vowels and in composition.
319. Indefinite Pronouns
320. The Indefinite Pronouns are formed by adding ci (cid), api and cana, to the Interrogative Pronouns.
321. ci, or, before a vowel cid is the suffix most commmonly used to form these pronouns.
322. canaṃ=cana, is also found; both are sometimes shortened to ca.
Declension of Koci, Kāci and Kiñci
323. Masculine: Koci, any, some, anyone
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | koci. | keci. |
| Gen. | kassaci. | kesañci. |
| Dat. | kassaci. | kesañci. |
| Acc. | kañci, kiñci. | keci. |
| Ins. | kenaci. | kehici. |
| Abl. | kasmāci. | kehici. |
| Loc. | kasmiñci, kamhici, kismiñci, kimhici. | kesuci. |
324. Feminine: Kāci, any, some, anyone
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. | kāci. | kāci, kāyoci. |
| Gen. | kāyaci, kassāci. | kāsañci. |
| Dat. | kāyaci, kassāci. | kāsañci. |
| Acc. | kañci. | kāci, kāyoci. |
| Ins. | kāyaci. | kāhici. |
| Abl. | kāyaci. | kāhici. |
| Loc. | kāyaci, kāyañci, kassañci. | kāsuci. |
325. Neuter: Kiñci, any, some, anything
The Neuter is declined like the Masculine, except:
| Singular | Plural | |
| Nom. & Acc. | kiñci. | kānici. |
326. By placing na, not, before the Indefinite Pronouns we get the meanings: none, no one, nothing, etc.
327. ci, cana may also be placed after adverbs, to give them an indefinite sense, as:
| kuhiṃ, where? | kuhiñci, kuhiñcanaṃ, anywhere. | |
| kudā, when? | kudācanaṃ, ever, sometimes. | |
| kadā, when? | kadāci, sometimes. |
Other Pronouns
328. attā, self, own, oneself (154), is very much used as a Reflexive Pronoun; so also are: ātumā, self, own, etc., which is but another form of attā, and very rarely used in Buddhist writings: tuma, having the same meaning, is still less frequent.
329. In composition the bases are: atto, atuma and tuma.
330. sayaṃ. oneself, by oneself and sāmaṃ self, both indeclinable, are often used as Reflexive Emphatic Pronouns.
331. attā, ātumā and tuma are properly nouns used pronominally.
332. A few other nouns are thus used pronominally; the following are the most usual.
333. bhavaṃ, lord, sir, (166). It is a very respectful term of address, used for the Second Pers. Pronoun; the verb is put in the Third Person.
334. Ayya, lord, master; a Buddhist monk; it is used chiefly in addressing Buddhist monks, and is then often used with bhante (166).
335. āvuso, friend, brother; is also used as a pronoun sometimes. It is used mostly by senior monks to junior monks, āvuso is indeclinable.
Pronominal Derivatives
Possessive Pronouns
336. A few Possessive Pronouns are formed from the bases of the first and second Personal Pronouns by means of suffixes: īya and aka, the vowel of the bases being sometimes lengthened before aka.
| Base | Possessive Pronoun |
| mad (289, a) | madīya, mine, my, my own. |
| mam (289, a) | māmaka, mamaka, mine, my, my own. |
| amhad (289, d) | amhadiya, ours, our own. |
| tad (290, a) | tadiya, thine, thy, thy own. |
| tava (Gen.) | tāvaka, thine, thy, thy own. |
Remarks.
(a) āmaka, mamaka, as well as tāvaka, may be
derived from the singular genitive form by the addition of ka.
(b) The above Pronouns are declined like deva, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
337. A great number of
adjectives and adverbs are derived from pronominal bases by means
of suffixes, the principal of which are the following:
(a) di (dī), disa, disaka, risa, tara, tama, ka.
(b) dā, dāni, tra, tha, thā, thaṃ, ti, to,
va (vat), rahi, haṃ, ha, hiṃ, va, vaṃ, di.
The former (a) are used to form adjectives, and the latter, (b),
adverbs.
The following are the principal derivatives by means of the above suffixes.
338. Adjectives
339. di (dī), disa, disaka and risa, express likeness, resemblance; the vowel of the stem being lengthened before them.
| Examples | |
| Pronominal base | Adjective |
| ma (289, a) | mādī, mādisa, mārisa, like me, such as I. |
| ta (290, a) | tādi, tādisa, tādisaka, like him, like that, such. |
| amha (289, d) | amhādisa, like us. |
| tumha (290, b) | tumhādisa, like you. |
| i (307, a) | īdī, īdisa, īrisa, īdisako, like this, such as this. |
| e (304) | edī, edisa, erisa, like this, such as this. |
| eta (298, 302) | etādisa, etārisa, such as this or that, such. |
| ki (318, a, b) | kīdī, kīdisa, kīrisa, like what? of what kind? |
340. The suffix dikkha, has the same meaning as disa, etc. It is obtained by assimilation from the Sanskrit d¨k·a.
Hence we have also the forms:
tādikkha = tādisa.
kīdikkha = kīdisa,
edikkha = edisa,
īdikkha = īdisa, etc.
341. In edi, edisa, etc., the stem i is strengthened (105), in īdisa, etc., it is merely lengthened (19).
342. Tara and tama,
which are used for the comparison of adjectives (238), are also
added to the interogative stem to form Pronominal Adjectives
which, in meaning, differ but little from the single stem. Hence
we have:
katara, which? what?
katama, which? what?
343. Some adjectives assume a rather anomalous form; such are, for instance: kittaka, tattaka, yattaka, ettaka, etc. A glance will suffice to show that they are formed on pronominal bases: ya, eta, ki, (ka), etc. The difficulty is to account (for most of them) for the double tt. It is obvious these adjectives were formed by adding the adjectival suffix ka to the Adverbial Instrumentive in tā (from vat, vant: cf., Sansk. tāvātā from tāvat; yāvatā from yāvat). The Pāli forms are simply contractions from the Sanskrit forms; as: tāvatā+ka=tāvatāka: the loss of medial va being compensated by the doubling of the last tā; the ā being shortened before ka, and the ā of the first tā as well, according to euphonic laws. So that:
kittaka, how much? How many? How great?
kittaka=kīvatāka.
ettako, so great, so much, so many.
ettako=etāvatāka.
yattaka, however much; however big or large.
yattaka=yāvatāka.
tattaka, as many, as great, as big or large.
tattaka=tāvatāka.
But see also such Sansk. forms as: iyattaka (i-yad-ta-ka); kiyattaka (ki-yad-ta-ka).
The form etta=ettaka, may be accounted for by the further dropping of final ka, the adverb etto, thence, is probably a contracted form etato (Abl. of etaṃ); in ettavatā=etāvat, the consonant of the base is doubled.
344. (b) Adverbial Derivatives
Adverbial derivatives from pronominal bases constitute a large and useful class of words.
The principal suffixes used to form these adverbs have been given above (337, b). We will give here a few examples of such formation.
345. dā, dāni, rahi express time.
| Examples | |
| Pronominal base | Adverb |
| ka (318, a) | karahi, kadā, when. |
| i (307, a) | idāni, now; at this time. |
| ta (290, a) | tarahi, tadā, tadāni, then; at that time. |
| eta (298,302) | etarahi, now. |
346. to, tra, tha, dha, ha, haṃ, hiṃ, form adverbs of place. Before a short vowel the t of tha is doubled.
| Examples | |
| Pronominal base | Adverb |
| ka, ku (318, a) | kattha, kutra, kuttha, kahaṃ, kuhaṃ, kuhiṃ, where? whither? wherein? in what place? |
| ya (314, d) | yatra, yattha, where, wherein, whither. |
| ya | yato, from what. |
| e (304) | ettha, here, herein. |
| a (307, a) | atra, attha, here. |
| ta (290, a) | tattha, tatra, tahaṃ, tahiṃ, there, thither. |
| ta | tato, thence, from that place. |
| i (307, a) | iha, idha, here in this place. |
| i | ito, hence, from this place. |
| eta (298, 302) | etto, through etato (343), hence. |
347. thā, va, vaṃ, thaṃ, ti, form adverbs of manner
| Examples | |
| Pronominal base | Adverb |
| ta | tathā, thus, so, like that. |
| ka | kathaṃ, how? |
| i | itthaṃ, thus, in this manner. |
| i | iva, like this, as, as it were. |
| i | iti, thus, in this manner. |
| e | eva, evaṃ, so, just so. |
| ya | yathā, as, like. |
348. Another suffix va, from vat, (=Sansk. vat), forms adverbs of time and cause from the Pronominal bases ta, ya, ki. The final t of vat is dropped according to the phonetic laws obtaining, in Pāli, which do not suffer any consonant to remain at the end of a word, except ṃ; before a vowel however, the final t is revived in the form of a d; as for instance: tāva; but; tāvad eva.
| Pronominal base | Adverb |
| ya | yāva, until; as long as; in order that. |
| ta | tāva, so long, still, yet. |
Remarks. Final a of the base is lengthened before va (vat), which, as we have seen already, (219), forms adjectives from nouns.
The Abl. sing. suffix tā, is also added to such forms as the above.
Examples
yāvatā, as
far as, because.
tāvatā, so far, to that extent, on that account.
From other pronominal bases we have:
| Pronominal base | Adverb |
| eta (298) | ettāvatā, to that extent, so far, thus. |
| ki (318, a) | kittāvatā, to what extent? how far? |
349. It has been seen that by adding ka to these forms we obtain adjectives of cognate meaning.
350. The suffix di, expressing condition, is found only in yadi, if.
351. The suffix ti, is found in: kati, how many? yati, as many, and tati, so many.
Adjectives Declined Pronominally
353. A few adjectives take the pronominal declension. They are:
| katara, which? what? | ubhaya, both. | |
| añña, other. | ||
| aññatara, one of several, a certain. | pubba, first, former. | |
| para, distant, other. | apara, subsequent, other. | |
| uttara, upper, higher. | dakkhiṇa, right, (not left). | |
| adhara, lower, inferior. | vissa, all. | |
| amuka, so and so, such. (310, c) | asuka, so and so, such. |
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 10
Verbs
354. Conjugation, or the inflection of verbs, consists in making the verbal root undergo certain changes in form, by the addition to it of certain prefixes and terminations to show the difference of Voice, of Tense, of Mode, of Person, and of Number.
355. There are two
voices:
(1) The Active, called in Pāli: parassapada (lit. a word for another) and
(2) The Reflective in Pāli called attanopada (lit. a word for one's
self).
356. The Active Voice, or parassapada may be said to be used, when the fruit or consequence of the action; expressed by the verb passes on to another person or thing other than the subject or agent; the Reflective Voice or attanopada, is used when the fruit or the consequence expressed by the verb accrues to no one else but to the the agent. The Reflective voice merely implies that the agent has the ability to do that action or suffer that state which is denoted by the Root.
357. It must here be remarked that the Reflective Voice has lost very much of its importance, and that the distinction between Active and Reflective has been almost if not altogether effaced, and that the choice between the Active or Reflective is mostly determined now by metrical exigencies. It therefore follows the Reflective Voice or the "Middle Voice," as it is also called, is confined to poetry, and is but rarely found in prose.
358. There are six
Tenses:
(1) The Present; and its preterite.
(2) The Imperfect; used originally to express a definite past.
(3) The Aorist, expressing time recently past. This is now the
only true past tense in Pāli, and is very extensively used.
(4) The Perfect, originally an indefinite past. This tense is of
very rare occurrence.
(5) The Future, expressing future time in general and its
preterite.
(6) The Conditional, expressing future time relatively to
something that is past, and an action unable to be performed on
account of some difficulty in the way of its execution.
359. There are three
Modes of the Present Tense:
(1) The Indicative.
(2) The Imperative.
(3) The Optative.
360. The Present, the
Perfect and the Future Tenses, have each a Participle, called
after them:
(1) The Present Participle.
(2) The Perfect Participle.
(3) The Future Participle.
Remarks. The Perfect Participle, mostly formed from the root, is principally of past and passive meaning; sometimes also of Neuter meaning.
361. There is also a Participle of Necessity, also called Future Passive Participle and Potential Participle, which is but a Verbal Adjective.
362. According to the Base on which they are formed the Present and the Future Participles may be active or passive in sense.
363. There are two
Verbal Nouns:
(1) The Infinitive, in the Accusative Case-form; sometimes
(rarely), in the Dative Case-form; which has nothing to do with
the Conjugation and the Tense Systems; and has the sense of a
regular infinitive.
(2) A Gerund so-called, which is but the Case-form of a
derivative noun having the force of an absolute participle.
364. There are two Numbers: the Singular and the Plural.
365. There are three Persons: the First, Second and Third Persons.
366. From what has been
said above, it will be seen that the tenses group themselves into
four well defined classes or systems.
(1) The Present System, composed of:
(a) The Present Indicative, and its preterite.
(b) The Imperfect.
(c) The Present Imperative.
(d) The Present Optative.
(e) The Present Participle.
(2) The Aorist System, composed of:
(a) The Aorist Tense only.
(3) The Perfect System, comprising:
(a) The Perfect Tense.
(b) The Perfect Participle.
(4) The Future System composed of:
(a) The Future Tense.
(b) The Conditional.
(c) The Future Participle.
367. There is a division of the tenses, more fictitious than real, into "Special Tenses" and "General Tenses". From such a division, one would be inclined to think that the former are formed on a special base or modified form of the root, and the latter, therefore, from the root itself. But such in fact is not the case, for it will later on be, remarked that the special and the general tenses not seldom interchange their bases.
368. As, however the Present System is by far the most important, and as it is made the basis of the different Conjugations or Classifications of Verbs, we will in the next section explain the formation of the several stems or bases of the Present System (otherwise called "Special Tenses") of which there are ten, divided into Seven Conjugations. These bases are in consequence called "Special Bases".
369. The Conjugation of Verbs is furthermore divided into Primitive and Derivative Conjugations.
(A) Primitive Verbs
Formation of the special bases of the Present System
Conjugation
370. The verbs of the First Conjugation form the Present stem or base in four ways, as follows:
(1) The roots end in a Consonant, and, to form the base or stem, simply add a.
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√pac, to cook. paca.
√labh, to obtain. labha.
√mar, to die. mara.
√rakkh, to keep, guard. rakkha.
√yāc, to entreat beg. yāca.
√vad, to tell, say. vada.
√tar, to cross. tara.
√jīv, to live. jīva.
√bhar, to carry. bhara.
371. To this division belong those roots which, ending in a consonant preceded by i or u, sometimes do, and sometimes do not strengthen the vowel (i, u).
Examples
(Without Strengthening)
Roots. Bases.
√tud, to know, destroy. tuda.
√phus, to touch. phusa.
√likh, to write. likha.
√nud, to remove. nuda.
(With Strengthening)
Roots. Bases.
gup, to keep, watch. gopa.
subh, to shine, be beautiful. sobha.
(2) The roots of this division do not take the conjugation sign a: the personal endings of the tenses are added directly to the root.
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√yā, to go. yā.
√vā, to blow. vā.
√ṭhā, to stand. ṭhā.
√khyā, to tell (with prefix ā). khyā.
√brū, to speak. brū.
Remarks. (a) To this class may be said to belong the roots ending in i, ī or u, u which, when a is added to them, do not take their semi-vowel substitute, but are merely gunated (109, 104-107).
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√nī, to lead. ne (or naya) (3rd Division).
√ji, to conquer. je (or java) (3rd Division).
√hū, to be. ho.
√ku, to sound. ko (or kava) (3rd Division).
Remarks.
(b) To these transformed roots, which at first sight appear to be
pure roots, the personal endings are added, as after the roots: yā, vā, ṭhā,
etc., (2nd Division).
(c) So that these roots assume two special bases: one in e or
aya, and one in o or ava, according as the last vowel is i, ī or u,
ū.
(3) The roots of this division end in i, ī or u, ū which, before the conjugational sign a, are respectively changed to ay and av (103-110).
