Casio CTK-860IN Arranger Keyboards
Casio CTK-860IN Specifications:
o Keyboard: 61 Piano-style keys
o Touch Response: 2 sensitivity levels, Off
o Sound Source: AHL
o Maximum Polyphony: 48
o Tones: 600 built-in tones (Including 15 Indian tones)
o Layer/Split: Layer, Split
o Digital Effects: Virtual Hall, Reverb (10 types), Chorus (5 types)
o Rhythms/Patterns: 190 built-in rhythms (Including 21 Indian rhythms)(10 user rhythms)
o Auto Accompaniment: Modes: CASIO Chord, Fingered 1, Fingered 2 (6th off), Fingered 3 (on bass), Full Range Chord
o Controllers: Start/Stop, Intro, Normal/Fill-in, Variation/Fill-in, Synchro/Ending
o Built-in Songs: 152 (Song Bank)
o Song Expansion: 10 songs maximum (up to 320KB total)
o Lesson Function: Step up lesson, Phrases, Lesson Part select, Performance evalution, Voice fingering guide (Lesson part: right hand, left hand, both hands)
o Metronome: Beats: 0, 1 - 9 (Tempo range: quarter note = 30 to 255)
o Recorder: 6 tracks x 5 songs (performance recording), 1 song (lesson recording), approximately 12,000 notes, real-time recording/playback
o Sampling Function: Maximum sampling capacity: :Up to 8 sounds, Maximum total sampling time: :Up to 10 seconds, Sampling sound input: AUDIO IN jack
o Key Transpose: 25 steps (-12 to +12 semitones)
o Tuning Control: A4 = 415.5 to 465.9 Hz (Initial Default: 440.0 Hz)
o Pedals: Standard jack (sustain, sostenuto, soft, rhythm)
o Display Screen: LCD with backlight
o SD Memory Card Slot: Supported SD memory card capacities: Up to 32GB(SDHC applicable), MAX. 999 songs / SMF (Format 0/1)*, CASIO format song playback, recorded song/CASIO format song/sampled sound/user rhythm/user scale/registration save/load, recorded song SMF format save, card format, file delete
o * Supports SMF Format 0 or Format 1 only for playback.
o MIDI: GM Compatibility: Level1, Terminals: USB
o Speakers: 12cm x 2
o Amp Output: 2.5W + 2.5W
o Input/Output Terminals: HEADPHONES/OUTPUT (standard stereo jack), SUSTAIN/DAMPER, AUDIO IN
o USB: type B*, EXTERNAL POWER (9.5V DC), * USB cable (A-B type) required to use USB terminal for computer connection.


MOD.form.check Class
Defined in:
Module: MOD
src/form.js:279
contains all the check methods for validation
Item Index
Methods
Methods
credit_card
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to make sure the field is a number 16 digits in length
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
email
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to make sure the field is a valid email address
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
equal_to
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to see if value length is equal to the specified length
- input
- select ( multi )
- textarea
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
max_length
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to see if value length is less than maximum
- input
- select ( multi )
- textarea
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
min_length
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to see if value length is greater than minimum
- input
- select ( multi )
- textarea
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
phone
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to make sure field value is a valid phone number
-<PHONE_NUMBER>
-<PHONE_NUMBER>
-<PHONE_NUMBER>
-<PHONE_NUMBER>
-<PHONE_NUMBER>
-<PHONE_NUMBER>
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
required
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to make the field has a value
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:
url
(
None
private
-
field
Checks to make sure the field is a valid url
Parameters:
-
field
Objectthe field to check the value of
Returns:
None:


{% import "Pylot/macros/base.html" as m with context %} {% import "Pylot/macros/forms.html" as f with context %} {% extends "Pylot/PostManager/layout.html" %} {% block page_title %}Reader{% endblock %} {% block content %}


01
Card One
Lorem ipsum dolor, sit amet consectetur adipisicing elit. Id cupiditate soluta iusto tempore nesciunt temporibus ad, tempora nulla rem saepe?
Read More02
Card Two
Lorem ipsum dolor, sit amet consectetur adipisicing elit. Id cupiditate soluta iusto tempore nesciunt temporibus ad, tempora nulla rem saepe?
Read More03
Card Three
Lorem ipsum dolor, sit amet consectetur adipisicing elit. Id cupiditate soluta iusto tempore nesciunt temporibus ad, tempora nulla rem saepe?
Read MoreDon Bator
Creative Designer
Stacie Hendricks
Web developer
Glen Lund
Mobile developer
Chichén Itzá
Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the Northern Maya Lowlands from the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) through the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) and into the early portion of the Postclassic period (c. AD 900–1200). The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.


CodeCut Extension
( 1.0.0 )
Easily accessible user-customizable list to all the computing and programming services/resources
Save Current Tab
Delete All Saved Tabs
Competitive Programming
Hackerrank
Hackerearth
Codechef
Codeforces
Leetcode
Geeks-for-Geeks
Atcoder
Community Services
Dev
Medium
Kaggle
GitHub
Stack-OverFlow
Slack
Development Resources
Codepen
FreeCodeCamp
Scrimba
MDN Docs
W3Schools
CodeSandBox
Open Source Resources
MLH Fellowship
GSOC
HacktoberFest
Outreachy
User Saved Tabs


Visualize
Google Spreadsheet
as a graph
1. Create a
well-formed
Google Spreadsheet
2.
Publish it
to the web
3. Enter URL of the published Google Spreadsheet:
Visualize
Demo
Movies and actors
Vesmír OPIS


Properties
- Animated - Sets whether or not changing modes is animated. The default value is true
- ClearTime - Sets whether or not time should be cleared in edited date/time. The default value is false
- CssClass - The name of the Cascading Style Sheet class used to style the calendar.
- DaysModeTitleFormat - A format string used to display the Days Mode Title. The default value is MMMM, yyyy.
- DefaultView - The default view of the calender. The default value is Days.
- EnabledOnClient - Sets whether or not this behavior is available for the current element. The default value is true
- EndDate - The end date for a range.
- FirstDayOfWeek - The first day of the week. The default value is Default
- Format - A format string used to display the selected date. The default value is d
- OnClientDateSelectionChanged - A script that is executed when a new date is selected.
- OnClientHidden - A client script that is executed immediately after the calendar is hidden.
- OnClientHiding - A client script that is executed immediately before the calendar is hidden.
- OnClientShowing - A client script that is executed immediately before the calendar is displayed.
- OnClientShown - A client script that is executed immediately after the calendar is displayed.
- PopupButtonID - The ID of a control to show the calendar popup when clicked. If this value is not set, the calendar will pop up when the textbox receives focus.
- PopupPosition - The popup position of the calendar. The default value is BottomLeft.
- SelectedDate - The date that the calendar is initialized with.
- StartDate - The start date for a range.
- TodaysDateFormat - A format string used to display today's date. The default value is MMMM d, yyyy.


beach hut
If you have a project ready to go or you just need advice why not give us a call.
- tim on 01 5045638
-<EMAIL_ADDRESS>One's a designer. One's a developer.
Why Us?
Building great online experiences for our clients is what we love to do. So we keep going until we get it right.
Learn More


Index
All Classes|All Packages
R
- receiveEvent(EventToClient) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.EventHandlerCLI
-
This method permits to the connection with the server to pass the receive event to this class
- receiveEvent(EventToClient) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.gui.EventHandlerGUI
-
This method permits to the connection with the server to pass the receive event to this class.
- removeInitialLeaderCard() - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.model.leadercard.LeaderCardHandlerTest
-
This test checks the right working of the removeInitialLeaderCard method.
- removeInitialLeaderCard(int, int) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.model.leadercard.LeaderCardHandler
-
This method remove the leader cards at the beginning of the game.
- removePopeFavorTiles(int) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.model.gameboard.Gameboard
-
Remove the player's PopeFavor tile of a specified section
- removeRoom() - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.server.DisconnectionHandler
-
Removes the room from the all room map of the server.
- ReplayLorenzoActionToServer - Class in it.polimi.ingsw.events.clienttoserver
-
This class represents the event to send to the server as reply of the LorenzoActionToClient.
- ReplayLorenzoActionToServer(String) - Constructor for class it.polimi.ingsw.events.clienttoserver.ReplayLorenzoActionToServer
-
Constructs the event.
- requirements - Variable in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.leadercardview.LeaderCardVisualization
- requirementsColor - Variable in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.leadercardview.LeaderCardVisualization
- Resource - Enum in it.polimi.ingsw.model.resource
-
Resource Enum Class
- ResourceException - Exception in it.polimi.ingsw.model.exceptions
- ResourceException(String) - Constructor for exception it.polimi.ingsw.model.exceptions.ResourceException
- ResourceHandler - Class in it.polimi.ingsw.model.resource
-
ResourceHandler class
- ResourceHandler() - Constructor for class it.polimi.ingsw.model.resource.ResourceHandler
-
The constructor initializes all the necessary data structures
- ResourceHandlerTest - Class in it.polimi.ingsw.model.resource
-
This tests try every type of deposit and the strongbox.
- ResourceHandlerTest() - Constructor for class it.polimi.ingsw.model.resource.ResourceHandlerTest
- ResourceIcon - Enum in it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.marketview
-
This enum contains all the symbols needed to represent the resource inside a deposit
- returnLine(int) - Method in enum it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.marketview.MarketIcon
-
Returns a line of the representation
- returnLine(int) - Method in enum it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.marketview.ResourceIcon
-
Return a line of the representation
- returnLine(int) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.productionview.AdditionalProductionVisualization
-
returns a line of the representation
- returnLine(int) - Method in enum it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.productionview.DevelopmentCardSymbols
-
return line for line the symbol asked
- returnLine(int) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.views.TotalResourceCounter
-
Returns one at the time the visualization
- returnMaterials(Map<Resource, Integer>) - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.model.resource.Strongbox
- Room - Class in it.polimi.ingsw.server.roomhandler
-
This class represents the room of a game.
- Room(int, Server) - Constructor for class it.polimi.ingsw.server.roomhandler.Room
-
Constructs the room initialising default attributes and creates controllers of connection and of the game.
- RoomHandler - Class in it.polimi.ingsw.server.roomhandler
-
This class handle the initial connection of the client with the room, so with the game.
- RoomHandler(Server) - Constructor for class it.polimi.ingsw.server.roomhandler.RoomHandler
-
Constructs the RoomHandler with the server parameter.
- run() - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.cli.WaitingOtherPlayers
-
This method prints 3 dots in sequence and then delete them
- run() - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.client.ConnectionToServer
- run() - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.server.ConnectionToClient
- run() - Method in class it.polimi.ingsw.server.Server
All Classes|All Packages


