"It was against the law
It was against the law
Oh what the mama saw
It was against the law"
It was against the law
Oh what the mama saw
It was against the law"
— Paul Simon, "Me and Julio Down by the Schoolyard"
Some tropes seem to be an expression of an underlying law of fiction. This category attempts to collect these fundamental elements. If some of these entries seem a bit tongue-in-cheek to you ... well, you should probably just get used to that feeling. And yes, sometimes there are two or more that are directly contradictory. We don't write them. We just catalog them.
If you're looking for an index for tropes about actual laws, try The Courtroom Index, Crime and Punishment Tropes, and/or Cops and Detectives.
Tropes:
- All Myths Are True: In fantasy settings, myths, legends, and folklore are accurate descriptions of reality.
- Anthropic Principle: For any given story, there exist basic elements that are required for the basic premise to happen; there would be no story otherwise.
- Arkham's Razor: In fiction, the oddest answer is often the correct one
- Artistic License: Accuracy may be sacrificed for the sake of the story.
- Attractive Bent-Gender: Genderbent males make attractive girls.
- Attractiveness Discrimination: People in stories are going to discriminate each other based on who fits a standard of attractiveness
- Authority Equals Asskicking :The higher a character is in their hierarchy, the better they are in a fight. This goes double for non-protagonists.
- Ban on Politics: If a forum is not specifically about political current events, then you are usually not allowed to talk about political current events there.
- Beauty = Goodness: If a character is beautiful, then that character is a good person, either publicly or secretly. If a character is good, then that character will either be beautiful or be treated as beautiful.
- Beauty Is Bad: If a character is beautiful, then that character is a bad person, either publicly or secretly.
- The Bechdel Test: At some point, do two named female characters talk to each other about something other than men?
- Bellisario's Maxim: Don't examine this too closely.
- Catharsis Factor: Video game violence relieves stress.
- Chandler's Law: "When in doubt, have a man come through a door with a gun in his hand."
- Chekhov's Armoury: Chekhov's Gun for multiple items.
- Chekhov's Army: Chekhov's Gunman for multiple characters.
- Chekhov's Boomerang: A Chekhov's Gun is used twice; the second use is unexpected.
- Chekhov's Classroom: Information in a lecture will become applicable later on in the work.
- Chekhov's Exhibit: Fancy artifacts in museums will become important to the plot.
- Chekhov's Gag: A joke sets up further unexpected jokes later on.
- Chekhov's Gift: Chekhov's Gun is given as a gift.
- Chekhov's Gun: An unimportant item introduced early in the story becomes important later on.
- Chekhov's Gunman: An unimportant character introduced early in the story becomes important later on.
- Chekhov M.I.A.: Absent characters in a character's backstory will show up given sufficient time.
- Chekhov's Skill: A skill learned earlier becomes applicable later on.
- Chekhov's Volcano: If a volcano appears in a story, it will, at some point, erupt.
- The Chris Carter Effect: If the fans decide that the writing team will never resolve its plots, then they will probably stop following the work.
- Chunky Salsa Rule: Any situation that would reduce a character's head to the consistency of chunky salsa dip is fatal, regardless of other rules.
- Clarke's Law for Girls' Toys: Toys marketed to girls don't use technology; they use magic.
- Clarke's Third Law: "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic."
- Competence Zone: Every television show has its own average age-range of competence. Only people inside that range, whatever it is, are likely to be competent at anything relevant to the show.
- Conservation of Competence: There is only so much competence a given faction can distribute amongst its membership.
- Conservation of Ninjutsu: In any martial arts fight, there is only a finite amount of ninjutsu available to each side in a given encounter. As a result, one Ninja is a deadly threat, but an army of them are cannon fodder.
- Contractual Boss Immunity: The top-level bosses in a game will be immune to the player's most effective or strongest attacks.
- Contractual Immortality: Main characters tend not to die, and an actor leaving a show is likely to be known beforehand.
- Conveniently Empty Building: When a building in a modern action film or series is blown up or otherwise totaled, there will be no people or plot-critical items inside when the destruction hits.
- Convenient Questing: In an Adventure Game or RPG, your next destination will be the closest area that you haven't been able to get to before.
- Cool of Rule: Cool things are cooler if they don't break the laws of The 'Verse.
- The CSI Effect: "I saw them do it on CSI. It has to work that way!"
- Cute Is Evil: Cute is disturbing and unnatural.
- Cuteness Proximity: The nearer a character is in relation to something cute, the more likely they are to be reduced to babytalk.
- Cybernetics Eat Your Soul: Cybernetic implants cause "humanity loss".
- Death by Sex: Doing it greatly increases one or both parties' chances of dying.
- Death Equals Redemption: Villains close to death can repent before dying.
- Deggans' Rule: Are there two non-white human characters in a show not about race?
- Departure Means Death: Someone cannot leave a certain area or they will die.
- The Dilbert Principle: Incompetent people get promoted to management where they can't hurt things as much.
- Direct Line to the Author: The creator didn't make this, it was told to them/given to them/found by them.
- Dumbwaiter Ride: If there's a dumbwaiter around, someone will ride in it.
- Easy Come, Easy Go: Any large changes to the status quo are lost by the end of the episode.
- Easily Overheard Conversation: Conversations are exceptionally hard to keep discreet.
- Emotional Torque: The capacity of a story to make you have emotions.
- Enthusiasm vs. Stoicism: How strongly a character expresses emotion.
- Ermine Cape Effect: Royals will always dress in full regalia, even in private.
- Every Car Is a Pinto: Car destruction results in guaranteed explosions.
- Evil Is Sexy: All things being equal, evil characters are sexier.

- Faction Calculus: Factions in strategy games follow increasingly complex gradients as more factions are added.
- Failure Is the Only Option: The goal of the series won't be achieved because that would end the series.
- Fiction Identity Postulate: All fiction is equally real because it is all completely false.
- Finagle's Law: Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.
- The Firefly Effect: Sometimes, viewers are so afraid that a show will be Screwed by the Network that they will refuse to watch it, even if it sounds appealing to them.
- First Girl Wins: The first girl introduced as a potential love interest will become the love interest.
- First Law of Gender-Bending: Once a girl has been created, circumstances will conspire to keep her that way.
- First Law of Metafictional Thermodynamics: The sum of the energy and mass of a work's plot remains constant. Trimming continuity or simplifying things releases energy and strict continuity or added complexity absorbs energy.
- First Law of Resurrection: The will of a creator to bring a dead character back to life trumps everything else.
- First Law of Tragicomedies: As the tension in a tragicomedy increases, the level of drama will increase and the level of humor will decrease.
- Fixed Relative Strength: For any group of ninjas, the ninjutsu in that group will not be evenly distributed; some ninja will be in a more powerful class than others. Which ninja are more powerful will stay constant even when the group as a whole gains ninjitsu.
- Fleeting Demographic Rule: A gimmick or storyline can be reused after a few years of dormancy due to fanbase turnover.
- G.I.F.T.: Normal people, given anonymity and an audience, are terrible people.
- Godwin's Law: Probability of a comparison to Nazis or Hitler rises to one as length of discussion increases.
- Godwin's Law of Time Travel: Probability of Hitler winning World War II rises to one as use of time travel increases.
- Godzilla Threshold: The level at which something is so bad that any means of destroying it is justified.
- The Good Guys Always Win: If the story has a hero who fights a villain, the hero wins.
- Gravity Is a Harsh Mistress: Gravity only kicks in when the Rule of Funny says it should.
- Hanlon's Razor: Don't assume malice when stupidity is an adequate explanation. The first time.
- Heroes Act, Villains Hinder: The hero has a goal, and the antagonists exist to prevent the goal from being achieved.

