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Mapping from 3D space to 2D image surface, moving from a higher dimensional image to a lower dimensional image
Perspective geometry
Virtual camera geometry
Perspective Formulas
Only for camera-cantered coordinates
Centre of projection
One point perspective projection
“Two-point” perspective
“Three-point” perspective
Vanishing points
Parallel lines meet at infinity -> infinity vanishing point
Parallel to one principal axes -> axis vanishing point
Special cases -> “one-point”, “two-point”, and “three-point”
Classes of projection
Subclasses of planar geometric projections
One-point, centred perspective projection example
Two-point perspective projection example
In a two-point projection of a house, left, the viewplane (defined by the view plane normal, VPN), right, cuts both the z and x axes
Ortographics (parallel) projection
Polygonal geometry
In general a polygon is any plane figure bounded by straight line segments and but can comprise these forms
Representation
Polygon mesh: vertex list
Polygon mesh: edge list
Polygons represented as line segments, edges can make polygon clipping and scan-line filling operations easier.
Polygon types
Polygon Properties
In a convex polygon no internal angle is greater than 180 degrees
In a concave polygon there are internal angles that can be greater than 180 degrees
Concave polygons can be represented as a conjunction of convex polygons (convex polygons have certain properties that simplify geometric operations and tesselations).
Level of detail
Vertex spit method
The rendering pipeline I
Graphics Programming
Game engines, and other graphics programs, generally use either Direct3D (Windows) or OpenGL (most other platforms)
Modern PC graphics cards will support some version of both APIs
Game engines (like Unity) build upon these APIs to make development easier
Pipelining
Both OpenGL and Direct3D operate a pipeline, consisting of several different stages
This allows the programmer to perform a number of different operations on the input data, and provides greater efficiency
We will focus mainly on Direct3D pipeline
Direct3D 11 Pipeline
Simplify:
Representing Objects
For efficiency, the graphics card will render objects as triangles
Any polyhedron can be represented by triangles
Other 3D shapes can be approximated by triangles
Input Assembler
Reads data from our buffers into a primitive format that can be used by the other stages of the pipeline
We mainly use Triangle Lists
Vertex Shader
Performs operations on individual vertices received from the Input Assembler stage
This will typically include transformations
May also include per-vertex lighting
Vertex Shader Transformations
Tessellation(密集) Stages
(Optional Stages)
These stages allow us to generate additional vertices within the GPU. Can take a lower detail model and render in higher detail Can perform level of detail scaling
Geometry Shader
(Optional Stages)
Operates on an entire primitive (e.g. triangle) Can perform a number of algorithms, e.g. dynamically calculating normals, particle systems, shadow volume generation
Stream Output Stage
Allows us to receive data (vertices or primitives) from the geometry shader or vertex shader and feed back into pipeline for processing by another set of shaders
Useful e.g. for particle systems
Rasterizer Stage
Interpolates data between vertices to produce per-pixel data.Clips primitives into view frustum
Performs culling
Culling
In order to avoid rendering vertices that will not be displayed in the final image, DirectX performs ‘culling’ Triangles facing away from the camera will be culled and not rendered
Triangles with vertices in a counterclockwise order are not rendered
Use Left hand rule
Pixel (Fragment) Shader
Produces colour values for each interpolated pixel fragment
Per-pixel lighting can be performed
Can also produce depth values for depthbuffering
Output-Merger Stage
Combines pixel shader output values to produce final image
may also perform depth buffering
Double Buffering
Don't want to draw objects directly to the screen
The screen could update before a new frame has been completely drawn
Instead, draw next frame to a buffer and swap buffers when complete.
Shader
A very simple Unity Shader
The Structure
What's permitted in CG/HLSL
The CG/HLSL syntax is quite similar to C
There are a number of permitted datatypes (N.B. Not exhaustive):
Functions:
Transformation geometry and homogeneous coordinates
Transformation geometry
Geometric transformations
Rotation
Rigid body transformations
That is, if two points are a certain distance apart, they will still be the same distance apart after undergoing one of these transformations
Reflection
To combine all the staffs above
Homogeneous coordinates
Homogeneous coordinates introduces a third dummy coordinate w, represented as (x, y, w).
Non-rigid body transformations
Affine transformations
An affine transformation preserves
collinearity between points (i.e. three points which lie on a line continue to be colinear after the transformation), and
ratios of distances between any two points.
Therefore translation, rotation, scaling and shear are all affine transformations.
Scaling
Shear
Combining transformation matrices
Affine transformations in 2D
Three-dimensional transformation geometry and perspective
Three-dimensional coordinate systems
3D (Cartesian) coordinates (X, Y, Z) can be considered in terms of left-handed and right-handed coordinate systems. The "right-hand-rule"
Three-dimensional rotation
Need to specify axis of rotation, and by how much such as a 3D unit vector, plus rotation angle.
Convention: rotation angle is clockwise looking along axis of rotation Note, this is consistent with ordinary 2D anti-clockwise convention: Really a rotation around a positive Z axis coming up out of the page in a right-handed coordinate frame.
e.g.
NOTE:
Left side: rotate along y-axis, anticlockwise (negative), degree (90-Theta)
Right side: rotate along x-axis, clockwise (positive), degree (fi)
Overall:
Homogeneous versions
Gimbal Lock
Lost a degree of freedom
Changing the rotation order affects the axis on which gimbal lock occurs, but does not prevent if from occurring.
Quaternions
Quaternions Operations
Quaternions Rotations
Quaternions to matrices
Activity
TODO: Answer this.
Quaternion's advantages
Avoids gimbal lock
More efficient to calculate
Not dependant on axis rotation order
Easy to interpolate rotations
Arbitrary camera orientation
Matrix form of perspective projection
Illumination Models
Shading and illumination
In real scenes, there is a variation of shading over object surfaces caused by
surface material properties,
orientation of surfaces,
nature and direction of light sources,
view direction and
shadows.
Surface types
self-luminous,
transparent refractive,
transparent translucent,
reflective,
diffuse (also body reflection or matte ),
specular (aka surface reflection or gloss),
textured (macrotexture versus microtexture).
Examples of surfaces
Self luminous:
Jelly fish glow in dark.
Radioactive isotopes.