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√nī, to lead, guide. (√nī + a =) naya.
√ji, to conquer. (√ji + a =) jaya.
√bhū, to be. (√bhū + a =) bhava.
√ku, to make a sound. (√ku + a =) kava.
√khi, to govern. (√khi + a =) khaya.
(See above no. 2 Remarks (a, c).
(4) The verbs of the Fourth division of the First Cojugation form their special bases by reduplicating the root.
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√ṭhā, to stand. tiṭṭhā.
√dā, to give. dadā.
√dhā, to hold. dadhā.
√ha, to forsake. jahā.
√hu, to sacrifice. juho.
Remark. These retain the long ā before the personal endings of the present and of the Imperative.
372. The Rules of Reduplication are as follows:
(1) Reduplication consists in the doubling of the first consonant in a root together with a vowel that follows it. If the root begins with a vowel, that vowel alone is reduplicated.
(2) A gutteral is reduplicated by its corresponding palatal.
(3) An unaspirate is always reduplicated by an unaspirate (See chart para 9) which means that an unaspirate is reduplicated by itself.
(4) The initial h of a root, is reduplicated by j.
(5) An aspirate is reduplicated by its unaspirate.
(6) v is generally reduplicated by u.
(7) A long vowel is shortened in the
reduplicated syllable. That is:
(a) a or ā takes a in reduplication, and sometimes:
(b) i or ī takes i.
(c) u or ū takes u but sometimes a.
(d) i is occasionally changed to e.
(e) u is changed to o, sometimes.
(f) a of the root, following the first consonant, is sometimes
lengthened to ā.
Examples
Simple Roots. Reduplicated Bases.
√dhā, to hold. (Rule 372, 5, 7-a) dadhā.
√dā, to give. (Rule 372, 3, 7-a) dadā.
√kit, to cure. (Rule 372, 2, 7-b; 88) cikiccha.
√gam, to go. (Rule 372, 2, 7-a) jagama.
√khaṅ, to dig. (Rule 372, 2, 7-a) cakhana.
√har, to bear. (Rule 372, 4, 7-a, f) jahāra.
√has, to laugh. (Rule 372, 4, 7-a, f) jahāsa.
√budh, to know. (Rule 372, 3, 7-e) bubodha.
√suc, to mourn. (Rule 372, 3, 7-e) susoca.
√pac, to cook. (Rule 372, 3, 7-a) papaca.
√chid, to cut. (Rule 372, 5, 7-d) cicheda.
√bhū, to be. (Rule 372, 5, 7-c) babhuva.
√vas, to live. (Rule 372, 6, 7-f) uvāsa.
√vad, to say. (Rule 372, 6, 7-f) uvāda.
√ah, to say. (Rule 372, 1; 22) āha.
Remarks. The above rules of reduplication apply as well to the perfect tense; but as the perfect is very seldom used in Pāli, the student ought not to assume existence of any form unless it be actually found in the course of his reading.
373. The Verbs of the Second Conjugation form their Special Bases by inserting niggahīta before the last consonant of the root, and then adding a, as in the 1st conjugation. Niggahita follows the usual rules of sandhi (39).
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√rudh, to restrain. rundha.
√muc, to free. muñca.
√chid, to cut. chinda.
√lip, to smear. limpa.
√bhuj, to eat. bhuñja.
√pis, to grind. pimsa.
374. The sign of the Third Conjugation is ya, which is added to the root; the rules for the Assimilation of ya (70 ff.), are regularly applied.
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√yudh, to fight. √yudh + ya (74, vi) = yujjha.
√budh, to know. √budh + ya (74, vi) = bujjha.
√pas, to see. √pas + ya (76, i) = passa.
√dus, to vex. √dus + ya (76, i) = dussa.
√gā, to sing. √gā + ya = gāya.
√jhā, to think. √jhā + ya = jhāya.
Remark. The roots of this conjugation ending in long ā are sometimes given under the form of e also; thus:
ge = gā, to sing.
ve = vā, to weave.
jhe = jhā, to think, meditate.
375. The forms in ā (gā, etc.) belong, as we have already seen, to the Third Conjugation, but those in e belong to the First Conjugation (3rd Division), and form their bases by the addition of a. Thus:
ge + a = gāya.
ve + a = vāya.
Remarks. Note well that final e + a = āya with lengthening of the first a.
376. The Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form the present Stem or Base by the addition of ṇu, or ṇa if the root end in a vowel; but uṇu, or uṇā, if the root end in a consonant.
Remarks.
(a) The u of ṇu and uṅu may be strengthened to o.
(b) This u or o may, before a personal ending beginning with a
vowel, be changed to va (27ii a, b).
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√su, to hear. suṇā or suṇo.
√āp (with prefix pa = pāp) attain pāpuṇā or
pāpuṇo.
(c) The long ā of ṇā, uṇā is
retained before the personal endings of the Present and of the
Imperative except the 3rd Person Plural. Occasionally, however,
it is found shortened.
(d) In a few cases the ṇ is de-lingualized and changed to the dental
nasal, viz., n, following in this the analogy of the Sanskrit.
377. Verbs of the Fifth Conjugation form their bases by adding nā to the root, which as a rule ends in a vowel.
Remarks.
(a) If the final vowel of the root is long (2), it is shortened
before nā.
(b) Under the influence of a preceding Sanskrit r or ¨, this nā is
sometimes lingualised and becomes ṇā.
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√ci, to heap, collect. cinā.
√kī, to buy, barter. (Sansk. krī) kīṇā,
or kiṇā.
√dhū, to shake. dhunā.
√ji, to conquer, win. jinā.
√as, to eat. asnā.
√jā, to know. jānā.
√yu, to mix, associate. yunā.
Remarks. The long ā of nā is retained in all the persons of the Present and Imperative, except in the 3rd Plural. The short form in na is also often found.
378. The Verbs of the Sixth Conjugation form their Special Bases by adding u to the root; this u generally strengthens to o, which before an ending beginning with a vowel is changed to va (27).
Examples
Roots. Bases.
√kar, to do, make. karo.
√tan, to stretch, expand. tano.
√kuṇ, to make a sound. kuṇo.
√van, to beg, ask for. vano.
Remarks.
(a) The conjugation of √kar is highly irregular and formed on
several bases and will be given in full later on.
(b) The roots belonging to this Conjugation are remarkably few.
379. The Verbs of the Seventh Conjugation form their Special bases by adding to the root aya, which by contraction may be replaced by e. The forms in e are more commonly met than those in aya. (Compare: 1st conjugation 3rd Division).
Remarks. The following should be
carefully noted:
(a) When the radical vowel is u, it is changed to o, provided it
be not followed by a Conjunct Consonant.
(b) Radical a, if followed by a single consonant, is generally
lengthened, in some cases, however, it remains short.
(c) It will be perceived from the above that the verbs of the
Seventh Conjugation have two bases: one in e and one in aya
(Compare: 1st Conjugation, 3rd division.)
Examples
Root. Base.
√cur, to steal. core or coraya.
√gup, to guard, shine. gope or gopaya.
√pus, to nourish. pose or posaya.
√bandh, to bind. bandhe or bandhaya.
√tīr, to finish, accomplish. tire or tīraya.
√chaḍḍ, to throw away. chaḍḍe or chaḍḍaya.
√kath, to say. kathe or kathaya.
380. A great many roots can form their bases according to two or three or even most Conjugations, in which case the meaning of each Special Base from the same root, differs, in most instances, from the original meaning of the root itself. This will be better understood by several examples. The numbers after the bases refer to the conjugations.
Examples
Roots. Bases.
subh sobha (1), to shine. √subh + a = sobha.
subh sumbha (2), strike. √subh + ṃ + a = sumbha.
kus kosa (1), to call, cut. √kus + a = kosa.
kus kussa (3), to embrace. √kus + ya, kusya = kussa (76).
tik teka (1), to go. √tik + a = teka.
tik tikuṅā (4), to oppress. √tik + uṅā =
tikuṅā.
rī re (1), to expand. √rī + a = re.
rī rīṇā (5), to inform. √rī + ṇā =
rīṇā.
lī laya (1) to liquify. √lī + a = laya.
lī līnā (5), to approach. √lī + nā = līnā.
tan tana (1), to aid, assist. √tan + a = tana.
tan tano (6), to expand, stretch √tan + u (=o) = tano.
vaḍḍh vaḍḍha (1), to grow, increase. √vaḍḍh + a =
vaḍḍha.
vaḍḍh vaḍḍhe (7), to pour from one vessel into another.
√vaḍḍh + e = vaḍḍhe.
vid vida (1), to know. √vid + a = vida.
vid vijja (3), to be, have. √vid + ya = vidya = vijja.
vid vind (2), to find, get, enjoy. √vid + ṃ + a = vinda.
vid vede, vedaya (7), to feel, speak. √vid + e = vede or vedaya.
Conjugation of the Present System
First Conjugation
381. The bases of the verbs having been formed according to the rules given in the preceding paragraphs, there only remains to add to them the appropriate Personal Endings. We now give the Personal Endings for the tense of the Present-System, which is by far the most important, omitting the Present Participle, which will be treated in a special chapter.
| Present Indicative | ||||
| Pres. Active Voice. | Pres. Reflective Voice. | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | mi | ma | e | mhe |
| 2. | si | tha | se | vhe |
| 3. | ti | nti | te | nte, re |
| lmperfect | ||||
| 1. | a, aṃ | amhā | iṃ | mhase |
| 2. | o | ttha | se | vhaṃ |
| 3. | a | u | ttha | tthuṃ |
| Imperative | ||||
| 1. | mi | ma | e | āmase |
| 2. | hi | tha | ssu | vho |
| 3. | tu | ntu | taṃ | ntaṃ |
| Optative | ||||
| 1. | eyyāmi | eyyāma | eyyaṃ | eyyāmhe |
| 2. | eyyāsi | eyyātha | etho | eyyavho |
| 3. | eyya | eyyuṃ | etha | eraṃ |
Remarks.
(a) In the singular Optative Active Voice, e may be substituted
for eyyāmi, eyyāsi and eyya.
(b) The vowel of the base is dropped before a Personal Ending
beginning with a vowel.
(c) Before mi and ma of the Present Indicative, the a of the base
is lengthened.
(d) In the 2nd person singular Active of the Imperative, hi may
be dropped and the base or stem alone used. Note that before hi
the a of the base is lengthened.
382. As has been said above (370) the First conjugation has four divisions. The roots ending in a consonant and adding a to form the base, are extremely numerous.
383. The following is the paradigm of √pac, to cook.
| Present Indicative | ||||
| I cook, We cook, Thou cook, You cook, He cooks, They cook. | ||||
| Pres. Active Voice. | Pres. Reflective Voice. | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | pacāmi | pacāma | pace | pacāmhe |
| 2. | pacasi | pacatha | pacase | pacavhe |
| 3. | pacati | pacanti | pacate | pacante, pacare |
| Imperfect | ||||
| I cooked, etc. | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | apaca, apacaṃ | apacamhā | apaciṃ | apacāmhase, apacamhase |
| 2. | apaco | apacattha | apacase | apacavhaṃ |
| 3. | apaca | apacu | apacattha | apacatthuṃ |
| Imperative | ||||
| Let me cook, etc. | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | pacāmi | pacāma | pace | pacāmase |
| 2. | pacāhi, paca | pacatha | pacassu | pacavho |
| 3. | pacatu | pacantu | pacataṃ | pacantaṃ |
| Optative | ||||
| I may, should, can, could cook. etc. | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | paceyyāmi, pace | paceyyāma | paceyyaṃ | paceyyāmhe |
| 2. | paceyyāsi, pace | paceyyātha | pacetho | paceyyavho |
| 3. | paceyya, pace | paceyyuṃ | pacetha | paceraṃ |
Remarks.
(a) The Augment a of the Imperfect may be omitted, so that we
also have the forms: paca, pacaṃ, paco, etc.
(b) The final vowel of the 3rd person singular active may also be
long: apacā, apacū.
384. The above Personal-Endings of the Special Tenses are affixed to the Special Base of the seven Conjugations, after the model of √pac.
385. Roots of the Ist Conjugation in i, ī and u, ū, require no explanations. The base being obtained, (371, 3) the above Endings are merely added to it.
| Examples | ||||
| √bhū, to be, base bhava. | √nī, to lead, base naya. | |||
| Present Active | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | bhavāmi | bhavāma | nayāmi | nayāma |
| 2. | bhavasi | bhavatha | nayasi | nayatha |
| 3. | bhavati | bhavanti | nayati | nayanti |
| Present Reflective | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. bhave | bhavāmhe | naye | nayāmhe | |
| 2. bhavase | bhavavhe | nayase | nayavhe | |
| 3. bhavate | bhavante | nayate | nayante | |
| Imperfect Active | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | abhava, abhavaṃ | abhavamhā | anaya, anayaṃ | anayamhā |
| 2. | abhavo | abhavattha | anayo | anayattha |
| 3. | abhava | abhavu | anaya | anayu |
| Imperfect Reflective | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | abhaviṃ | abhavāmhase | anayiṃ | anayāmhase |
| 2. | abhavase | abhavavhaṃ | anayase | anayavhaṃ |
| 3. | abhavattha | abhavatthuṃ | anayattha | anayatthuṃ |
| Imperative Active | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | bhavāmi | bhavāma | nayāmi | nayāma |
| 2. | bhavāhi, bhava | bhavatha | nayāhi, naya | nayatha |
| 3. | bhavatu | bhavantu | nayatu | nayantu |
| Imperative Reflective | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | bhave | bhavāmase | naye | nayāmase |
| 2. | bhavassu | bhavavho | nayassu | nayavho |
| 3. | bhavataṃ | bhavantaṃ | nayataṃ | nayantaṃ |
| Optative Active | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | bhaveyyāmi, bhave | bhaveyyāma | nayeyyāmi, naye | nayeyyāma |
| 2. | bhaveyyāsi, bhave | bhaveyyātha | nayeyyāsi, naye | nayeyyātha |
| 3. | bhaveyya, bhave | bhaveyyuṃ | nayeyya, naye | nayeyyuṃ |
| Optative Reflective | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | bhaveyyaṃ | bhaveyyāmhe | nayeyyam | nayeyyāmhe |
| 2. | bhavetho | bhaveyyavho | nayetho | nayeyyavho |
| 3. | bhavetha | bhaveraṃ | nayetha | nayeraṃ |
386. The roots of the first conjugation which take the Personal Endings directly (371, 2) are not numerous.
387. It must be here noted that in Pāli, all the roots are not conjugated in the Active and the Reflective voice for all the tenses. Especially so is the case with the roots that take the personal endings directly.
| Examples | ||||||
| √yā, to go. | √vā, to blow. | √bhā, to shine. | ||||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | yāmi | yāma | vāmi | vāma | bhāmi | bhāma |
| 2. | yāsi | yātha | vāsi | vātha | bhāsi | bhātha |
| 3. | yāti | yanti | vāti | vanti | bhāti | bhanti |
Remarks. Before nti, 3rd. Plural, ā of the root is shortened.
388. In the Optative, a y is inserted before the Personal Endings: yāyeyyāmi, yāpeyya, vāyeyya, vāye, etc.
389. Some roots of this
class are guṅated (110) generally in the Reflective and 3rd
Plural Pres.
Active: √brū, to speak.
| Active | Reflective | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | brūmi | brūma | brave | brūmhe |
| 2. | brūsi | brūtha | brūse | brūvhe |
| 3. | brūti | bravanti | brute | bravante |
Remarks. In the Plural 1st and 2nd Persons Reflective the u is sometimes found shortened.
390. Other roots of
this conjugation are:
√han, to strike, kill, 3rd singular = hanti. but 3rd plural =
hananti. In the Aorist we have: ahani, hani, etc.
√i to go, strengthened to e; the weak
base ya is also used (cf. 1st Conjugation 3rd division, such
roots as √nī, strong base ne and weak base naya. Similarly:
√ji, strong base je and weak base jaya.). We therefore obtain:
1. emi ema
2. esi etha
3. eti enti and yanti.