- Immortality Hurts: Being immortal isn't fun on its own.
- Immortal Life Is Cheap: Everyone can go all out on immortal characters, since they can't die.
- Immortal Procreation Clause: A species' fertility is inversely proportional to its lifespan.
- Incendiary Exponent: Actions performed are more impressive while on fire.
- Inevitable Waterfall: Characters on a river will encounter a waterfall.
- Inevitably Broken Rule: Any important rule will be broken before the end of the story.
- Improbable Infant Survival: Babies and children don't die.
- Inverse Law of Complexity to Power: More complicated elements offer less power than simple ones.
- Inverse Law of Sharpness and Accuracy: Characters get hit more with blunt weapons than with sharp ones.
- Inverse Law of Utility and Lethality: The coolest violence is the least useful.
- Kryptonite Is Everywhere: A hero with a rare weakness will see the weakness appear more readily than it should.
- Kuleshov Effect: Juxtaposition of images can make there seem to be meaning to the images that wasn't there in the first place.
- Last Confession Wins: The last girl to confess her feelings for the hero will be the one who wins him.
- Last Girl Wins: When the first girl doesn't win, the final girl the main character meets will become the love interest.
- The Law of Conservation of Detail: All details are important or they wouldn't be there.
- Law of Conservation of Normality: No matter how weird things get, you still have to go to work.
- Law of Cartographical Elegance: The world is always easily represented on a map.
- Law of Chromatic Superiority: Rarer colors make things better.
- The Law of Diminishing Defensive Effort: The less someone tries to defend, the less likely they need to.
- Law of Disproportionate Response: How important something is decreases proportionally to the intensity of the characters reaction to it.
- The Law of Fan Jackassery: Huge fanbases reflect the amount of jackassery in the general population; tiny ones are close-knit; ones in between can be insular and dickish.
- Law of Inverse Fertility: The fertility of a couple is inversely proportional to their desire to have a child.
- Law of Inverse Paternity: If you hope he's the father, he's not; if you hope he isn't, he is.
- Law of Inverse Recoil: Weapons have recoil inversely proportional to their real life equivalents.
- Law of Inverse Romantic Interest: The interest of other characters in a certain character is inverse to the character's own interest in romance.
- The Laws of Magic: A set of beliefs on how magic works that appears across many real-world cultures.
- Law of One: Bigger problems are easier to overcome because they represent smaller numbers.
- Law of 100: Platform games will have collectibles that give you extra lives with enough of them.
- The Law of Power Proportionate to Effort: The more powerful an ability is, the harder it will be to use.
- Law of Wiki Expansion: Any specialized wiki, as it continues to grow, will accumulate pages for more general info.
- Lies, Damned Lies, and Statistics: Statistics can tell you anything.
- Linear Warriors, Quadratic Wizards: Magical fighters advance in power at first slower but later far faster than physical fighters.
- Literary Agent Hypothesis: Fans postulate The fictional world is real and everyone including the author is trying to cover it up.
- Locard's Theory: Everything leaves a trace on everything else.
- Lord British Postulate: Invincible characters in games will still be subject to attempts to kill them.
- MadonnaWhore Complex: If there is a choice between a virgin and a more "experienced" woman, The Hero will always pick the virgin.
- The Magazine Rule: There's a magazine for everything.
- Magic A Is Magic A: Magic is consistent; the same magical causes will have the same magical effects.
- The Magic Poker Equation: Luck is dependent upon skill and how important the outcome is.
- Magnum Opus Dissonance: Soulless moneymakers will be more popular than the painstaking masterpiece.
- Million-to-One Chance: Vast odds will favor the exceptional.
- Moffs Law: In criticism, someone is going to bring up 'Why can't you enjoy it for what it is?'.
- Monster Delay: When the Big Bad is a monster, hide him as long as possible.
- The Morality/Mortality Equation: Karmic retribution comes back to kill the evildoer's companions.
- MST3K Mantra: "It's just a show."
- Murphy's Law (a disambiguation page - if you want the trope, see Finagle's Law)
- Never a Self-Made Woman: A female character can only be part of the story as a relative or Love Interest to one of the male characters. If she holds skill or power, it should be attributed to the influence of a man.
- Never the Obvious Suspect: If a piece of Mystery Fiction has a very obvious suspect turn up early in the story, later on he will be revealed innocent of the crime.
- Nominal Importance: If you're not named, you don't matter.
- No Tech but High Tech: Only technology from recent or upcoming years counts. Your candle is not technology.
- No Transhumanism Allowed: Sci-fi works tend to be light on or demonize transhumans.
- Observation on Originality: Polish and novelty are mutually exclusive.
- Occam's Razor: All things being equal, the correct answer is often the simplest.
- Offscreen Inertia: When you leave someone, they continue doing what they were doing unless proved otherwise.
- Only One Plausible Suspect: If there's a crime with an unknown culprit, the culprit can't be a minor or an unseen character. If there's only one major character who could've possibly done it, he will be revealed as the culprit.
- The Peter Principle: Employees will be promoted until they reach a position where they are incompetent.
- Plot Tailored to the Party: A party of characters with different abilities will always face challenges where everyone's abilities are relevant.
- Poe's Law: A parody of an extreme view can be indistinguishable from its real expression.
- Popularity Polynomial: Things will phase in and out of popularity as their fans age.

- Redemption Equals Affliction: ...but usually when they do, they will suffer crippling or loss.
- Redemption Equals Death: ...or death.
- Redemption Equals Sex: "Karma gets you laid!"
- Refuge in Audacity: Being so offensive it loops back around to normal.
- Rule 50: All franchises will have a crossover work about them.
- Rule #1: Rules tend to come in numbered lists
- Rule of Animation Conservation: Anything animated is animated for a reason.
- Rule of Cautious Editing Judgment: We don't hate your views, we don't want your views to start an argument.
- Rule of Cool: Suspension of disbelief can be stretched for cool acts.
- Rule of Cute: Adorable things are allowed to make no sense.
- Rule of Drama: Any potential for conflict will not be ignored.
- Rule of Empathy: The characters we see are more successful in what they do than others.
- The Rule of First Adopters: Porn drives adoption of new media.
- Rule of Fun: Incongruities can be ignored if it's fun.
- Rule of Funny: It doesn't have to make sense if it's funny enough.
- Rule of Glamorous: Practicality takes a back seat to looking good.
- Rule of Perception: If the audience doesn't see it it doesn't exist.
- Rule of Personification Conservation: Non-humans should be non-human for a reason.
- Rule of Pool: Pool plus clothed person equals someone's getting wet.
- Rule of Romantic: Reality can get bent if it obstructs romance.
- Rule of Scary: Scary things don't need to be logical.
- Rule of Sean Connery: Certain actors make anything better.
- Rule of Sexy: If it's sexy enough, no one will care that it's not practical.
- Rule of Seven: Important things come in sevens, and seventh things are especially important
- Rule of Symbolism: The need for symbolism trumps realistic concerns.
- Rules of the Road: Road signs mean exactly what they say.
- Rule of Three: Things coming in three are pleasing.
- Rules of Orphan Economics: Orphans will either be totally provided for or will have to scrape by on their own
- Rules of the Internet
- Rule 34: There is porn of everything.
- Rule 63: All male characters have a female version, and vice versa.
- Rule Zero: The GM is always right.
- Sanderson's First Law: The better the reader understands a magic system, the more it can be used to resolve conflict.
- The Schlub Pub Seduction Deduction: Hot women talking to average guys in bars means they have ulterior motives.
- Scalzi's Law: The failure mode of "clever" is "asshole"
- Schrödinger's Gun: Only what has been revealed to the audience is fixed, everything else can be changed.
- Science Cannot Comprehend Phlebotinum: Science can't understand wacky stuff.
- Science Is Bad: Science destroys all that is good and beautiful about the world.
- Second Law of Gender Bending: Genderbending will make people enjoy their new gender more than their previous gender.
- Second Law of Metafictional Thermodynamics: The entropy (level of destruction) in a fictional system will increase until the writer's emotional equilibrium is restored.
- "Seinfeld" Is Unfunny: The thing that pioneered a new style has been copied so much it's no longer new at all.
- Sensible Heroes, Skimpy Villains: Where a female character lies on the "good versus evil scale" is directly proportional to how much skin she is or is not showing.
- Set Swords to "Stun": In a fighting game (particularly in crossovers), regardless of what weapons or powers you use you will never achieve anything worse than a KO.
- The Sidekick Theory of Heroic War: The sidekick to the hero is always the reason why the hero's kingdom wins the war.
- Significant Birth Date: Any included birthday is either important to the plot or to the symbolism.
- Significant Reference Date: When fictional and real dates are made to line up amusingly.
- Sliding Scale of Beauty
- Sliding Scale of Continuity
- Sliding Scale of Fourth Wall Hardness
- Sliding Scale of Free Will vs. Fate
- Sliding Scale of Idealism vs. Cynicism
- Sliding Scale of Parent-Shaming in Fiction
- Sliding Scale of Shiny Versus Gritty
- Sliding Scale of Silliness vs. Seriousness
- Sliding Scale of Video Game World Size and Scale
- Sliding Scale of Visuals Versus Dialogue
- Sliding Scale of Villain Threat
- The Smurfette Principle: There will be only one female character in animated features not marketed solely to girls.
- Song Association: If a work plays a Real Life song enough, the audience will always associate it with that work regardless of context.
- Sorting Algorithm of Evil: Enemies will appear in order from least to most evil.
- Sorting Algorithm of Face-Heel Turning
- Sorting Algorithm of Mortality
- Sorting Algorithm of Threatening Geography: The surrounding environment becomes steadily more threatening as the hero's journey continues.
- Sparse List of Rules: A rules trope, rather than a rule, one where the work lists only sections of a rulebook or similar.
- Sturgeon's Law: Most of any type of thing sucks.
- Sukhomlinov Effect: The army with more elaborate uniforms loses.
- Super Weight
- Theiss Titillation Theory: Outfits are sexier if they look like they're going to expose someone.
- The Theorem of Narrow Interests: The more specific the thing is you're looking for, the less you'll find.
- Theory of Narrative Causality: Things happen because the plot says they should.
- Third Law of Gender Bending: Genderbent characters will either embrace or be forced to adopt the stereotypes of their bent gender.
- Three Month Rule: In professional wrestling, canon lasts only for three months.
- Too Many Cooks Spoil the Soup: The more people work on something, the less likely they are to succeed.
- Triang Relations: LoveTriangles comes with many forms that makes your head spin.
- Trope Example Laws
- The Zeroth Law of Trope Examples: Shakespeare did it.
- TV Never Lies
- Two Girls to a Team: 3:2 male to female ratio avoids Smurfette Principle without making it all about the girls.
- The Tyson Zone: The zone in which a celebrity is so bizarre any story about them seems plausible.
- Undead Tax Exemption: Identification documents and profiles don't pose a problem to people in weird circumstances.
- Underdogs Never Lose: The plucky disadvantaged guys come out on top always.
- Unspoken Plan Guarantee: The less is said about a character's plan, the more likely it is to be shown to work.
- Variable Terminal Velocity: How fast you fall depends on who and what you are.
- Villains Act, Heroes React: The villain is the basis of conflict and therefore creates the plot.
- "Weird Al" Effect: Sufficiently successful parodies can remain well-known long after the material that was parodied has faded into obscurity.
- What Measure Is a Non-Human?
- The Wiki Rule: There's a wiki for everything.
- Your Magic's No Good Here: Magic that works in one world doesn't work the same in another.