|
VB
Code
|
Python
Code
|
|
If Condition1
Then
Statements
Else If Condition2
Statements
Else
Statements
End If
|
if Condition1:
Statements
elif Condition2:
Statements
else:
Statements
|
|
Select Variable
Case Value1
Statements
Case Value2
Statements
Case Else
Statements
End Select
|
if
Variable == Value1:
Statements
elif Variable == Value2:
Statements
else:
Statements |
Do
While Condition
Statements
End Do |
while
Condition:
Statements
|
|
While Condition
Statements
Wend
|
while
Condition:
Statements
|
Do
Until Condition
Statements
Loop |
while
1:
Statements
if not Condition:
break
|
Do
Until Condition
Statements
Loop |
while
not Condition:
Statements
|
Do
Statements
Loop Until Condition |
while
1:
Statements
if Condition:
break
|
|
For i = x To y
Statements
If
C1 Then Exit For
If C2 Then Next
Next i
|
for
i in range(x, y+1):
Statements
if C1: break
if C2: continue |
For
Each Obj in Coll
Statements
If C1 Then Exit For
If C2 Then Next
Next Obj |
for
Obj in Coll:
Statements
if C1: break
if C2: continue
|


SudoSecureVaultClient
public protocol SudoSecureVaultClient : AnyObject
Protocol encapsulating a library of functions for calling Sudo Platform Secure Vault service, managing keys, performing cryptographic operations.
-
The release version of this instance of
SudoSecureVaultClient
.Declaration
Swift
var version: String { get }
-
Determines whether or not a Secure Vault user has been registered.
Declaration
Swift
func isRegistered(completion: @escaping (Result<Bool, Error>) -> Void) throws
Return Value
true
if the user is registered. -
Resets internal state and clear any cached data.
Throws
SudoSecureVaultClientError.FatalError
Declaration
Swift
func reset() throws
-
Registers this client against the backend.
Declaration
Swift
func register(key: Data, password: Data, completion: @escaping (Result<String, Error>) -> Void) throws
Parameters
key
Key deriving key.
password
Vault password.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the newly registered user ID or error
-
Returns the initialization data. If the client has a cached copy then the cached initialization data will be returned otherwise it will be fetched from the backend. This is mainly used for testing and the consuming app is not expected to use this method.
Declaration
Swift
func getInitializationData(completion: @escaping (Result<InitializationData?, Error>) -> Void) throws
Parameters
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the initialization data if one exists or error.
-
Deregisters the vault user associated with this client.
Declaration
Swift
func deregister(completion: @escaping (Result<String, Error>) -> Void) throws
Parameters
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the deregistered user ID or error.
-
Creates a new vault.
Declaration
Swift
func createVault( key: Data, password: Data, blob: Data, blobFormat: String, ownershipProof: String, completion: @escaping (Result<VaultMetadata, Error>) -> Void ) throws
Parameters
key
Key deriving key.
password
Vault password.
blob
Blob to encrypt and store.
blobFormat
Specifier for the format/structure of information represented in the blob.
ownershipProof
Ownership proof of the Sudo to be associate with the vault. The ownership proof must contain audience of “sudoplatform.secure-vault.vault”.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the created vault’s metadata or error.
-
Updates an existing vault.
Declaration
Swift
func updateVault( key: Data, password: Data, id: String, version: Int, blob: Data, blobFormat: String, completion: @escaping (Result<VaultMetadata, Error>) -> Void ) throws
Parameters
key
Key deriving key.
password
Vault password.
id
Vault ID.
blob
Blob to encrypt and store.
blobFormat
Specifier for the format/structure of information represented in the blob.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the updated vault’s metadata or error.
-
Deletes an existing vault.
Declaration
Swift
func deleteVault(id: String, completion: @escaping (Result<VaultMetadata?, Error>) -> Void) throws
Parameters
id
Vault ID.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the updated vault’s metadata or error.
-
Retrieve a single vault matching the specified ID.
Declaration
Swift
func getVault( key: Data, password: Data, id: String, completion: @escaping (Result<Vault?, Error>) -> Void ) throws
Parameters
key
Key deriving key.
password
Vault password.
id
Vault ID.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the retrieved vault if exists or error.
-
Retrieves all vaults owned by the authenticated user.
Declaration
Swift
func listVaults(key: Data, password: Data, completion: @escaping (Result<[Vault], Error>) -> Void) throws
Parameters
key
Key deriving key.
password
Vault password.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the retrieved vaults or error.
-
Retrieves metadata for all vaults. This can be used to determine if any vault was updated without requiring the extra authentication and decryption.
Declaration
Swift
func listVaultsMetadataOnly(completion: @escaping (Result<[VaultMetadata], Error>) -> Void) throws
Parameters
completion
The completion handler to invoke to pass the retrieved vaults metedata or error.
-
Changes the vault password. Existing vaults will be downloaded, re-encrypted and uploaded so this API may take some time to complete.
Declaration
Swift
func changeVaultPassword( key: Data, oldPassword: Data, newPassword: Data, completion: @escaping (Result<Void, Error>) -> Void ) throws
Parameters
key
Key deriving key.
oldPassword
Old vault password.
newPassword
New vault password.
completion
The completion handler to invoke to indicate success or pass an error.


Your organisation type is not eligible to start an application in this competition.
Please refer back to the eligibility criteria on the competition page.
You can return to your dashboard or go back to the Innovate UK homepage.
Your organisation type is not eligible to start an application in this competition.
Please refer back to the eligibility criteria on the competition page.
You can return to your dashboard or go back to the Innovate UK homepage.


Edit the XML here
Note: Highlighting will only update on page reload.
Edit the XPath here:
XQuery
XQuery Update Facility
Use JS codegen backend
Codegen return type
First Node
Nodes
String
Boolean
The bucket for this selector
Result, as text
Updated document
AST, as JsonML
AST, as XML
Trace Output
JS Codegen Output


Your entries should appear here (unless you have none, and you get the "online" message).
This page uses bootstrap by default for a slightly cleaner presentation.
Your next step should probably be overriding the template inheritance to glue this blog into your site!
{% block content %} {% endblock content %}{# Bootstrap for prettiness #}


---
layout: post
title: "My Week in Review"
date: 2016-02-07 10:35:00 +0000
tags:
image: https://s3.amazonaws.com/audreywatters/2016-02-07-hermosa.jpg
imagecredits: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mikepmiller/2055954121
---
Travel
- Philadelphia, Hermosa Beach
- Upcoming week: Hermosa Beach
Hack Education
Writing Elsewhere
Speaking
Other Projects
- I had to make a bunch of fixes to my various websites this week as an update to Jekyll has broken a lot of links. Sigh
- I was a guest on an episode of the Cited Podcast
- I updated my websites and CV with the latest travel and publication info, and I updated other projects with end-of-the-month stuff
- I got a massage!
- We’ve had a bit of a wake-up call with some health issues, and it’s going to change a lot of Kin and my travel/lifestyle plans for the coming months – don’t worry, we’re fine
- Changes to Twitter have me thinking about returning to Facebook. Ugh
- I worked on a story – due tomorrow – for Sherri Spelic’s new Medium publication Identity, Education, and Power


All Classes
AnimatingCardLayout
AnimatingCardLayout.Tuple
Animation
AnimationListener
CardLayoutAnimationDemo
CubeAnimation
DashboardAnimation
FadeAnimation
IrisAnimation
RadialAnimation
SlideAnimation


Achieving your objectives to gain advantage requires experience and foresight.
We can help you make the best decisions to move your business forward with confidence.
- Sustainable strategies that help your business innovate and grow while reducing costs and leveraging talent are as essential as having the agility and creativity to respond to rapidly changing environments.
- Corks Best Consulting Service ltd consultancy services help organisations to work smarter and grow faster. We work with clients to help them innovate and grow, reduce costs and leverage talent.
- By taking time to understand your business and the issues and challenges you are facing, our consultancy teams leverage local and global knowledge to help you challenge conventions and achieve your strategic objectives.