Transparent refractive:
glass
water
Transparent translucent: (light interacts in more complex way)
scatters
Reflection:
diffuse: carpet
specular: polished steel
These shading patterns can provide useful perceptual clues about the 3D structure of the scene.
Isotropic surfaces (各项同性表面)
In isotropic surfaces the relationship between the incoming (or incident) and outgoing (or reflected) direction of light is the same over the whole surface (otherwise anisotropic).
Illumination models generally most often consider isotropic surfaces only, however:
Certain kinds of material (such as velour) and certain rock or stone faces (look different depending on angle that you view them).
As a result of asymmetric microtexture.
Shading model vs Illumination model
Differences:
the illumination model captures how light sources interacts with object surfaces, and
the shading model determines how to render the faces of each polygon in the scene.
The shading model depends on illumination model, for example
some shading models invoke an illumination model for every pixel (such as ray tracing),
others only use the illumination model for some pixels and the shade the remaining pixels by interpolation (such as Gouraud shading).
The illumination model is about determining how light sources interacts with object surfaces
Whereas shading is about how to interpolate over the faces of polygons, given the illumination.
The choice of illumination model is a compromise between modelling the physics fully, and the computational cost.
Simple illumination models do not consider shadows, reflections or photon-based effects (such as radiosity).
In full ray tracing one considers all rays of light and their recursive interaction between each object —very computationally complex!
In limit can’t model exactly since (ray tracing is undecidable: not Turing computable), so have to make decision about model limitations no matter what, e.g. how many time will we recurse (in other words how many times will we allow for re-reflection) ?
Ambient illumination (环境光线)
Light that comes uniformly from all directions.
Ambient illumination is mathematically an extended form of Lambertian reflection, integrating contributions from an infinite number of infinitesimal point light sources in all directions, instead of a single point light source.
In ambient shading assume that light comes uniformly from all directions (average of full rendering case).
Lambertian (diffuse) reflection (朗博光源； 扩散光源)
Independence of surface orientation
Independence of distance of viewer from surface
Dependence of distance of light source from surface
Specular reflection (镜面反光， 高光)
When a ray of light hits a surface, some fraction of it is also reflected immediately at the outer boundary of the surface. This is the specular reflection and leads to highlights and glossiness.
If the surface were a perfect mirror, then the reflection would follow the law of perfect reflection: For an incident ray of light from the light source, the emergent reflected ray would lie in the plane defined by the incident ray and the surface normal, and make the same angle with the surface normal as the incident ray.
For most glossy surfaces, however, the reflected light is spread out (e.g. scratches in steel of texture in plastic), to a greater or lesser degree, from the direction of perfect reflection. This is caused by microscopic unevenness of the surface: there are a lot of little reflecting facets, whose normals vary from the overall surface normal.
The reflection is strongest in the direction of perfect reflection, and becomes weaker for directions away from this.
Specular reflection as a function of angle
NOTE:
N bar is the normal of the surface
Specular reflection exponent
The exponent n is the specular reflection exponent and controls the degree of spread.
High values of n (maybe as much as 100 or 200) lead to a rapid fall-off and sharp highlights, corresponding to a very glossy surface, almost like a mirror.
Very glossy surface: Steel
Low values (as low as 1 or 2) lead to a slow fall-off and spread-out, more diffuse highlights, a more matte surface appearance.
Not glossy surface: Carpet
Specular reflection is independent of material colour
Notice that specular reflection, being from the outer surface, does not involve interaction with the body of the material, and so is independent of Lambertian reflectivity.
Example: coloured reflections on surface of steel.
The colour of a specular reflection depends only on the colour of the incoming light, not on the colour of the material.
Phong illumination model and specular reflection
Combined lighting models
Multiple Light Sources
If there are multiple light sources, then their contributions at any point on a surface add together, less any shadowing.
Refractive index (折射率)
In certain circumstances - such as at uniform planar interfaces of materials with different refractive index - greater realism can be achieved (at greater computation cost), by taking into account how the fraction of incident light reflected (versus what enters the body of the surface) depends somewhat on the angle of incidence.
This is governed by the Fresnel equation.
Surface rendering and shading
Shading techniques
For polyhedral objects, we can use flat shading or full shading
In flat shading, compute the shading at some representative point of each (visible) polygon face (may be a vertex, or the centroid of the face, assuming it lies within the face). Then use this computed value to fill the whole polygon.
In full shading, do the complete shading calculation at each pixel as the polygon is displayed.
In flat shading,
the same value is used to render the entire polygon,
it misses out on shading variations.
It is therefore realistic only for distant viewer and distant light source.
If our polyhedron is really intended as an approximation to a curved object, then either flat shading or full shading are inappropriate.
The discontinuities in surface normal where the face meet will lead to artefactual discontinuities in the shading.
There are two cures for this: Gouraud shading and Phong shading. In both, compute an “average” surface normal at each visible vertex, by averaging the normals of the faces that meet there.
Because of the contrast enhancing caused by lateral inhibition in our visual systems, these false edges are strongly perceived and are therefore even more objectionable.
Gouraud shading
Calculating surface normals
Gouraud shading is also called intensity interpolated shading.
Orientation dependence
Perspective distortion
Imagine you have a polygon with vertex 1 more distant than vertex 2. In this case you get perspective distortion, since perspective foreshortening means that the difference from one scan line to another increases in the direction of the further coordinate. Under these conditions you can get polygonal silhouettes and edges can look weird.
Phong shading
Gouraud sharing with specular reflection
Intensity interpolation (Gouraud shading) can be used with specular reflection but get less pronounced highlights (according to specular reflection coefficient)
Unrepresentative vertex normals
If interpolation is used, this example should appear like corrugated iron!
Rasterization and Barycentric Coordinates
Introduction to Rasterization
Rasterization is the stage of the graphics pipeline that
first determine the pixels covered by a primitive e (e.g. a triangle) and interpolates the output parameters of the vertex shader (in particular depth) for each covered pixel; then
the interpolated output parameters are then given to the fragment shader; using
barycentric coordinate system (for more sophisticated interpolation).
Rasterization, Visibility & Anti-aliasing
Rasterization involves two additional operations:
Visibility, and
Anti-aliasing
Colour
1.1 Properties of (visible) light
Light is electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 400nm (blue) to 700nm (red).