<dita>
The <dita>
element provides a top-level container for multiple topics
when you create documents using the ditabase document type. The <dita>
element lets you create any sequence of topics, and the ditabase document type lets you
nest these topic types inside each other. The <dita>
element has no
particular output implications; it simply allows you to create multiple topics of different
types at the same level in a single document.
Category: Basic topic elements


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———. 2020a. “Fish Inventories Data Queries.” Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy - Knowledge Management. 2020. http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/fidq/searchSingleWaterbody.do.
———. 2020b. “Known BC Fish Observations and BC Fish Distributions.” Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy - Knowledge Management. 2020. https://catalogue.data.gov.bc.ca/dataset/known-bc-fish-observations-and-bc-fish-distributions.
———. 2020c. “Provincial Obstacles to Fish Passage - Data Catalogue.” Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy - Knowledge Management. 2020. https://catalogue.data.gov.bc.ca/dataset/provincial-obstacles-to-fish-passage.
———. 2020d. “Stream Inventory Sample Sites.” Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy - Knowledge Management. 2020. https://catalogue.data.gov.bc.ca/dataset/stream-inventory-sample-sites.
Norris, Simon. 2020a. Bcfishobs. Hillcrest Geographics. https://github.com/smnorris/bcfishpass.
———. 2020b. Bcfishpass. Hillcrest Geographics. https://github.com/smnorris/bcfishpass.
———. 2020c. Fwapg. Hillcrest Geographics. https://github.com/smnorris/fwapg.
Norris, Simon, and Craig Mount. 2016. “Fish Passage GIS Analysis Version 2.2 â€“ Methodology and Output Data Specifications.” https://data.skeenasalmon.info/dataset/bc-fish-passage-program.
QGIS Development Team. 2009. QGIS Geographic Information System. Open Source Geospatial Foundation. http://qgis.osgeo.org.
R Core Team. 2020. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/.
Resources Inventory Committee. 2001. “Reconnaissance (1:20 000) Fish and Fish Habitat Inventory: Standards and Procedures. Version 2.0.” Resources Inventory Committee; Prepared by BC Fisheries Information Services Branch. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/natural-resource-stewardship/nr-laws-policy/risc/recce2c.pdf.
Robinson, M. 2008. “Hartley Creek Restoration Project- 2007 As-Built Report.” http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/acat/documents/r17419/CB07-33440_1260486454871_646983b1d9f09543fe0a164e9d8f87aba56727b93c864d764128d16812f85f1c.pdf.
Roni, Phil, Karrie Hanson, and Timothy Beechie. 2008. “Global Review of the Physical and Biological Effectiveness of Stream Habitat Rehabilitation Techniques.” North American Journal of Fisheries Management 28: 856–90. https://doi.org/10.1577/M06-169.1.
Saldi-Caromile, K, K Bates, P Skidmore, J Barenti, and D Pineo. 2004. “Stream Habitat Restoration Guidelines: Final Draft.” https://wdfw.wa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/00043/wdfw00043.pdf.
Schmetterling, David. 2001. “Seasonal Movements of Fluvial Westslope Cutthroat Trout in the Blackfoot River Drainage, Montana.” North American Journal of Fisheries Management 21: 507–20. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(2001)021<0507:SMOFWC>2.0.CO;2.
Schweigert, J. F, John Robert Post, Canada, Environment, limate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, and Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. 2017. COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Westslope Cutthroat Trout, Oncorhynchus Clarkii Lewisi, Saskatchewan-Nelson River Populations, Pacific Populations, in Canada. Ottawa: Environment and Climate Change Canada. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/eccc/CW69-14-506-2017-eng.pdf.
Shaw, Edward A., Eckart Lange, James D. Shucksmith, and David N. Lerner. 2016. “Importance of Partial Barriers and Temporal Variation in Flow When Modelling Connectivity in Fragmented River Systems.” Ecological Engineering 91: 515–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.01.030.
Slaney, P. A, Daiva O Zaldokas, and Watershed Restoration Program (B.C.). 1997. Fish Habitat Rehabilitation Procedures. Vancouver, B.C.: Watershed Restoration Program. https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/FFIP/Slaney_PA1997_A.pdf.
Swales, Stephen, and C. Levings. 1989. “Role of Off-Channel Ponds in the Life Cycle of Coho Salmon ( Oncorhynchus Kisutch ) and Other Juvenile Salmonids in the Coldwater River, British Columbia.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences - CAN J FISHERIES AQUAT SCI 46: 232–42. https://doi.org/10.1139/f89-032.
Thompson, Richard. 2013. “Assessing Fish Passage at Culverts â€“ the Method, Its Metrics and Preliminary Findings from over 4,000 Assessments.” https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/plants-animals-and-ecosystems/fish-fish-habitat/fish-passage/assessing_fish_passage_at_culverts.pdf.
Vast Resource Solutions Inc. 2013. “Fish Habitat Assessments for Fish Passage Restoration in the Kootenay Business Area.” 2013. http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/acat/documents/r50151/PD13TFE005_1457969740338_7968134938.pdf.
VAST Resource Solutions Inc. 2013. “2012 Fish Passage Assessments in BCTS Kootenay Business Area (Pd13tfe006).” http://a100.gov.bc.ca/appsdata/acat/documents/r43047/PD13TFE006_VAST_FinalReport_1405379598103_5374008940.pdf.
Xie, Yihui. 2016. Bookdown: Authoring Books and Technical Documents with R Markdown. Boca Raton, Florida: Chapman; Hall/CRC. https://bookdown.org/yihui/bookdown.


WITNESS LIST Revenue & Public Education Funding, Select Committee March 26, 1997-11:00A Exemptions-General On: Barton, Karey (Comptroller's Office) Daugherty, Craig (Comptroller's Office) Hamilton, Billy (Comptroller's Office) Hawkins, Albert (Governor's Office) Reissig, Mike (Comptroller's Office) School Finance-General On: Dunn, David (Legislative Budget Bd) Moak, Lynn (himself) Tax Reform- General On: Heflin, Talmadge (himself, Representative)


This project would not have been possible without the following members.
| Name | About | Role | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Konrad Pijanowski | Loves solving challenging problems in a creative way using cutting edge technologies. Not afraid to experiment with different approaches until he finds the one that suits him the best. At all times, Konrad ensured that the team was on the right track to achieve its goals. On top of that, he was working on the localization and navigation of the robot. | Project Manager / Hardware Developer | |
| Kyle Cotton | Specialising in high performance, secure, and reliable software, Kyle can design the infrastructure and backend systems to meet any needs. Whether you want a simple website or a system to serve hundreds of thousands. Kyle is also a huge fan of the Rust language and is a very active member of the community. | Tech Lead / Backend Developer |
|
| Justin Howe | With the continuous advancement of digital devices in our modern world, Justin has always been fascinated by how transforming innovative ideas into interesting artifacts, such as creating web applications, can blossom a positive impact in people’s lives. | Frontend Developer / Promo Website Editor |
|
| Lucia Garcia Velasco | As someone who enjoys communicating with people about real-world problems and solutions, Lucia was excited to overlook the front-end and client-facing aspects of the project. She has built the functionalities of the front end, and has really enjoyed the logic-building process of the project. Before commencing the project, Lucia had some brief experience with front-end creation, and a passion for database systems, making this the perfect realm to further explore her interests. | Frontend Developer / Video Editor |
|
| Alex Mamina | Loves solving challenges and finding creative solutions to problems. Chose to be responsible for navigation to gain more experience in algorithms (which she did). During SDP discovered a passion in technical writing. Is fascinated by space. | Navigation Algorithm Creator / Report and User Guide Editor |
|
| Wang Huabing | Professional on hardware design and integration. Had several previous experience working on projects with Raspberry Pi based platform. | Hardware Developer | |
| Joey Lam | Experienced in visual design and modelling, Joey's interests lie in how technology can bring imagination to life. | Hardware Developer | |
| Cong Dou | Experienced in electrical engineering and industrial design. | Hardware Developer | |
Within any large and complex hardware/software system, the organisation of the group members and the interoperability between the specific teams within that group are essential to the success of the project as a whole. For this reason particular emphasis has been placed on this area, with specific dedicated planning and discussion.
With the current global situation, geographical and time constraints, in-person collaboration has been rendered impossible for our group.
Therefore, we have arranged virtual meetings.
Microsoft Teams is used for the more formal communication, typically between our team and the client, mentor or other course staff member.
We are also using this platform as our central document store, including files such as our meeting minutes and agenda,
assessed documents (so they can be reviewed by other group members) and our System Specification.
Discord is used extensively by our team to communicate in a text format and also by voice and video.
This method of communication was chosen by us for its numerous merits including: built-in voice and video calling, markdown support,
@name
mentions and the fact that there are clients available for all of our systems including mobile apps.
At the start of every week (Monday 09:00 GMT), we have a short meeting: this is an opportunity for all of the teams to get together
and discuss and inter-team issues (issues in the sense of an aspect of the code base that is to be implemented, updated or removed),
upcoming deadlines and milestones, the task that each member will be doing that week as well as the main tasks they completed the previous week.
This is an opportunity for the direction of the project as a whole to be adjusted in light of a limitation or issues that have been discovered.
In addition to our Full Team Weekly Stand-up, our functional teams also have their own meetings,
this is left to the discretion of the members of that group. This allows our teams to work with greater flexibility and autonomy,
focusing on the aspect of the project to which they have been assigned and where their skills are most useful.
When initially discussing our options for Communications & Meetings it was clear we all wanted a system with very little ceremony,
something we think our current system has achieved.
A key aspect of our group organisation is the assigning of members to specific functional teams,
that enabled each member to use their expertise effectively to create our project.
The Hardware & Simulation Team is responsible for designing and modelling the robot and its operating environment.
The Hardware/Software Interoperability Team is responsible for designing and implementing the systems that enable
our command and control systems to communicate with the hardware.
The Back-end Team is responsible for designing and implementing our back-end systems such as API/C2/database servers.
The Front-end Team is responsible for designing and implementing our user facing systems, such as mobile applications and websites.
In addition to the project teams, certain group members have been assigned with additional roles to further support the group.
The Project Manager (Konrad Pijanowski), is responsible for organising the group as a whole,
this includes responsibilities such as monitoring progress of the various teams towards our milestones.
Technical Lead (Kyle Cotton), is responsible for all technical matters, this includes high level system design of the interaction
between the different systems of the project, being a fallback for any technical issues, decomposing the software systems and assigning technical tasks.
Spokesperson/Point of Contact (Alex Mamina), is responsible for communicating with the various elements external to our group,
this could be the course staff, experts or our client, checking and submitting the assessed documents our group must provide.
Secretary (Lucia Garcia), is responsible for preparing agenda for meetings and taking detailed minutes, this forms a record of our
verbal communication to which we can refer back to later and assign any necessary tasks.
The final product for our SDP project consists of a very large and complex code base, so it was essential that it was managed effectively. To enable this a GitHub Organisation has been created, which has many benefits.
It allows for the various teams to work simultaneously on the project without the worry of conflicting changes. Should the same line of the code be changed multiple times a merge conflict will be created, allowing the team member to select the appropriate version.
For our project we work with a Branch, Review, Approve and Merge model. Any major/overarching charges are to be done on a branch,
reviewed and tested by another team member before they are approved and merged into the master
branch.
Only stable tested code should be on the master
branch.
There are two primary ways in which a task is assigned to a group member. We have used two different software solutions for the two different elements of the design, planning and implementation of the system.
Within our GitHub Organisation we have multiple repositories, these are essentially areas where we can all work on a single dedicate code base; such as the hardware simulation, API/C2 or mobile apps. Then within each repository we have issues, these act as essentially tasks. The advantage of using the issues is that the code and tasks are on the same platform, there are very convenient comments on issues as well as member assignment which makes this system central to our group organisation system.
In addition to the GitHub Issues, we are also using Trello which is a very similar system. We are using this system as some of the tasks have no intrinsic relation to the code base, and for that reason, it was decided that they should be kept in a separate location.
Each of the Task Allocation platforms we are using has a Kanban feature. For the GitHub Issues we are using a backlog system, each team has their own backlog of tasks that are to be completed. Since we are using a waterfall approach, when the backlog is empty our project will be completed to a very high standard. This then allowed us to look into additional functionality to further improve the system. A Gantt chart has also been produced, this is essential for us to map out the decencies between tasks, for example it would have been very difficult to fully test the mobile app before the hardware has been modelled/built. The key milestones of the project are also clearly displayed on the chart, allowing the progress of the project towards the distortions and project completion.