Gukgabudo-ui Nal / Default
Gukgabudo-ui Nal is a movie starring Hye-su Kim, Ah-in Yoo, and Jun-ho Heo. Si-hyun (Hye-su Kim), the monetary policy manager at the Bank of Korea, predicts a massive national financial crisis and reports it to the Director. The...


|
F´ Flight Software - C/C++ Documentation
NASA-v1.5.0
A framework for building embedded system applications to NASA flight quality standards.
|
#include <Svc/ActiveTextLogger/LogFile.hpp>
Public Member Functions | |
| LogFile () | |
| Constructor. More... | |
| ~LogFile () | |
| Destructor. More... | |
| bool | set_log_file (const char *fileName, const U32 maxSize, const U32 maxBackups=10) |
| Set log file and max size. More... | |
| bool | write_to_log (const char *const buf, const U32 size) |
| Write the passed buf to the log if possible. More... | |
Public Attributes | |
| Fw::EightyCharString | m_fileName |
| Os::File | m_file |
| U32 | m_maxFileSize |
| bool | m_openFile |
| U32 | m_currentFileSize |
LogFile struct.
The object is used for writing to a log file. Making it a struct so all members are public, for ease of use in object composition.
Definition at line 22 of file LogFile.hpp.
| Svc::LogFile::LogFile | ( | ) |
Constructor.
Definition at line 21 of file LogFile.cpp.
| Svc::LogFile::~LogFile | ( | ) |
Destructor.
Definition at line 27 of file LogFile.cpp.
| bool Svc::LogFile::set_log_file | ( | const char * | fileName, |
| const U32 | maxSize, | ||
| const U32 | maxBackups = 10 |
||
| ) |
Set log file and max size.
| fileName | The name of the file to create. Must be less than 80 characters. |
| maxSize | The max size of the file |
Definition at line 80 of file LogFile.cpp.
| bool Svc::LogFile::write_to_log | ( | const char *const | buf, |
| const U32 | size | ||
| ) |
Write the passed buf to the log if possible.
| buf | The buffer of data to write |
| size | The size of buf |
Definition at line 39 of file LogFile.cpp.
| U32 Svc::LogFile::m_currentFileSize |
Definition at line 69 of file LogFile.hpp.
| Os::File Svc::LogFile::m_file |
Definition at line 60 of file LogFile.hpp.
| Fw::EightyCharString Svc::LogFile::m_fileName |
Definition at line 57 of file LogFile.hpp.
| U32 Svc::LogFile::m_maxFileSize |
Definition at line 63 of file LogFile.hpp.
| bool Svc::LogFile::m_openFile |
Definition at line 66 of file LogFile.hpp.


Presented by Bill Crum / Chattanooga State Community College /<EMAIL_ADDRESS>The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is an open, vendor-neutral, industry standard application protocol for accessing and maintaining distributed directory information services over an Internet Protocol (IP) network.
Source: Wikipedia
A common usage of LDAP is to provide a single sign on where one password for a user is shared between many services...
Source: Wikipedia
(We'll talk about Roles later on)
if(isset($_SESSION['username'])){
$ldap = ldap_connect("dcdmz.cstcc.lan,ou=users,ou=staff,dc=cstcc,dc=lan");
$sub = "cstcc\\";
if($bind = @ldap_bind($ldap, $sub.$_SESSION['username'], $_SESSION['password']) && $_SESSION['password']<>'') {
$_SESSION['type'] = getSessionInfo($_SESSION['username']);
header("Location: access_request.php");
}
}
It's Baked In! Well...sort of...Er...Ready to Bake!
Download LDAP Module from Drupal.org
Copy to sites/all/modules and extract
- or -
Use Drush!
$ drush en ldap -y
E-mail<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Presentation on GitHub https://goo.gl/ukmOG1


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Pdf Agent Based Modeling Vs System Dynamics Denes Csala Academia Edu
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Rethinking The Role Of Agent Based Modeling In Archaeology Sciencedirect
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Group Agent Based And Individual Based Modeling The Book
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An Agent Based Model Abm Generates A Population Of Simulations Sim T Download Scientific Diagram
Agent Based Modeling Of Hunting And Subsistence Agriculture On Indigenous Lands Understanding Interactions Between Social And Ecological Systems Sciencedirect
Novel Applications Of Agent Based Modeling In Emergency Medicine Research A Systematic Literature Review The American Journal Of Emergency Medicine
Implementation Of Agent Based Models To Support Life Cycle Assessment A Review Focusing On Agriculture And Land Use
Combining Agent Based Trait Based And Demographic Approaches To Model Coral Community Dynamics Elife
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4 Agent Based Modeling Examples Mosimtec
Frontiers Navigating Complexities Agent Based Modeling To Support Research Governance And Management In Small Scale Fisheries Marine Science
Agent Based Modeling In Urban And Architectural Research A Brief Literature Review Sciencedirect


About
My first exposure to programming was in college of 2014. I was attending Long Beach City College at the time and they offered an Hour of Code session
for anyone interested in trying out programming. The professor had us develop a Flappy Bird android game,
using puzzles that represented blocks of code. It was at this moment, I knew that coding is something that I want to pursue.
I have always wanted to develop rhythm games but not having the knowledge made that possibility feel worlds apart.
Fast forward to today, I have attended an Intensive Web Development Bootcamp called LearningFuze.
It was here that I honed my skills in Web Development that has given me the confidence to develop and contribute to developing websites and programs.
One aspect of programming that is appealing to me is that it can be a teacher in itself.
It has taught me not to rush into building things right away and the importance of planning
Without a vision of the end goal, programming can be very difficult.
The process of programming and being able to share it with my peers is something that helps me keep going.
I love being able to share the tough moments in programming with others because it makes the journey to becoming a better programmer.
It is also a reminder that I am not alone in wanting to become the best developer I can be.
My biggest triumph in becoming a developer is developing my first Full Stack LAMP React E-Commerce application.
I highly value this project because completing it gave me the realization that I have the ability to develop a fully functioning application.


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Direct flights between Stockholm and Tokyo to launch next year
by TT/The LocalFrom 2020, it will be possible to fly direct between Stockholm's Arlanda airport and Tokyo for the first time in decades.
Japanese airline All Nippon Airways (ANA) will start a direct route between the Swedish and Japanese capitals next summer.
"The new direct route is desired by Swedish export companies and will strengthen the Swedish interest in visiting [Japan]," CEO of Swedavia Jonas Abrahamsson said in a statement.
The number of passengers flying between the two cities has risen by 50 percent during the past year, but travellers have had to use the Danish Kastrup airport in order to fly direct, or to stop off in cities such as Helsinki.
After China, Japan is Sweden's largest export market in Asia.
The country will host the Olympic Games next summer and has set itself the target of doubling its visitor numbers by 2030.
"There are many of us who have been working for a long time for more direct lines from Arlanda and Stockholm so this is very welcome news," said Stockholm's Financial City Commissioner, Anna König Jerlmyr, of the announcement.
Vocabulary
direct flight – (en) direktflyg
to desire/long for – att längta efter
desired/longed for – efterlängtad
Olympic Games – Olympiska spelen (OS)
export market – (en) exportmarknad
We're aiming to help our readers improve their Swedish by translating vocabulary from some of our news stories. Did you find it useful? Do you have any suggestions? Let us know.


Expected outcomes: Minimum 500 Gb of : CT, X-ray scan of the human Body Environment data : weather,.. Remote sensing photos
Download zip files from your topic
Enter claimed shared link address to crawl dataset
Enter shared link address to crawl dataset
Enter shared folder link to download the dataset


See: Description
| Interface | Description |
|---|---|
| JdbcSchema.Factory | |
| Recognizer.Matcher |
This is used to wrap column name matching rules.
|
| Class | Description |
|---|---|
| AggGen |
This class is used to create "lost" and "collapsed" aggregate table
creation sql (creates the rdbms table and inserts into it from the base
fact table).
|
| AggGenTest |
Test if lookup columns are there after loading them in
AggGen#addCollapsedColumn(...).
|
| AggregationOverAggTableTest | |
| AggStar |
Aggregate table version of a RolapStar for a fact table.
|
| AggTableManager |
Manages aggregate tables.
|
| AggTableTestCase |
This abstract class can be used as the basis for writing aggregate table
test in the "testsrc/main/mondrian/rolap/aggmatcher" directory.
|
| BUG_1541077 |
Testcase for
MONDRIAN-214
(formerly SourceForge bug 1541077)
and a couple of other aggregate table ExplicitRecognizer conditions.
|
| Checkin_7634 |
Checkin 7634 attempted to correct a problem demonstrated by this
junit.
|
| Checkin_7641 |
Checkin 7641 attempted to correct a problem demonstrated by this
junit.
|
| DefaultDef |
This is the XML model for defining default aggregate table recognition
and level/measure mapping.
|
| DefaultDef.AggRule |
A RolapConnection uses one AggRule.
|
| DefaultDef.AggRules |
The set of "named" rules for matching aggregate tables.
|
| DefaultDef.Base |
Base is the base class for all of the elements.
|
| DefaultDef.CaseMatcher |
This is a base class for all elements that can match strings
where the case of the string is important.
|
| DefaultDef.FactCountMatch |
This is used to identify the "fact_count" column in an aggregate
table.
|
| DefaultDef.FactCountMatchRef | |
| DefaultDef.ForeignKeyMatch |
This is used to identify foreign key columns in a candidate
aggregate table given the name of a foreign key column of the
base fact table.
|
| DefaultDef.ForeignKeyMatchRef | |
| DefaultDef.IgnoreMap |
This is the template used to specify columns to be ignored.
|
| DefaultDef.IgnoreMapRef | |
| DefaultDef.LevelMap |
This is the template that maps from a combination of level
usage_prefix
hierarchy_name
level_name
level_column_name
|
| DefaultDef.LevelMapRef | |
| DefaultDef.Mapper |
This allows one to create an element that matches against a
single template, where the template is an attribute.
|
| DefaultDef.MeasureMap |
This is the template that maps from a combination of measure
measure_name,
measure_column_name, and
aggregate_name ("count", "sum", "avg", "min", "max",
"distinct-count").
|
| DefaultDef.MeasureMapRef | |
| DefaultDef.NameMatcher |
A NameMatcher is a CaseMatcher that prepends and appends
regular expressions to a given string as part of creating
the matching regular expression.
|
| DefaultDef.Ref | |
| DefaultDef.Regex |
This element is used in a vector of child elements when
one wishes to have one or more regular expressions associated
with matching a given string.
|
| DefaultDef.RegexMapper | |
| DefaultDef.TableMatch |
This is used to identify which tables in the database might
be aggregate table of a given fact table.
|
| DefaultDef.TableMatchRef | |
| DefaultRecognizer |
This is the default Recognizer.
|
| DefaultRecognizerTest | |
| DefaultRules |
Container for the default aggregate recognition rules.
|
| DefaultRuleTest |
Testing the default aggregate table recognizer.
|
| ExplicitRecognizer |
This is the Recognizer for the aggregate table descriptions that appear in
the catalog schema files; the user explicitly defines the aggregate.
|
| ExplicitRecognizerTest | |
| ExplicitRules |
A class containing a RolapCube's Aggregate tables exclude/include
criteria.
|
| ExplicitRules.Group |
This class forms a collection of aggregate table explicit rules for a
given cube.
|
| ExplicitRules.NameTableDef | |
| ExplicitRules.PatternTableDef |
This class matches candidate aggregate table name with a pattern.
|
| ExplicitRules.TableDef |
This is the base class for the exact name based and name pattern based
aggregate table mapping definitions.
|
| JdbcSchema |
Metadata gleaned from JDBC about the tables and columns in the star schema.
|
| JdbcSchema.StdFactory | |
| MultipleColsInTupleAggTest |
Testcase for levels that contain multiple columns and are
collapsed in the agg table.
|
| NonCollapsedAggTest |
Testcase for non-collapsed levels in agg tables.
|
| Recognizer |
Abstract Recognizer class used to determine if a candidate aggregate table
has the column categories: "fact_count" column, measure columns, foreign key
and level columns.
|
| SpeciesNonCollapsedAggTest |
Test case for non-collapsed levels in agg tables, based on the "Species"
schema.
|
| UsagePrefixTest |
Validates the dimension attribute usagePrefix is correctly
applied when querying aggregate tables.
|
| Enum | Description |
|---|---|
| JdbcSchema.TableUsageType | |
| JdbcSchema.UsageType |
Enumeration of ways that an aggregate table can use a column.
|