Colour vision is based on the tri-stimulus theory of colour perception where three kinds of cones are sensitive to red, green and blue light.
Use of tri-stimulus values is known as the RGB model. Another value system is hue, saturation, brightness (HSB) model, closely related to human preprocessing of light (both RGB and HSB are typically supported in most graphics API’s, including Java)
1.2 Response of human cone photo-receptors (relative)
Luminous efficiency of human eye
1.3 Human colour vision characteristics
Colour perception depends on colour context (e.g. what colour and intensity resides next to what other colour etc.)
Blue alone tends to be perceived quite weakly. The greatest colour discrimination(歧视) is in the green to yellow range.
People vary quite widely, even amongst people with “normal” colour vision (adjust your monitor to suit yourself).
Forms of colour blindness include red-green, blue-yellow and achromatic(色盲), has obvious implications for the display of computer graphics.
1.4 Colour
2 Images
Images are two-dimensional (2D) patterns of light, that possess intensity and colour properties, and can be considered as a function (bounded by visibility) that maps a plane into some space of measurements
Digitisation
conversion of analog information into digital information
Digitisation involves sampling over a regular spatial grid, typically square or rectangular (rarely hexagonal or triangular, but occasionally in robotics).
Sampling involves quantisation over intensity values, for each of the pixels in an image. Pixels can be either,
in linear proportion to intensity or in non-linear (adaptive) proportion (as in night vision in the human eye), and either
continuous in value (grey-scale or colour) or binary in value (bitmap representation of 0’s and 1’s)
Digital images
Pixels are the elements sampled by the digitisation process. The digital image, or picture captured from each scene is subject to trade-offs, including
resolution (fineness of sampling or quantisation) versus fidelity, and consequently
fidelity versus storage and processing costs.
2.1 Image formats
Typically header plus pixel data
Header may be fixed record structure, or variable (e.g. attribute/value list), or some combination.
Internal versus external formats
Depends whether the purpose of the format is for the interchange of images (e.g. streaming of images or video over the Internet) or for optimised, random-access during memory and processor operations.
Image header information
Mandatory information:
Magic number (that indicates what format image is, generally used in conjunction with file suffix)
Pixel type such as bit, byte or integer (sometimes unsigned) float, double or complex (imaginary numbers are used by the Fourier transform for smoothing images)
Image size (in rows and columns)
Optional information:
Statistics such as minimum and maximum values of intensities or colour values (very useful for display, means don’t have to parse entire image first)
Additional geometrical information such as aspect-ratio or origin offset
Ownership, program that created image and name of organisation or company
Image pixel data
Images are generally saved in order of raster scanning, like mapping a two-dimensional (2D) array into linear storage (used by computer memory).
Normally left-to-right then top-to-bottom, however sometimes in other orders (always check before making assumptions, when given images to work with)
Pixels may be either be stored using (natural machine units) bytes, integers, floats or (packed) bit fields that need to be converted (unpacked) before displaying.
Often contain padding, to make them an even size for optimised file input and output in many graphics application programming interfaces (API’s).
Variation of pixel data
Images vary in the number of dimension according to their sources and can be either multi-dimensional or one-dimensional.
In Eric Grimson’s enhanced-reality medical surgery, both three-dimensional (3D) nuclear magnetic image (NMR) images and motion sequences are involved
Multi-band images include multiple values at each pixel, the most common being the colour red, green, blue (RGB) and hue, saturation and brightness (HSB) formats.
Multi-spectral remote sensing data is being continuously collected from low-orbiting satellites for geographic applications, such as vegetation or salination information or even spying.
Question: can you think of an example of a one-dimensional image (1D), or even a zero-dimensional (0D) image?
Complex and structured image formats
More complex pixel formats maintain structural information about image regions or other spatial or temporal (Fourier) qualities.
include quad-trees, run-length encoding,
support non-rectangular images of arbitrary shape (however the transparent gif format used on web pages cheats by using background overlays), and
(of course) image compression.
Some image formats use structured picture-description languages, including Postscript, PDF (the format of these lecture slides) and scalable vector graphics (SVG) format frequently used for web pages.
Question: how can a static digital pixel image have (pseudo) temporal qualities?
2.2 image coordinate systems
Coordinate system used by Java and text
Cartesian coordinates
Matrix coordinates
Offset coordinates
Texture
Shadows
Shadows occur where objects are hidden from a light source
Omit any intensity contribution from hidden light sources
Umbra and penumbra (function of size of light source)
Soft shadows and hard shadows (point light source at a distance)
Important perceptual clue for connecting objects to ground (feet in particular)
But object-to-object shadows also important
In general, shadows from many light sources
Planar Projection Shadows
Shadow is projection of polygon onto the surface with the center of projection at the light source
Planar Projetion Shadows
Planar Projection Shadows in OpenGL
Limitations of Planar Projection Shadows
Only do shadows on flat surfaces
Objects must be far enough apart to not cast shadows on each other—although artifacts often hard to detect.
Other Shadow Algorithms
Shadow Maps(Williams, 1978)
Render from light source to compute depth map (z distance to closest object for each pixel in the map).
While rendering, if a point (x,y,z) is visible, map (x,y,z) in the coordinates of the viewpoint to (x’,y’,z’), the coordinates of the point from the light.
If z’ is greater than the value in the z-buffer for that point, then a surface is nearer to the light source than the point under consideration and the point is in shadow. If so, render with a shadow intensity, if not render as normal.
Handles multiple light sources (with multiple z-buffers), moving objects and lights (at the cost of several renderings). Clearly a winning strategy with hardware.
Projecting polygons—scan line (Appel 1968)
Shadow Volumes (Crow 1977)
Texture mapping
Real objects have small surface features
One option: use a huge number of polygons with appropriate surface coloring and reflectance characteristics
Another option: use a mapping algorithm to modify the shading algorithm – Texture mapping – Bump mapping – Displacement mapping – Environmental mapping
2D Texture Mapping
Texture Mapping General
Specifying the Mapping Function
Some objects have natural parameterizations:
Sphere: use spherical coordinates (φ,θ)=(2πu,πv)
Cylinder: use cylindrical coordinates (u,θ)=(u,2πv)
For arbitrary polygonal objects:
Two steps mapping:
To a canonical shape first
Then project normals from object
Or design the mapping by hand
Texture mapping in OpenGL
A parallel pipeline for pixel operations: Texture mapping is part of the shading process
Grungy details we've ignored
Aliasing
Sampling error when mapping texture images to screen
An on-screen pixel may not map neatly to a texel.