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Master Degree in Computer Science
Curriculum: Data and Knowledge: Science and Technologies
Thesis in Big Data Visualization:
ReviwerNet: Visualizing Citation and Authorship Relations for Finding Reviewers
Supervised by Daniela Giorgi, Federico Ponchio and Paolo Cignoni @
Visual Computing Lab - ISI CNR, Pisa


Tata Altroz hatchback teased ahead of its December 3 India launch
by Team ODTata Altroz, an India bred hatchback to take on the likes of Hyundai Elite i20, Honda Jazz, Volkswagen Polo, Toyota Glanza and the Maruti Suzuki Baleno has been teased once again ahead of its December 3 India launch. That said, the Altroz, Altroz EV and the Nexon EV are expected to be the show stoppers at Tata's pavilion in 2020 Auto Expo that is scheduled for February 7-12.
The Altroz has been showcased before at Geneva Motor Show this year and the manufacturer has unveiled the interiors of the hatchback in a promotional video.
The Altroz is based on Tata's ALFA (Agile Light Flexible Advanced) modular architecture and is expected to spawn other body styles in the years to come. The feature list could include keyless entry, climate control, touchscreen infotainment system, steering-mounted controls and rear AC vents. On the outside the hatchback gets projector headlamps - all-LED tail lamps. Also, higher variants could see 16-inch alloy wheels on offer
The drivetrains are expected to be shared with the Tata Nexon crossover. The Altroz will be offered in India with BSVI compliant 1.2-litre turbocharged petrol and 1.5-litre turbocharged diesel engines, both producing about 100PS. The engines will be mated to a manual gearbox, however, expect an optional automatic in the trim levels.
Also Read,
Tata Motors to supply 500 EVs to Lithium Urban Technologies
Tata Motors inaugurates Advance Power Systems Engineering Tech Center in Pune
More spy shots emerge of the 2020 Tata Tiago facelift
Tata Harrier automatic SUV could launch in India by February 2020


Write a JavaScript program that will use 3 different integers(numbers),
calculate the average of the three numbers.
Note: The numbers can't be letters or negative numbers