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The following items must be installed and configured before any of this HOWTO could potentially work for you. Describing the installation of any of these packages is beyond the scope of this document.
The following items will be installed during this howto. The installation of Proj.4 will require privileged access to your system. The Mapserver components will require access to your webserver's CGI-BIN directory.
Hardware requirements is a tricky topic. I have seen 300 MHz machines outperform 1 GHz machines when properly configured. Common sense applies here. If you want to generate nationwide composites every 5 minutes, you will need a healthy machine. If you are supporting a small intranet, a modest machine will do.
For our purposes, Mapserver will not introduce a performance bottleneck on your system. It is extremely fast and robust! Any slowness typically comes when you start reprojecting massive raster layers, but we aren't going to do that!
You are going to need root privileges on your system. So either know your root password or be very kind to the system administrator! We will be installing Proj.4 into /usr/local, which is a standard place to put 3rd party software. Mapserver will be installed into the cgi-bin directory of your webserver.


Interfaces between C++ and QML Code in Qt Positioning
Overview
Depending on the type of C++ class QtPositioning utilizes two methods to simplify exchange of position data between C++ and QML code.
Direct C++ Value Integration in QtPositioning
Starting with Qt 5.5, it has become much easier to integrate non-QObject based data types into QML. This is achieved by adding Q_GADGET support to QtQml. The macro converts classes into a light-weight version of a QObject without the required QObject inheritance. At the same time it retains the reflection capabilities of QMetaObject. As a result they can be directly exposed to QML and do not require any further wrapper classes.
A significant number of Position and Location related data types were converted to Q_GADGETs. They retain their API and value type character but have become introspectable via QMetaObject. This conversion was done to the following classes:
Using QGeoCoordinate as an example, the C++ types are directly exposed to the QML environment via its meta type:
qRegisterMetaType<QGeoCoordinate>(); QMetaType::registerEqualsComparator<QGeoCoordinate>();
The above registration of QGeoCoordinate is automatically done once by the QtPositioning QML plugin. The Plane Spotter example demonstrates this feature.
QVariant Based integration
This section provides information on how to integrate QGeoAddress and QGeoLocation.
Address - QGeoAddress
The Address.address property is used to provide an interface between C++ and QML code. First a pointer to a Address object must be obtained from C++, then use the property() and setProperty() functions to get and set the address
property. The following gets the QGeoAddress representing this object from C++:
QGeoAddress geoAddress = qmlObject->property("address").value<QGeoAddress>();
The following sets the properties of this object based on a QGeoAddress object from C++:
qmlObject->setProperty("address", QVariant::fromValue(geoAddress));
Location - QGeoLocation
The Location.location property is used to provide an interface between C++ and QML code. First a pointer to a Location object must be obtained from C++, then use the property() and setProperty() functions to get and set the location
property. The following gets the QGeoLocation representing this object from C++:
QGeoLocation geoLocation = qmlObject->property("location").value<QGeoLocation>();
The following sets the properties of this object based on a QGeoLocation object from C++:
qmlObject->setProperty("location", QVariant::fromValue(geoLocation));


The parser for PXLab experimental design files.
This package is based on the JavaCC parser generator.


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£30,000 'open data fund' is launched by Department of Finance
A £30,000 innovation and outreach fund to encourage the use of open data has been launched by the Department of Finance.
Awards of between £300 and up to £5,000 are available to fund the development of apps or other interactive visualisations that make innovative use of data on the Open Data NI portal.
Organisations and individuals hosting engagement activities including hackathons, workshops, seminars or events that will raise awareness of open data will also be eligible to apply to the fund.
Colm Burns, who chairs the NI Open Government Network said: “This initiative is another positive step in creating a culture of data openness.
“The latest NI open data strategy and the open data fund will help open up government data and provide new opportunities for research, innovation and engagement.
“Open data innovation and outreach will improve government, empower citizens and create opportunities to solve problems in original and creative ways.”
Encouraging people to apply, Department of Finance permanent secretary Sue Gray said: “Opening up public sector data has the potential to provide commercial opportunities and drive economic growth and innovation.
“This fund will encourage creative re-use of the growing number of public sector datasets available on the Open Data NI Portal and help us deliver on the ambitious targets set out in the Open Data Strategy. I look forward to seeing the exciting proposals which come forward.”
The deadline to apply for funds (details at www.finance-ni.gov.uk/niopendatafund) is Friday February 7.


Of course we know the blind can read using braille, but the dots and bumps can't really do justice to the flow and structure of a web page. And while there are braille readers for the web, most often text-to-speech programs are used instead.
The problem with these programs is that they read everything on the page. For those of us blessed with sight, we can think of how we would read a page and realize how little of it we actually need to read to find a given piece of information. Designers have trained our eyes to be drawn to the most important stuff. But for those without that advantage, they must slog through lots of unnecessary info to get to the couple of sentences they might want.
There are many ways to make the web easier for those using screen readers, many of which are outlined and standardized by the w3 organization. One of the most common is "alt" text for images, which is included in the image tag and describes the image for those who can't see it, even if it just doesn't load right!
When considering the flow of the page for the vision impaired, think about what it would be like if you had to read every page with just the raw html. Does your header contain things that make sense for a header? Are there side elements and other distractions interrupting the main body of the html? The difference between semantic elements can be very important for the blind, for example em and i tags. These two render the same visually, but can be very different for a speech device.
The American Foundation for the Blind has been advocating for better access and regulations for many years. More recently they have been fighting for exceptions to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) because it creates problems when trying to legally convert copyrighted media into something more accessible to the disabled. You can learn more at their webpage. Thanks for reading!


Memory Game
Welcome to the game! Repeat back the patterns by pressing buttons.
Easy
Median
Hard
Mistakes Allowed:
0
Stop


Time-Series Forecasting using Prophet- part2
May 30, 2020 - Shoaib Khan
In the last post, we learned that we can build a simple Prophet model by combining trend and seasonality to forecast the future. We saw, that in the model equation not only can we add those factors but we can also include holidays effects and extra regressors, which makes it extremely powerful.
Let’s just remind ourselves how this looks like.
\[\hat Y_t = g_t + s_t + h_t + x_t + \epsilon\]\(\hat Y_t\) are the predictions.
\(g_t\) stands for growth model i.e. trend (logistic/linear)
\(s_t\) model seasonality using Fourier series
\(h_t\) modeling holiday effects
\(x_t\) any extra regressors
\(\epsilon\) normally distributed errors
In this post, we will dive deep to understand trend, uncover the 2 options available and how they model trend differently. We will also learn about changepoints that allow the trend to change at specific points.
What is trend ?
When we say, we want to extract trend from the data, we essentially are looking to understand the overall trajectory of our time series. We want to know if the series has an increasing or decreasing trend.
Here are 2 examples of trend.
Trends are not always increasing or decreasing but they may also consist of changes at points in time. One of the ways trend can be calculated is by computing rolling mean. Below we have a weekly rolling mean and it’s able to follow the path of our series.
There are 2 ways that trend is calculated in Prophet via Linear and Logistic growth models. However, logistic growth has more bells and whistles, which makes it more interesting.
Logistic growth
Logistic growth captures non-linear relationship i.e. trend can be curvy and it is also possible to decide saturation values at some defined points.
You might ask what do we mean by saturation ?
Well, Imagine our company is providing internet services and we have been given a task to calculate trend.