√ṭha, to stand, ṭhāti,
ṭhāsi, etc.
√pā, to guard, protect, pāti, pāsi,
etc.
Remarks. (a) Roots of this class may like others belonging to different conjugations, be compounded with verbal prefixes.
Examples
√khyā, to tell + ā
= ākhyā + ti
= ākhyāti.
√ṭhā + ni = niṭṭhā + ti =
niṭṭhāti, to be finished.
√han + ni = nihan + ti = nihanti, to strike down.
√i + upa = upe (21) + ti = upeti, to approach.
(b) the ā of √ṭhā is
shortened to a when the root is reduplicated(1st Conjugation, 4th
division).
(c) √ṭhā, in composition with Verbal Prefixes, often
assumes the Special base ṭhaha.
Examples
√ṭhā + saṃ = saṇṭhāti, or saṇṭhahati, or santiṭṭhati (See Niggahita
sandhi), to stand.
√ṭhā + pati = patiṭṭhāti or
patiṭṭhahati, to stand fast, firmly.
√ṭhā + ud = uṭṭhāti or
uṭṭhahati, to stand up.
391. Similarly, √dhā, which at first sight would appear to belong to the 1st Conjugation, 2nd Division, de-aspirates itself into daha, and migrates into the √pac class (370, 1). Moreover it is used only with Verbal Prefixes. This root also belongs to the reduplicating-class (372) and consequently has also the base dadhā. A base dhe, of the same root, is extensively used.
Examples
√dhā to carry, bear, hold + ni = nidahati, or nidadhāti,
or nidheti, to put down, hold aside, lay aside.
√dhā + abhi = abhidahati, or abhidadhāti,
or abhidheti, to declare, point out.
392. Some roots belonging to the Reduplicating Class (371, 4th Division), also take the Personal Endings directly in the Present Tense and the lmperative.*
*Throughout all this chapter many Pāli grammars have been consulted, such as: Saddanīti, Niruttidīpanī, Galonpyan, Akhyātapadamāla, etc.
393. By false analogy, some roots in i, (371, 3rd division), seem to belong to the class of roots which take the endings directly; but in reality, these roots belong not to the 2nd division, but to the 3rd division, the endings being added, not after the root, but after the strengthened base (105), i or ī having first been changed to e under the influence of a (21, i). Those bases are conjugated exactly like √cur, base core, the paradigm of which is given below. The Reflective Voice of such roots is formed from the base in aya.
| Examples | ||||
| √nī, base ne or naya. | ||||
| Present | ||||
| Active | Reflective | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | nemi | nema | naye | nayāmhe |
| 2. | nesi | netha | nayase | nayavhe |
| 3. | neti | nenti | nayate | nayante |
| Imperative | ||||
| Active | Reflective | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | nemi | nema | naye | nayāmase |
| 2. | nehi | netha | nayassu | nayavho |
| 3. | netu | nentu | nayataṃ | nayantaṃ |
Remark. The Optative may also be formed on the base in ne as:
| Optative | ||||
| Active | Reflective | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | neyyāmi | neyyāma | neyyaṃ | neyyāmhe |
| 2. | neyyāsi | neyyātha | netho | neyyavho |
| 3. | neyya | neyyuṃ | nayetha | nayeraṃ |
394. Other roots are:
√sī, to lie down, base: se or saya.
√ji, to conquer, base: je or jaya.
√ḍi, to set a net, base: ḍe (in oḍḍeti).
Remark. The most important root of the Root-Class is √as, to be; which is rather defective; it will be given a special chapter (See Defective Verbs).
Reduplicating Class
395. The verbs of this class are characterised by taking a reduplicating syllable: the rules have been given above (372). The conjugation presents no difficulty, e.g. √dā, to give.
| Present Active. | Imperfect Active. | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | dadāmi | dadāma | adada | adadamha |
| 2. | dadāsi | dadātha | adado | adadattha |
| 3. | dadāti | dadanti | adada | adadu |
| Optative Active. | Imperative Active. | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | dadeyyāmi | dadeyyāma | dadāmi | dadāma |
| 2. | dadeyyāsi | dadeyyātha | dadāhi, dadā | dadātha |
| 3. | dadeyya, dade | dadeyyuṃ | dadātu | dadantu |
396. Some tenses of this verb are formed directly from the base; they will be given in their proper place.
Remarks.
(a) Of √dā, we also find the bases dajj and de, formed by
false analogy: dajjāmi, dajjasi, dajjati, dajjāma, dajjatha,
dajjanti, etc., demi, desi, deti; dema, detha, denti, etc.
(b) There is an anomalous form of the singular present very
probably formed on the analogy of the plural: dammi, dasi, dati.
(c) The Reflective forms do not exist for most of the tenses,
only a very few are met with: the first singular. and first
plural: dade, dadāmase.
(d) In the root √ṭha the final ā of the base
is preserved long only in the first singular and plural present.
Sing. Plur.
tiṭṭhāmi tiṭṭhāma.
tiṭṭhasi tiṭṭhatha, ṭhātha.
tiṭṭhati tiṭṭhanti.
It will be remarked that ṭhātha, 2nd person plural, is formed directly from the root.
The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th Conjugations
397. The conjugation of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Classes does not present any difficulty; the Personal endings are added as has already been shown for the First Conjugation.
Second Conjugation
398. √chid, base: chinda (373). to cut.
Present Active. Present Reflective.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
1. chindāmi chindāma chinde chindāmhe
2. chindasi chindatha chindase chindavhe
3. chindati. chindanti chindate chindante
399. The other Tenses
are formed regularly, as:
chindeyyāmi, chindeyyāsi, chindeyya, or chinde;
chindeyyāma, chindāyyatha, chindeyyuṃ.
And so on for the other Tenses.
Remark. The root √rudh, to obstruct, has five bases: rundhati, rundhiti; rundhīti, rundheti and rundhoti.
Third Conjugation
400. √div, base: dibba (77), to play.
Present Active. Present Reflective.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
1. dibbāmi dibbāma dibbe dibbāmhe
2. dibbasi dibbatha dibbase dibbavhe
3. dibbati dibbanti dibbate dibbante
The other Tenses are formed regularly, as: Imperfect adibba, adibbo, adibba, adibbamhā, adibbattha, adibbu.
Optative: dibbe, dibbeyya, dibbeyyāmi, dibbeyyāsi, etc.
Fourth Conjugation
401. √su, base: suṇā (376), or suno, to hear.
Present Active.
Sing. Plur. or Sing. Plur.
1. suṇāmi suṇāma suṇomi suṇoma
2. suṇāsi suṇātha suṇosi suṇotha
3. suṇāti suṇanti suṇoti suṇonti, sunvanti
Remarks.
(a) The other Tenses are formed on the base: suṇā final
ā being dropped before initial i and e, as: suṇeyyami,
suṇeyyāsi etc, suṇissāmi, suṇissāma,
suṇissasi, etc.
(b) √sak, to be able, belongs to this conjugation, but has
developed several bases: sakkuṇāti with the k doubled;
sakkoti, by assimilation (57) sak+no=sakno, sakko+ti=sakkoti.
Similarly, there is a form sakkāti obtained by the same
process; sak+nā=sakna, sakkā+ti=sakkāti: and still
another form occurs, with short a: sakkati
(c) √āp, to attain, with prefix pa (pa+āp=pāp),
shows 3 forms: pappoti, pāpuṇāti, pāpuṇoti.
√gah, to take, seize has for base: gaṇhā with metathesis
(111, p.35): gaṇhāmi, gaṇhāsi, etc.
(d) We have already said that the ṇ is very often de-lingualised
(376, d). That is to say, many of the roots belonging to the 4th
Conjugation form their bases according to the 9th Conjugation of
Sansk. verbs, by adding nā to the root. For instance from
√ci, to collect, to heap, we have: cināti, to gather;
ocināti, ocinati, to pick up, to gather.
Remark that the base may be with short a as well as with long
ā and that this is the case with many of the roots of this
conjugation, cf. sañcinati, sañcinoti,
sañcināti, to accumulate.
(e) From √bhū we have a verb abhisambhunati and abhisambhunoti,
to obtain. The root of this verb is said by some grammarians to
be Sansk. √bh¨ī, but this is most improbable. Some native
grammarians give a root sambhū, found only in the Dhammapada,
not perceiving it is merely a compound of prefix sam+√bhu.
Fifth Conjugution
402. √dhū to shake; base dhunā, (377).
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. dhunāmi dhunāma dhune dhunāmhe
2. dhunāsi dhunātha dhunase dhunavhe
3. dhunāti dhunanti dhunate dhunante, dhunare.
Remarks.
(a) Other Verbs belonging to this class are:
√jñā, jā, ñā, to know, base: jāna.
√as, to eat, base : asnā.
√mun=√man, to think, base: munā.
(b) The student will have remarked that the 4th and 5th
Conjugations very often interchange their bases. This is owing to
the false analogy of Sansk. roots.
Sixth Conjugation
403. √kar, to make, to do, base karo (378).
Present.
Sing. plur.
1. karomi karoma
2. karosi karotha
3. karoti karonti
Remarks.
(a) There are several bases of the root √kar as: karo, kara,
kubb; the conjugation of this verb, as already said (378, a) will
be given in full in the chapter on Defective Verbs.
√tan, to stretch, base: tano (strong);
weak base=tanu.
Present.
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. tanomi tanoma tanve (27) tanumhe
2. tanosi tanotha tanuse tanuvhe.
3. tanoti tanonti tanute tanvante(27)
(b) The roots belonging to this Class are very few.
7th Conjugation
404. The roots of the 7th Conugation, as has been remarked above (379), have two bases: one in e and one in aya, which are conjugated exactly like the roots of the 1st Conjugation, 3rd Class, (See 393).
Irregular Bases
Some roots form their Special bases according to none of the above given rules; and they are in consequence called Irregular. The principal are here given.
√gam, to go Special base gaccha.
√yam, to restrain Special base yaccha.
√guh, to hide Special base gūhe.
√dhā, to hold Special base daha, dhe (391).
√dā, to give Special base dajja.
√jā, jan, to be born Special base jāya.
√pā, to drink Special base piva.
√ḍaṃs, to bite Special base ḍasa.
√dhmā, to blow Special base dhama.
√vyadh, (=vadh) Special base vadha.
√sad, to sit Special base sīda.
√ṭhā, to stand Special base tiṭṭhā.
√is, to wish Special base iccha.
√vad, to speak, say Special base vajja, vajje, vada, vāde.
√mar, to die Special base miya, miyya, mara.
√gah to take, seize Special base gheppa.*
√gam, to go Special base ghamma, gaggha.*
√jir, to gow old, decay Special base jiya, jiyya.
√dis, das to see Special base dakkha, daccha.*
*These forms are given by the Saddanīti and the Akhyatapadamālā. They are regularly conjugated like gaccha: ghammāmi, ghammasi ghammati;, etc,. ghagghami ghagghasi ghagghati; etc. ghammeyya, gagghe, gaggheyya, etc. The bases dakkha and daccha from √da, dis are formed on the false analogy of the future base, which we shall see when treating of the future. Most of the changes noticed above correspond to similar changes which occur in the 1st, 4th and 6th Conjugations of Sanskrit verbs.
The Aorist
405. The Aorist is the only true past tense in Pāli. The Personal Endings of the Imperfect and those of the Aorist have become hopelessly mixed up and the native grammarians are at a loss to differentiate between the Imperfect and the Aorist; but the Aorist has generally superseded the Imperfect. There are many anomalies which the student cannot possibly understand without a slight knowedge of Sanskrit grammar; he need not however, be detained by these considerations just now. The usual Endings of the Imperfect have already been given (381); much will be achieved if he, for the present, devotes his attention to the following paragraphs.
406. The Aorist is
supposed to be formed from the root but as a matter of fact, it
is formed indif
ferently either from the root or from the base.
407. The desinences (endings) of the Aorist are:
| Active. | Reflective. | |||
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | aṃ, ṃ, iṃ, a, ā. | imha, imhā. | a | imhe |
| 2. | i, o, ā | ttha | se | vhaṃ |
| 3. | ā, i, ī | uṃ, iṃsu, ū | ā, a | tthuṃ, atthuṃ |
Remarks.
(a) The student will remark, on comparing the above Endings with
those of the Imperfect, that it is difficult to make out the
Imperfect from the Aorist (the blending of Imperfect and Aorist
is well known to students of Comparative Philology); the only
criterion is, that the Imperfect is generally formed on the
Special Base, and the Aorist, on the root. But even this is not
an absolute criterion, and the fact remains that these two tenses
can scarcely be differentiated.
(b) Of the above Endings, however, the most commonly used and
most distinctively Aoristic are:
Sing. Plur.
1. iṃ imha, imhā.
2. i ittha.
3. i iṃsu, (isuṃ).
(c) The nasal of aṃ is often omitted, and a alone remains.
(d) The Aorist of the great majority of verbs is formed with the
desinences given in (b).
408. The Aorist may be
divided into three types:
(i) Radical Aorist.
(ii) Stem or Base Aorist.
(īi) Sigmatic Aorist.
Remarks.
(a) As its name indicates, the Radical Aorist is formed directly
from the root.
(b) The Stem Aorist is formed on the Special Base.
(c) The Sigmatic Aorist is distinguished by an s that comes
between the root and the personal endings given in (407, b).
(i) The Radical Aorist
409. This Aorist is not very common.  Let it be first remarked that the Aorist may also take the augment a before it, as does the imperfect.
410. from √gam, and
√gā and √gū (subsidiary forms of √gam,) to go, we have:
(a) Sing. Plur.
1. agaṃ, agamā, agamiṃ agumha
2. agā, agamā aguttha
3. agā, agami aguṃ, agamiṃsu.
(b) √as, to be (With augment a)
Sing. Plur.
1. āsiṃ āsimha.
2. āsi āsittha.
3. āsi āsuṃ, āsiṃsu.
411. √ṭhā.
Sing. Plur.
1. aṭṭhaṃ aṭṭhamha.
2. aṭṭho aṭṭhattha
3. aṭṭha aṭṭhaṃsu, aṭṭhuṃ.
Remark. For the doubling of initial ṭh see 33.
412. From √kar we
find: akaṃ (1st singular), no doubt formed on the analogy
of: akā (1st, 2nd and 3rd singular); akā being itself
from the Vedic form: akar, the loss of the r is compensated by
the lengthening of the final a.
In the 1st singular we also have: akaraṃ, akariṃ.
In the plural: 2. akattha; 3. akaruṃ, akarū, akariṃsu.
413. √hū (a form of
√bhū) to be.
3rd singular: ahū, ahu, and before a vowel, ahud.
1st plural: ahumhā; 3rd plural: ahuṃ.
414. √da.
1st singular: adā, which is also 2nd and 3rd singular.
In the plural we find: 3rd aduṃ, adaṃsu,
adāsuṃ.
415. The augment a is
not inseparable from the Aorist, so that we meet with such forms
as:
gā=agā, etc.
(ii) Stem Aorist
416. As has already
been said, this aorist is formed on the stem or base, not on the
root. The aug
ment may or may not be retained.
√pā, base: piva, to drink.
Sing. Plur.
1. piviṃ pivimha
2. pivi pivittha
3. pivi piviṃsu
For the Reflective;
Sing. Plur.
1. pive pivimhe
2. pivise pivivhaṃ
3. piva, pivā pivu, pivuṃ, piviṃsu,
pivisuṃ.