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WQMY
Police: Death Valley bones may be German tourists - eTurboNews
Nov 15, 2009. all from Dresden, as 28-year-old Cornelia Meyer, her son Max, aged four, and 33-year-old man Egbert Rimkus and his son Georg Weber, 10. Temperatures in sweltering Death Valley, one of the world's hottest and driest .
http://www.eturbonews.com/12784/police-death-valley-bones-may-be-german-tourists
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| time off request update | Williamsport |
| Branding | MyNetworkTV cornelia meyer egbert rimkus death valley |
| under shady garden walls | lattitude and longitude worksheet: 29 (ernest deininger in philadelphia) & the shire golf uk-DT 45.3 (UHF) |
| white bloodcell count auto 3.3 | see article |
| Owner | New Age Media, LLC CALIFORNIA : Bones may solve mystery : Death Valley hikers find ... |
| First air date | December 30, 1988 |
| elders of eastern kalimdor | MYNetworkTV |
| e-machine t2824 motherboard fuse location | WOLF-TV, book chapter a blushing girl ballam |
| assembled victorian doll houses on ebay | WILF (1988-2006) |
| Former channel number(s) | Search Turns Up Additional Death Valley Remains | Sierra Wave ... |
| paper punch hole size chart | gecko house st john (1988-1998) operation smackdown scranton pa / 359 east gabilan plaza soledad ca (1998-2006) |
| time off request update | 50 how thick is .18 milimeter 420 kW (WOLF-DT3) |
| nema electrical safety rating | 243 m 488 m (WOLF-DT3) |
| photos 50 calaber rifle wind runner | 52075 73375 (WOLF-DT3) |
| Transmitter coordinates | rice tree service maine building 1 1250 diorama (WOLF-DT3) |
The Missing Tourists - Daisy Patton
The Missing Tourists, or Disappearance in Death Valley . Egbert Rimkus, 34, his son Georg Weber, 10, his girlfriend Cornelia Meyer, 28, and her son Max .
http://www.daisypatton.com/themissingtourists.htm
The Charley Project: Georg Weber
Apr 6, 2010. 34-year-old Egbert Rimkus, his father's girlfriend, Cornelia Meyer, . They were last known to be at Death Valley in Inyo County, California.
http://www.charleyproject.org/cases/w/weber_georg.html
Contents |
[lease apartment bordeaux france] History
Unsolved: Missing family in Death Valley - Toyota FJ Cruiser Forum
DEATH VALLEY - The discovery of an abandoned minivan in a . the foursome: architect Egbert Rimkus, 34, his girlfriend Cornelia Meyer, 28, .
http://www.fjcruiserforums.com/forums/trail-use-safety-education/61292-unsolved-missing-family-death-valley.html
The story about the missing germans in 1996 - Death Valley ...
Jun 12, 2012 . Death Valley National... forums . The disappearance of German architect Egbert Rimkus his girlfriend Cornelia Meyer, his son Georg Weber, .
http://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowTopic-g143021-i2027-k5497333-The_story_about_the_missing_germans_in_1996-Death_Valley_National_Park_California.html
Cornelia Meyer - The Doe Network
Missing since of July 27, 1996 from Death Valley, Inyo County, California . German architect Egbert Rimkus, his girlfriend Cornelia Meyer, his son Georg Weber, .
http://doenetwork.org/cases/2057dfca.html
CA CA - Egbert Rimkus (deceased), Cornelia Meyer, & 2 kids, Death ...
At the same time, the four German national who'd rented the vehicle - Egbert Rimkus, 33, Cornelia Meyer, 28, Georg Weber, 10 and Max Meyer .
http://www.websleuths.com/forums/archive/index.php/t-41771.html
LiveLeak.com - Death Valley Remains may be German Tourists
Nov 13, 2009 . The disappearance of four German tourists in Death Valley National Park . Cornelia Meyer, 28, her four-year-old son, Max, Egbert Rimkus, 33, .
http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fa4_1258165748
THE HOLLYWOOD WALKER: WALKING WITH GERRIES
Sep 6, 2011 . Any damn fool who visits Death Valley, for instance, is surely well . to do it with such reckless abandon as Cornelia Meyer and Egbert Rimkus, .
http://hollywoodwalker.blogspot.com/2011/09/walking-with-gerries.html
Lost in Butte Valley | The Death Valley Journal
Mar 1, 2010 . The Death Valley Journal AN ECLECTIC RESOURCE FOR DEATH . year old Egbert Rimkus, along with his girlfriend Cornelia Meyer, and his .
http://oldtrailmaster.wordpress.com/2010/03/01/lost-in-butte-valley/
Egbert Rimkus - The Doe Network
Missing since July 27, 1996 from Death Valley, Inyo County, California . of German architect Egbert Rimkus, his girlfriend Cornelia Meyer, his son Georg Weber, .
http://doenetwork.org/cases/2089dmca.html
NamUs - National Missing Persons Data System - Cornelia Meyer ...
Status, Missing. First name, Cornelia. Middle name. Last name, Meyer. Nickname /Alias. Date last seen, July 26, 1996 00:00. Date entered, 01/01/2010 .
https://www.findthemissing.org/cases/4464
Desert bones linked to German tourists - US news - Life | NBC News
Nov 13, 2009 . Skeletal remains found in Death Valley may belong to one or more of . were Dresden residents Cornelia Meyer, 27; her 4-year-old son, Max; her boyfriend, architect Egbert Rimkus, 34, and his 10-year-old son, Georg Weber.
http://www.nbcnews.com/id/33919797/
Official Tate-LaBianca Murders Blog: May 2008
May 29, 2008 . The search at the remote Barker Ranch in Death Valley, led by the . tourists -- architect Egbert Rimkus, 34, his girlfriend, Cornelia Meyer, 28, .
http://tatelabianca.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html
[2008 olympics soccer schedule] Digital channels
| Channel | Name | buildings in pittsburgh pennsylvania | john deere hydro tractor | Programming |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 53.1 | cornelia meyer egbert rimkus death valley DT | urban school financial problems | peter tilton nj bayville | Main cornelia meyer egbert rimkus death valley programming / MyNetworkTV |
| 53.2 | WOLF DT | look up licenses for nurses | under shady garden walls | Simulcast of motels and lakeview il |
| 53.3 | WSWB DT | 480i | 4:3 | Simulcast of journal of communication interpersonal |
California Missing Persons - Redding Record Searchlight
4465 · Rimkus, Egbert, 7/22/1996, Death Valley, CA, Male, White, 33. 4466 · Weber . 4464 · Meyer, Cornelia, 7/26/1996, Death Valley, CA, Female, White, 28 .
http://www.redding.com/databases/missing/california/
[hair extensions rochester ny] References
[coleridge work ghost poem] External links
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- what is an asp repeater
- alpha cannine kennels website houston tx
- examples of repetition in literature
- paper punch hole size chart
|
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nmt.utils package¶
Submodules¶
nmt.utils.data_utils module¶
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
convert_xmlset_to_text
(path)[source]¶ Converts data sets in xml (sgm) (e.g. http://www.statmt.org/wmt17/translation-task.html Development and Test sets to text only format (one line, one sequence). Creates new file with same name and .lines extension
Parameters: path – path to the file
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
get_bucket_ix
(seq_length, bucket_range)[source]¶ Returns index of a bucket for a sequence with q given length when bucket range is bucket_range
Parameters: - seq_length – lengh of sequence
- bucket_range – range of bucket
Returns: index of a bucket
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
load_embedding_weights
(path, words, limit=None)[source]¶ Loads pretrained embedding weights from given path
Parameters: - path – Path to fast text embeddings
- words – dictionary of words (e.g. {0: “PAD”, 1: “cat”, 2: “dog”}), word on index 0 is considered to be PADDING and its weights are set to 0
- limit – maximum number of loaded embeddings (lines)
Returns: list of weights in the same order as are words
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
prepare_folder
(path, clear)[source]¶ Parameters: - path (str) – path to the folder
- clear (bool) – whether to clear the folder if it already exists
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
prepare_folders
(paths, clear)[source]¶ Parameters: - paths (str[]) – list of paths to the folders
- clear (bool) – whether to clear the folders if they already exists
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
read_file_to_lines
(path, max_lines)[source]¶ Loads lines from a given file up to max_lines
Parameters: - path – path to the file
- max_lines – maximum number of lines to be read from file, None means all of them
Returns: list of string lines read from the file
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
split_lines
(lines)[source]¶ Splits each line on ‘ ‘ character, in place
Parameters: lines (str[]) – array of lines thats splitted in place
-
nmt.utils.data_utils.
split_to_buckets
(x_sequences, y_sequences, bucket_range=3, x_max_len=None, y_max_len=None, bucket_min_size=10)[source]¶ Split list of sequences to list of buckets where each bucket is a list of word sequences with similar length (based on the bucket_range size e.g. with bucket_size=3 sequences with length 1-3 falls in same bucket)
Parameters: - x_sequences – one list of sequences
- y_sequences – another list of sequences
- bucket_range – size of one bucket (how big range of sequence lengths should fall into one bucket)
- x_max_len – optional max length of X sequences
- y_max_len – optional max length of y sequences
- bucket_min_size – minimal size of a bucket. If its lower, than the bucket gets merged with other bucket
Returns: dict of buckets each with the Y and y list of similary long sequences and their max length
nmt.utils.script_utils module¶
-
nmt.utils.script_utils.
create_bpe_dataset
(paths, symbols)[source]¶ Learns and applies BPE (https://github.com/rsennrich/subword-nmt) on merged vocabulary from each file in paths :param paths: array of paths to files with lines of sentences :param symbols: how many symbols to learn
Example
script_utils.create_bpe_dataset([“G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/devSet/newstest2015-csen.cs”, “G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/devSet/newstest2015-csen.en”], 15000)
-
nmt.utils.script_utils.
create_bpe_testdataset
(paths, vocab_paths, codefile_path)[source]¶ Applies BPE to test dataset, based on vocabs and codes learnt from the original dataset :param paths: array of paths to test dataset files with lines of sentences :param vocab_paths: paths to vocab files created by create_bpe_dataset in corresponding order to paths :param codefile_path: path to codes file created by create_bpe_dataset
Example
script_utils.create_bpe_testdataset([“G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/commonCrawl/commoncrawl.cs-en.cs”, “G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/commonCrawl/commoncrawl.cs-en.en”], [“G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/devSet/newstest2015-csen.cs.vocab”, “G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/devSet/newstest2015-csen.en.vocab”], “G:/Clouds/DPbigFiles/WMT17/devSet/codesfile”)
-
nmt.utils.script_utils.
get_bleu
(reference_file_path, hypothesis_file_path)[source]¶ Calculates BLEU score with the reference multi-bleu.perl script from Moses
Parameters: - reference_file_path – path to the reference translation file from the dataset
- hypothesis_file_path – path to the file translated by the translator
Returns: BLEU score


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#include <ACIA.h>
Public Member Functions | |
| ACIA () | |
| ~ACIA () | |
| void | SetWorkingMode (int mod) |
| int | GetWorkingMode (void) |
| RegStatus | GetOutputStateReg () |
| RegStatus | GetInputStateReg () |
| char | GetChar () |
| void | PutChar (char) |
Private Attributes | |
| char | outputRegister |
| char | inputRegister |
| RegStatus | inputStateRegister |
| RegStatus | outputStateRegister |
| int | mode |
| ACIA_sysdep * | sysdep |
Friends | |
| class | ACIA_sysdep |
|
|
Constructor. Initialize ACIA device. |
|
|
Destructor. Deallocate the data used by the ACIA device. |
|
|
To get the input data register value.
|
|
|
To get the input register's value (For the Busy Waiting mode).
|
|
|
To get the output register's state value.
|
|
|
Get the current working mode for the ACIA (Interrupt or Busy Waiting). |
|
|
To put a output in the reception data register.
|
|
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Change the working mode for the ACIA. The parameter is a bitwise OR of flags defining the interrupts allowed (emission or reception). It must be used to enable/disable reception and emission interrupts in the Interrupt mode. |
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The class ACIA_sysdep is in charge of the system dependent parts of the ACIA, using UDP sockets. It will be able to write on the registers of an object from the class ACIA. |
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Input data register.
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Emission state register.
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Working mode : Interrupt or Busy Waiting mode.
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Output data register.
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Reception state register.
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Sphinx¶
Sphinx is a tool that makes it easy to create intelligent and beautiful documentation for Python projects (or other documents consisting of multiple reStructuredText sources), written by Georg Brandl. It was originally created for the new Python documentation, and has excellent facilities for Python project documentation, but C/C++ is supported as well, and more languages are planned.
Sphinx uses reStructuredText as its markup language, and many of its strengths come from the power and straightforwardness of reStructuredText and its parsing and translating suite, the Docutils.
Among its features are the following:
Output formats: HTML (including derivative formats such as HTML Help, Epub and Qt Help), plain text, manual pages and LaTeX or direct PDF output using rst2pdf
Extensive cross-references: semantic markup and automatic links for functions, classes, glossary terms and similar pieces of information
Hierarchical structure: easy definition of a document tree, with automatic links to siblings, parents and children
Automatic indices: general index as well as a module index
Code handling: automatic highlighting using the Pygments highlighter
Flexible HTML output using the Jinja 2 templating engine
Various extensions are available, e.g. for automatic testing of snippets and inclusion of appropriately formatted docstrings
Setuptools integration
For more information, refer to the the documentation.
Installation¶
Sphinx is published on PyPI and can be installed from there:
pip install -U sphinx
We also publish beta releases:
pip install -U --pre sphinx
If you wish to install Sphinx for development purposes, refer to the contributors guide.
Documentation¶
Documentation is available from sphinx-doc.org.
Get in touch¶
Report bugs, suggest features or view the source code on GitHub.
For less well defined questions or ideas, use the mailing list.
Please adhere to our code of conduct.
Testing¶
Continuous testing is provided by Travis (for unit tests and style checks on Linux), AppVeyor (for unit tests on Windows), and CircleCI (for large processes like TeX compilation).
For information on running tests locally, refer to the contributors guide.
Contributing¶
Refer to the contributors guide.


WITNESS LIST State Recreational Resources Committee March 1, 2001-8:00A HB 247 For: Joiner, Gary (Texas Farm Bureau) Langford, David (Self and Texas Wildlife Association) On: Chenoueth, Todd (TNRCC) Sansom, Andrew (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department) Sinclair, David (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department) Registering, but not testifying: For: Strange, Matt (Self) HB 1157 For: Patterson, Jerry (Houston Safari Club & Houston Gun Collectors Assoc.) On: Sinclair, David (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department) HB 1157 Amendment (Jones, E./#1) For: Patterson, Jerry (Houston Safari Club & Houston Gun Collectors Assoc.)