The sales is increasing but we can never out grow the population of the area thus our trend can never increase beyond this threshold, its simply a constraint for our business. This bound is called the carrying capacity \(C\).
Population can grow and shrink with time as well, and thus with logistic growth model we can define the bounds of this growth. We could define it as a single value that remains constant for the entire timeseries or we may give different values for different points in time i.e. a vector containing different values.
Let’s now strip away the complexity and look at the basic form of logistic trend.
\[g_t = \frac{C}{1+exp(-k(t-m))}\]\(C\) is the carrying capacity i.e. bounds.
\(k\) is the growth rate.
\(m\) is an offset parameter.
Here is how, we define it in code to get an intuition.
#defining a function
def base_trend(c,k,t,m):
trend = c/(1+np.exp(-k*(t-m)))
return trend
#setting values
c = 1000
k = 1
t = np.linspace(1,50,50)
m = 20
In the plot, you will observe that it’s saturating at \(c=1000\), with an offset at \(m=20\) (\(m\) allows the graph to move sideways), \(k\) is the initial growth and it determines the curvature of the line.
Let’s just plot another graph like the above but with different values and try to get an intuiton of what’s really happening here.
We have changed the carrying capacity \(C\) from 1000 to 100, \(k\) is also changed to 5, which has resulted in a sudden increase in the function, its not as smooth as before and finally \(m\) has caused the graph to shift 10 units to the left.
#setting values
c = 100
k = 5
t = np.linspace(1,50,50)
m = 10
Changepoints
In the growth function we can define dates where the trend is allowed to change, those dates are considered as changepoints. Before we look at the mathematical details, let’s just take a look at logistic growth model and plot changepoints.
I have simulated some data and we can see the plot below, we notice it has an increasing trend.
We will model this and focus on the fit and trend plot while setting seasonality to False
, I will cover seasonality in detail in part 3.
In this Prophet model we have set growth= 'logistic'
, but by default it’s always linear
. The logistic model needs cap
and floor
values which define upper and lower bounds respectively.
#training a prophet model by specifying trend
#i.e. growth function
m1 = Prophet(growth = 'logistic',
daily_seasonality=False,
weekly_seasonality=False,
yearly_seasonality=False)
#defining bounds in the training data
df['cap'] = 50
df['floor'] = 1
m1.fit(df)
future1 = m1.make_future_dataframe(periods=365)
#defining bounds in the testing data
future1['cap'] = 50
future1['floor'] = 1
forecast1 = m1.predict(future1)
# plotting predictions
fig, ax = m1.plot(forecast1)
# plotting trend
fig = m1.plot_components(forecast1)
Here is the fit plot with the predictions, the black dotted lines are the bounds we had defined for trend. Please know that these bounds are applied to the trend and not to the final predictions. However, they will have their affect on the predictions because trend is part of it, \(\hat Y_t = g_t + s_t + h_t + x_t + \epsilon\).
In this trend plot you can see how cap at 50 is restricting the trend, If I change the cap to 40 you will see that trend behaves as if it is constrained not to go beyond 40. That’s the effect cap and floor have on trend in the logistic growth model (fig 7-9).
Prophet identifies 25 changepoints automatically but by default it only does so for the first 80% of the data. As the user, you have the control to define your own changepoints and also be able control the regularisation (using changepoint_prior_scale) applied to them.
Thus, due to regularisation, even when 25 changepoints are considered many changepoint coefficient values is set to near 0. There are fewer than 25 dotted red lines on the plot that’s because only changepoints >0.01 are plotted.
In the below barplot some of the cofficients arent visible on the scale as they are extremely small. We can confirm this if we run –> m1.params['delta]
array([[ 1.54775876e-08, -4.61800548e-08, -1.00310960e-02,
-1.18373641e-01, -7.67190921e-01, -1.06926880e+00,
-1.06480754e+00, -8.54049563e-01, -5.53141018e-01,
-2.51599717e-01, -5.78373085e-03, -2.55210307e-02,
-8.98876919e-07, -1.09167994e-07, 1.41241899e-07,
-4.73692876e-08, 1.44643672e-07, 1.10418832e-06,
1.68632687e-02, 2.49719169e-03, 1.01259564e-03,
4.11508165e-01, 9.30539618e-01, 1.37156022e+00,
1.61753520e+00]])
When we consider the logistic growth function with the changepoints, the base formula can then be extended.
We go from here \(g(t) = \frac{C}{1+exp(-k(t-m))}\) to
\[g(t) = \frac{C(t)}{1 + exp(-(k+a(t)^T \delta)(t-(m+a(t)^T\gamma)))}\]It’s easy to spot the differences between the 2. The final form consists of 2 main terms in the denominator, the right most term i.e. \((t-(m+a(t)^T\gamma))\) is defined to make function continous, it’s the adjustment for the offset. However, it’s the previous term which is important especially \(k + a(t)^T \delta\).
The \(a(t)\) is the place where we define the changepoints and the \(\delta\) are the coefficient values that we extracted using params
. To conclude our discussion on changepoints, let’s just consider an example of how changepoints really work for a simple case.
Let’s consider time t as a sequence 1 to 5 and consider we have 2 changepoints, one at t=2 and the other at t=4.
We then create \(a(t)\) as a vector to define these changepoints. Since we have 2 changepoints we have columns for the vector \(a(t)\).
We then say that the first changepoint occurs at t=2 and we set that to 1 till the end of the series. Similarly we set the second changepoint to 1 at t=4 and in this way we create a vector that defines our 2 changepoints.
a(1) = [0,0]
a(2) = [1,0]
a(3) = [1,0]
a(4) = [1,1]
a(5) = [1,1]
\(\delta\) is a vector that is the amount the slope changes at each of the changepoints. So delta=[5, 10]
means that at the first changepoint the slope increases by 5, and at the second it increases by 10. k is the initial slope, before any changepoints.
If we set k=2 and then consider calculating \(k + a(t)^T \delta\), use the matrix and values from above. We then have the following
t=1: slope is 2 + 0 * 5 + 0 * 10 = 2 # The initial slope
t=2: slope is 2 + 1 * 5 + 0 * 10 = 7 # At the first changepoint, slope increased by 5
t=3: slope is 2 + 1 * 5 + 0 * 10 = 7
t=4: slope is 2 + 1 * 5 + 1 * 10 = 17 # At the second changepoint, slope increased by 10 more
t=5: slope is 2 + 1 * 5 + 1 * 10 = 17
This is how we can calculate logistic trend with changepoints. Linear growth is simpler than this and we discuss it next.
Linear growth
Now that we have understood logistic trend, linear trend becomes fairly simple. The formula for linear growth should look very similar to logisitc growth but linear trend is linear (see the graph below) and doesnt allow for any trend bounds i.e. carrying capacity. It is defined as below.
\[g(t) = (k + a(t)^T \delta)t + (m + a(t)^T\gamma)\]We can run a simple linear growth model as below, the changepoint_prior_scale
is a parameter you may use control regularisation, I would encourage you to play with it with your own datasets.
Essentially, increasing it will make you trend more flexible and reducing it would decrease the flexibility; by default it is set to 0.05
. However, this should be used with caution since more flexibility would mean overfitting the training data and thus poor generalisation.
m3 = Prophet(growth = 'linear',daily_seasonality=False,
weekly_seasonality=False,
yearly_seasonality=False,changepoint_prior_scale=1.05)
m3.fit(df)
future3 = m3.make_future_dataframe(periods=365)
forecast3 = m3.predict(future3)
Key takeaways
In this post, we have learned not only, how to run trend models in Prophet but how to think about them. We looked at how prophet considers changepoints and regularisation when calculating trend. We examined various graphs and equations. We also calculated trend in an example setting to see “how it works under the hood”.
In this effort to introduce time series using prophet, I have started to maintain a repository at GitHub, by no means it’s complete. However here is the link to the notebooks.
I hope you found this useful and as always, Happy Forecasting !
References: https://github.com/facebook/prophet/issues/1289 https://facebook.github.io/prophet/ https://peerj.com/preprints/3190/