The Beginnings of a Solution: Mipmapping
Pre-calculate how the texture should look at various distances, then use the appropriate texture at each distance. This is called mipmapping.
“Mip” “multum in parvo” or “many things in a small place”
Each mipmap (each image below) represents a level of resolution.
Powers of 2 make things much easier.
Problem: Clear divisions between different depth levels
Mipmapping alone is unsatisfactory.
Filtering
Take the average of multiple texels to obtain the final RGB value
Typically used along with mipmapping
Bilinear filtering
Average the four surrounding texels
Cheap, and eliminates some aliasing, but does not help with visible LOD divisions
Trilinear filtering
Interpolate between two LODs
Final RGB value is between the result of a bilinear filter at one LOD and a second bilinear filter at the next LOD
Eliminates “seams” between LODs
At least twice as expensive as bilinear filtering
Anisotropic filtering
Basic filtering methods assume that a pixel on-screen maps to a square (isotropic) region of the texture
For surfaces tilted away from the viewer, this is not the case!
Anisotropic filtering
A pixel may map to a rectangular or trapezoidal section of texels—shape filters accordingly and use either bilinear or trilinear filtering
Complicated, but produces very nice results
Side-by-Side Comparison
Texture Generation
Photographs
Drawings
Procedural methods (2D or 3D)
Associate each x,y,z value directly with an s,t,r value in the texture block (sculpting in marble and granite)
Procedural Methods
Solid Textures
Uses for Texture Mapping
Radiance vs. Reflectance Mapping
Multitexturing
Bump Mapping:A Dirty Trick
Exampe:
Displacement Mapping
Environment Mapping
Environment Mapping: Cube Maps
Interpolation and splines
Ray Tracing
Ray tracing
tracing backwards the path of each ray of light entering the camera to find out what objects it encountered, and what light sources it came from!
Each pixel in the created image corresponds to a line of
sight. Start from image not polygon or object as in rendering pipeline approach.
We can trace back this line of sight (ray) to find the nearest object surface it intersects.
Real-time Ray tracing?
The cardinality (or size) of the ray tracing problem is determined by the number of pixels in the image or viewport, as opposed to the number of polygons in the scene as in the rendering pipeline approach. In addition, ray tracing is made more computationally intensive by the recursive nature of ray tracing (depending upon what order you assume in terms of how many re-reflections of rays you cater for).
Some real-time ray tracing techiques
Quite a large number of approaches to speed up.
Pre-baking,
OpenRL (low level interactive ray tracing API),
Bounding volumes, e.g. Binary space parition trees (BSPs)
. . .
Refraction
Calculating the refraction vector
Transparency
Shadow volumes & the Stencil Buffer
Scan-line generation of shadows
Kinematics
Kinematics
Forward kinematics for me is:
Apply a behaviour to my robot arm—e.g. rotate one of my arms by pre-determined angles for each joint (degree of freedom)
Apply a steering behaviour to my robot body—e.g. translate myself by a pre-determined vector on the 2D surface (using my wheels)
Inverse kinematics for me is:
How do I configure my robot arm to reach it?—determine all of the previously unknown angles for my joints.
Can my robot arm reach that object?
Is the object reachable from where I am?—do I need a forward kinematics translation by moving adjacent to it?
Forward kinematics
Forward kinematics can be posed as applying homogeneous transformations relative to the coordinate system.
Inverse kinematics
The inverse kinematic problem is one of the most difficult to solve, as a set of simultaneous equations must be solved.
Degrees of freedom in human animation
In the human skeleton, each joint angle is typically specified by three angles and therefore have three degrees of freedom(DOF).
With increased degrees of freedom (more joints) get more possible solutions (or redundancy of movement).
After including, legs, hands, feet, head and a spine will have well over 100 degrees of freedom, possibly without even including fingers and toes!
Solving Inverse Kinematics
Problems can arise in solving simultaneous equations for inverse kinematics, including
the existence of multiple solutions (or joint configurations)
the possible non-existence of any solution (unreachable), or
sigularities of matrix equations (we will see later).
Solution techniques
We can solve simultaneous equations using iterative or algebraic algorithms
Algebraic algorithms
Algebraic techniques for solving linear simultaneous equations are known from the field of numerical methods.
Iterative algorithms
Iterative algorithms work by calculating an approximate solution which converges to the exact solution,
typically be used for solving non-linear simultaneous equations or when numerical stability if paramount important.
Algebraic approach
Note that checking if the determinant is zero requires the concept of "zero" in floating point, which requires the use of a small non-zero constant that is just larger than the maximum expected error as a result of numerical precision
This will depend on the machine you implement on.
Algebraic example
The complexity of matrix algebra
The challenge of Inverse Kinematics
Since solutions to simultaneous equations is central to geometric transformations and inverse kinematics
can’t efficiently calculate inverse matrices directly for solving simultaneous equations fast enough for real time, and
can’t efficiently check for singularities necessary to guarantee numerical stability or meaningful solutions.
In practice iterative algorithms are used that reduce the complexity of the arithmetic.


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Bologna was very cool and budding with a large young population. It had a very active night life and tons of college aged kids mulling around and drinking. The center of Bologna holds two towers, it is somewhat famous and what the city is known for. Where we stayed looked right out on these towers and was right in the center of the city. It had a very cool morning cafe right next to us, a lot of trendy restaurants for lunch and dinner, and good shopping. This is where we went after Venice, it took about two and a half hours to get there by train. One of the great things about this trip was being able to train from city to city. It makes travel fairly easy and lets you enjoy the scenery as you travel at high speeds.


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Home
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Team / Contact
Project description
LIDAR project includes an infrarred detector, Intel Edison, solar panel, a web server, front-end and back-end web design.
Collaborators: Metropolia UAS, bla bla bla bla bla.