1. Installing scikits.learn¶
There are different ways to get scikits.learn installed:
- Install the version of scikits.learn provided by your operating system distribution . This is the quickest option for those who have operating systems that distribute scikits.learn.
- Install an official release. This is the best approach for users who want a stable version number and aren’t concerned about running a slightly older version of scikits.learn.
- Install the latest development version. This is best for users who want the latest-and-greatest features and aren’t afraid of running brand-new code.
1.1. Installing an official release¶
1.1.1. Installing from source¶
Installing from source requires you to have installed numpy, scipy, setuptools, python development headers and a working C++ compiler. Under debian-like systems you can get all this by executing with root privileges:
sudo apt-get install python-dev python-numpy python-setuptools python-scipy libatlas-dev g++
<IP_ADDRESS>. Easy install¶
This is usually the fastest way to install the latest stable release. If you have pip or easy_install, you can install or update with the command:
pip install -U scikits.learn
or:
easy_install -U scikits.learn
for easy_install. Note that you might need root privileges to run these commands.
<IP_ADDRESS>. From source package¶
Download the package from http://sourceforge.net/projects/scikit-learn/files , unpack the sources and cd into archive.
This packages uses distutils, which is the default way of installing python modules. The install command is:
python setup.py install
1.2. Third party distributions of scikits.learn¶
Some third-party distributions are now providing versions of scikits.learn integrated with their package-management systems.
These can make installation and upgrading much easier for users since the integration includes the ability to automatically install dependencies (numpy, scipy) that scikits.learn requires.
The following is a list of linux distributions that provide their own version of scikits.learn:
1.2.1. Debian and derivatives (Ubuntu)¶
The Debian package is named python-scikits-learn and can be install using the following commands with root privileges:
apt-get install python-scikits-learn
1.2.2. Enthought python distribution¶
The Enthought Python Distribution already ships the latest version.
1.2.3. Macports¶
The macport’s package is named py26-scikits-learn and can be installed by typing the following command:
sudo port install py26-scikits-learn
1.3. Bleeding Edge¶
See section Retrieving the latest code on how to get the development version.
1.4. Testing¶
Testing requires having the nose library. After installation, the package can be tested by executing from outside the source directory:
python -c "import scikits.learn as skl; skl.test()"
This should give you a lot of output (and some warnings) but eventually should finish with the a text similar to:
Ran 601 tests in 27.920s
OK (SKIP=2)
otherwise please consider submitting a bug in the Bug tracker or to the Mailing List.
scikits.learn can also be tested without having the package installed. For this you must compile the sources inplace from the source directory:
python setup.py build_ext --inplace
Test can now be run using nosetest:
nosetests scikits/learn/
If you are running the deveopment version, this is automated in the commands make in and make test.
Warning
Because nosetest does not play well with multiprocessing on windows, this last approach is not recommended on such system.


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27
1 Jotham was twenty-five years old when he began to reign; he reigned sixteen years in Jerusalem. His mother's name was Jerushah; she was the daughter of Zadok.
2 He did what was right in the eyes of Yahweh, following the example of his father, Uzziah, in everything. He also refrained from going into the temple of Yahweh. But the people were still behaving in evil ways.
3 He built the upper gate of the house of Yahweh, and on the hill of Ophel he built much.
4 Moreover he built cities in the hill country of Judah, and in the forests he built castles and towers.
5 He fought also with the king of the people of Ammon and defeated them. In that same year, the people of Ammon gave him one hundred talents of silver, ten thousand measures of wheat, ten thousand measures of barley. The people of Ammon gave him the same in the second and third years.
6 So Jotham became powerful because he walked firmly before Yahweh his God.
7 As for the other matters concerning Jotham, all his wars, and his ways, see, they are written in The Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah.
8 He was twenty-five years old when he began to reign; he reigned for sixteen years in Jerusalem.
9 Jotham slept with his ancestors, and they buried him in the city of David. Ahaz, his son, became king in his place.


'Honour truth in general election campaign,' top Church figures warn voters
The Church of England's two most senior clerics have waded into the election debate
by Ben Glaze, https://www.facebook.com/MirrorPoliticsBritain's top Anglican churchmen tonight urged voters to “honour the gift of truth” in the election campaign.
The Archbishops of Canterbury and York called on electors to “leave our echo chambers” and listen to other viewpoints as the race for No10 hots up.
Justin Welby and John Sentamu issued the pleas in a letter they hope will be shared in churches ahead of the crunch ballot on December 12.
“As followers of Jesus Christ each of us is called to honour the gift of truth, both to speak it and to seek it,” they write.
“We all have a responsibility to speak accurately, to challenge falsehoods when we hear them, and to be careful to separate facts from opinion.
“Offering facts and opinions should be done with humility and in love.
“People who hold different political views are not our enemies.”
Reminding worshippers that “taking part in a democracy is a privilege and a responsibility”, they call on voters to “seek that common good that truly benefits us all”.
Their letter stresses that “includes justice for the oppressed, protection for the persecuted, and a commitment to combat climate change and adapt to its effects”.
It adds: “It also includes a just economic system, open and encouraging to aspiration and ambition, supportive of those who struggle.”


Namespace Picturepark.SDK.V1.CloudManager.Contract
Classes
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An AggregationFilter is provided with each aggregated value.


--- layout: default title: Portfolio section_id: portfolio challenges: - image: images/design-400.png title: Design link_to: challenge-item-design.html klass: graphi-design desc: Design - image: images/protect-400.png title: Protect link_to: challenge-item-protect.html klass: graphi-design desc: Protect - image: images/orchestrate-400.png title: Orchestrate link_to: challenge-item-orchestrate.html klass: graphi-design desc: Orchestrate - image: images/deploy-400.png title: Deploy link_to: challenge-item-deploy.html klass: graphi-design desc: Deploy ---
This is the final challenge. The participants have put themselves through incredible amounts of efforts up to this point. Making it here is a sign that your skills and execution have helped you stand above the crowd in this very dynamic and challenging competition.
The Virtual Design Master finalists are ready to test themselves in the ultimate no holds barred, no way out challenge. Deploying a live environment on real infrastructure in a timeline that would challenge the best in the business is just the start.
Not only do our finalists have to put together a live, working environment and give over the keys to the judges to pore over to pick out every detail, but they have to do it and give their designs and decisions in one final defense in front of the judges.