Firm provides a full range of legal services for clients ranging from small businesses to major multinationals. It advises corporate clients on a wide variety.
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Learn MoreFirm acknowledges the importance of labour force behind the success of an organization and recognizes the value of expert advice on Indian employment laws.
Learn MoreWith the coming of new age companies laws in India, the secretarial compliance for companies have become quite stringent and need to be addressed timely and efficiently.
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Logic Gates - Building an ALU
1 Introduction
- The goal of this tutorial is to understand the basics of building complex circuit from simple
AND, OR, NOT and XOR logical gates. (We have studied in class the functionalities of the corresponding
bitwise operators.) This tutorial will teach you how to build an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
from scratch, using these simple logic gates and other components.
Read each tutorial step carefully
and complete the activities listed in each step.
- The ALU will take in two 32-bit values, and 2 control lines. Depending
on the value of the control lines, the output will be the addition,
subtraction, bitwise AND or bitwise OR of the inputs.
Schematically, here is what we want to build:
- Note! This is an interface for the ALU: what goes in, what
comes out. It also shows the ALU as an abstraction: you can't
see how it works, but you do know what it does.
- Also note that there are three status outputs as well as the main
result: is the result zero, was there a carry, and did the operation
result in an overflow?
- Note: just a reminder on the difference between a carry and an overflow:
- Carry: was there a carry in the most-significant bit which
we could not output in the given number of bits (32 bits, above)?
- Overflow: does the sign of the output differ from the inputs,
indicating (for example) that a sum of two positive numbers has overflowed
and is now a negative result?
- Some of the data and control lines are shown with a slash and a number
like 32.
- This indicates that the line is actually 32 lines in parallel, e.g.
the result is 32-bits wide. If you don't see a slash in the diagrams
below, you can assume that the line is only 1-bit wide.
1.1 Basic Components
- We are going to use four logic gates: AND, OR, NOT and XOR. You should
Below are the icons for each, and their truth table. (We have already seen the truth tables in class.)
- We are going to use another component, the multiplexor. The
job of the multiplexor is to choose one of several inputs, based on
a control line, and send the chosen input to the output.
- This multiplexor above is a 1-bit wide 2-way multiplexor: 2 inputs,
1 bit wide each. If you add extra control lines, you can choose more
inputs: 2 control lines is used in a 4-way multiplexor, 3 control
lines in an 8-way multiplexor etc.
- And by using multiple multiplexors in parallel, you can make N-bit
wide multiplexors.
- I'm not going to show you the internals of the multiplexor. You should,
however, know that it can be easily built with the 4 logic gates above.
1.2 Bitwise AND
- Bitwise AND is very useful, for example to calculate an IP network's
identity:
- <IP_ADDRESS> AND <IP_ADDRESS> => <IP_ADDRESS>
- Building the logic to do 32-bit AND on two inputs is easy: as each
bit is independent, we just need 32 AND gates in parallel.
- Note the interface diagram on the right. Each time we build a larger
component, we are going to hide it behind an interface.
What To Do
- Download the digital logic circuit simulator
Logisim. Make sure you select the correct
binary for your platform.
- Run Logisim and and go through the tutorial available under the Help menu.
Cover the Beginner's section first, then the Subcircuits and the Wire bundle section.
You will need to use a splitter wire in your ALU implementation.
The interface is simple and intuitive.
- Here is a 4-bit ALU implemented in Logisim: ALU4.circ.
Download this file and make a copy of it called ALU6.circ. (You will need the original ALU4.circ in later steps.)
Open ALU6.circ in Logisim, then
double-click on the 4-bit AND component in the left drop-down menu. The 4-bit AND circuit should
open up for you.
Select the Hand icon in the top-left of the Logisim window, then
click on the data inputs to change their values. Make sure that the AND component works as expected.
- Extend the AND component to work with 6-bit values instead of 4 bits.
1.3 Bitwise OR
- 32-bit bitwise OR is just as easy as bitwise AND, we just need 32
OR gates in parallel.
What To Do
- Make a copy of your current ALU4.circ version, in case you need to revert to it later.
- Open the 4-bit OR circuit by double-clicking on it in the left drop-down menu.
Select the Hand icon in the top-left of the Logisim window, then
click on the data inputs to change their values. Make sure that the OR component works as expected.
- Extend the OR component to work with 6-bit values instead of 4 bits.
1.4 Addition
- Addition isn't going to be so easy.
- We saw previously that we have to add bits, and this may produce a
carry. Columns further up need to accept a carry as input, along with
two inputs, and produce the 1-bit output and another carry for the
next column up.
- The component which will perform a 1-bit ADD, receiving a carry in
and producing a 1-bit output and a carry out is called a full
adder. Its interface looks like the following:
- Internally, here is what a full adder looks like, just 5 logic gates.
- The truth table for the full adder is:
| Cin | A | B | Result | Cout |
|
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
- At some point sit down, try some inputs, and convince yourself that
the logic works as advertised!
- To make a 32-bit full adder, we simply have to string 32 of these
1-bit full adders together.
- Except for the least-significant adder, each one is going to receive
its carry from the one below and pass up its own carry to the one
above.
- For the most significant bit, if the carry is a 1, then we ran out
of bits to store the result.
- When the final carry output is 1, this indicates that the result was
too big to fit into 32 bits.
- I'm going to delay showing you the interface diagram for the 32-bit
full adder, because we can modify it to also do subtraction.
1.5 Subtraction
- We could build a completely separate component, a 32-bit subtractor,
once we work out how to build a 1-bit subtractor.
- Fortunately, we can simplify things a bit.
- According to the rules of maths: 3-2=3+(-2).
- If we could negate one of the inputs, we could use the existing 32-bit
full adder.
- We have already learned how to negate a twos complement binary
integer: invert every bit in the number, then add 1.
- Putting all of the above together, we can say:
A - B = A + (-B) = A + ~B + 1
- Inverting every bit is easy: we can use a NOT gate for each bit in
B.
- But now we need to do A + ~B + 1. How can we do this?
- We are going to use a very clever trick.
- Set the initial carry-in to 1 instead of 0, thus adding an extra 1
to the sum.
- And instead of using NOT gates, we will use XOR gates.
- If we are doing addition (Control=0), then one arm of the XOR gates
is zero, and the B bits go into the adders unchanged, and the carry-in
is zero.
- If we are doing subtraction (Control=1), then one arm of the XOR gates
is one. This inverts all of the B bits before they get to the adders.
As well, the carry-in is now 1, so we achieve the result of doing
A - B = A + ~B + 1!
- Overall, we end up with this unit which can do addition and subtraction:
- If the operation bit is 0, we pass in B and perform A+B. If the operation
bit is 1, we invert B and do A + ~B + 1.
- We can now distinguish between data lines (which pass data
around) and control lines (which control the actions of the
components).
- The data lines are also known as datapaths.
- The Operation line above is a control line, as it controls
the action being performed. But note, it is also used as a 1-value
for the carry-in, so it is also a piece of data!
1.6 Overflow Output
- We've seen that a carry occurs when the final addition or subtraction
is too big to fit into 32 bits.
- A related mathematical output is overflow. This indicates that
the sign of the maths result differs from the sign of the two inputs.
- Imagine we were using 4-bit numbers: you do 7 + 7 and get the result
-2!
- Why? Because 7 (0111) + 7 (0111) = 1110, which in 4-bit twos-complement
is -2.
- Overflow occurs when the size of the inputs is such that there is
a carry which changes the most-significant sign bit.
- The ALU will always output both carry and overflow, but both only
makes sense when the operation is add or subtract.
- When we are doing the logical operations (AND and OR), the values
on the carry and overflow outputs have no meaning.
- As overflow is only maths related, this should be implemented in the
ADD/SUBTRACT unit.
- The logic is follows: when adding, if the sign of the two inputs is
the same, but the result sign is different, then we have an overflow.
- The boolean expression is [~a31]·[~b31]·result31+a31·b31·[~result31].
- We have to do this only for addition, so we take the b31 value after
the XOR gate, i.e. just as it goes into the most-significant adder.
1.7 Negative Output
- When is the result negative? When its most-significant bit is 1.
- We can wire this bit directly out of the ALU, so that it indicates
if the result is negative.
1.8 Zero Output
- One thing left to do is to provide the zero output: is the result
zero?
- This is only true if all of the bits of the result are zero.
We can do this for the logical and the maths units.
- To do this, we can use a 32-bit OR gate followed by a 1-bit NOT gate:
- The OR gate outputs a 0 only if all input bits are 0. If any input
bit is a 1, the OR's output is a 1.
- The NOT gate simply inverts this, giving the result:
- if any result bit is on, the output is 0, i.e. not zero.
- if all result bits are off, the output is 1, i.e. zero.
What To Do
- Make a copy of your current ALU4.circ version, in case you need to revert to it later.
- Open the 4-bit Adder/Subtracter circuit by double-clicking on it in the left drop-down menu.
Select the Hand icon in the top-left of the Logisim window, then click on the data inputs to change their values.
Note that when the 1-bit Add/Sub control is 0 the circuit performs addition, otherwise it performs subtraction.
- Extend the Adder/Subtracter cicrcuit to work with 6-bit values instead of 4 bits.
1.9 Putting It All Together
- We are getting close to being able to build the full ALU.
- We now have three main units:
- a 32-bit bitwise AND unit,
- a 32-bit bitwise OR unit, and
- a 32-bit ADD/SUBTRACT unit with a control line.
- the logic to output carry, overflow, zero and negative.
- We can pass the inputs A and B to all three units, and perform all
three operations in parallel:
- But, we need to choose which of the three results we want, based on
the two control lines coming into the ALU. We would like:
| c1 | c0 | Result |
|
| 0 | 0 | A AND B |
| 0 | 1 | A OR B |
| 1 | 0 | A + B |
| 1 | 1 | A - B |
- How do we control which of the four operations actually becomes the
result? With multiplexors again.
- When c0=0, the ANDORresult is A AND B, and the ADDSUBresult
is A + B.
- When c0=1, the ANDORresult is A OR B, and the ADDSUBresult is
A - B.
- Now we just have to choose between these two results, and that is
done with the second multiplexor, which chooses either the bitwise
logic result or the maths result.
- To finish off, we can draw the three components, the multiplexors
and the zero logic, to reveal the final 32-bit ALU.
- The dotted line shows the interface to the ALU.
What To Do
- Make a copy of your current ALU4.circ version, in case you need to revert to it later.
- Open the main ALU circuit by double-clicking on it in the left drop-down menu. It
is designed to operate on 4 bits, so you can test it only in the original ALU4.circ version.
- Open the original ALU4.circ file and try out some additions, subtractions, ANDs and ORs,
and satisfy yourself that the ALU works as advertised.
- Extend the ALU to work with 6-bit values instead of 4 bits.
- See if you can put in some input values which cause an oveflow.
- Turn in printed copies of your ALU (showing an overflow) and all its subcircuits.
1.12 Conclusion
- That's about all we can cover in terms of ALU design in this subject.
- Obviously, real ALUs perform many more operations, and use many performance
optimizations.
- This is just a taste of ALU design, but you should now understand
that:
- an ALU is just a collection of logic components;
- the logic components can be made from ordinary logic gates;
- data can flow in parallel to multiple units;
- everything operates in parallel: several units can produce output
internally;
- control logic, via multiplexors, chooses which output to use as the
result.
Acknowledgement. This tutorial has been developed by Dr. Warren Toomey, and slightly modified by Dr. Mirela Damian.