--- layout: post title: "Bj Makes attachment_fu Happy" permalink: /posts/bj-makes-attachment_fu-happy date: 2008-01-12 author: "Jon Guymon" comments: false external-url: categories: ---
The attachment_fu plugin for Rails is great, and it’s support for S3 as a backend sounds really handy. Sadly tho ugh, it isn’t practical for anything other a demo or a proof-of-concept. Luckily its limitations can be worked around with the cunning use of Bj .
When you upload a file to a Rails app, your browser waits while Mongrel buffers the file, then your browser waits some more while Rails processes the fully uploaded file. Normally this “processing” is simply copying the file from where Mongrel put it to where Rails wants it, no big whup. The problem arises when this “processing” is substantially more time consuming, like, say transmitting the file to S3. There’s no guarantee that this will take place in a reasonable amount of time and meanwhile, not only is the user’s browser getting nearer to timing out, but that whole Rails instance is going to block and no one else can use it either. Rails is single threaded, remember?
The solution is to write the file to disk like normal, then spawn a process in the background to take care of uploading it to S3. This is where Bj comes in. Install thusly:
./script/plugin install http://codeforpeople.rubyforge.org/svn/rails/plugins/bj ./script/bj setup rake db:migrate
Bj is a light weight work queue that uses your app’s database as a store. Requests are put into the bj_job
table and run one at a time outside of the mongrel_rails
process. Say we have a model UploadFile
that uses attachment_fu:
class UploadFile < ActiveRecord::Base has_attachment :storage => :file_system after_create :upload_to_s3 BUCKET = 'your bucket' def s3_url(thumbnail = nil, use_https = false) if self.uploaded? "http#{'s' if use_https}://s3.amazonaws.com/#{BUCKET}/#{self.id}/#{self.filename}" else self.public_filename end end protected def upload_to_s3 Bj.submit("./script/runner ./jobs/s3_uploader.rb #{self.id}") end end
Note: for this to work your upload_files
table will need a boolean column called uploaded
with default false
, along with the standard attachment_fu columns.
Whenever a new UploadFile
is created, a job is queued to send it off to S3. Meanwhile, we can still read the file off the local filesystem before its upload is complete.
To define the actual job we create a RAILS_ROOT/jobs
directory and put this file in as s3_uploader.rb
:
# ./script/runner ./jobs/s3_uploader.rb <id> require 'upload_file' require 'aws/s3' include AWS::S3 ACCESS_KEY = 'your access key' SECRET_KEY = 'your secret key' BUCKET = 'your bucket' FILE_ID = ARGV[0] file = UploadFile.find(FILE_ID) Base.establish_connection!(:access_key_id => ACCESS_KEY, :secret_access_key => SECRET_KEY) S3Object.store("/#{file.id}/#{file.filename}", open(file.full_filename), BUCKET, :access => :public_read) file.update_attributes(:uploaded => true)
This will be run by Bj as its own process, leaving Rails to get on with life while the potentially slow upload to S3 drags on.
Couple exercises for the reader: clean up the files on the local filesystem after they’ve been successfully uploaded to S3, save memory by ditching ./script/runner
and accessing MySQL directly without ActiveRecord, support for thumbnails…. A really slick one would be to retry the S3 upload by putting the job back in the queue if it fails.
In the past we solved this problem with ActiveMessaging but it’s fidgety to get that working right, it’s a memory hog, and deployment is a pain (the pollers don’t clean up well – we crashed a server once with 30 zombie pollers). There are still cases where you might want to use ActiveMessaging – one obvious one is if you need to talk to Java via ActiveMQ – but Bj wins for simplicity and ease of deployment.
Many MANY thanks to Ara Howard who wrote Bj and personally helped me get everything working properly.


If the allowClear property is set to true, a cross button is shown when an option is selected. This allows the user to clear the selection by clicking the button.
allowClear


Changelog
0.9
Version 0.9.86
Version 0.9.85
Fixed: issue 586: Revert socket protocol back to version 176.
Version 0.9.84
Potential fix for
reqWshEventData
.
Version 0.9.83
Added support for WSH (Wall Street Horizon) requests plus the (blocking) convenience methods
getWshMetaData
andgetWshEventData
.Updated socket protocol to version 177.
Added support for
Event
security type.
Version 0.9.82
Fixed: issue 534: Session parsing for Forex contracts.
Fixed: issue 536: Handle empty session field.
Fixed: issue 541: Remove superfluous closing bracket.
Fixed: issue 542: Use float size for
pnlSingle
.Fixed: issue 544: Cancel head-time request after completion.
Fixed: issue 545: Return
Trade
instead ofOrder
forreqOpenOrders
andreqAllOpenOrders
.pull 553: Volume bar added.
pull 565: Typo fix.
Version 0.9.81
Add
ContractDetails.tradingSessions()
andContractDetails.liquidSessions()
to parse session times.Fix
IBC.on2fatimeout
command line argument for Unix.
Version 0.9.80
Fix
ib.reqMatchingSymbols
to handle bond contracts.
Version 0.9.79
Fix datetime parsing.
Version 0.9.78
Added
account
parameter toib.portfolio()
.Added
IBC.on2fatimeout
field.Removed obsolete
IBController
.Fixed: issue 530: Use explicit timezone in requests as per new API requirement.
Version 0.9.77
pull 528: Fixes regression in
client.py
.
Version 0.9.76
Fixed: issue 525: For
whatIf
request treat error 110 as failure.
Version 0.9.75
Fixed: issue 524: Use fix from Papakipos for issue with
FlexReport
downloading.
Version 0.9.74
Fix
reqContractDetails
bug in combination with latest TWS.Update the code to comply with stricter MyPy checks.
Version 0.9.73
pull 523: Fix
completedOrder
parsing for new socket protocol.
Version 0.9.72
pull 507: Fixes
bondContractDetails
request.Fixed: issue 502: Treat error 110 as a warning.
Added
manualOrderTime
andmanualCancelOrderTime
for audit trails.Added
PEG MID
andPEG BEST
order types.Added contract fields
description
andissuerId
.Added
IB.reqUserInfo()
.Support socket protocol version 176.