417. The great bulk of Primitive Verbs (369) form their Aorist according to the above (piva); it is therefore extremely common, both with and without the augment; let it be stated once for all that this augment is of much more frequent occurence in prose than in poetry; in the latter its retention or rejection is regulated by metrical exigencies. We will now give a few more examples:
√bhuj, to eat base: bhuñja √gam, to go, base gaccha
| Sing. | Plur. | Sing. | Plur. | |
| 1. | bhuñjiṃ. | bhuñijimha, bhuñjimhā. | gacchiṃ. | gacchimha, gacchimhā. |
| 2. | bhuñji | bhuñjittha | gacchi | gacchittha |
| 3. | bhuñji | bhuñjimsu | gacchi, gañchi. | gacchiṃsu |
(iii) Sigmatic Aorist
418. Sigmatic Aorist is formed by inserting s between the radical vowel or the vowel of the base and the personal endings given above (407, b).
419. So that we obtain
the following desinences:
Sing. Plur.
1. siṃ (=s+iṃ). simha (=s+imha).
2. si (=s+i). sittha (=s+ittha).
3. si (=s+i). suṃ (=s+uṃ).
420. As will be readily understood, this formation of the Aorist is used with roots ending in vowels, and the s is inserted to join the endings to the root or to the base. It will be seen lower down, however, that they are added also to some roots ending in a consonant when the s becomes assimilated to that consonant.
421. The sigmatic desinences are used mostly with the Derivative Verbs, principally the Causative Verbs (See: Derivative Conjugation), which end in the vowel e. The verbs of the 7th Conjugation, which also end in e, form their Aorist in the same way.
Examples
(Causative Verbs).
422. √hā, to abandon, Causative base: hāpe. √tas, to tremble, Causative base: tāse.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. hāpesiṃ hāpesimha tāsesiṃ tāsesimha
2. hāpesi hāpesittha tāsesi tāsesittha
3. hāpesi hāpesuṃ tāsesi tāsesuṃ
Remarks. In the 3rd plural the form in iṃsu is also
frequent: hāpesiṃsu. tāsesiṃsu.
(Verbs of the 7th conjugation).
423. √cur, to steal, base: core. √kath, to tell, base: kathe.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. coresiṃ coresimha kathesiṃ kathesimha
2. coresi coresittha kathesi kathesittha
3. coresi coresuṃ, coresiṃsu kathesi kathesuṃ, kathesiṃsu
Remarks.
(a) To the base in aya endings given in (407, b) may be added
directly without the Insertion of sigmatic s, so that we have
also:
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. corayiṃ corayimha kathayiṃ kathayimha
2. corayi corayittha kathayi kathayittha
3. corayi corayuṃ, corayiṃsu kathayi kathayuṃ, kathayiṃsu
(b) This holds good for the Causative Verbs which have also a
base in aya.
424. The Sigmatic
Aorist desinences are placed after some roots which do not belong
to the 7th conjugation or to the derivative verbs:
(i) After roots ending in a vowel, with or without the augment a.
(ii) After some roots ending in a Consonant, in which case the
usual rules of assimilation (85) are strictly applied.
Examples of (i)
√dā, to give: adāsiṃ, adāsi,
adāsimha, etc.
√ṭha, to stand: aṭṭhāsiṃ,
aṭṭhāsimha, etc.
√hā, to abandon: ahāsiṃ, ahāsi,
ahāsimha, etc.
√su, to hear, assosiṃ, assosi, assosimha, etc.
√yā, to go: yāsim, yāsi, yāsimha, etc.
Remark. From an illusory √kā (=√kar, to do), we find:
akāsiṃ, akāsi, akāsimha, etc.
From √ñā, to know: aññāsiṃ,
aññāsi, aññāsimha, etc.
Examples of (ii)
425. At a first reading, the student had perhaps better leave unnoticed the few references. to Sanskrit Grammar which will be found in the next few paragrahs. Let him merely assume the forms as they are given: the more advanced student ought, of course, to read them with attention.
426. The s (initial) of
Sigmatic desinences, as above given (419), assimilates itself to
the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of
assimilation:
(a) From √dis=sanskrit .√d¨, we find
addakki=Sanskrit adrak-·-is.
The following forms are also found: addakkhī, adakkhi, dakkhi.
(b) From √sak, to be able=Sankrit √ak, we have
sakkhi, asakkhi; Sanskrit=ak-·-is.
(c) √kus, to revile=Sanskrit √kru, gives
akkocchi, but akkosi, without the sigmatic s, is also met with.
(d) √bhañj, to break, gives Aorist bhaṅki.
Remark. The above examples will, I think, be sufficient to make the student understand the nature of the changes which occur in the formation of the Sigmatic Aorist when the roots end in a consonant; this consonant is generally s (=Sanskrit ) and sometimes j. In Sanskrit, final (=Pāli s) is regularly changed to k before the initial s of verbal endings thus giving the group k·a, which in Pāli becomes kkha. Again, by another rule of Sanskrit phonetics, final j becomes g, and as no word can end in a mute sonant, this g is changed to its corresponding surd, that is to k. This class of the Sigmatic Aorist, however, is not numerous.
System of The Perfect
427. As has been seen, the perfect system consists of the Perfect tense and the Perfect Participle. The participle will be treated of in the chapter on Participles.
428. The Perfect is characterised by the reduplication of the root. The rules have already been given (372) and should now be read over carefully.
429. The endings are:
Perfect.
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. a mha i mhe
2. e ttha ttho vho
3. a u ttha re
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in a consonant insert an before the above
endings beginning with a consonant.
(b) The Perfect is of very rare occurence.
430. √pac, Perfect base: papac. √bhū, Perfect base: babhūv.
Active. Active
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. papaca papacimha babhūva babhūvimha
2. papace papacittha babhūve babhūvittha
3. papaca papacu babhūva babhūvu
Reflective. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. papaci papacimhe. babhūvi babhūvimhe
2. papacittho papacivho. babhūvittho babhūvivhe
3. papacittha papacire babhūvittha babhūvire
The Future System
431. This system includes the Future, the Conditional and the Future Participle. The Participle will be considered in a special chapter.
432. The Future System has for special characteristic the sign: ssa inserted between the root and the personal endings.
Remarks.
(a) The Future System is frequently formed on the Present base.
(b) The vowel i is often inserted between the ssa and the root or
base; in this case the final vowel of the root or base is
dropped.
(c) When the ssa is added directly to a root ending in a
consonant, the same changes which occur in the Aorist occur also
in the Future System, through the assimilation of the initial s
of ssa.
433. The Personal
Endings for the Future are:
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. mi ma ṃ mhe
2. si tha se vhe
3. ti nti te nte, re
Remarks.
(a) It will be seen that in the active the endings are the same
as those of the present indicative. (381)
(b) Before mi, ma and mhe the a of ssa is lengthened.
Examples
434. (i) without
connecting vowel i.
(a) √i, to go, special base e (390), future base: essa
Active Reflective
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. essāmi essāma essaṃ essāmhe
2. essasi essatha essase essavhe
3. essati essanti essate essante
√nī to lead, special base ne (371, 3)
future base: nessa.
Singular. Plural.
nessāmi nessāma
nessasi nessatha
nessati nessanti, etc.
(b) √ṭhā, to stand.
Singular. Plural.
ṭhassāmi ṭhassāma
ṭhassasi ṭhassatha
ṭhassati ṭhassanti, etc.
Remarks. In the above, ssa is added directly to the root; for the shortening of radical a see (34) again:
√dā, give.
Singular. Plural.
dassāmi dassāma
dassasi dassatha
dassati dassanti, etc.
(ii) with connecting vowel i.
(c) √bhū, to be, special base: bhava, future base: bhavissa.
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. bhavissāmi bhavisssāma. bhavissaṃ
bhavissāmhe
2. bhavissasi bhavissatha bhavissase bhavissavhe
3. bhavissati bhavissanti bhavissate bhavisante
(iii) with assimilation of ssa
(d) √bhuj to eat. gives bhokkha as
future base. (Sansk. √bhuj=bhok+·ya=bhok·ya) and we have:
bhokkhati. bhokkhate, bhokkhaṃ, etc.
√chid. to cut, gives: checcha (Sansk.
√chid=chet+·ya=cet·ya) then:
checchāmi, checchasi, checchati etc.
√dis, to see, gives a future: dakkha; (=Sans.√d¨c=drak+·ya=drak·ya) from this we find - dakkhati, but more frequently dakkhiti. Similarly from the root √sak to be able, is obtained sakkhiti.
435. A double future is also found formed from bases like bhokkha, dakka, which, as has been just now explained are already future, by adding to them ssa with the connection vowel -i
Examples
√sak, future base: sakkha, sakkhissāmi, sakkhissasi
sakkhissati, sakkhissāma, etc.
436. From hoti, the contracted form of bhavati, to be, we find the following numerous forms for the future:
Singular
1. hemi, hehāmi, hohāmi, hessāmi, hehissāmi,
hohissāmi, I shall be.
2. hesi. hehisi, hohisi, hessasi, hehissasi, hohissasi, Thou will
be.
3. heti, hehiti, hohiti, hessati, hehissati, hohissati, He will
be.
Plural.
1. hema, hehāma, hohāma, hessāma, hehissāma,
hohissāma. We shall be.
2. hetha, hehitha, hohitha, hessatha, hehissatha, hohissatha. You
will be.
3. henti, hehinti, hohinti, hessanti; hehissanti hohissanti. They
will be.
√kar. to do, gives:
Sing. Plur.
1. kāhāmi, I shall do. kāhāma, we shall do.
2. kāhasi, kāhisi, thou wilt do. kāhatha, you will
do.
3. kāhati, kāhiti, he will do. kāhanti,
kāhinti, they will do.
The Conditional
437. The Conditional takes the augment a before the root.
438. The personal endings are as follows:
Active. Reflexive.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. ssa ssamhā ssaṃ ssāmhase
2. sse, ssa, ssasi. ssatha ssase ssavhe
3. ssā, ssa, ssati. ssaṃsu ssatha ssiṃsu
Remark. The above endings are generally joined to the root or the
base by means of the connecting vowel i.
√pac, to cook:
Active. Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. apacissaṃ apacissamhā apacissaṃ
apacissāmhase.
2. apacisse,apacissa,apacissi. apacissatha apacissase
apacissavhe.
3. apacissā,apacissa,apacissati. apacissaṃsu
apacissatha apacissiṃsu.
Remarks.
(a) The conditional may be translated by "if I could
cook," or " If I should cook," etc.
(b) The conditional is not very frequently used.
The Participles
(a) Present Participle
Active
439. All participles are of the nature of verbal adjectives, and must agree with their nouns, in number, gender and case.
440. The terminations of the present participle active are: nta, aṃ or ṃ; nta and ṃ are added to the base, aṃ is added to the root.
Examples
Root. Base. Present. Part. Active. Base.
√pac, to cook, paca, pacaṃ, pacanta, cooking.
√kar, to do, kara, karaṃ, karonta, doing.
√chid, to cut, chinda, chindaṃ, chindanta,
cutting.
√bhaṇ, to say, bhaṇa, bhaṇaṃ, bhaṇanta,
saying.
√bhū, to be, bhava, bhavaṃ, bhavanta, being.
√pā, to drink, piva, pivaṃ, pivanta,
drinking.
441. Verbal bases ending in e (1st Conj. 3rd. Division; 7th. Conj. and causal bases. See "Derivative or secondary conjugation") which have also another base in aya take only the termination nta after the base in e, and both ota and ṃ after the base in aya.
Examples
(1st and 7th Conjugations)
Root. Base. Pres. Part. Act. Base.
√cur, to steal. core, coraya. corenta, corayaṃ,
corayanta.
√kath, to tell. kathe, kathaya. kathenta, kathayaṃ,
kathayanta.
√nī, to lead. ne, naya. nenta, nayaṃ, nayanta.
√ji, to conquer. je, jaya. jenta, jayaṃ, jayanta.
(Causative.)
 Bases in ṇā,
no, uṇā, uṇo (4th Conj.) and nā (5th Conj.) generally
take the termination nta.
Examples
Root. Base. Pres. Part. Act. Base.
√su, to hear, suṇā, suṇo, suṇanta, suṇonta.
√kī, to buy, kiṇā, kiṇanta.
443. The stem or base
of this Present Participle is in at, or ant as:
Pres Part.
Root. Stem. Nom. Sing. Masc.
√pac, pacat, pacant. pacaṃ, pacanto.
√car, carat, carant. caraṃ, caranto.
√bhaṇ, bhaṇat, bhaṇant. bhaṇaṃ, bhaṇanto.
444. The Feminine is formed by adding ī to the stems or bases in at and nta.
445. The Neuter is in ṃ like the
masculine.
Examples
Root. Stem. Masc. Fem. Neut.
√pac pacat pacaṃ pacatī pacaṃ.
pacant pacanto pacantī pacantaṃ
√chid chindat chindaṃ chindatī chindaṃ.
chindant chindanto chindantī chindantaṃ.
446. These participles
are declined like mahā (226) in the Masculine, Feminine and
Neuter.
The Present Participle may often be translated by " when
..., while ..."etc.
Reflective Participle
447. The Reflective
Participle is formed by the addition of māna to the base. It
is declined like purisa, kaññā, and rūpaṃ.
Examples
Reflective Participle.
Root. Masc. Fem. Neuter.
√pac pacamāno pacamānā pacamānaṃ
√car caramāno caramānā caramānaṃ
√dā dadāmāno dadāmānā
dadāmānaṃ
√su suṇamāno suṇamānā suṇamānaṃ
448. Another Reflective
Participle, much less frequent than the above, is formed by
adding āna to the root. It is declined like that in
māna.
Examples
Reflective Participle.
Root. Masc. Fem. Neuter.
√pac pacāno pacānā pacānaṃ
√car carāno carānā carānaṃ
√dā dadāno dadānā dadānaṃ
Remarks. As may be seen from the last example, dadāna, this
participle may also be formed from the base.
The Future Participle
449. The future
participle is either active or reflective.
(a) In the active, it takes the endings of the present participle
active, nta, ṃ (or aṃ), and is declined like mahā.
(b) ln the reflective, the endings are māna and āna,
and it is declined like purisa, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
(c) All these endings are added to the future base.
Examples
(i) Future Participle Active.
Root. Masc. Fem. Neuter.
√pac pacissaṃ pacissatī pacissaṃ
pacissanto pacissantī pacissantaṃ
√car carissaṃ carissatī carissaṃ
carissanto carissanti carissantam
√su suṇissaṃ suṇissatī suṇissaṃ
suṇissanto suṇissantī suṇissantaṃ.
(ii) Future Participle Reflective.
Root. Masc. Fem. Neuter.
√pac pacissamāno pacissamāṇa pacissamānaṃ
pacissāno pacissānā pacissānaṃ
√car carissamāno carissamānā carissamānaṃ
carissāno carissānā carissānaṃ.
√su suṇissamāno suṇissamānā suṇissamānaṃ
suṇissāno suṇissānā suṇissānaṃ.
The Passive Perfect Participle
450. This participle is
very widely used. It is formed from the root by affixing to it
the suffix ta or the suffix na.
Remarks. The suffix ta is by far the most commonly used in the
formation of this participle.
451. ta is affixed in
several ways:
(i) If the root ends in a vowel, it is added directly without any
change taking place in the root.
(ii) When the root ends in a consonant, ta may be joined to it by
means of connecting vowel i.
(iii) When the root ends in a consonant, ta may become
assimilated to it according to the usual rules.
Remarks. At this stage the student ought to read carefully the
chapter on Asssmilation (51.)
Examples
(i) Roots ending in a vowel.
Root. Present. Pass. Perf. Part.
√nahā, to bathe. nahāyati, he bathes. nahāta,
bathed.
√bū, to be, become. bhavati, he is,becomes. bhūta, been,
become.
√nī, to lead. neti, nayati, he leads. nīta, led.
√ji, to conquer. jeti, jayati, he conquers. jita, conquered.
√ci, to collect. cināti, he collects. cita, collected.
√bhī, to be afraid. bhāyati, he is afraid. bhīta, afraid,
frightened.
√yā, to go undergo. yāti, he goes. yāta, gone,
undergone.
√ñā, to know. jānāti, he knows.
ñāta, known.