What concerns us most is the religious thought — on soul and God and all that appertains to religion. We will take the Samhitâs. These are collections of hymns forming, as it were, the oldest Aryan literature, properly speaking, the oldest literature in the world. There may have been some scraps of literature of older date here and there, older than that even, but not books, or literature properly so called. As a collected book, this is the oldest the world has, and herein is portrayed the earliest feeling of the Aryans, their aspirations, the questions that arose about their manners and methods, and so on. At the very outset we find a very curious idea. These hymns are sung in praise of different gods, Devas as they are called, the bright ones. There is quite a number of them. One is called Indra, another Varuna, another Mitra, Parjanya, and so on. Various mythological and allegorical figures come before us one after the other — for instance, Indra the thunderer, striking the serpent who has withheld the rains from mankind. Then he lets fly his thunderbolt, the serpent is killed, and rain comes down in showers. The people are pleased, and they worship Indra with oblations. They make a sacrificial pyre, kill some animals, roast their flesh upon spits, and offer that meat to Indra. And they had a popular plant called Soma. What plant it was nobody knows now; it has entirely disappeared, but from the books we gather that, when crushed, it produced a sort of milky juice, and that was fermented; and it can also be gathered that this fermented Soma juice was intoxicating. This also they offered to Indra and the other gods, and they also drank it themselves. Sometimes they drank a little too much, and so did the gods. Indra on occasions got drunk. There are passages to show that Indra at one time drank so much of this Soma juice that he talked irrelevant words. So with Varuna. He is another god, very powerful, and is in the same way protecting his votaries, and they are praising him with their libations of Soma. So is the god of war, and so on. But the popular idea that strikes one as making the mythologies of the Samhitas entirely different from the other mythologies is, that along with every one of these gods is the idea of an infinity. This infinite is abstracted, and sometimes described as Âditya. At other times it is affixed, as it were, to all the other gods. Take, for example, Indra. In some of the books you will find that Indra has a body, is very strong, sometimes is wearing golden armour, and comes down, lives and eats with his votaries, fights the demons, fights the snakes, and so on. Again, in one hymn we find that Indra has been given a very high position; he is omnipresent and omnipotent, and Indra sees the heart of every being. So with Varuna. This Varuna is god of the air and is in charge of the water, just as Indra was previously; and then, all of a sudden, we find him raised up and said to be omnipresent, omnipotent, and so on. I will read one passage about this Varuna in his highest form, and you will understand what I mean. It has been translated into English poetry, so it is better that I read it in that form.
The mighty Lord on high our deeds, as if
at hand, espies;
The gods know all men do, though men would fain their acts disguise;
Whoever stands, whoever moves, or steals from place to place,
Or hides him in his secret cell — the gods his movements trace.
Wherever two together plot, and deem they are alone,
King Varuna is there, a third, and all their schemes are known.
This earth is his, to him belong those vast and boundless skies;
Both seas within him rest, and yet in that small pool he lies,
Whoever far beyond the sky should think his way to wing.
He could not there elude the grasp of Varuna the King.
His spies, descending from the skies, glide all this world around;
Their thousand eyes all-scanning sweep to earth's remotest bound.
So we can multiply examples about the other gods; they all come, one after the other, to share the same fate — they first begin as gods, and then they are raised to this conception as the Being in whom the whole universe exists, who sees every heart, who is the ruler of the universe. And in the case of Varuna, there is another idea, just the germ of one idea which came, but was immediately suppressed by the Aryan mind, and that was the idea of fear. In another place we read they are afraid they have sinned and ask Varuna for pardon. These ideas were never allowed, for reasons you will come to understand later on, to grow on Indian soil, but the germs were there sprouting, the idea of fear, and the idea of sin. This is the idea, as you all know, of what is called monotheism. This monotheism, we see, came to India at a very early period. Throughout the Samhitas, in the first and oldest part, this monotheistic idea prevails, but we shall find that it did not prove sufficient for the Aryans; they threw it aside, as it were, as a very primitive sort of idea and went further on, as we Hindus think. Of course in reading books and criticisms on the Vedas written by Europeans, the Hindu cannot help smiling when he reads, that the writings of our authors are saturated with this previous education alone. Persons who have sucked in as their mother's milk the idea that the highest ideal of God is the idea of a Personal God, naturally dare not think on the lines of these ancient thinkers of India, when they find that just after the Samhitas, the monotheistic idea with which the Samhita portion is replete was thought by the Aryans to be useless and not worthy of philosophers and thinkers, and that they struggled hard for a more philosophical and transcendental idea. The monotheistic idea was much too human for them, although they gave it such descriptions as "The whole universe rests in Him," and "Thou art the keeper of all hearts." The Hindus were bold, to their great credit be it said, bold thinkers in all their ideas, so bold that one spark of their thought frightens the so-called bold thinkers of the West. Well has it been said by Prof. Max Müller about these thinkers that they climbed up to heights where their lungs only could breathe, and where those of other beings would have burst. These brave people followed reason wherever it led them, no matter at what cost, never caring if all their best superstitions were smashed to pieces, never caring what society would think about them, or talk about them; but what they thought was right and true, they preached and they talked.
Before going into all these speculations of the ancient Vedic sages, we will first refer to one or two very curious instances in the Vedas. The peculiar fact — that these gods are taken up, as it were, one after the other, raised and sublimated, till each has assumed the proportions of the infinite Personal God of the Universe — calls for an explanation. Prof. Max Müller creates for it a new name, as he thinks it peculiar to the Hindus: he calls it "Henotheism". We need not go far for the explanation. It is within the book. A few steps from the very place where we find those gods being raised and sublimated, we find the explanation also. The question arises how the Hindu mythologies should be so unique, so different from all others. In Babylonian or Greek mythologies we find one god struggling upwards, and he assumes a position and remains there, while the other gods die out. Of all the Molochs, Jehovah becomes supreme, and the other Molochs are forgotten, lost for ever; he is the God of gods. So, too, of all the Greek gods, Zeus comes to the front and assumes big proportions, becomes the God of the Universe, and all the other gods become degraded into minor angels. This fact was repeated in later times. The Buddhists and the Jains raised one of their prophets to the Godhead, and all the other gods they made subservient to Buddha, or to Jina. This is the world-wide process, but there we find an exception, as it were. One god is praised, and for the time being it is said that all the other gods obey his commands, and the very one who is said to be raised up by Varuna, is himself raised up, in the next book, to the highest position. They occupy the position of the Personal God in turns. But the explanation is there in the book, and it is a grand explanation, one that has given the theme to all subsequent thought in India, and one that will be the theme of the whole world of religions: "Ekam Sat Viprâ Bahudhâ Vadanti — That which exists is One; sages call It by various names." In all these cases where hymns were written about all these gods, the Being perceived was one and the same; it was the perceiver who made the difference. It was the hymnist, the sage, the poet, who sang in different languages and different words, the praise of one and the same Being. "That which exists is One; sages call It by various names." Tremendous results have followed from that one verse. Some of you, perhaps, are surprised to think that India is the only country where there never has been a religious persecution, where never was any man disturbed for his religious faith. Theists or atheists, monists, dualists, monotheists are there and always live unmolested. Materialists were allowed to preach from the steps of Brahminical temples, against the gods, and against God Himself; they went preaching all over the land that the idea of God was a mere superstition, and that gods, and Vedas, and religion were simply superstitions invented by the priests for their own benefit, and they were allowed to do this unmolested. And so, wherever he went, Buddha tried to pull down every old thing sacred to the Hindus to the dust, and Buddha died of ripe old age. So did the Jains, who laughed at the idea of God. "How can it be that there is a God?" they asked; "it must be a mere superstition." So on, endless examples there are. Before the Mohammedan wave came into India, it was never known what religious persecution was; the Hindus had only experienced it as made by foreigners on themselves. And even now it is a patent fact how much Hindus have helped to build Christian churches, and how much readiness there is to help them. There never has been bloodshed. Even heterodox religions that have come out of India have been likewise affected; for instance, Buddhism. Buddhism is a great religion in some respects, but to confuse Buddhism with Vedanta is without meaning; anyone may mark just the difference that exists between Christianity and the Salvation Army. There are great and good points in Buddhism, but these great points fell into hands which were not able to keep them safe. The jewels which came from philosophers fell into the hands of mobs, and the mobs took up their ideas. They had a great deal of enthusiasm, some marvellous ideas, great and humanitarian ideas, but, after all, there is something else that is necessary — thought and intellect — to keep everything safe. Wherever you see the most humanitarian ideas fall into the hands of the multitude, the first result, you may notice, is degradation. It is learning and intellect that keep things sure. Now this Buddhism went as the first missionary religion to the world, penetrated the whole of the civilised world as it existed at that time, and never was a drop of blood shed for that religion. We read how in China the Buddhist missionaries were persecuted, and thousands were massacred by two or three successive emperors, but after that, fortune favoured the Buddhists, and one of the emperors offered to take vengeance on the persecutors, but the missionaries refused. All that we owe to this one verse. That is why I want you to remember it: "Whom they call Indra, Mitra, Varuna — That which exists is One; sages call It by various names."
It was written, nobody knows at what date, it may be 8,000 years ago, in spite of all modern scholars may say, it may be 9,000 years ago. Not one of these religious speculations is of modern date, but they are as fresh today as they were when they were written, or rather, fresher, for at that distant date man was not so civilised as we know him now. He had not learnt to cut his brother's throat because he differed a little in thought from himself; he had not deluged the world in blood, he did not become demon to his own brother. In the name of humanity he did not massacre whole lots of mankind then. Therefore these words come to us today very fresh, as great stimulating, life-giving words, much fresher than they were when they were written: "That which exists is One; sages call It by various names." We have to learn yet that all religions, under whatever name they may be called, either Hindu, Buddhist, Mohammedan, or Christian, have the same God, and he who derides any one of these derides his own God.
