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Testing Rails Applications
This guide covers built-in mechanisms in Rails
for testing your application.
After reading this guide, you will know:
Rails
testing terminology.- How to write unit, functional, integration, and system tests for your application.
- Other popular testing approaches and plugins.
Why Write Tests for your Rails
Applications?
Rails
makes it super easy to write your tests. It starts by producing skeleton test code while you are creating your models and controllers.
By running your Rails
tests you can ensure your code adheres to the desired functionality even after some major code refactoring.
Rails
tests can also simulate browser requests and thus you can test your application's response without having to test it through your browser.
Introduction to Testing
Testing support was woven into the Rails
fabric from the beginning. It wasn't an "oh! let's bolt on support for running tests because they're new and cool" epiphany.
Rails Sets up for Testing from the Word Go
Rails
creates a test
directory for you as soon as you create a Rails
project using rails new
application_name. If you list the contents of this directory then you shall see:
$ ls -F test
controllers/ helpers/ mailers/ system/ test_helper.rb
fixtures/ integration/ models/ application_system_test_case.rb
The helpers
, mailers
, and models
directories are meant to hold tests for view helpers, mailers, and models, respectively. The controllers
directory is meant to hold tests for controllers, routes, and views. The integration
directory is meant to hold tests for interactions between controllers.
The system test directory holds system tests, which are used for full browser testing of your application. System tests allow you to test your application the way your users experience it and help you test your JavaScript as well. System tests inherit from Capybara and perform in browser tests for your application.
Fixtures are a way of organizing test data; they reside in the fixtures
directory.
A jobs
directory will also be created when an associated test is first generated.
The test_helper.rb
file holds the default configuration for your tests.
The application_system_test_case.rb
holds the default configuration for your system
tests.
The Test Environment
By default, every Rails application has three environments: development, test, and production.
Each environment's configuration can be modified similarly. In this case, we can modify our test environment by changing the options found in config/environments/test.rb
.
NOTE: Your tests are run under RAILS_ENV=test
.
Rails meets Minitest
If you remember, we used the rails generate model
command in the
Getting Started with Rails guide. We created our first
model, and among other things it created test stubs in the test
directory:
$ bin/rails generate model article title:string body:text
...
create app/models/article.rb
create test/models/article_test.rb
create test/fixtures/articles.yml
...
The default test stub in test/models/article_test.rb
looks like this:
require 'test_helper'
class ArticleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
# test "the truth" do
# assert true
# end
end
A line by line examination of this file will help get you oriented to Rails testing code and terminology.
require 'test_helper'
By requiring this file, test_helper.rb
the default configuration to run our tests is loaded. We will include this with all the tests we write, so any methods added to this file are available to all our tests.
class ArticleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
The ArticleTest
class defines a test case because it inherits from ::ActiveSupport::TestCase
. ArticleTest
thus has all the methods available from ::ActiveSupport::TestCase
. Later in this guide, we'll see some of the methods it gives us.
Any method defined within a class inherited from Minitest::Test
(which is the superclass of ::ActiveSupport::TestCase
) that begins with test_
(case sensitive) is simply called a test. So, methods defined as test_password
and test_valid_password
are legal test names and are run automatically when the test case is run.
Rails also adds a test
method that takes a test name and a block. It generates a normal Minitest::Unit
test with method names prefixed with test_
. So you don't have to worry about naming the methods, and you can write something like:
test "the truth" do
assert true
end
Which is approximately the same as writing this:
def test_the_truth
assert true
end
Although you can still use regular method definitions, using the test
macro allows for a more readable test name.
NOTE: The method name is generated by replacing spaces with underscores. The result does not need to be a valid Ruby identifier though, the name may contain punctuation characters etc. That's because in Ruby technically any string may be a method name. This may require use of define_method
and send
calls to function properly, but formally there's little restriction on the name.
Next, let's look at our first assertion:
assert true
An assertion is a line of code that evaluates an object (or expression) for expected results. For example, an assertion can check:
- does this value = that value?
- is this object nil?
- does this line of code throw an exception?
- is the user's password greater than 5 characters?
Every test may contain one or more assertions, with no restriction as to how many assertions are allowed. Only when all the assertions are successful will the test pass.
Your first failing test
To see how a test failure is reported, you can add a failing test to the article_test.rb
test case.
test "should not save article without title" do
article = Article.new
assert_not article.save
end
Let us run this newly added test (where 6
is the number of line where the test is defined).
$ bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb:6
Run options: --seed 44656
# Running:
F
Failure:
ArticleTest#test_should_not_save_article_without_title [/path/to/blog/test/models/article_test.rb:6]:
Expected true to be nil or false
bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb:6
Finished in 0.023918s, 41.8090 runs/s, 41.8090 assertions/s.