Remarks. There are a few exceptions to roots in final ā.
√pā, to drink, makes pita, drunk.
√ṭhā, to stand, makes ṭhita, stood, standing.
√dhā, to hold, becomes hita, held.
√dā, to give, dinna, given.
(ii) Roots ending in a consonant and
taking vowel i before ta.
Root. Present. Pass. Perf. Part.
√pac, to cook. pacati, he cooks. pacita, cooked.
√cal, to shake. calati; he shakes. calita, shaken.
√gah, to take. gaṇhāti, he takes. gahita, taken.
√kapp, to arrange. kappeti, he arranges. kappita arranged.
√khād, to eat. khādati, he eats. khadita, eaten.
√likh, to write. likhati, he writes. likhita, written.
√maṇḍ, to adorn. maṇḍeti, he adorns. maṇḍita, adorned.
√gil, to swallow. gilati, he swallows. gilita, swallowed.
√kath, to tell. katheti, he tells. kathita, told.
Remarks.
(a) Participles like pacita, calita, etc, are declined like
purisa, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
(b) In the Neuter these participles are often used as nouns:
√has, to smile, Passive Perfect Participle: hasita, smiled,
Neuter: hasitaṃ, a smile.
√gajj, to thunder, Passive Perfect participle: gajjitta,
thundered, Neuter: gajjitaṃ, the thunder.
√jīv, to live, Passive Perfect Participle: jīvita, lived,
Neuter: jīvitaṃ, life.
(iii) ta assimilated to the root.
453. The suffix ta
assimilates, or is assimilated to the last consonant of the root:
Root. P. P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
√bhuj, to eat bhutta, eaten (59, a)
√muc, to free mutta, freed (59, b)
√is, to wish iṭṭha, wished (59, ii-iii)
√kas, to plough kaṭṭha, ploughed (92)
√ḍas, to bite daṭṭha, bitten (92)
√dam, to tame danta, tamed (67)
√kam, to proceed kanta, proceeded, gone (67)
√rudh, to obstruct ruddha, obstructed (63)
√budh, to know buddha, known (63)
√labh, to obtain laddha, obtained (63, Remark.)
√majj, to polish maṭṭha (also maṭṭa), polished (59, i)
√muh, to err muḷha, erred, also muddha (100,101,102)
√ruh, to ascend rūḷha, ascended (100,101,102)
√lih, to lick liḷha, licked (100,101,102)
√jhas, to hurt jhatta, hurt (94)
√pat, to fall, patta, fallen (62)
√tap, to burn tatta, burned (64, i)
√duh, to milk duddha, milked (100)
454. (a) Roots in r
generally drop the r before ta.
Examples
Root. P. P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
√kar, to make kata made (81).
√sar, to remember sata, remembered (81).
√mar, to die mata, dead (81).
455. (b) Roots in n
generally drop final n before ta.
Examples
√man, to think mata, thought.
√khan, or khaṇ, to dig khata (also: khāta, from a
collateral form khā=khan), dug.
√han, to kill hata, killed.
456. (c) sometimes
final ṃ is also dropped.
Examples
√gam, to go gata, gone.
√ram, to sport rata, amused, delighted.
457. (d) In a few
cases, final r lingualizes the following t, as:
√har, to seize, carry; haṭa, seized, carried.
458. Pass. Perf. Part.
which take na.
The suffix na is much less common than ta, and like it:
(i) lt may be joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i,
or
(ii) it may be joined directly to roots ending in a vowel;
(iii) when added directly to roots ending in a consonant, that
consonant is assimilated to n of na, and sometimes the n of na is
assimilated to the final consonant.
Remarks. na is added generally to roots in d and r.
459. Examples of (i)
Root Pass P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
√sad, to settle sinna, settled (69, ii, iii).
Remarks. The form sinna is found only for the verb nisīdati, to
sit down= √sad+ni (prefix);
when √sad is preceded by other prefixes, the Passive Perfect
Participle assumes the form; sanna, as:
sad-ava=Passive Perfect Participle: ava sanna, sunk, settled.
sad+pa=Passive Perfect Participle: pasanna, settled.
(Note that the base of root sad is sīda.)
Root Pass P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
√chid, to cut chinna, cut (69, ii, iii).
√chad, to cover channa, covered (69, ii, iii).
√dā, to give dinna, given (69 ii, iii).
In this last example, ā of the root has been dropped, and
the n doubled to compensate for its loss; the form datta given.
(=dā+ta, with the t doubled to make for the shortening of
ā), is found sometimes.
Remarks. It will be seen from the above four examples that the insertion of i is to a great extent optional.
√tar, to cross tiṇṇa, crossed (83)
√car, to wander ciṇṇa, wandered (83)
√kir, to scatter kiṇṇa, scattered (83)
Remarks. In these examples, i is inserted and then reduplicated
and lingualized according to rule (83).
460. Examples of (iii)
Root Pass P. P. Rules of Assimilation.
√bhaj, to break bhagga, broken (57)
√vij, to be agitated vigga, agitated (57)
In these two examples, final j of the root, having become,
against the usual phonetic laws g, the n of suffix na, is
assimilated to it by rule 57 (426, Remark).
√lag, to adhere lagga, adhered (57).
461. Examples of (ii)
√lī, to cling to, līna, clung to.
√lū, to cut, reap, lūna, reaped, cut.
√khi, to decay, cease, khīna, decayed. (final i is lengthened).
√gilā (glā 113), to be ill, gilāna, ill.
√hā, to be weak, low, hīna, low, wasted, inferior.
In the last example, radical ā is replaced by ī.
462. A few Passive Perfect Participles are irregular, such as: jhāma, burnt, from √jhā, to burn; phulla, expanded, split, from √phal, to expand, split; but these are properly speaking derivative adjectives used as participles.
463. Sometimes two
forms of the Passive Perfect Participles for the same root are
met with:
√lag, to adhere, P. P. P. lagga and lagita.
√gam, to go, P. P. P. gata and gamita.
√dā, to give, P. P. P. dinna and datta.
√kas, to plough, P. P. P. kaṭṭha and kasita.
464. The participles in ta and na are declined like purisa, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
Perfect Participle Active
465. The Perfect
Participle Active, is formed by adding vā to the Passive
Perfect Participle.
Examples
Root. P. P. P. P.P.A.
√pac, to cook, pacita, cooked, pacitavā, having cooked.
√bhuj, to eat, bhutta, eaten, bhuttavā, having eaten.
√kar, to do, kata, made, katavā, having made.
Remarks. (a) These Perfect Participles Active are declined like
guṇavā.
Examples pacitavā, pacitavatī or pacitavantī,
pacitavaṃ or pacitavantaṃ.
(b) The P. P. Active is also formed with suffix vī (231), in
this case the a before vī is lengthened to ā. They are
declined like medhāvi, (235) (that is, like daṇḍī nadī
and vāri as: pacitāvī having cooked; bhuttāvī,
having eaten.
Future Passive Participle
466. This participle,
also called participle of necessity, potential participle and
gerundive, is formed by adding to the root the suffixes: tabba,
ya, anīya and īya.
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in u, ū, generally form the Future P. P. from
the special base.
(b) This participle is passive in sense, expresses suitability,
fitness, propriety and may be translated by "fit to
be..." ṃust be..." "ought to be...""to
be..." that which is expressed by the root.
(c) These participles, like those already treated of, are
adjectives and are treated as such; they are declined like
purisa, kaññā and rūpaṃ.
Tabba
467. This suffix is the
most common. It is added:
(i) Directly to roots ending in a vowel.
(ii) To roots ending in a consonant, it may be joined by means of
connecting vowel i.
(iii) When added directly without connecting vowel i to roots
ending in a consonant, initial t of tabba is assimilated to or
assimilates the last consonant of the root in exactly the same
manner as in the formation of the Passive Perfect Participle.
Examples of (i)
Root. Future P.P.
√hā, to abandon, hātabba, fit to be, that ought to be,
that must be abandoned.
√dā, to give, dātabba, fit to be, that ought to be,
that must be given.
√pa, to drink, pātabba, fit to be, that ought to be drunk.
Remarks.
(a) Roots ending in i, ī, change i, ī, to e before tabba:
Root. Future P.P.
√nī, to lead, netabba, fit to be, that must be led.
√ji to conquer, jetabba fit to be, that must be conquered.
√i, to go, etabba, fit to be, that must be gone to.
(ii) Roots in u, ū form the Future P.
P. on the Special Base:
Root. Future P.P.
√bhū, to be, bhavitabba, fit to be, that ought to, that must
be.
√ku, to sing kavitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must
be sung
In the case of root su, to hear, we find the u merely
strengthened: sotabba, fit, etc., to be heard.
Examples of (ii)
Root. Future P.P.
√pac, to cook, pacitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must
be cooked.
√khan, to dig, khanitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that
must be dug.
√pucch, to ask, pucchitabba fit to be, that ought to be, that
must be asked.
Examples of (iii)
Root. Future P.P.
√gam to go, gantabba, fit, etc., to be gone to(67).
√kar, to do, kattabba, (80); kātabba (82), fit to be done,
etc.
√labh, to receive, laddhabba, fit etc., to be received(63,
Remark).
Ya
468. The initial y becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation (79) Sometimes the radical vowel is strengthened.
Examples
Root. Future P.P. Rules of Assimilation
√gam, to go, gamma, fit, proper, etc, to be gone to. (71, i.)
√sak, to be able, sakka, able to be done. (71.)
√khād, to eat, chew, khajja, that can be chewed. (71, vi)
√vaj, to avoid, vajja, that ought to be avoided. (71, 74)
√bhū, to be, bhabba, that ought to be, proper, possible. (77.)
In this last example, the radical vowel ū has been strengthened
before ya:
bhū+ya=bhav+ya=bhavya=bhabba.
Root. Future P.P. Rules of Assimilation
√labh, to obtain, labbha, fit worthy to be obtained. (71.)
√bhuj, to eat, bhojja, to be eaten, eatables, food. (71.)
√bhid, to break, bhijja, to be broken. (71, vi.)
√lih, to lick, sip, leyya, to be licked, sipped. (98, Remark.)
√has, to laugh, hassa, fit to be laughed at. (76.)
√gah, to take, gayha, that can be taken, seized. (78, iii.)
(a) ya is, in a few cases, cases, joined
to the root by means of vowel i. For instance:
√kar, to do, make, we have:
kāriya that ought to be, or can be done, with lengthening of
radical a.
kayya, that ought, etc., to be done, with assimilation of final r
to ya.
kayīra, that ought, etc, with metathesis (iii).
√bhar, to support:
bhāriya, that ought to be maintained, with lengthening of
radical a.
(b) After roots ending in ā long
initial y of ya is doubled and final a of the root is changed to
e.
Root. Future P.P.
√hā, to abandon, heyya, to be abandoned, that ought to be
abandoned.
√pā, to drink, peyya that can, may, or ought to be drunk.
√dā, to give, deyya, to be given, that ought to or can be
given.
(c) ya is likewise doubled after roots
in i, ī and the i or ī is changed to e.
√nī, to lead, neyya, to be led, that ought to be led.
√ji, to conquer, jeyya, to be conquered that can be conquered.
Anīya
469. The suffix anīya
is added to the root or to the base.
Root. Future P.P.
√pac, to cook pacanīya, fit to be cooked
√puj, to honour pujanīya, worthy to bo honoured.
√kar, to do, make karaṇīya, that ought to be made or done.
(Observe that the n is lingualised through the influence of
radical r, 83).
√bhū, to be (base: bhava) bhavanīya, that ought to be.
The Gerund
470. The gerund is formed by means of suffixes: tvā, tvāna, tūna, ya, and tya. It is indeclinable and partakes of the nature of a participle.
Remarks.
(a) The suffix tvā is most commonly met with; tvāna,
tūna, and sometimes tūnaṃ are used as substitutes of tvā and are met
with in poetry much more than in prose.
(b) ya is not so restricted in use as tvāna and tūna.
(c) tya which becomes regularly cca (74, iv), is merely a form of
ya, initial t being inserted between the gerundian, suffix ya and
a root ending in a vowel.
(e.g. pa+√i, to depart+ya=pa+i+t+ya=petya=pecca having departed,
110).
In Pāli ya is added indiscriminately to simple roots or to
roots compounded with prefixes; but, as in Sansk. (in which it is
never used after simple roots), it is much more common after
compound verbs.
Tvā, Tvāna, Tūna
471. The suffix
tvā may be:
(i) Joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i.
(ii) The initial t of the suffix is, in a few cases assimilated
to the last consonant of the root.
(iii) The vowel of the root is guṇated
(iv) Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before
suffixes tvā, tvāna and tūna
(v) The final long vowel of a root is shortened before these
suffixes.
(vi) The suffixes are added to the special base as well as to the
root.
Examples
Root. Gerund.
√pac, to cook, pacitvā, having cooked (i).
√khād, to eat, khāditvā having eaten (i).
√Iabh, to obtain, laddhā, obtained (ii) (63, Remark).
labhitvā, having obtained. (i).
√nī, to lead, netvā, having led (iii).
√chid, to cut, chetvā, having cut (iii, iv)
√kar, to make, katvā, having made (iv).
√ṭhā, to stand, remain, ṭhitvā, having stood,
remained (i).
√bhī, to fear, bhitvā, having feared, fearing (v).
√dā, to give, datvā, having given (v).
√bhuj, to eat, bhutvā, having eaten (iv).
√āp-pa=pāp, to get, patvā having got. (iv; v).
√ji, to conquer, jitvā, jetvā, having conquered (iii).
Remarks. From root √ṭhā, we have
also: ṭhatvā.
From √dā, daditvā, daditvāna.
From √kar: kātūna, kattūna.
From √kam, to step, to proceed,: nikkamitvā, nikkamitūna.
From √su, to hear; sutvā, sotūnaṃ, suṇitvā,
suṇitvāna.
Ya, Tya
472. (i) ya is used
mostly with roots compounded with prefixes.
(ii) In a few cases it is used with simple roots.
(iii) tya is regularly changed cca.
(iv) ya is added directly to roots ending in long ā.
(v) ya may be added to the Special Base.
(vi) ya is assimilated to the last consonant of the root.
(vii) ya may be joined to the root or to the base by means of i.
 (See 459.
Remark).
√kam, to tread, akkamma, having trodden. (vi, 71, 33, 35)
√i to go, pecca, having gone, departed, =pa+i+tya. (21, i; 74,
iv)
√i, to go, abbisamecca, having comprehended,
abhi+sam+ā+i+tya. (21, i).
√han, to strike, āhacca, having struck, =ā+han+tya,
final n being dropped before initial t. (n, dropped before t).
√han, to strike, upahacca, having vexed, =upa+han+tya. (See last
remark).
√han, to strike, uhacca, having destroyed, =u+han+tya. (See last
remark).
√i, to go, paṭicca, following upon, from, =paṭi+i+tya.
√har, to take away, āhacca, having reached, attained,
=ā+har+tya. (81).
This last should not be confounded with gerund, from √han, given
above.
Remarks.
(a) Sometimes the gerund having been formed by means of ya, the
ya is dropped, the root alone remaining, as in;
abhiññā, having known, =abhiññāya.
paṭisaṅkhā, having pondered, =paṭisaṅkhāya.
anupādā, not having clung, not clinging,
=anupādāya (an+upa+ā+√dā+ya).
(b) Some roots seem to take a compound gerundial suffix, made up
of ya and tvā, and joined to
the root by means of i, as:
āruyhitvā (√ruh), having ascended.
ogayhitvā (√gāh=gah), having
dived=ogayha=ogāhitvā.
(c) There are some anomalous forms:
disvā, from √dis to see=having seen.
daṭṭhu=disvā.
anuvicca, from √vid, to know=having known, final d being dropped
before tya.
pappuyya, from √āp+pa=pāp, to
obtain=pāpayitvā.
vineyya. from √nī, having removed.
niccheyya, from √ni=having ascertained.