That was the solution they arrived at. But, as I have said, this ancient monotheistic idea did not satisfy the Hindu mind. It did not go far enough, it did not explain the visible world: a ruler of the world does not explain the world — certainly not. A ruler of the universe does not explain the universe, and much less an external ruler, one outside of it. He may be a moral guide, the greatest power in the universe, but that is no explanation of the universe; and the first question that we find now arising, assuming proportions, is the question about the universe: "Whence did it come?" "How did it come?" "How does it exist?" Various hymns are to be found on this question struggling forward to assume form, and nowhere do we find it so poetically, so wonderfully expressed as in the following hymn:
"Then there was neither aught nor naught, nor air, nor sky, nor anything. What covered all? Where rested all? Then death was not, nor deathlessness, nor change to night and day." The translation loses a good deal of the poetical beauty. "Then death was not, nor deathlessness, nor change to night and day;" the very sound of the Sanskrit is musical. "That existed, that breath, covering as it were, that God's existence; but it did not begin to move." It is good to remember this one idea that it existed motionless, because we shall find how this idea sprouts up afterwards in the cosmology, how according to the Hindu metaphysics and philosophy, this whole universe is a mass of vibrations, as it were, motions; and there are periods when this whole mass of motions subsides and becomes finer and finer, remaining in that state for some time. That is the state described in this hymn. It existed unmoved, without vibration, and when this creation began, this began to vibrate and all this creation came out of it, that one breath, calm, self-sustained, naught else beyond it.
"Gloom existed first." Those of you who have ever been in India or any tropical country, and have seen the bursting of the monsoon, will understand the majesty of these words. I remember three poets' attempts to picture this. Milton says, "No light, but rather darkness visible." Kalidasa says, "Darkness which can be penetrated with a needle," but none comes near this Vedic description, "Gloom hidden in gloom." Everything is parching and sizzling, the whole creation seems to be burning away, and for days it has been so, when one afternoon there is in one corner of the horizon a speck of cloud, and in less than half an hour it has extended unto the whole earth, until, as it were, it is covered with cloud, cloud over cloud, and then it bursts into a tremendous deluge of rain. The cause of creation was described as will. That which existed at first became changed into will, and this will began to manifest itself as desire. This also we ought to remember, because we find that this idea of desire is said to be the cause of all we have. This idea of will has been the corner-stone of both the Buddhist and the Vedantic system, and later on, has penetrated into German philosophy and forms the basis of Schopenhauer's system of philosophy. It is here we first hear of it.
Now first arose desire, the primal seed of
mind.
Sages, searching in their hearts by wisdom, found the bond,
Between existence and non-existence.
It is a very peculiar expression; the poet ends by saying that "perhaps He even does not know." We find in this hymn, apart from its poetical merits, that this questioning about the universe has assumed quite definite proportions, and that the minds of these sages must have advanced to such a state, when all sorts of common answers would not satisfy them. We find that they were not even satisfied with this Governor above. There are various other hymns where the same idea, comes in, about how this all came, and just as we have seen, when they were trying to find a Governor of the universe, a Personal God, they were taking up one Deva after another, raising him up to that position, so now we shall find that in various hymns one or other idea is taken up, and expanded infinitely and made responsible for everything in the universe. One particular idea is taken as the support, in which everything rests and exists, and that support has become all this. So on with various ideas. They tried this method with Prâna, the life principle. They expanded the idea of the life principle until it became universal and infinite. It is the life principle that is supporting everything; not only the human body, but it is the light of the sun and the moon, it is the power moving everything, the universal motive energy. Some of these attempts are very beautiful, very poetical. Some of them as, "He ushers the beautiful morning," are marvellously lyrical in the way they picture things. Then this very desire, which, as we have just read, arose as the first primal germ of creation, began to be stretched out, until it became the universal God. But none of these ideas satisfied.
Here the idea is sublimated and finally abstracted into a personality. "He alone existed in the beginning; He is the one Lord of all that exists; He supports this universe; He who is the author of souls, He who is the author of strength, whom all the gods worship, whose shadow is life, whose shadow is death; whom else shall we worship? Whose glory the snow-tops of the Himalayas declare, whose glory the oceans with all their waters proclaim." So on it goes, but, as I told you just now, this idea did not satisfy them.
At last we find a very peculiar position. The Aryan mind had so long been seeking an answer to the question from outside. They questioned everything they could find, the sun, the moon, and stars, and they found all they could in this way. The whole of nature at best could teach them only of a personal Being who is the Ruler of the universe; it could teach nothing further. In short, out of the external world we can only get the idea of an architect, that which is called the Design Theory. It is not a very logical argument, as we all know; there is something childish about it, yet it is the only little bit of anything we can know about God from the external world, that this world required a builder. But this is no explanation of the universe. The materials of this world were before Him, and this God wanted all these materials, and the worst objection is that He must be limited by the materials. The builder could not have made a house without the materials of which it is composed. Therefore he was limited by the materials; he could only do what the materials enabled him to. Therefore the God that the Design Theory gives is at best only an architect, and a limited architect of the universe; He is bound and restricted by the materials; He is not independent at all. That much they had found out already, and many other minds would have rested at that. In other countries the same thing happened; the human mind could not rest there; the thinking, grasping minds wanted to go further, but those that were backward got hold of them and did not allow them to grow. But fortunately these Hindu sages were not the people to be knocked on the head; they wanted to get a solution, and now we find that they were leaving the external for the internal. The first thing that struck them was, that it is not with the eyes and the senses that we perceive that external world, and know anything about religion; the first idea, therefore, was to find the deficiency, and that deficiency was both physical and moral, as we shall see. You do not know, says one of these sages, the cause of this universe; there has arisen a tremendous difference between you and me — why? Because you have been talking sense things and are satisfied with sense-objects and with the mere ceremonials of religion, while I have known the Purusha beyond.
Along with this progress of spiritual ideas that I am trying to trace for you, I can only hint to you a little about the other factor in the growth, for that has nothing to do with our subject, therefore I need not enlarge upon it — the growth of rituals. As those spiritual ideas progressed in arithmetical progression, so the ritualistic ideas progressed in geometrical progression. The old superstitions had by this time developed into a tremendous mass of rituals, which grew and grew till it almost killed the Hindu life And it is still there, it has got hold of and permeated every portion of our life and made us born slaves. Yet, at the same time, we find a fight against this advance of ritual from the very earliest days. The one objection raised there is this, that love for ceremonials, dressing at certain times, eating in a certain way, and shows and mummeries of religion like these are only external religion, because you are satisfied with the senses and do not want to go beyond them. This is a tremendous difficulty with us, with every human being. At best when we want to hear of spiritual things our standard is the senses; or a man hears things about philosophy, and God, and transcendental things, and after hearing about them for days, he asks: After all, how much money will they bring, how much sense-enjoyment will they bring? For his enjoyment is only in the senses, quite naturally. But that satisfaction in the senses, says our sage, is one of the causes which have spread the veil between truth and ourselves. Devotion to ceremonials, satisfaction in the senses, and forming various theories, have drawn a veil between ourselves and truth. This is another great landmark, and we shall have to trace this ideal to the end, and see how it developed later on into that wonderful theory of Mâyâ of the Vedanta, how this veil will be the real explanation of the Vedanta, how the truth was there all the time, it was only this veil that had covered it.
Thus we find that the minds of these ancient Aryan thinkers had begun a new theme. They found out that in the external world no search would give an answer to their question. They might seek in the external world for ages, but there would be no answer to their questions. So they fell back upon this other method; and according to this, they were taught that these desires of the senses, desires for ceremonials and externalities have caused a veil to come between themselves and the truth, and that this cannot be removed by any ceremonial. They had to fall back on their own minds, and analyse the mind to find the truth in themselves. The outside world failed and they turned back upon the inside world, and then it became the real philosophy of the Vedanta; from here the Vedanta philosophy begins. It is the foundation-stone of Vedanta philosophy. As we go on, we find that all its inquiries are inside. From the very outset they seemed to declare — look not for the truth in any religion; it is here in the human soul, the miracle of all miracles in the human soul, the emporium of all knowledge, the mine of all existence — seek here. What is not here cannot be there. And they found out step by step that that which is external is but a dull reflection at best of that which is inside. We shall see how they took, as it were, this old idea of God, the Governor of the universe, who is external to the universe, and first put Him inside the universe. He is not a God outside, but He is inside; and they took Him from there into their own hearts. Here He is in the heart of man, the Soul of our souls, the Reality in us.
Several great ideas have to be understood, in order to grasp properly the workings of the Vedanta philosophy. In the first place it is not philosophy in the sense we speak of the philosophy of Kant and Hegel. It is not one book, or the work of one man. Vedanta is the name of a series of books written at different times. Sometimes in one of these productions there will be fifty different things. Neither are they properly arranged; the thoughts, as it were, have been jotted down. Sometimes in the midst of other extraneous things, we find some wonderful idea. But one fact is remarkable, that these ideas in the Upanishads would be always progressing. In that crude old language, the working of the mind of every one of the sages has been, as it were, painted just as it went; how the ideas are at first very crude, and they become finer and finer till they reach the goal of the Vedanta, and this goal assumes a philosophical name. Just at first it was a search after the Devas, the bright ones, and then it was the origin of the universe, and the very same search is getting another name, more philosophical, clearer — the unity of all things — "Knowing which everything else becomes known."


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