Spyder - the Scientific PYthon Development EnviRonment¶
Spyder is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for scientific computing using the Python programming language. It comes with an Editor to write code, a Console to evaluate it and see its results at any time, a Variable Explorer to see what variables have been defined during evaluation, and several other facilities to help you to effectively develop the programs you need as a scientist.
This tutorial is authored by Hans Fangohr from the University of Southampton (UK) (see historical note for more detail).
First steps with Spyder¶
This section is aimed at Python and Spyder beginners. If you find it too simple, please continue to the next section.
Execute a given program¶
We are going to use this program as a first example:
# Demo file for Spyder Tutorial # Hans Fangohr, University of Southampton, UK def hello(): """Print "Hello World" and return None""" print("Hello World") # main program starts here hello()
To use this program, please create a new file in the Spyder editor pane. Then copy and paste the code inside the box above on the file, and the save it with the name
hello.py
.To execute the program, select
Run > Run
from the menu (or press F5), and confirm theRun settings
if required.If this is your first time, you should see an output like this:
In [1]: runfile('/Users/fangohr/Desktop/hello.py', wdir=r'/Users/fangohr/Desktop') Hello World In [2]:
If so, then you have just run your first Python program - well done.
Note
The particular path shown next to
runfile
will depend on where you have saved the file, but this is inserted by Spyder automatically.
Use the IPython Console¶
Before we proceed, we recommend you to use the IPython console. This console can do a little more than the standard Python console, and we suggest to use it as the default console here.
What happens when you execute the program?¶
Python reads the file line by line, ignoring comments (i.e. lines starting with the
#
symbol).When it comes across the
def
keyword, it knows that a function is DEFined in this and the next (one or more) lines. All indented lines followingdef hello():
belong to the function body.Note that the function object is just created at this point in the file, but the function is not yet called (i.e. not executed).
When Python comes across commands (other than
def ...
and a few other keywords) that are written in the left-most column, it will execute these immediately. In thehello.py
file this is only the line readinghello()
which will actually call (i.e. execute) the function with namehello
.If you comment or remove the line
hello()
from the program and run the whole file again (by pressing F5, or selectingRun > Run
), nothing will be printed (because the functionhello
is defined, but not called, i.e. not executed).
Now you should know how to execute a Python program that you have in the editor pane in Spyder using the IPython console.
If you are just starting to learn Python, this is probably a good point to return to your text book / course and look at more basic examples.
The next section gives more detailed information how you can execute parts of the code in the editor in the IPython console, and thus update parts of your definitions in the editor. This is a more advanced technique but can be very useful. (You may also be interested in the option to execute chunks (so-called “cells”) of code that are separated by delimiters – see Shortcuts for useful functions.)
Call existing functions in the console¶
Once you have executed the hello.py
program, the function object hello
is defined and known to the IPython console. We can thus call the function from
the console like this:
Type
hello()
in the console (next toIn [?]
prompt, where the question mark can be any positive integer number), and press theEnter
key.You should find that the
hello()
function is executed again, i.e.Hello World
is printed again. Your function call at the console together with the output should look like this:In [ ]: hello() Hello World
Can you see how this differs from executing the whole program again?
When we execute the whole program (by pressing F5), Python goes through the file, creates the
hello
function object (overriding the previous object), reaches thehello()
line and calls the function.When we call
hello()
in the console, we only call the function objecthello
that has been defined in the IPython console when we executed the wholehello.py
file earlier (by pressing F5).This will become clearer over time and also when we work with slightly larger examples. You may want to return to this tutorial at a slightly later stage.
Inspecting objects defined in the console¶
Python provides a function that displays all known objects in the current name space of the console. It is called
dir()
: when you typedir()
at the console, you get a list of known objects. Ignore everything starting with an underscore for now. Can you seehello
in the list?Note
If you get a long list of defined objects, then Spyder may have done some convenience imports for you already. To address this you may want to:
- Reset the name space
- Execute
hello.py
again by pressing F5
Then run
dir()
as suggested above.Once an object is visible in the current name space (as is
hello
in this example), we can use thehelp
function as follows to learn about it: typinghelp(hello)
at the console prompt, you should see an output like this:In [ ]: help(hello) Help on function hello in module __main__: hello() Print "Hello World" and return None
Where does Python take the information from? Some of it (like the number of input arguments and names of those variables; here we have no input arguments) Python can find through inspecting its objects, additional information comes from the documentation string provided for the function object
hello
. The documentation string is the first string immediately below the linedef hello():
.These strings are special, and they are called docstrings which is short for documentation strings. As they usually extend over multiple lines, there are enclosed by triple single quotes (
'''
) or triple double quotes ("""
).The Spyder environment also provides a
Help
pane which by default is located in the top right corner.While the cursor is on the name of an object, press
CTRL+i
(orCMD+i
on Mac), and you should find that the same information as we obtained fromhelp(hello)
is provided automatically in the Help:This works in the console and in the editor.
Updating objects¶
Simple strategy: re-execute whole program¶
In the Editor window, change the function
hello
so that it printsGood Bye World
rather thanHello World
.Press F5 (to execute the whole program) and check that the output of the program is now:
Good Bye World
What has happened when you pressed F5 is this: Python has gone through
the hello.py
file and created a new function object hello
(overriding the function object hello
we had defined before) and
then executed the function.
Looking at the details¶
We need to start with a clearly defined state. To do this, please change the
function hello()
back so that it prints Hello World
, then press
F5 to run the whole program and check that it prints Hello World
.
Call the function
hello()
from the command prompt (as described in Call existing functions in the console). You should seeHello World
printed.Now change the function definition so that it would print
Laters World
, and save the file (but do NOT execute the program, i.e. do NOT press F5 yet).Call the function
hello()
in the console again. You should find that the text printed readsHello World
, like hereIn [ ]: hello() Hello World
Why is this so? Because the
hello
function object in the console is the old one which printsHello World
. So far, we have changed the filehello.py
(and replacedHello World
in there withLaters World
) in the editor but this has not affected the objects that have previously been created in the console.
Here are two possibilities to use our modified version of the hello
function:
Option 1: execute the whole file
hello.py
again by pressing F5: this creates a new function objecthello
(and overrides the old one). You should find that if you press F5, and then callhello()
at the prompt, the new textLaters World
is printed.Option 2: select the region you have changed (in this case the whole function
hello
, starting from the linedef hello():
down toprint("Laters Wold")
, and then selectRun > Run selection
.This will update the
hello
object in the console without having to execute the wholehello.py
file:In [ ]: def hello(): ...: """Print "Hello World" and return None""" ...: print("Laters world") ...:
If we now type
hello()
, we see the update response:In [ ]: hello() Laters world
The ability to execute parts of the code to update some objects in
the console (in the example above, we updated the function object
hello
), is of great use when developing and debugging more complex
codes, and when creating objects/data in the console session take
time. For example, by modifying only the functions (or
classes/objects, etc.) that we are actually developing or debugging, we
can keep re-using the data and other objects that are defined in the
console session.
Recommended first steps for Python beginners¶
To teach and learn Python programming, we recommend here to use IPython instead of the normal Python console. This accepts IPython as the de-facto standard in the scientific Python community.
Switch to an IPython console¶
If you already have an IPython console active, you can ignore this section, and make it visible by clicking on the “IPython console” rider.
In the console window (lower right corner by default), you see by
default a prompt with three greater than signs, i.e. >>>
. This
shows that we are using the console
– basically a normal Python
console session (with some added functionality from Spyder).
Instead, we would like to use an Interactive Python console, short IPython
from the IPython project. To do this, select
Consoles > Open an IPython Console
.
You should see in the consolse window a new shell appearing, and the
IPython prompt In [1]:
should be displayed.
Reset the name space¶
The name space
(i.e. the collection of objects defined in the console at any given time)
can be cleared in IPython using the %reset
command. Type %reset
and press return, then confirm with y
:
In [1]: %reset
Once deleted, variables cannot be recovered. Proceed (y/[n])? y
In [2]:
That’s all.
We discuss this a little further, but you can skip the following if
you are not interested: after issuing the %reset
command, we
should have only a few objects defined in the name space of that
session. We can list all of them using the dir()
command:
In [2]: dir()
Out[2]:
['In',
'Out',
'__builtin__',
'__builtins__',
'__name__',
'_dh',
'_i',
'_i2',
'_ih',
'_ii',
'_iii',
'_oh',
'_sh',
'exit',
'get_ipython',
'help',
'quit']
Finally, if you like to skip the confirmation step of the reset
command, use can use %reset -f
instead of %reset
.
Strive for PEP8 Compliance¶
In addition to the syntax that is enforced by the Python programming language, there are additional conventions regarding the layout of the source code, in particular the Style Guide for Python source code known as “PEP8”. By following this guide and writing code in the same style as almost all Python programmers do, it becomes easier to read, and thus easier to debug and re-use – both for the original author and others.
You should change Spyders settings to Warn if PEP8 coding guidelines are violated.
Selected Preferences¶
Where are the preferences?¶
A lot of Spyder’s behaviour can be configured through its Preferences. Where this is located in the menu depends on your operating system:
- On Windows and Linux, go to
Tools > Preferences
- On Mac OS, go to
Python/Spyder > Preferences
Warn if PEP8 coding guidelines are violated¶
Go to Preferences > Editor > Code
Introspection/Analysis
and
select the tickbox next to Style analysis (PEP8)
Automatic Symbolic Python¶
Through Preferences > IPython console > Advanced Settings > Use
symbolic math
we can activate IPython’s SYMbolic PYthon (sympy) mode that is
provided by the sympy module. This mode
in Spyder allows nicely rendered mathematical output (LaTeX style) and also
imports some sympy objects automatically when the IPython console starts, and
reports what it has done.
These commands were executed:
>>> from __future__ import division
>>> from sympy import *
>>> x, y, z, t = symbols('x y z t')
>>> k, m, n = symbols('k m n', integer=True)
>>> f, g, h = symbols('f g h', cls=Function)
We can then use the variables x
, y
, for example like this:
Shortcuts for useful functions¶
F5
executes the current fileF9
executes the currently highlighted chunk of code: this is very useful to update definitions of functions (say) in the console session without having to run the whole file again. If nothing is selectedF9
executes the current line.Tab
auto-completes commands, function names, variable names, methods in the Console (both Python and IPython) and in the Editor. This feature is very useful, and should be used routinely. Do try it now if auto-completion is new to you. Assume you have defined a variable:mylongvariablename = 42
Suppose we need to write code that computes
mylongvariablename + 100
, we can simply typemy
and then press theTab
key. The full variable name will be completed and inserted at the cursor position if the name is unique, and then we can carry on and type+ 100
. If the name is not uniquely identifiable given the lettersmy
, a list field will be displayed from which the right variable can be chosen. Choosing from the list can be done with the<Arrow up>
key and<Arrow down>
key and theEnter
key to select, or by typing more letters of the name in question (the selection will update automatically) and confirming by pressingEnter
when the right name is identified.Ctrl+Enter
executes the current cell (menu entryRun > Run cell
). A cell is defined as the code between two lines which start with the agreed tag#%%
.Shift+Enter
executes the current cell and advances the cursor to the next cell (menu entryRun > Run cell and advance
).Cells are useful to execute a large file/code segment in smaller units. (It is a little bit like a cell in an IPython notebook, in that chunks of code can be run independently.)
Alt+<Up Arrow>
moves the current line up. If multiple lines are highlighted, they are moved up together.Alt+<Down arrow>
works correspondingly moving line(s) down.Ctrl+Left Mouse Click
on a function/method in the source, opens a new editor windows showing the definition of that function.Shift+Ctrl+Alt+M