In these last three examples the y has undergone reduplication.
atisitvā, from √sar=Sanskrit s¨.(?), having approached,
having excelled.
(d) The student will have remarked that several forms are met
with from the same root, as:
√dā, datvā, daditvā, daditvāna, dāya.
√kar, kariya, karitvā, katvā, katvāna,
kātūna, kattūna.
√gah, gayha, gaṇhiya, gaṇhitvā.
Most roots can thus have several forms.
The Infinitive
473. The Infinitive is generally formed by means of suffix tuṃ.
474. The suffixes tave, tuye and tāye are also met with, but seldom.
475. Tuṃ, like
the suffix of the P.P.P. (450) may be:
(i) joined to the root or to the base by vowel i.
(ii) to the roots in ā, it is added directly.
(iii) roots ending in i, ī, change final i, ī to e; and roots
in u, ū, change u, ū to o.
(iv) Initial t of tuṃ is assimilated to the last consonant of the
root; the last consonant may also be assimilated to t.
(v) tuṃ is also added to the Special Base.
Examples
√pac, to cook, pacituṃ, to
cook. (i)
√khād, to eat, khādituṃ, to eat. (i)
√thar, to spread, tharituṃ, to spread. (i)
√dā, to give dātuṃ. (ii)
√ṭhā, to stand, ṭhātuṃ (ii)
√yā, to go, yātuṃ. (ii)
√ji, to conquer, jetuṃ. (iii)
√nī, to lead, netuṃ. (iii)
√su, to hear, sotuṃ. (iii)
√labh, to obtain, laddhuṃ: to obtain. (iv, 63, remark)
√bhuj, to eat, bhottuṃ, to eat, (iii, iv, 59a)
√āp, to obtain+pa, pattuṃ, to obtain. (iv,
64, i)
√gam, to go, gantuṃ, to go. (iv; 67).
√i, to go, etuṃ, to go. (iii).
√su, to hear, suṇituṃ, to hear. (v)
√budh, to know, bodhituṃ, to know., (i, iii).
√budh, to know, bujjhituṃ, to know. (i, v) .
√sī, to lie down setuṃ, to lie down. (iii).
√sī, to lie down, sayituṃ. (v).
√jā, to know, jānituṃ, to know. (v).
√chid, to cut, chindituṃ, to cut. (v).
√chid, to cut, chettuṃ, to cut. (iii, iv; 62, vi)
Tave, Tuye, Tāye
476. These suffixes are
Vedic and but seldom used in Pāli; tave, however, is more
frequently met with than the other two.
√nī, to lead, nitave, to lead.
√hā, to abandon,. vippahātave, to abandon,
=vi+pa+hā+tave.
√nam, to bend, unnametave, to ascend, rise, =ud+nam+e+tave.
√dhā, to hold, nidhetave, to hide, bury, =ni+base dhe
(391)+tave.
√mar, to die, marituye, to die, Joined by vowel i.
√gaṇ, to count, gaṇetuye, to count. Added to the base gaṇe.
√dis, to see, dakkhitāye, to see (404).
477. The student will have remarked that several forms for the same root are often met with.
Remarks.
(a) The Infinitive is used both passsively and actively.
(b) The Dative of nouns in āya is often used with an
infinitive sense.
(c) The Infinitive expresses purpose and may be translated by:
"for the purpose of, in order to."
(B) Derivative or secondary Conjugation
478. The Derivative
Conjugation includes:
(1) the Passive;
(2) the Causative;
(3) the Denominative;
(4) the Desiderative and,
(5) the Intensive.
479. It is called the derivative conjugation because the above named five kinds of verbs are derived from the simple root with a well-defined modification of the sense of the root itself.
480. Except for the Causative, Derivative verbs are not conjugated in all the tenses and in all voices.
(I) The Passive
481. The Passive Conjugation is formed by adding the suffix ya to the root.
482. The suffix ya having been added and the Passive Base obtained, the Personal Endings of either the Active Voice or of the Reflective Voice are added to the base.
483. Ya is affixed to
the root in three ways:
(i) Directly after roots ending in a vowel.
(ii) To roots in a double consonant, ya is joined by means of i,
this i being lengthened to ī. It is also joined by means of i
when a root ends in a consonant that does not generally
reduplicate (s, h and r).
(iii) It may be added directly to roots ending in a consonant; in
this case the y of ya becomes assimilated to the last consonant
of the root according to the Rules of Assimilation. (70.)
(iv) Ya is also added to the Special Base by means of i,
lengthened.
Examples of (i).
Remarks.
(a) When ya is added to roots ending in a vowel, the vowel of the
root undergoes some change, especially vowels: a, i and u.
(b) Radical ā is changed to ī before ya and radical i, u,
are lengthened to ī, ū.
Root. Passsve Base.
√dā, to give, dīya, to be given.
√pā, drink, pīya, to be drunk.
√dha, to hold, dhīya, to be held.
√ji, to conquer, jīya, to be conquered.
√ci, to heap, cīya, to be heaped up.
√ku to sing, kūya, to be sung.
√su, to hear, sūya, to be heard.
(c) Radical long ī and ū, remain unaffected:
√bhū, to become, bhūya, to have become.
√lū to reap, lūya, to be reaped.
√nī, to lead, nīya, to be led.
(d) In some instances, the long vowel before ya is shortened, in
which case the y is doubled.
Root. Passive Base.
√nī, to lead, √nīya, or niyya.
√su to hear, √sūya, or suyya.
√dā, to give, √dīya, or diyya.
484. To the above bases the Active or Reflective Personal Endings being added, we obtain, for instance from √ji, to conquer, base jīya (or jiyya).
PRESENT.
Active
Sing. Plur.
1. jīyāmi, I am conquered. jīyāma, we are conquered.
2. jīyasi, thou art conquered. jīyatha, you are conquered.
3. jīyati, he is conquered. jīyanti, they are conquered.
PRESENT.
Reflective
Sing. Plur.
1. jīye, I am conquered. jīyāmhe, we are conquered.
2. jīyase, thou art conquered. jīyavhe, you are conquered.
3. jīyate, he is conquered. jīyante, they are conquered.
Optative: (1) jīyeyyaṃ,
jīyeyyāmi; (2) jīyetho, jīyeyyāsi (3) jīyetha,
jīyeyya, etc., etc.
Imperative: (1) jīye, jīyāmi; (2) jīyassu, jīyāhi;
(3)jīyataṃ, jīyatu.
Examples of (ii)
Root. Passive Base.
√pucch, to ask, pucchīya, to be asked.
√has, to laugh, hasīya, to be laughed at.
√vas to live, vasīya, to be lived upon.
√kar, to make, karīya, to be made.
√sar, to remember, sarīya to be remembered.
√mah, to honour, mahīya, to be honoured.
Examples of (iii)
√labh, to obtain, labbha, to be obtained. (70, 71)
√pac, to cook, pacca, to be cooked. (70, 71)
√bhaṇ, to speak, bhañña, to be spoken. (70, 71)
√khād, to eat, khajja, to be eaten. (70, 71, 34)
√han; to kill, hañña, to be killed. (70, 71)
√bandh, to bind, bajjha, to be bound. (70, 71, 74)
Examples of (iv)
√gam, to go, gacchīya, to be gone to.
√budh to know, bujjhīya, to be known.
√is, to wish, desire, icchīya, to be wished for.
485. Long ī, before ya of the Passive, is sometimes found shortened, as: mahīyati or mahiyati, to be honoured.
486. It is usual to
form the Passive of roots ending in a consonant preceded by long
ā, by means
of ī:
√yac, to beg=yācīyati;
√aj, to drive+prefix pa=pāj, to drive=pājīyati, to be
driven.
487. Ya may be added
directly after some roots ending a consonant without assimilation
taking place and without the insertion of connecting vowel ī;
as:
√lup, to cut, elide=lupya+ti=lupyati, to be elided, cut off.
√gam, to go=gamya+ti=gamyati, to be gone to.
Remarks.
(a) We have already said that when the ī before ya is shortened,
initial y is reduplicated by way of compensation (483, d).
(b) The Perfect, thc Aorist, the Future and the Conditional
(which four tenses are called: General Tenses; see, 367), of the
Reflective Voice, are often used in a passive sense.
488. The Passive may
assume several forms from the same root:
√kar, to do, make, gives Passive: karīyati, kariyyati, kayirati
(with metathesis), kayyati (with asssimilation of r, 80).
√gam, to go, gives; gamīyati, gacchīyati, gamyati.
√gah, to take, gives: gayhati (metathesis); gheppati, quite an
anomalous form.
√hā, to abandon: hāyati, hiyati.
489. Anomalous form of
the Passive.
√vah, to carry, Passive Base=vuyh: vuyhāmi, vuyhasi,
vuyhati, vuyhe, vuyhase, vuyhate, etc.
√vas, to live, Passive Base=vuss: vussāmi, vussasi,
vussati, etc.
√yaj, to sacrifice, Passive base=ijj, to be sacrificed
ijjāmi, ijjasi, ijjati, etc.
√vac, to speak, Passive Base=ucc: uccāmi, uccasi uccati,
etc.
√vac, to speak, Passive Base=vucc :vuccāmi, vuccasi vuccati
etc.
490. Final s of a root,
which is not usually susceptible of reduplication is, however,
sometimes found reduplicated as:
√dis, to see, becomes, dissati, to be seen.
√nas, to destroy=nassati, to be destroyed.
Causative Verbs
491. Causal or
Causative verbs are formed by adding to the root the suffixes:
(i) aya, which is often contracted to e.
(ii) āpaya, which likewise may be contracted to āpe.
492. (i) The radical
vowel of the root is guṇated or strengthened before these
suffixes, if followed by one consonant only.
(ii) It remains unchanged when it is followed by two consonants.
(iii) In some cases, radical a is not lengthened although
followed by a single consonant.
(iv) Roots in i, ī and u, ū form their causal from the Special
Base.
(v) Other verbs, too, may form the causal from the Special Base.
(vi) Some roots in a take āpe, āpaya.
Examples
Root Causative Bases.
√pac, to cook, pāce, pācaya, pācāpe,
pācāpaya, to cause to cook. (i)
√kar, to do, kāre, kāraya, kārāpe,
kārāpaya, to cause to do. (i)
√gah, to take gāhe, gāhaya, gāhāpe,
gāhāpaya, to cause to take. (i)
√mar, to kill, māre, māraya, mārāpe,
mārāpaya, to cause to kill. (i)
√sam, to be appeased, same, samaya, samāpe, samāpaya,
to cause to be appeased. (iii)
√gam, to go game, gamaya, to cause to go, (iii): we find also;
gāme.
√chid, to cut, chede, chedaya, chedāpe, chedāpaya, to
cause to cut. (i)
√bhuj, to eat bhoje, bhojaya, bhojāpe, bhojāpaya, to
cause to eat. (i)
√rudh, to hinder, rodhe, rodhaya, rodhāpe; rodhāpaya,
to cause to hinder. (i)
√bhid, to break, bhede bhedaya, bhedāpe, bhedāpaya, to
cause to break. (i)
√su, to hear, sāve, sāvaya, sāvāpe,
sāvāpaya, to cause to hear. (iv)
√bhū, to be, bhāve bhāvaya, etc (iv)
√sī, to lie down, sāye. sāyaya, sayāpe,
sayāpaya to cause to lie down. (iv, iii)
√nī, to lead, nāyaya nayāpe nayāpaya, to cause
to lead. (iv, iii)
√pucch, to ask, pucchāpe, pucchāpaya, to cause to ask.
(ii).
√dhā, to place, pidhāpe, pidhāpaya, to cause to
shut. (vi).
with prefix pi, pidahāpe, pidahāpaya, to cause to shut.
(v, ii).
√dā, to give, dāpe dāpaya, to cause to give.
√ṭhā, to stand, ṭhape, ṭhapaya, to place (vi, with a
shortened).
Double Causal
493. There is a double causal formed by adding āpāpe to the root.
Examples
Root. Simple Causal. Double Causal.
√pac, to cook, pāce, pācāpe, etc.,
pācāpāpe, pācāpāpaya.
√chid, to cut, chede, chedāpe, ctc., chedāpāpe,
chedāpāpaya.
√bhuj, to eat, bhoje, bhojāpe, etc., bhojāpāpe,
bhojāpāpaya.
Remarks. The double causal may be
translated by "to get to, or, to make to cause to." For
instance: So purisaṃ dāsaṃ odanaṃ pācāpāpeti. "He causes the
man to cause the slave to cook the food." or "He got
the man to make the slave to cook the food."
Note that the first accusative or object purisaṃ may be
and is often, replaced by an Instrumentive.
494. The causative verbs are declined like the verbs in i, ī of the 1st conjugation, 3rd Division (393, 385) and like the verbs of the 7th conjugation. (379)
Examples
√pac, to cook, causative base pāce, pācaya,
pācāpe, pācāpaya, to cause to cook.
PRESENT.
Singular.
1. pācemi, pācayāmi, pācāpemi,
pācāpayāmi, I cause to cook.
2. pācesi, pācayasi, pācāpesi,
pācāpayasi, thou causest to cook.
3. pāceti, pācayati, pācāpeti,
pācāpayati, he causes to cook.
Plural.
1. pācema, pācayāma, pācāpema,
pācāpayāma, we cause to cook.
2. pācetha, pācayatha, pācāpetha,
pācāpayatha, you cause to cook.
3. pācenti, pācayanti pācāpenti,
pācāpayanti, they cause to cook.
OPTATIVE.
Singular.
1. pāceyyāmi, pācayeyyāmi,
pācāpeyyāmi, pācāpayeyyāmi, I
should cause, etc.
2. pāceyyāsi, pācayeyyāsi,
pācāpeyyāsi, pācāpayeyyāsi, thou
shouldst cause, etc.
3. pāceyya, pācayeyya, pācāpeyya,
pācāpayeyya, he should cause, etc.
Plural.
1. pāceyyāma, pācayeyyāma,
pācāpeyyāma, pācāpayeyyāma, we
should cause, etc.
2. pāceyyātha pācayeyyātha
pācāpeyyātha, pācāpayeyyātha, you
should cause, etc.
3. pāceyyuṃ, pācayeyyuṃ,
pācāpeyyuṃ, pācāpayeyyuṃ, they should
cause, etc.
And so on for the other tenses.
Remarks.
(a) The bases in e and pe take the Sigmatic Aorist Endings (418,
419).
(b) The bases in aya take the other Endings (407, b). As,
pācesiṃ, pācesi, pācāpesiṃ,
pācayiṃ, pācayi, pācāpayiṃ,
pācāpayi, etc.
Causal Passive
495. The passive of a causal verb is formed by joining the suffix ya of the Passive to the Causative Base, by means of i, lengthened to ī, final vowel e of the Causative base having been dropped first. The Causal Passive may be translated by "caused to... , made to do..." the action expressed by the root.
Examples
Root. Simple Verb Causal. Causal Passive
√pac, to cook pacati pāceti, pācīyati, to be caused
to cook.
√bhuj, to eat bhuñjati, bhojeti, bhojīyati, to be caused
to eat.
√kar, to do karoti kāreti, kārīyati, to be caused to
do.
Remark. Connective vowel i may also be found short.
496. Some verbs,
although in the Causative, have merely a transitive sense as:
√car, to go, Causative cāreti, to cause to go=to administer
(an estate).
√bhū, to be, Causative bhāveti, to cause to=to cultivate,
practise.
497. Verbs of the 7th
Conjugation form their causal by adding āpe or āpaya to
the base, the final vowel of the base having first been dropped.
Root. Base
√cur, to steal, core.
√kath, to tell, kathe.
√tim, to wet, teme.
Simple Verb. Causal.
coreti, corayati, corāpeti, corāpayati.
katheti, kathayati, kathāpeti, kathāpayati.
temeti, temayati, temāpeti, temāpayati.