Version 0.9.71
pull 453: Added support for
bidExchange
andaskExchange
fields toTicker
.pull 489:
Watchdog.start()
now returns aFuture
.Fixed: issue 439: Set
marketDataType
directly onTicker
.Fixed: issue 441: Add explicit timezone of None to accomodate pandas Timestamp.
Fixed: issue 471: Revised
Ticker.marketPrice()
calculation.Added
minTick
,bboExchange
andsnapshotPermissions
fields toTicker
.Added
minSize
,sizeIncrement
andsuggestedSizeIncrement
fields toContractDetails
.Added
IB.reqHistoricalSchedule
request.Added
IB.reqSmartComponents
request.Added
Order.advancedErrorOverride
field. Any advanced error message is made availble fromTrade.advancedError
.Added a recipe for integration with PyGame.
Minimum required TWSAPI client protocol version is 157 now.
Version 0.9.70
Fixed: issue 413: Set the appropriate events as done on disconnect.
Exported symbols are now static so that the VSCode/PyLance code analyzer can understand it.
Version 0.9.69
Fixed: issue 403: Change validity test for whatIfOrder response.
Version 0.9.68
Fixed: issue 402: Downloading historical ticks for crypto currencies.
Version 0.9.67
Crypto
security class added. To accommodate fractional crypto currency sizes, all the varioussize
andvolume
fields that were of typeint
are now of typefloat
.pull 385: Get day trades remaining for next four days in
IB.accountSummary
.Fixed: issue 361: Prevent
util.logToConsole
andutil.logToFile
from messing with the root logger.Fixed: issue 370: Catch
asyncio.CancelledError
during connect.Fixed: issue 371: Fix type annotation for
reqMarketRuleAsync
.Fixed: issue 380: Reject bogus
whatIf
order response.Fixed: issue 389: Add
TradeLogEntry.errorCode
field.
Version 0.9.66
Version 0.9.65
Version 0.9.64
Version 0.9.63
Version 0.9.62
IB.TimezoneTWS
field added, for when the TWS timezone differs from the local system timezone (issue 287).IB.RaiseRequestErrors
field added, can be set toTrue
to raiseRequestError
when certain requests fail, instead of returning empty data (pull 296).IB.accountSummaryAsync()
method added (issue 267).Watchdog.probeContract
field added, to use a contract other then EURUSD for probing the data connection (issue 298).Ticker.rtTime
added (issue 274, pull 275). Please note that this timestamp appears to be mostly bogus.Fixed issue 270: Clear ticker depth data when canceling market depth subscription.
Fixed issue with duplicate order IDs.
Version 0.9.61
Ticker.marketDataType
added to indicate the delayed/frozen status of thereqMktData
ticks.
Version 0.9.60
IB.reqHistoricalData()
has a newtimeout
parameter that automatically cancels the request after timing out.BracketOrder
is iterable again.IB.waitOnUpdate()
returnsFalse
on timeout now.pull 210: Fix decoding of execDetails time.
pull 215: New scanner notebook added, courtesy of C. Valcarcel.
pull 220: Added
readonly
option for Watchdog.Fixed issue 221: Delayed close ticks handling by
Ticker
.Fixed issue 224: Added timeout for
completedOrders
request during connect.Fixed issue 227:
IB.MaxSyncedSubAccounts
added.Fixed issue 230: Fixed
IB.reqHistogramData
method.Fixed issue 235:
Order.discretionaryAmt
is now of typefloat
(wasint
).Fixed issue 236:
ticker.updateEvent
is now fired for any change made to the ticker.Fixed issue 245: Emit
trade.statusEvent
when order is implicitly canceled by a problem.You can now sponsor the development of IB-insync!
Version 0.9.59
PR #205 adds more typing annotations.
dataclasses
are now used for objects (instead of inheriting from a baseObject
). For Python 3.6.* install it withpip install dataclasses
Version 0.9.58
PR #196 treats error 492 as a warning so that scanner results can still be used.
Version 0.9.57
PR #184, #185 and #186 add the new Ticker fields
rtTradeVolume
,auctionVolume
,auctionPrice
andauctionImbalance
.PR #191 lets
util.schedule
return a handle that can be canceled.PR #192 adds
throttleStart
andthrottleEnd
events to theClient
.PR #194 adds better JSON support for
namedtuple
objects.
Version 0.9.56
Fix bug #178:
Order.totalQuantity
is now float.
Version 0.9.55
Sphinx update for documentation.
Version 0.9.54
ContractDetails.stockType
added.Fixed
Trade.filled()
for combo (BAG) contracts.Server version check added to make sure TWS/gateway version is at least 972.
Version 0.9.53
Fix bug #155 (IB.commissionReportEvent not firing).
Help editors with the code completion for Events.
Version 0.9.52
Fix Client.exerciseOptions (bug #152).
Version 0.9.51
Fix
ib.placeOrder
for older TWS/gateway versions.Better handling of unclean disconnects.
Version 0.9.50
Fix
execDetailsEvent
regression.Added
readonly
argument toib.connect
method. Set this toTrue
when the API is in read-only mode.
Version 0.9.49
ib.reqCompletedOrders()
request added (requires TWS/gateway >= 976). Completed orders are automatically synced on connect and are available fromib.trades()
, complete with fills and commission info.Fixed bug #144.
Version 0.9.48
Ticker.halted
field added.Client.reqFundamentalData
fixed.
Version 0.9.47
ibapi
package from IB is no longer needed, ib_insync handles its own socket protocol encoding and decoding now.Documentation moved to readthedocs as rawgit will cease operation later this year.
Blocking requests will now raise
ConnectionError
on a connection failure. This also goes forutil.run
,util.timeRange
, etc.
Version 0.9.46
Event
class has been replaced with the one from eventkit.Event-driven bar construction from ticks added (via
Ticker.updateEvent
)Fixed bug #136.
Default request throttling is now 45 requests/s for compatibility with TWS/gateway 974 and higher.
Version 0.9.45
Event.merge()
added.TagValue
serialization fixed.