1 runs, 1 assertions, 1 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips
In the output, F
denotes a failure. You can see the corresponding trace shown under Failure
along with the name of the failing test. The next few lines contain the stack trace followed by a message that mentions the actual value and the expected value by the assertion. The default assertion messages provide just enough information to help pinpoint the error. To make the assertion failure message more readable, every assertion provides an optional message parameter, as shown here:
test "should not save article without title" do
article = Article.new
assert_not article.save, "Saved the article without a title"
end
Running this test shows the friendlier assertion message:
Failure:
ArticleTest#test_should_not_save_article_without_title [/path/to/blog/test/models/article_test.rb:6]:
Saved the article without a title
Now to get this test to pass we can add a model level validation for the title field.
class Article < ApplicationRecord
validates :title, presence: true
end
Now the test should pass. Let us verify by running the test again:
$ bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb:6
Run options: --seed 31252
# Running:
.
Finished in 0.027476s, 36.3952 runs/s, 36.3952 assertions/s.
1 runs, 1 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips
Now, if you noticed, we first wrote a test which fails for a desired functionality, then we wrote some code which adds the functionality and finally we ensured that our test passes. This approach to software development is referred to as Test-Driven Development (TDD).
What an error looks like
To see how an error gets reported, here's a test containing an error:
test "should report error" do
# some_undefined_variable is not defined elsewhere in the test case
some_undefined_variable
assert true
end
Now you can see even more output in the console from running the tests:
$ bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb
Run options: --seed 1808
# Running:
.E
Error:
ArticleTest#test_should_report_error:
NameError: undefined local variable or method 'some_undefined_variable' for #<ArticleTest:0x007fee3aa71798>
test/models/article_test.rb:11:in 'block in <class:ArticleTest>'
bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb:9
Finished in 0.040609s, 49.2500 runs/s, 24.6250 assertions/s.
2 runs, 1 assertions, 0 failures, 1 errors, 0 skips
Notice the 'E' in the output. It denotes a test with error.
NOTE: The execution of each test method stops as soon as any error or an
assertion failure is encountered, and the test suite continues with the next
method. All test methods are executed in random order. The
config.active_support.test_order
option
can be used to configure test order.
When a test fails you are presented with the corresponding backtrace. By default
Rails filters that backtrace and will only print lines relevant to your
application. This eliminates the framework noise and helps to focus on your
code. However there are situations when you want to see the full
backtrace. Set the -b
(or --backtrace
) argument to enable this behavior:
$ bin/rails test -b test/models/article_test.rb
If we want this test to pass we can modify it to use assert_raises
like so:
test "should report error" do
# some_undefined_variable is not defined elsewhere in the test case
assert_raises(NameError) do
some_undefined_variable
end
end
This test should now pass.
Available Assertions
By now you've caught a glimpse of some of the assertions that are available. Assertions are the worker bees of testing. They are the ones that actually perform the checks to ensure that things are going as planned.
Here's an extract of the assertions you can use with
Minitest, the default testing library
used by Rails. The [msg]
parameter is an optional string message you can
specify to make your test failure messages clearer.
| Assertion | Purpose |
|---|---|
assert( test, [msg] ) |
Ensures that test is true. |
assert_not( test, [msg] ) |
Ensures that test is false. |
assert_equal( expected, actual, [msg] ) |
Ensures that expected == actual is true. |
assert_not_equal( expected, actual, [msg] ) |
Ensures that expected != actual is true. |
assert_same( expected, actual, [msg] ) |
Ensures that expected.equal?(actual) is true. |
assert_not_same( expected, actual, [msg] ) |
Ensures that expected.equal?(actual) is false. |
assert_nil( obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj.nil? is true. |
assert_not_nil( obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj.nil? is false. |
assert_empty( obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is empty? . |
assert_not_empty( obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is not empty? . |
assert_match( regexp, string, [msg] ) |
Ensures that a string matches the regular expression. |
assert_no_match( regexp, string, [msg] ) |
Ensures that a string doesn't match the regular expression. |
assert_includes( collection, obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is in collection . |
assert_not_includes( collection, obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is not in collection . |
assert_in_delta( expected, actual, [delta], [msg] ) |
Ensures that the numbers expected and actual are within delta of each other. |
assert_not_in_delta( expected, actual, [delta], [msg] ) |
Ensures that the numbers expected and actual are not within delta of each other. |
assert_in_epsilon ( expected, actual, [epsilon], [msg] ) |
Ensures that the numbers expected and actual have a relative error less than epsilon . |
assert_not_in_epsilon ( expected, actual, [epsilon], [msg] ) |