Denominative Verbs
498. So called because they are formed from a noun stem by means of certain suffixes.
499. The meaning of the
Denominative Verb is susceptible of several renderings in
English; it generally expresses:
(a) "to act as, to be like, to wish to be like" that
which is denoted by the noun.
(b) "to wish for, to desire" that which is signified by
the noun.
(c) "to change or make into" that which is denoted by
the noun.
(d) "to use or make use of" that which is expressed by
the noun.
500. The suffixes used
to form Denominative Verbal Stems are:
(i) āya, aya, e.
(ii) īya, iya.
(iii) a.
(iv) āra, āla. (These two rather rare).
(v) āpe.
501. The base or stem having been obtained by means of the above suffixes, the Personal Endings of the tenses are added exactly as they are after other verbs.
Examples
Noun Stem Denominative Verbs.
pabbata, a mountain. pabbatāyati, to act like a mountain.
macchara, avarice. macchārayati, to be avaricious (lit. to
act avariciously).
samudda, the ocean. sammuddāyati, to be or act like the
ocean.
nadī, river. nadiyiti, to do, act like a river.
arañña, forest. araññīyati, to act (in town)
as in the forest.
dhana, riches. dhanayati, dhanāyati, to desire riches.
putta, a son. puttīyati, to desire, or treat as a son.
patta, a bowl. pattīyati, to wish for a bowl.
cīvara, monk's robe. cīvarīyati, to desire a robe.
dolā, a palankin. dolāyati, to desire a, or wish for
one's own palankin.
vīṇā, a lute. vīṇāyati, to use the lute, to play on
the lute.
upakkama, diligence, plan. upakkkamālati, to make diligence,
to devise plans.
gaṇa, a following. gaṇayati, to wish for a following or
disciples.
samodhāna, a connection. samodhāneti, to connect, join.
sārajja, modesty. sārajjati, to be shy, nervous
shyness.
taṇhā, craving. taṇhāyati, taṇhīyati, to crave.
mettaṃ, love. mettāyati, to love.
karuṇa, mercy, pity. karuṇāyati, to pity.
sukha, happiness. sukhāpeti, to make happy.
dukkha, misery. dukkhāpeti, to make miserable.
uṇha, heat. uṇhāpeti, to heat, warm.
jaṭā, matted hair, vijaṭāyati, disentangle, comb out.
tangled branches.
pariyosāna, end. pāriyosānati, to end, to cease.
502. Denominatives can
also be formed from the stems of adjectives and adverbs; as:
daḷha, firm, strong, daḷhāyati, to make firm, strong.
santaṃ, being good, santarati to act well, or
handsomely.
aṭṭa, afflicted, hurt, aṭṭayati, to hurt, afflict.
Remarks.
(a) Suffixes āra and āla are simply modifications of
aya.
(b) There is an uncommon way of forming Denominative Verbs from
nouns: the 1st, 2nd or 3rd syllable of the noun is reduplicated
and the suffix īyisa or yisa added to the word thus
reduplicated; the vowel u or i may or may not be inserted between
the reduplication. (Niruttidīpanī).
Noun Stem. Denominative Verb.
putta, son, pupputtīyisati, to wish to be (as) a son.
putta, a son, puttittiyisati, to wish to be (as) a son.
kamalaṃ, flower, kakamalāyisati or
kamamalāyisati or kamalalāyisati, to wish to be (as) a
flower.
(c) The Causal and Passive of all Denominatives are formed in the
usual manner.
Desiderative Verbs
503. As its very name indicates, the Desiderative Conjugation expresses the wish or desire to do or be that which is denoted by the simple root.
504. The Desiderative is not extensively used in Pāli; however, it is frequent enough to warrant a careful perusal of the rules for its formation.
505. The suffix sa is
the characteristic sign of this conjugation; another
characteristic is the reduplication of the root according to the
rules already given (372). The student ought first to look
carefully over those rules.
Root. Desiderative Base. Desiderative Verb.
√su, to hear, sussusa sussusati, to desire to hear=listens.
(33,372-7c).
√bhuj, to eat bubhukkha, bubhukkhati, to wish to eat. (86,
372-5).
√tij, to bear, titikkha, titikkhati, to endure, be patient. (86,
372-7b).
√ghas, to eat, jighaccha, jighacchati, to desire to eat. (89,
372-7a).
√pā, to drink, pipāsa, pivāsa pivāsati, to
desire to drink. (372-7a).
(pivāsa, from the root).
√kit, to cure, cikiccha, cikicchati, to desire to cure, to
treat. (88; 372-2).
506. It will be remarked that the initial s of sa is mostly assimilated.
507. The bases being
obtained, the personal endings are added as usual.
Remark. The Causal and Passive are formed in the usual way.
Intensive Verbs
508. The Intensive Verbs also called Frequentative Verbs, express the frequent repetition or the intensification of the action denoted by the simple root. The characteristic of the Intensive Conjugation is the reduplication of the root according to the usual rules (372).
509. These verbs are
not very frequent in Pāli.
Examples
Root. Intensive Verb.
√lap, to talk. lālappati, lālapati, to lament.
√kam, to go. caṅkamati, to walk to and fro.
√gam, to go. jaṅgamati, to go up and down.
√cal, to move. cañcalati to move to and fro, to tremble.
The personal endings are added as usual.
510. Defective and Anomalous
Verbs
√as, to be
Present System.
Present
Singular Plural.
1. asmi, amhi, I am. asma, amha, we are.
2. asi, thou art. attha, you are.
3.
Imperative.
Singular Plural.
1.
2. ahi, be thou. attha, be ye.
3. atthu, let him,her, it be. santu, let them be.
Present Participle.
Active Reflective.
Masc. santo, being. samāno, being.
Fem. santī, being. samānā, being.
Neut. santaṃ, being. samānaṃ, being.
Aorist.
Active Reflective.
1. āsiṃ, I was, I have been. āsimhā,
āsimha, we were, we have been.
2. āsi, thou wast, thou hast been. āsittha, you were,
you have been.
3. āsi, he was, he has been. āsuṃ, āsiṃsu, they
were, they have been.
Conditional.
Active Reflective.
1. assaṃ, if I were or should be. assāma, if we were
or should be.
2. assa, if thou wert or should be. assatha, if you were or
should be.
3. assa, siyā, if he were or should be. assu, siyuṃ, if they
were or should be.
511. √hū, to be. (hū
is a contracted form of root bhū).
Present System.
Present. Imperfect.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. homi, homa. ahuva, ahuvaṃ, ahuvamha, ahuvamhā.
2. hosi, hotha. ahuvo, ahuvattha.
3. hoti, honti. ahuva, ahuvā, ahuvu.
Imperative. Optative.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. homi, homa. heyyāmi, heyyāma.
2. hohi, homa. heyyāsi, heyyātha.
3. hotu, hontu. heyya heyyuṃ.
Present Participle.
Masc. honto. Fem. hontī. Neut. hontaṃ.
Aorist.
Singular. Plural.
1. ahosiṃ, ahuṃ, ahosimhā, ahumhā.
2. ahosi, ahosittha.
3. ahosi, ahu, ahesuṃ, ahuṃ.
The Future has already been given (436).
Infinitive. Gerund. Future. P.P.
hotuṃ. hutvā. hotabbo.
512. √kar, to do,
make.
The present Active has already been given (403).
Present System.
Present.
Reflective.
Singular. Plural.
1. kubbe. kubbamhe, kurumhe
2. kubbase, kuruse. kubbavhe, kuruvhe.
3. kubbate, kurute, kubbati. kubbante, kurunte.
Optative.
Active.
Singular.
1. kare, kubbe, kubbeyya.
kareyya, kayirā, kayirāmi.
2. kare, kubbe, kubbeyyāsi,
kareyyāsi, kayirā, kayirāsi,
3. kare, kubbe, kayirā, kubbeyya,
kareyya.
Plural
1. kareyyāma, kubbeyyāma, kayirāma.
2. kareyyātha, kubbetha, kayirātha.
3. kareyyaṃ, kubbeyyaṃ, kayiraṃ.
Imperfect.
Active Reflective.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. akara, akaramhā. akariṃ, akaramhase.
akaraṃ.
2. akaro, akarattha. akarase, akaravhaṃ.
3. akara, akaru. akarattha, akaratthuṃ.
The Aorist has been given (412).
Imperative.
Active.
Singular. Plural.
1. karomi, karoma.
2. kuru, karohi, karotha.
3. karotu, kurutu, karontu, kubbantu.
Reflective.
Singular. Plural.
1. kubbe, kubbāmase.
2. kurussu, kuruvho.
3. kurutaṃ, kubbantaṃ.
Future.
Besides the usual Future in ssāmi: karissāmi,
karissasi, there is another form given in (436).
Present Participle.
Active. Reflective.
Masc. karaṃ, karonto. karamāno, kurumāno,
karāno, kubbāno.
Fem. karontī, karamānā, kurumānā,
karānā, kubbānā.
Neut. karaṃ, karontaṃ, karamānaṃ, kurumānaṃ,
karānaṃ, kubbānaṃ.
Future Passive Part.
kattabbo, kātabbo, kāriyo, kayiro, kayyo, karaṇīyo.
Remarks. All the forms in yira are obtained through metathesis,
in kayyo the r has been assimilated.
Present Passive Part.
karīyamāno, kariyyamāno, kayīramāno,
kariyamāno.
Passive Base.
The Passive Base has several forms:
karīya, kariyya, kariya, kayira.
513. √da, to give.
The Present Optative and Imperative have already been
given.(395). The student will remark that some of the tenses are
formed directly on the root: the Radical Aorist, the Sigmatic
Aorist, the Future and the Conditional.
Radical Aorist. Sigmatic Aorist.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. adaṃ, adamhā. adāsiṃ,
adāsimhā.
2. ado, adattha. adāsi, adāsittha.
3. ada, adaṃsu, aduṃ. adāsi, adāsuṃ, adāsiṃsu.
Future.
a. From the Base. b. From the Root.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. dadissāmi, dadissāma. dassāmi, dassāma.
2. dadissasi, dadissatha. dassasi, dassatha.
3. dadissati, dadissanti. dassati, dassanti.
Conditional.
Sing. Plur.
1. adassaṃ, adassamhā.
2. adasse, adassatha.
3. adassā, adassaṃsu.
Participles.
(Masculine.)
Present. P.P.P. Active P.P.
dadaṃ, dadanto. dinno. dinnavā.
Fut. P. Fut. P. P.
dadassaṃ. dātabbo.
dadassanto. dāyo.
Pres. Reflect. Part.
dadamāno. dadamānā. dadamānaṃ.
Verbal Prefixes
514. The Prefixes or Prepositions, called in Pāli: Upasagga (23, Remark), are prefixed to verbs and their derivatives; they have been, on that account, called Verbal Prefixes. They generally modify the meaning of the root, or intensify it, and sometimes totally alter it; in many cases, they add but little to the original sense of the root.
515. The usual rules of sandhi apply when these prefixes are placed before verbs. When a prefix is placed before a tense with the augment a, the augment must not change its position, but remain between the prefix and the root, as; agā+ati=accagā (74, i), and not; ātigā
516. These prefixes are
as follows:
ā - to, at, towards, near to, until, as far as, away, all
round.
Examples
√kaḍḍh, to drag,
draw=ākaḍḍhati, to draw towards, to drag away.
√kir, to pour, scatter=ākirati, to scatter all over or
around, to fill.
√cikkh, to show, tell=ācikkhati, to point out, tell to (to
communicate).
√chad, to cover=acchādeti, to cover over or all around, to
put on clothes (33, 35).
Remarks. This prefix reverses the meaning of some roots;
√dā, to give, but ādāti, to take.
√gam, to go, base: gaccha=āgacchati, to come.
ati (before vowel=acc.) beyond, across,
over, past, very much, very; it expresses excess.
Examples
√kam, to step, go=atikkamati
(33), to step over to go across, go past, to escape, overcome,
transgress, excell, to elapse.
√nī, to lead=atineti, to lead over or across, to irrigate.
√car, to act,=aticarati, to act beyond, too much, in excess=to
transgress.
adhi (before vowels=ajjh), over, above,
on, upon, at, to in, superior to, great, it expresses sometimes
superiority.
Examples
√vas, to live=adhivasati, to
live in, to inhabit.
√gam, to go=ajjhagamā, he approached=adhi+augment
a+gamā(Aorist).
√bhās, to speak=adhibhāsati, to speak to, to address.
anu, after, along, according to, near
to, behind, less than, in consequence of, beneath.
Examples
√kar, to do=anukaroti, to do
like, viz., to imitate, to ape.
√kam, to go=anukkamati, to go along with, to follow.
√dhāv, to run=anudhāvati, to run after to pursue.
√gah, to take=anugaṇhati, to take near, beneath=to protect.
apa, off, away, away from, forth: it
also implies detraction, hurt, reverence.
Examples
√ci, to notice,
observe=apacāyati, to honour, respect; apaciti, reverence.
√nī, to lead=opaneti, to lead away, viz., to take away, remove.
√gam, to go,=apagacchati, to go away.
√man, to think=apamaññati, to despise.
api, on, over, unto, close upon. This
prefix is very seldom used; it is prefixed mostly to the roots:
√dhā, to put, set, lay, and √nah, to bind, join. It is
moreover found abbreviated to pi in most instances.
Examples
√dhā, to put, set,
lay=pidahati, to cover, close, shut. apidhanaṃ,
pidahanaṃ, pidhānaṃ, covering, lid,
cover.
√nah, to bind, join=pinayhati, to bind on, join on.
abhi, to, unto, towards, against, in the
direction of. lt also expresses excess, reverence, particularity.
(Before a vowel=abbh).
Examples
√gam, to go=abhigacchati, to go
towards, approach.
√kaṅkh, to desire, abhikaṅkhati=to desire particularly, to
long for, yearn.
√jal to blaze=abhijalati, to blaze excessively, viz, fiercely.
√vand, to salute=abhivandati, to salute reverentially.
ava, down, off, away, back, aside,
little, less. Implies also: disrespect, disregard.
Remarks. ava, is often contracted to o.
Examples
√jā, to
know=avajānāti, to despise.
√har, to take=avaharati, to take away. avahāro, taking
away.
√khip, to throw=avakhipati, to throw down.
√lok, luk, to look=oloketi, to look down=avaloketi.
ud (=the u of native grammarians; for
the assimilation of final d to the following consonants see 58,
60, 62, 65. Before h, sometimes final d is lost and the u
lengthened.)
Upwards, above, up, forth, out.
Examples
√khip, to throw=ukkhipati, to
throw up, get rid of; ukkhepanaṃ, excommunication.
√chid, to cut=ucchindati, to cut off.
√ṭhā, to stand=uṭṭhahati to stand up, rise,
uṭṭhānaṃ, rising.
√har, to take=uddharati (96) to draw out. uddharaṇaṃ, pulling
out.
Remark. ud reverses the meaning of a few verbs
√pat, to fall=uppatati, to leap up, spring up.
√nam, to bend=unnamati, to rise up, ascend.
upa unto, to, towards, near, with, by
the side of, as, like, up to, (opposed to apa), below, less.
Examples
√kaḍḍh to drag=upakaḍḍhati,
to drag or draw towards, to draw below or down.
√kar, to do=upakaroti, to do something towards unto; viz, to
help, upakāro, help, use; upakaraṇaṃ, instrument (lit.
doing with).
√kam to step, go=upakkamati, to attack, (lit. to go towards).
ni (sometimes lengthened to nī, and
before a vowel=nir) out, forth, down, into, downwards, in, under.
Examples
√kam, to go=nikkhamati, to go
out, to depart.
√dhā, to place=nidahati or nidheti, to deposit, hide.
√har, to take=nīharati, to take out.
√han, to strike=nihanti, to strike down.
pa, onward, forward to, forth, fore,
towards, with. It expresses beginning.
Examples
√bhā, to
shine=pabhāti to shine forth, to dawn. pabhā, radiance.
√bhū, to be=pabhavati, to begin to be, viz., to spring up, to
originate.