Version 0.9.44
Event.any()
andEvent.all()
added.Ticker fields added:
tradeCount
,tradeRate
,volumeRate
,avOptionVolume
,markPrice
,histVolatility
,impliedVolatility
,rtHistVolatility
andindexFuturePremium
.Parse
ticker.fundamentalRatios
intoFundamentalRatios
object.util.timeRangeAsync()
andwaitUntilAsync()
added.ib.pendingTickersEvent
now emits aset
of Tickers instead of alist
.Tick handling has been streamlined.
For harvesting tick data, an imperative code style with a
waitOnUpdate
loop should not be used anymore!
Version 0.9.43
Fixed issue #132.
Event.aiter()
added, all events can now be used as asynchronous iterators.Event.wait()
added, all events are now also awaitable.Decreased default throttling to 95 requests per 2 sec.
Version 0.9.42
Ticker.shortableShares
added (for use with generic tick 236).ib.reqAllOpenOrders()
request added.tickByTick subscription will update ticker’s bid, ask, last, etc.
Drop redundant bid/ask ticks from
reqMktData
.Fixed occasional “Group name cannot be null” error message on connect.
Watchdog
code rewritten to not needutil.patchAsyncio
.Watchdog.start()
is no longer blocking.
Version 0.9.41
Fixed bug #117.
Fixed order modifications with TWS/gateway 974.
Version 0.9.40
Ticker.fundamentalRatios
added (for use with generic tick 258).Fixed
reqHistoricalTicks
with MIDPOINT.
Version 0.9.39
Handle partially filled dividend data.
Use
secType='WAR'
for warrants.
Version 0.9.38
ibapi v97.4 is now required.
fixed tickByTick wrappers.
Version 0.9.37
Backward compatibility with older ibapi restored.
Version 0.9.36
Compatibility with ibapi v974.
Client.setConnectOptions()
added (for PACEAPI).
Version 0.9.35
Ticker.hasBidAsk()
added.IB.newsBulletinEvent
added.Various small fixes.
Version 0.9.34
Old event system (ib.setCallback) removed.
Compatibility fix with previous ibapi version.
Version 0.9.33
Market scanner subscription improved.
IB.scannerDataEvent
now emits the full list of ScanData.ScanDataList
added.
Version 0.9.32
Autocompletion with Jedi plugin as used in Spyder and VS Code working again.
Version 0.9.31
Request results will return specialized contract types (like
Stock
) instead of genericContract
.IB.scannerDataEvent
added.ContractDetails
fieldsummary
renamed tocontract
.isSmartDepth
parameter added forreqMktDepth
.Event loop nesting is now handled by the nest_asyncio project.
util.useQt
is rewritten so that it can be used with any asyncio event loop, with support for both PyQt5 and PySide2. It does not use quamash anymore.Various fixes, extensive documentation overhaul and flake8-compliant code formatting.
Version 0.9.30
Watchdog.stop()
will not trigger restart now.Fixed bug #93.
Version 0.9.29
util.patchAsyncio()
updated for Python 3.7.
Version 0.9.28
IB.RequestTimeout
added.util.schedule()
accepts tz-aware datetimes now.Let
client.disconnect()
complete when no event loop is running.
Version 0.9.27
Fixed bug #77.
Version 0.9.26
PR #74 merged (
ib.reqCurrentTime()
method added).Fixed bug with order error handling.
Version 0.9.25
Default throttling rate now compatible with reqTickers.
Fixed issue with
ib.waitOnUpdate()
in combination. withib.pendingTickersEvent
.Added timeout parameter for
ib.waitOnUpdate()
.
Version 0.9.24
ticker.futuresOpenInterest
added.execution.time
was string, is now parsed to UTC datetime.ib.reqMarketRule()
request added.
Version 0.9.23
Compatability with Tornado 5 as used in new Jupyter notebook server.
Version 0.9.22
updated
ib.reqNewsArticle
andib.reqHistoricalNews
to ibapi v9.73.07.
Version 0.9.21
updated
ib.reqTickByTickData()
signature to ibapi v9.73.07 while keeping backward compatibility.
Version 0.9.20
Fixed watchdog bug.
Version 0.9.19
Don’t overwrite
exchange='SMART'
in qualifyContracts.
Version 0.9.18
Merged PR #65 (Fix misnamed event).
Version 0.9.17
New IB events
disconnectedEvent
,newOrderEvent
,orderModifyEvent
andcancelOrderEvent
.Watchdog
improvements.
Version 0.9.16
New event system that will supersede
IB.setCallback()
.Notebooks updated to use events.
Watchdog
must now be given anIB
instance.
Version 0.9.15
Fixed bug in default order conditions.
Fixed regression from v0.9.13 in
placeOrder
.
Version 0.9.14
Fixed
orderStatus
callback regression.
Version 0.9.13
Log handling improvements.
Client
withclientId=0
can now manage manual TWS orders.Client
with master clientId can now monitor manual TWS orders.
Version 0.9.12
Run
IBC
andIBController
directly instead of via shell.
Version 0.9.11
Fixed bug when collecting ticks using
ib.waitOnUpdate()
.Added
ContFuture
class (continuous futures).Added
Ticker.midpoint()
.
Version 0.9.10
ib.accountValues()
fixed for use with multiple accounts.
Version 0.9.9
Fixed issue #57
Version 0.9.8
Fix for
ib.reqPnLSingle()
.
Version 0.9.7
Profit and Loss (PnL) funcionality added.
Version 0.9.6
IBC
added.PR #53 (delayed greeks) merged.
Ticker.futuresOpenInterest
field removed.
Version 0.9.5
Fixed canceling bar and tick subscriptions.
Version 0.9.4
Fixed issue #49.
Version 0.9.3
Watchdog
class added.ib.setTimeout()
added.Ticker.dividends
added for use withgenericTickList
456.Errors and warnings will now log the contract they apply to.
IB
error()
callback signature changed to include contract.Fix for issue #44.
Version 0.9.2
Historical ticks and realtime bars now return time in UTC.
Version 0.9.1
IBController
added.openOrder
callback added.default arguments for
ib.connect()
andib.reqMktData()
.
Version 0.9.0
minimum API version is v9.73.06.
tickByTick
support.automatic request throttling.
ib.accountValues()
now works for multiple accounts.AccountValue.modelCode
added.Ticker.rtVolume
added.
0.8
Version 0.8.17
workaround for IBAPI v9.73.06 for
Contract.lastTradeDateOrContractMonth
format.