maximizes the current window (or changes the size back to normal if pressed in a maximized window)Ctrl+Shift+F
activates the search pane across all files.Cmd + +
(On MacOS X) orCtrl + +
(otherwise) will increase the font size in the Editor, whereasCmd + -
(Ctrl + -
) will decrease it. Also works in the IPython Console.The font size for the Help, the Python console etc. can be set individually via
Preferences > Help
etc.I couldn’t find a way of changing the font size in the variable explorer.
Cmd+S
(on MacOS X) andCtrl+S
(otherwise) in the Editor pane saves the file currently being edited. This also forces various warning triangles in the left column of the Editor to be updated (otherwise they update every 2 to 3 seconds by default).Cmd+S
(on MacOS X) andCtrl+S
(otherwise) in the IPython console pane saves the current IPython session as an HTML file, including any figures that may be displayed inline. This is useful as a quick way of recording what has been done in a session.(It is not possible to load this saved record back into the session - if you need functionality like this, look for the IPython Notebook.)
Cmd+I
(on Mac OS X) andCtrl+I
(otherwise) when pressed while the cursor is on an object, opens documentation for that object in the help pane.
Run Settings¶
These are the settings that define how the code in the editor is
executed if we select Run > Run
or press F5.
By default, the settings box will appear the first time we try to execute a
file. If we want to change the settings at any other time, they can be
found under Run > Configure
or by pressing F6.
There are three choices for the console to use, of which I’ll discuss the
first two. Let’s assume we have a program hello.py
in the editor which
reads
def hello(name):
"""Given an object 'name', print 'Hello ' and the object."""
print("Hello {}".format(name))
i = 42
if __name__ == "__main__":
hello(i)
Execute in current Python or IPython console¶
This is the default suggestion, and also generally a good choice.
Persistence of objects I (after code execution)¶
Choosing Execute in current Python or IPython console
setting under Run > Configure
means that
When the execution of
hello.py
is completed, we can interact with the console in which the program ran, and we can use the convenient IPython console for this (rather than the default Python console).In particular,
we can inspect and interact with objects that the execution of our program created, such as
i
andhello()
.
This is generally very useful for incremental coding, testing and
debugging: we can call hello()
directly from the console
prompt, and don’t need to execute the whole hello.py
for this
(although if we change the function hello()
, we need to execute
the file, or at least the function definition, to make the new
version of hello()
visible at the console; either by
executing the whole buffer or via Run > Run Selection
.)
Persistence of objects II (from before code execution)¶
However, executing the code in the editor in the current console also means that
- the code that executes can see other (global) objects that were defined in the console session.
This persistence of objects is easily forgotten and usually not
required when working on small programs (although it can be of great
value occasionally). These objects could come from previous execution
of code, from interactive work in the console, or from convenience
imports such as from pylab import *
(Spyder may do some of those
convenience imports automatically).
This visibility of objects in the console name space to the code we execute may also result in coding mistakes if the code inadvertently relies on these objects.
Here is an example: imagine that
- we run the code
hello.py
. Subsequently, the variablei
is known in the console as a global variable. - we edit the
hello.py
source and accidentally delete the linei = 42
- we execute the buffer containing
hello.py
again. At this point, the call ofhello(i)
will not fail because the console has an object of namei
defined, although this is not defined in the source ofhello.py
.
At this point, we could save hello.py
and (falsely) think it
would execute correctly. However, running it in a new (I)Python
console session (or via python hello.py
in a terminal, say)
would result in an error, because i
is not defined.
The problem arises because the code makes use of an object (here
i
) without creating it. This also affects importing of modules: if
we had imported pylab
at the IPython prompt, then our program will
see that when executed in this IPython console session.
To learn how we can double check that our code does not depend on such existing objects, see How to double check your code executes correctly “on its own” .
Execute in new dedicated Python console¶
Choosing Execute in new dedicated Python console
under Run
> Configure
will start a new Python console every time the
hello.py
program is executed. The major advantage of this mode
over Execute in current Python or IPython console is that we
can be certain that there are no global objects defined in this
console which originate from debugging and repeated execution of
our code: every time we run the code in the editor, the python
console in which the code runs is restarted.
This is a safe option, but provides less flexibility and cannot use the IPython console.
How to double check your code executes correctly “on its own”¶
Assuming you have chosen for your code to Execute in current Python or IPython console, then you have two options to check that your code does work on its own (i.e. it does not depend on undefined variables, unimported modules and commands etc.)
Switch from Execute in current Python or IPython console to Execute in new dedicated Python console, and execute the code in the editor in this dedicated Python console.
Alternatively, if you want to stay with the current IPython console, you can
Use IPython’s magic
%reset
command which will remove all objects (such asi
in the example above) from the current name space, and then execute the code in the editor.
Recommendation¶
My recommendation for beginners would be to Execute in current Python or IPython console, and to choose the IPython console for this.
Once you have completed a piece of code, double check that it executes independently using one of the options explained in How to double check your code executes correctly “on its own”.
Other observations¶
Multiple files¶
When multiple files are opened in the Editor, the corresponding tabs at the top of the window area are arranged in alphabetical order of the filename from left to right.
On the left of the tabs, there is as icon that shows Browse tabs
if the mouse hovers over it. It is useful to jump to a particular
file directly, if many files are open.
Environment variables¶
Environment variables can be displayed from the Python Console window (bottom
right window in default layout). Click on the Options
icon (the tooltip is
Options
), then select Environment variables
.
Reset all customization¶
All customization saved on disk can be reset by calling Spyder from
the command line with the switch --reset
, i.e. a command like
spyder --reset
.
Objects in the variable explorer¶
Right-clicking on arrays in the variable explorer gives options to plot and analyze these further.
Double clicking on a dictionary object opens a new window that displays the dictionary nicely.
You can also show and edit the contents of numpy arrays, lists, numbers and strings.
Documentation string formatting¶
If you want to add documentation for the code you are developing, we recommend you to write documentation strings (or docstrings) for it, using a special format called reStructuredText (quick reference). This format also needs to follow a set of conventions called the Numpydoc standard
If you follow those guidelines, you can obtain beautifully formatted docstrings in Spyder.
For example, to get an average()
function look like this in the
Spyder Help pane:
you need to format the documentation string as follows
def average(a, b):
"""
Given two numbers a and b, return their average value.
Parameters
----------
a : number
A number
b : number
Another number
Returns
-------
res : number
The average of a and b, computed using 0.5*(a + b)
Example
-------
>>> average(5, 10)
7.5
"""
return (a + b) * 0.5
What matters here, is that the word Parameters
is used, and
underlined. The line a : number
shows us that the type of the
parameter a
is number
. In the next line, which is indented, we
can write a more extended explanation of what this variable represents,
what conditions the allowed types have to fulfill, etc.
The same for all Parameters, and also for the returned value.
Often it is a good idea to include an example too, as shown.
Debugging¶
Line by line step execution of code¶
Activating the debug mode (with the Debug > Debug
menu option or Ctrl+F5)
starts the Python debugger (Pdb) if the Python console is active, or the IPython
debugger (ipdb) if the IPython console is active. After doing that, the
Editor pane will highlight the line that is about to be executed, and the
Variable Explorer will display variables in the current context of the point
of program execution. (It only displays ‘numerical’ and array type of variables,
i.e. not function or class objects)
After entering debug mode, you can execute the code line by line using the
Step
button of the Debug toolbar:
or the shortcut Ctrl+F10. You can also inspect how a particular function is
working by stepping into it with the Step into
button
or the shortcut Ctrl+F11. Finally, to get out of a function and continue with
the next line you need to use the Step return
button
or the shortcut Ctrl+F12.
If you prefer to inspect your program at a specific point, you need to insert a
breakpoint by pressing F12 on the line on which you want to stop. After
that a red dot will be placed next to the line and you can press the Continue
button
(after entering debug mode) to stop the execution at that line.
Note
You can also control the debugging process by issuing these commands in the console prompt:
n
to move to the Next statement.s
to Step into the current statement. If this is a function call, step into that function.r
to complete all statements in the current function and Return from that function before returning control.p
to print values of variables, for examplep x
will print the value of the variablex
.
At the debugger prompt, you can also change values of variables. For
example, to modify a variable x
at the IPython debugger prompt, you can say
ipdb > x = 42
and the debugger will carry on with x
being bound to 42
.
You can also call functions, and do many others things. Try this example:
def demo(x):
for i in range(5):
print("i={}, x={}".format(i, x))
x = x + 1
demo(0)
If we execute this (Run > Run
), we should see the output:
i=0, x=0
i=1, x=1
i=2, x=2
i=3, x=3
i=4, x=4
Now execute this using the debugger (Debug > Debug
), press the
Step button
until the highlighted line reaches the demo(0)
function call, then press the Step into
to inspect this function.
Keep pressing the Step button
to execute the next lines. Then,
modify x
by typing x=10
in the debugger prompt. You see x
changing in the Variable Explorer. You should also see x
changing
when its value is printed as part of the demo()
function. (The
printed output appears between your debugger commands and responses.)
This debugging ability to execute code line by line, to inspect variables as they change, and to modify them manually is a powerful tool to understand what a piece of code is doing (and to correct it if desired).
To leave the debugging mode, you can type exit
or select from the
menu Debug > Debugging Control > Exit
Debugging once an exception has occurred with IPython¶
In the IPython console, we can call %debug
straight after an exception has been raised: this will start the
IPython debug mode, which allows inspection of local variables at the
point where the exception occurred as described above. This is a lot
more efficient than adding print
statements to the code an
running it again.
If you use this, you may also want to use the commands up
(i.e. press u
at the debugger) and down
(i.e. press d
) which
navigate the inspection point up and down the stack. (Up the stack means
to the functions that have called the current function; down is the
opposite direction.)
Plotting¶
Plotting with the IPython console¶
Assuming we use an IPython console with version >= 1.0.0, we can decide whether figures created with matplotlib/pylab will show
- inline, i.e. inside the IPython console, or whether they should
- appear inside a new window.
Option 1 is convenient to save a record of the interactive session (section Shortcuts for useful functions lists a shortcut to save the IPython console to an html file).
Option 2 allows to interactively zoom into the figure, manipulate it a little, and save the figure to different file formats via a menu the window it contains has.
The command to get the figures to appear inline in the IPython console is:
In [3]: %matplotlib inline
The command to get figures appear in their own window (which technically is a Qt window) is:
In [4]: %matplotlib qt
The Spyder preferences can be used to customize the default behavior
(in particular Preferences > IPython Console > Graphics >
Activate Support
to switch into inline plotting).
Here are two lines you can use to quickly create a plot and test this:
In [5]: import pylab
In [6]: pylab.plot(range(10), 'o')
Plotting with the Python console¶
If we use the Python console, all plots will appear in a new window (there is no way of making it appear inline inside the Python console - this only works for the IPython Console).
Here is a brief example that you can use to create and display a plot:
>>> import pylab
>>> pylab.plot(range(10), 'o')
If you execute your code in a dedicated console, you need to use
matplotlib’s or pylab’s show()
command in your code to make a plot
appear, like this: pylab.show()
.
Note that the show()
command will bind the focus to new window
that has appeared, and that you will need to close that window before
Spyder can accept any further commands or respond to interaction. If
you cannot see the new window, check whether it may have appeared behind
the Spyder window, or be partly hidden.
Historical note¶
This tutorial is based on notes by Hans Fangohr, that are used at the University of Southampton to teach Python for computational modelling to undergraduate engineers and postgraduate PhD students for the Next Generation Computational Modelling doctoral training centre.