√jal, to burn=pajjalati, to burn forth, to blaze.
pati, paṭi against, back to, in reverse
direction, back again in return, to, towards, near.
Examples
√bhās, to
speak=paṭibhāsati. to speak back, to reply.
√khip, to throw=paṭikkhipati, to refuse. paṭikkhepo, refusing.
√kam, to step=paṭikkamati, to step back, to retreat.
parā, away, back, opposed to,
aside, beyond.
Examples
√kam, to go=parakkamati, to
strive, put forth effort.
√ji, to conquer=parājeti, to overcome.
pari, around, all around, about, all
about, all over. Expresses completeness, etc.
Examples
√car, to walk=paricarati, to
walk around, viz,. to serve, honour.
paricāro, attendance; paricca, having encircled
(=pari+i+tya).
√chid, to cut=paricchindati, to cut around, to limit, mark out.
√dhāv, to run=paridhāvati, to run about.
√jā, to know=parijānāti, to know perfectly,
exactly.
vi, asunder, apart, away, without.
Implies separation, distinctness, dispersion.
Examples
√chid, to cut=vicchindati, to
cut or break asunder, to break off, interrupt.
√jā to know=vijānāti, to know distinctly, to
discern; vijānaṃ, knowing.
√kir, to scatter=vikirati, to scatter about, to spread.
sam, with, along, together, fully,
perfectly.
√bhuj, to eat=sambhuñjati, to eat with.
√vas, to live=saṃvasati, to live together with; saṃvāso,
living with.
Remarks. It should be borne in mind that two, and sometimes
three, of the above prefixes may combine. The most common
combinations are:
vyā, written byā (=vi+ā); vyākaroti, to
explain (√kar); vyāpajjati, to fall away (pad, to go).
ajjho (=adhi+o, o=ava), ajjhottharati, to overwhelm (√thar, to
spread).
ajjhā (=adhi+a), ajjhāvasati, to dwell in (vas)
ajjhāseti, to lie upon (√sī).
anupa (=anu+pa), anupakhādati, to eat into (khad);
anupabbajati to give up the world (√vaj, to go).
anupari (=anu+pari), anuparidhāvati, to run up and down
(dhav); anupariyāti, to go round and round (√yā).
anusam (=anu+sam) anusaṅgito, chanted together rehearsed;
anusañcarati, to cross.
samud (=sam+ud), samukkaṃsati, to exalt; samucchindati, to extirpate
(√chid); samudeti, to remove (√i).
samudā (sam+ud+ā) samudācarati, to address,
practise (√car); samudāhaṭo, produced (√har);
samudāgamo, beginning (√gam).
samupa(=sam+upa) samupeti, to approach (√i); samupagacchati: to
approach.
samā (=sam+ā), samāharati, to gather (√har);
samāgamo, assembly (√gam).
samabhi (=sam+abhi), samabhisiñcati, to sprinkle
(√siñc).
upasam (=upa+sam) upasaṃharati, to bring together (√har); upasaṃvasati,
to take up one's abode in (√vas, to live).
Remark. The student must be prepared to meet with some other
combinations; the general meaning of a word can always be traced
from the sense of the several combined prefixes.
517. It is important to note that the prefixes or prepositions are used, not only with verbs, but also with verbal derivatives, nouns and adjectives, as: anutīre, along the bank; adhicittaṃ, high thought; abhinīlo, very black.
518. pari is often written: pali (72).
519. pari, vi and sam very often add merely an intensive force to the root.
520. After prefixes,
sam upa, parā, pari, and the word pura, in front, √kar
sometimes assumes the form: khar. E.g. purakkharoti, to put in
front, to follow=pura+√kar: parikkharo,
surrounding=pari+√kar.
521. A few adverbs are used very much in the same way as the Verbal Prefixes, but their use is restricted to a few verbs only. They are:
āvi=in full view, in sight, in
view, manifestly, visibly. It is prefixed to the verbs: bhavati
(√bhū) and karoti (√kar).
Examples
āvibhavati to become
manifest, visible, to appear, be evident; āvikaroti, to make
manifest, clear, evident; to explain, show.
antara=among within, between, used with √dhā, to put, place; e.g. antaradhāyati, to vanish, disappear, hide; antaradhāpeti, to cause to vanish or disappear.
atthaṃ (adv. and
noun)=home; disappearance, disappearing, setting; used with verbs
of going=to set, disappear (of moon, sun and stars). Mostly used
with the verbs gacchati and eti (√i), to go.
Examples
atthaṅgacchati, to disappear,
to set; atthameti, to set (of the sun).
pātu (before a vowel: patur)=forth
to view, manifestly, evidently, used with bhavati and karoti.
Examples
pātubhavati, to become
manifest, evident, clear, to appear, to arise;
pātubhāvo, appearance, manifestation; pātukaroti,
to manifest, make clear, evident; to produce.
pura, in front, forward, before, used
almost exclusively with karoti, (520).
Examples
purakkharoti, to put or place in
front, to appoint or make a person (one's) leader, and thence: to
follow, to revere.
alaṃ, fit, fit for, used with verb karoti in the sense of decorating. E.g. alaṅkaroti, to adorn, embellish, decorate.
tiro, out of sight; across, beyond,
prefixed to roots kar and dhā, in the sense of covering,
hiding, etc.
Examples
tirodhāpeti, to veil, to
cover, put out of sight; tirodhānaṃ, a covering, a
veil; tirokaroti, to veil, to screen; tirokaraṇi, a screen, a
veil.
522. Prefixes du and su are never used with verbs. (See Chapter on Adverbs), and prefix a (an), is very seldom so used.
523. To finish this chapter on Verbs, we will now give the paradigm of a verb fully conjugated:
Present System.
√pac, to cook. (stem paca).
Present. I cook, etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. pacāmi, pacāma. pace, pacāmhe.
2. pacasi, pacatha. pacase, pacavhe.
3. pacati, pacanti pacate, pacare, pacante.
Imperfect. I cooked, etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. apaca, apacamhā. apaciṃ apacāmhase.
apacaṃ, apacamha. apacamhase.
2. apaco, apacattha. apacase, apacavhaṃ.
3. apaca, apacu. apacattha, apacatthuṃ.
Imperative. Let me cook etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. pacāmi, pacāma, pace, pacāmāse.
2. pacāhi, paca, pacatha, pacassu, pacavho.
3. pacatu, pacantu, pacataṃ, pacantaṃ.
Optative. I should, would, could, can, etc., cook.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. paceyyāmi, paceyyāma. paceyyaṃ, paceyyāmhe.
pace,
2. paceyyāsi, paceyyātha. pacetho, paceyyavho.
pace,
3. paceyya, paceyyuṃ. pacetha, paceraṃ.
pace,
Present Participle.
Active Reflective
Masc. pacaṃ, pacamāno.
pacanto, pacāno.
Fem. pacatī, pacamānā.
pacantī, pacānā.
Neut. pacaṃ, pacamānaṃ.
pacantaṃ, pacānaṃ.
Aorist System.
(Stem pac).
Aorist. I cooked, or, I have cooked, etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. apaciṃ, apacimhā. apaca, apacimhe.
2. apaci, apacittha. apacise, apacivhaṃ.
3. apaci, apacuṃ. apacā, apacuṃ.
apacī, apaciṃsu. apacū, apaciṃsu.
Remarks. The augment a may be left out.
Perfect System.
(Stem: papac)
Perfect. I cooked, etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. papaca, papacimha. papaci, papacimhe.
2. papace, papacittha. papacittho, papacivho.
3. papaca, papacu. papacittha, papacire.
Perfect Participle Active. Having cooked.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Masc. pacitavā, pacitavā.
pacitavanto, pacitavanto.
pacitāvī, pacitāvī
Fem. pacitavatī, pacitavatī.
pacitavantī, pacitavantī.
pacitāvinī, pacitāvinī.
Neut. pacitavaṃ, pacitavaṃ.
pacitavantaṃ, pacitavantaṃ.
pacitāvi, pacitāvi.
Remark. The Perfect Participle is the same for the Reflective as
for the Active Voice. (For formation, see 465).
Future System.
(Stem: pacissa)
Future. I shall cook, etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. pacissāmi, pacissāma. pacissaṃ, pacissāmhe.
2. pacissasi, pacissatha. pacissase, pacissavhe.
3. pacissati, pacissanti. pacissate, pacissante.
Conditional. If I could cook, etc.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. apacissaṃ, apacissamhā. apacissaṃ,
apacissāmhase.
2. apacisse, apacissatha. apacissase, apacissavhe.
3. apacissā, apacissaṃsu. apacissatha, apacissiṃsu.
Future Participle.
Active Voice. Reflective Voice.
Masc. pacissaṃ, pacissamāno.
pacissanto, pacissāno.
Fem. pacissatī, pacissamānā.
pacissantī, pacissānā.
Neut. pacissaṃ, pacissamānaṃ.
pacissantaṃ, pacissānaṃ.
Infinitive: pacituṃ.
Gerund: pacitvā, pacitvāna, pacitūna, paciya.
Fut. P.P.: pacitabba, pacanīya.
P.P.P.: pacita.
524. A Paradigm of √cur, to steal. Base coraya or core.
Present System. Active Voice
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. corayāmi, corayāma. coremi, corema.
2. corayasi, corayatha. coresi, coretha.
3. corayati, corayanti. coreti, corenti.
Imperfect. (from base coraya only).
Sing. Plur.
1. acoraya, acorayamhā.
acorayaṃ, acorayamha.
2. acorayo, acorayattha.
3. acoraya, acorayu.
Imperative.
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. corayāmi, corayāma. coremi, corema.
2. corayāhi, corayatha. corehi, coretha.
3. corayatu, corayantu. coretu, corentu.
Optative.
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. corayeyyāmi, corayeyyāma. coreyyāmi,
coreyyāma.
2. corayeyyāsi, corayeyyātha. coreyyāsi,
coreyyātha.
3. corayeyya, corayeyyuṃ. coreyya, coreyyuṃ.
coraye.
Present Participle
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Masc. corayaṃ, corayanto. corento.
Fem. corayatī, corayantī. corentī.
Neut. corayaṃ, corayantaṃ. corentaṃ.
Aorist System.
Aorist.
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. corayiṃ, corayimhā. coresiṃ, coresimhā,
corayimha. coresimha.
2. corayi, corayittha. coresi, coresittha.
3. corayi, corayuṃ, coresi, coresuṃ,
corayiṃsu. coresiṃsu.
Perfect System.
(The Perfect Tense of these verbs is not generally met with but
it would be: cucora, cucore, cucorimha, etc).
Perfect Participle Active.
Base coraya. Base core.
Masc. corayitavā, coritavā,
corayitavanto, coritavanto.
corayitāvī, coritāvī.
Fem. corayitavatī, coritavatī.
corayitavantī, coritavantī.
corayitāvinī, coritāvinī.
Neut. corayitavaṃ, coritavaṃ.
corayitavantaṃ, coritavantaṃ.
corayitāvi, coritāvi.
Future System.
Future.
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. corayissāmi, corayissāma. coressāmi,
coressāma.
2. corayissasi, corayissatha. coressasi. coressatha.
3. corayissati, corayissanti. coressati, coressanti.
Conditional.
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
1. acorayissaṃ, acorayissamhā.
2. acorayisse, acorayissatha.
3. acorayissā, acorayissaṃsu.
Future Participle.
Active.
First form. (base, coraya). Second form (base, core).
Masc. corayissaṃ, coressaṃ.
corayissanto, coressanto.
Fem. corayissatī, coressatī.
corayissantī, coressantī.
Neut. corayissaṃ, coressaṃ.
corayissantaṃ, coressantaṃ.
Pres. Participle Reflective.
Masc. corayamāno, corayāno.
Fem. corayamānā, corayānā.
Neut. corayamānaṃ, corayānaṃ.
Infinitive. corayituṃ, coretuṃ.
Gerund. corayitvā, coretvā.
P.P.F. corayitabbo, coretabbo
P.P.P. corito, coritā, coritaṃ
525. The Reflective
Voice presents no difficulty; it is generally formed on the base
in aya:
Reflective.
Present. Imperfect.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
1. coraye, corayāmhe. acorayaṃ,
acorayāmhase.
2. corayase, corayavhe. acorayase, acorayavhaṃ.
3. corayate, corayante. acorayattha, acorayatthuṃ.
Passive Voice
526. The Passive Voice is formed in the usual way by joining ya to the base by means of vowel i lengthened to ī, the final vowel of the base being dropped before ī.
Present.
Singular. Plural.
1. corīyāmi, I am robbed. corīyamā, we are robbed.
2. corīyasi, thou art robbed. corīyatha, you are robbed
3. corīyati, he is robbed. corīyanti, they are robbed .
And so on for the other tenses.
527. The Causal and the Denominative Verbs are conjugated exactly like coreti.
528. The following paradigm will familiarize the student with the changes which take place in the principal forms of the Verb:
| Root | Special Base | Active | Reflect. | Passive | Causal | Causal Passive |
| √pac, to cook | paca | pacati | pacate | paccate, paccati | pāceti, pācāpeti, pācayati, pācāpayati. | pāciyati, pācāpiyati. |
| √dā, to give | dadā | dadāti | dadate | diyate, diyati | dāpati, dāpāpeti | dāpiyati |
| √nī, to lead | ne, naya | neti, nayati | nayate | niyate, niyati, niyyati | nāyayati, nayāpeti, nayāpayati | nayāpiyati |
| √han, to kill | hana | hanati, hanti | hanate | haññate, haññati | haneti, hanāpeti, hanayati, hanāpayati | hanāpiyati, hanayiyati |
| √khād, to eat | khāda | khādati | khādate | khājjate, khājjati | khādeti, khādayati, khādāpeti, khādāpayati | khādapiyati, khādāpiyati |
| √lu, to cut | lunā | lunāti | lunate | lūyate, lūyati | lāveti, lāvayati | lāviyati |
| √bhū, to be | bhava | bhavati | bhavate | bhūyate, bhūyati | bhāveti, bhāvayati, bhāvāpeti, bhāvāpayati | bhāviyati |
| √labh, to get | labha | labhati | labhate | labbhate, labbhati | labheti, labhayati, labhāpeti, labhāpayati | labhāpiyati |
| √su, to hear | suṇā, suṇo | suṇāti, suṇoti | suṇate | sūyate, sūyati | sāveti, suṇapeti | sāviyati |
A
Practical Grammar of the Pāli Language
Chapter 11
Indeclinables
529. Under the term "indeclinables" are included all those words which are incapable of any grammatical declension, that is: Adverbs, Prefixes, Propositions, Conjunctions and Interjections.
Adverbs
530. Adverbs may be
divided into three groups:
(i) Derivative Adverbs, formed by means of suffixes.
(ii) Case-form Adverbs.
(iii) Pure Adverbs.
531. (i) Derivative Adverbs
(a) These are formed by the addition to pronominal stems, and to the stems of nouns and adjectives, of certain suffixes.
(b) Under this head come the "Adverbial Derivatives from numerals" given in (279), and the "Pronominal Derivatives" given in (336). The student ought now to read again these two classes of Adverbs.
(c) The suffix to (346), is also added
to prepositions, nouns and adjectives, to form a very large class
of adverbs; to is an ablative suffix (120) and therefore the
adverbs formed with it have an ablative sense.
(i) From prepositions: abhito, near; parato, further.
(ii) From nouns:
dakkhiṇato, southerly, on the south;
pācīnato, easterly, on the east;
piṭṭhito, from the surface, from the back, etc.,
pārato, from the further shore;
orato, from the near shore.
(iii) From adjectives; sabbato, everywhere.
(d) Suffixes tra and tha (346), showing place, are also used with adjectives: aññatha or aññatra, elsewhere; sabbatha, everywhere; ubhayattha, in both places.
(e) Suffix dā (345), is likewise used with adjectives and numerals: ekadā, once; sadā=sabbadā, at all times, always.