Version 0.8.16
util.tree()
method added.error
callback signature changed to(reqId, errorCode, errorString)
.accountValue
andaccountSummary
callbacks added.
Version 0.8.15
util.useQt()
fixed for use with Windows.
Version 0.8.14
Fix for
ib.schedule()
.
Version 0.8.13
Import order conditions into ib_insync namespace.
util.useQtAlt()
added for using nested event loops on Windows with Qtlib.schedule()
added.
Version 0.8.12
Fixed conditional orders.
Version 0.8.11
FlexReport
added.
Version 0.8.10
Fixed issue #22.
Version 0.8.9
Ticker.vwap
field added (for use with generic tick 233).Client with master clientId can now monitor orders and trades of other clients.
Version 0.8.8
barUpdate
event now used also forreqRealTimeBars
responsesreqRealTimeBars
will returnRealTimeBarList
instead of list.realtime bars example added to bar data notebook.
fixed event handling bug in
Wrapper.execDetails
.
Version 0.8.7
BarDataList
now used withreqHistoricalData
; it also stores the request parameters.updated the typing annotations.
added
barUpdate
event toIB
.bar- and tick-data notebooks updated to use callbacks for realtime data.
Version 0.8.6
ticker.marketPrice
adjusted to ignore price of -1.ticker.avVolume
handling fixed.
Version 0.8.5
realtimeBar
wrapper fix.context manager for
IB
andIB.connect()
.
Version 0.8.4
compatibility with upcoming ibapi changes.
added
error
event toIB
.notebooks updated to use
loopUntil
.small fixes and performance improvements.
Version 0.8.3
new
IB.reqHistoricalTicks()
API method.new
IB.loopUntil()
method.fixed issues #4, #6, #7.
Version 0.8.2
fixed swapped
ticker.putOpenInterest
vsticker.callOpenInterest
.
Version 0.8.1
fixed
wrapper.tickSize
regression.
Version 0.8.0
support for realtime bars and
keepUpToDate
for historical barsadded option greeks to
Ticker
.new
IB.waitUntil()
andIB.timeRange()
scheduling methods.notebooks no longer depend on PyQt5 for live updates.
notebooks can be run in one go (‘run all’).
tick handling bypasses ibapi decoder for more efficiency.
0.7
Version 0.7.3
IB.whatIfOrder()
added.Added detection and warning about common setup problems.
Version 0.7.2
Removed import from ipykernel.
Version 0.7.1
Removed dependencies for installing via pip.
Version 0.7.0
added lots of request methods.
order book (DOM) added.
notebooks updated.
0.6
Version 0.6.1
Added UTC timezone to some timestamps.
Fixed issue #1.
Version 0.6.0
Initial release.


2.18. ClassesClasses are a core part of object-oriented programming and serve as a "container" for related data and logic. They provide a "blueprint" for creating "real" objects, called instances. Because Python does not require you to program in an object-oriented way (like Java does), classes are not required learning at this time. However, we will present some examples here for those who are interested in getting a sneak peek. How to Declare Classesclass ClassName (base_class[es]): "optional documentation string" static_member_declarations method_declarations Classes are declared using the class keyword. A base or parent class is optional; if you do not have one, just use object as the base class. This header line is followed by an optional documentation string, static member declarations, and any method declarations. class FooClass(object): """my very first class: FooClass""" version = 0.1 # class (data) attribute def __init__(self, nm='John Doe'): """constructor""" self.name = nm # class instance (data) attribute print'Created a class instance for', nm def showname(self): """display instance attribute and class name""" print 'Your name is', self.name print 'My name is', self.__class__.__name__ def showver(self): """display class(static) attribute""" print self.version # references FooClass.version def addMe2Me(self, x): # does not use 'self' """apply + operation to argument""" return x + x In the above class, we declared one static data type variable version shared among all instances and four methods, __init__(), showname(), showver(), and the familiar addMe2Me(). The show*() methods do not really do much but output the data they were created to output. The __init__() method has a special name, as do all those whose names begin and end with a double underscore ( __ ). The __init__() method is a function provided by default that is called when a class instance is created, similar to a constructor and called after the object has been instantiated. __init__() can be thought of as a constructor, but unlike constructors in other languages, it does not create an instanceit is really just the first method that is called after your object has been created. Its purpose is to perform any other type of "start up" necessary for the instance to take on a life of its own. By creating our own __init__() method, we override the default method (which does not do anything) so that we can do customization and other "extra things" when our instance is created. In our case, we initialize a class instance attribute or member called name. This variable is associated only with class instances and is not part of the actual class itself. __init__() also features a default argument, introduced in the previous section. You will no doubt also notice the one argument which is part of every method, self. What is self? It is basically an instance's handle to itself, the instance on which a method was called. Other OO languages often use an identifier called this. How to Create Class Instances>>> foo1 = FooClass() Created a class instance for John Doe The string that is displayed is a result of a call to the __init__() method which we did not explicitly have to make. When an instance is created, __init__() is automatically called, whether we provided our own or the interpreter used the default one. Creating instances looks just like calling a function and has the exact same syntax. They are both known as "callables." Class instantiation uses the same functional operator as invoking a function or method. Now that we have successfully created our first class instance, we can make some method calls, too: >>> foo1.showname() Your name is John Doe My name is __main__.FooClass >>> >>> foo1.showver() 0.1 >>> print foo1.addMe2Me(5) 10 >>> print foo1.addMe2Me('xyz') xyzxyz The result of each function call is as we expected. One interesting piece of data is the class name. In the showname() method, we displayed the self.__class__.__name__ variable which, for an instance, represents the name of the class from which it has been instantiated. (self.__class__ refers to the actual class.) In our example, we did not pass in a name to create our instance, so the 'John Doe' default argument was used. In our next example, we do not use it. >>> foo2 = FooClass('Jane Smith') Created a class instance for Jane Smith >>> foo2.showname() Your name is Jane Smith My name is FooClass There is plenty more on Python classes and instances in Chapter 13. |


--- layout: post title: Back online! ---
Yes it’s been a long time. But I’m back! And as you can see, with a completely new look! I’ll add the latest comments about the design to this blog entry as they arrive.