Ensures that the numbers expected and actual don't have a relative error less than epsilon . |
assert_throws( symbol, [msg] ) { block } |
Ensures that the given block throws the symbol. |
assert_raises( exception1, exception2, ... ) { block } |
Ensures that the given block raises one of the given exceptions. |
assert_instance_of( class, obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is an instance of class . |
assert_not_instance_of( class, obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is not an instance of class . |
assert_kind_of( class, obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is an instance of class or is descending from it. |
assert_not_kind_of( class, obj, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj is not an instance of class and is not descending from it. |
assert_respond_to( obj, symbol, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj responds to symbol . |
assert_not_respond_to( obj, symbol, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj does not respond to symbol . |
assert_operator( obj1, operator, [obj2], [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj1.operator(obj2) is true. |
assert_not_operator( obj1, operator, [obj2], [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj1.operator(obj2) is false. |
assert_predicate ( obj, predicate, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj.predicate is true, e.g. assert_predicate str, :empty? |
assert_not_predicate ( obj, predicate, [msg] ) |
Ensures that obj.predicate is false, e.g. assert_not_predicate str, :empty? |
flunk( [msg] ) |
Ensures failure. This is useful to explicitly mark a test that isn't finished yet. |
The above are a subset of assertions that minitest supports. For an exhaustive & more up-to-date list, please check Minitest API documentation, specifically Minitest::Assertions.
Because of the modular nature of the testing framework, it is possible to create your own assertions. In fact, that's exactly what Rails does. It includes some specialized assertions to make your life easier.
NOTE: Creating your own assertions is an advanced topic that we won't cover in this tutorial.
Rails Specific Assertions
Rails adds some custom assertions of its own to the minitest
framework:
| Assertion | Purpose |
|---|---|
| assert_difference(expressions, difference = 1, message = nil) {...} | Test numeric difference between the return value of an expression as a result of what is evaluated in the yielded block. |
| assert_no_difference(expressions, message = nil, &block) | Asserts that the numeric result of evaluating an expression is not changed before and after invoking the passed in block. |
| assert_changes(expressions, message = nil, from:, to:, &block) | Test that the result of evaluating an expression is changed after invoking the passed in block. |
| assert_no_changes(expressions, message = nil, &block) | Test the result of evaluating an expression is not changed after invoking the passed in block. |
| assert_nothing_raised { block } | Ensures that the given block doesn't raise any exceptions. |
| assert_recognizes(expected_options, path, extras={, message=nil)} | Asserts that the routing of the given path was handled correctly and that the parsed options (given in the expected_options hash) match path. Basically, it asserts that Rails recognizes the route given by expected_options. |
| assert_generates(expected_path, options, defaults={, extras = {}, message=nil)} | Asserts that the provided options can be used to generate the provided path. This is the inverse of assert_recognizes. The extras parameter is used to tell the request the names and values of additional request parameters that would be in a query string. The message parameter allows you to specify a custom error message for assertion failures. |
| assert_response(type, message = nil) | Asserts that the response comes with a specific status code. You can specify :success to indicate 200-299, :redirect to indicate 300-399, :missing to indicate 404, or :error to match the 500-599 range. You can also pass an explicit status number or its symbolic equivalent. For more information, see full list of status codes and how their mapping works. |
| assert_redirected_to(options = {, message=nil)} | Asserts that the redirection options passed in match those of the redirect called in the latest action. This match can be partial, such that assert_redirected_to(controller: "weblog") will also match the redirection of redirect_to(controller: "weblog", action: "show") and so on. You can also pass named routes such as assert_redirected_to root_path and Active Record objects such as assert_redirected_to @article . |
You'll see the usage of some of these assertions in the next chapter.
A Brief Note About Test Cases
All the basic assertions such as assert_equal
defined in Minitest::Assertions
are also available in the classes we use in our own test cases. In fact, Rails provides the following classes for you to inherit from:
- ActiveSupport::TestCase
- ActionMailer::TestCase
- ActionView::TestCase
- ActiveJob::TestCase
- ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
- ActionDispatch::SystemTestCase
- Rails::Generators::TestCase
Each of these classes include Minitest::Assertions
, allowing us to use all of the basic assertions in our tests.
NOTE: For more information on Minitest
, refer to href="http://docs.seattlerb.org/minitest">http://docs.seattlerb.org/minitest its
documentation
.
The Rails Test Runner
We can run all of our tests at once by using the bin/rails test
command.
Or we can run a single test file by passing the bin/rails test
command the filename containing the test cases.
$ bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb
Run options: --seed 1559
# Running:
..
Finished in 0.027034s, 73.9810 runs/s, 110.9715 assertions/s.
2 runs, 3 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips
This will run all test methods from the test case.
You can also run a particular test method from the test case by providing the
-n
or --name
flag and the test's method name.
$ bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb -n test_the_truth
Run options: -n test_the_truth --seed 43583
# Running:
.
Finished tests in 0.009064s, 110.3266 tests/s, 110.3266 assertions/s.
1 tests, 1 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips
You can also run a test at a specific line by providing the line number.
$ bin/rails test test/models/article_test.rb:6 # run specific test and line
You can also run an entire directory of tests by providing the path to the directory.
$ bin/rails test test/controllers # run all tests from specific directory
The test runner also provides a lot of other features like failing fast, deferring test output at the end of test run and so on. Check the documentation of the test runner as follows:
$ bin/rails test -h
minitest options:
-h, --help Display this help.
-s, --seed SEED Sets random seed. Also via env. Eg: SEED=n rake
-v, --verbose Verbose. Show progress processing files.
-n, --name PATTERN Filter run on /regexp/ or string.
--exclude PATTERN Exclude /regexp/ or string from run.
Known extensions: rails, pride
Usage: bin/rails test [options] [files or directories]
You can run a single test by appending a line number to a filename:
bin/rails test test/models/user_test.rb:27
You can run multiple files and directories at the same time:
bin/rails test test/controllers test/integration/login_test.rb
By default test failures and errors are reported inline during a run.
Rails options:
-w, --warnings Run with Ruby warnings enabled
-e, --environment Run tests in the ENV environment
-b, --backtrace Show the complete backtrace
-d, --defer-output Output test failures and errors after the test run
-f, --fail-fast Abort test run on first failure or error
-c, --[no-]color Enable color in the output
The Test Database
Just about every Rails application interacts heavily with a database and, as a result, your tests will need a database to interact with as well. To write efficient tests, you'll need to understand how to set up this database and populate it with sample data.
By default, every Rails application has three environments: development, test, and production. The database for each one of them is configured in config/database.yml
.
A dedicated test database allows you to set up and interact with test data in isolation. This way your tests can mangle test data with confidence, without worrying about the data in the development or production databases.
Maintaining the test database schema
In order to run your tests, your test database will need to have the current
structure. The test helper checks whether your test database has any pending
migrations. It will try to load your db/schema.rb
or db/structure.sql
into the test database. If migrations are still pending, an error will be
raised. Usually this indicates that your schema is not fully migrated. Running
the migrations against the development database (bin/rails db:migrate
) will
bring the schema up to date.
NOTE: If there were modifications to existing migrations, the test database needs to
be rebuilt. This can be done by executing bin/rails db:test:prepare
.
The Low-Down on Fixtures
For good tests, you'll need to give some thought to setting up test data. In Rails, you can handle this by defining and customizing fixtures. You can find comprehensive documentation in the Fixtures API documentation.
What Are Fixtures?
Fixtures is a fancy word for sample data. Fixtures allow you to populate your testing database with predefined data before your tests run. Fixtures are database independent and written in YAML. There is one file per model.
NOTE: Fixtures are not designed to create every object that your tests need, and are best managed when only used for default data that can be applied to the common case.
You'll find fixtures under your test/fixtures
directory. When you run rails generate model
to create a new model, Rails automatically creates fixture stubs in this directory.
 These types of fixtures have the .yml file extension (as in users.yml
).
Here's a sample YAML fixture file:
# lo & behold! I am a YAML comment!
david:
name: David Heinemeier Hansson
birthday: 1979-10-15
profession: Systems development
steve:
name: Steve Ross Kellock
birthday: 1974-09-27
profession: guy with keyboard
Each fixture is given a name followed by an indented list of colon-separated key/value pairs. Records are typically separated by a blank line. You can place comments in a fixture file by using the # character in the first column.
If you are working with associations, you can
define a reference node between two different fixtures. Here's an example with
a belongs_to
/has_many
association:
# In fixtures/categories.yml
about:
name: About
# In fixtures/articles.yml
first:
title: Welcome to Rails!
body: Hello world!
category: about
Notice the category
key of the first
article found in fixtures/articles.yml
has a value of about
. This tells Rails to load the category about
found in fixtures/categories.yml
.
NOTE: For associations to reference one another by name, you can use the fixture name instead of specifying the id:
attribute on the associated fixtures. Rails will auto assign a primary key to be consistent between runs. For more information on this association behavior please read the Fixtures API documentation.
ERB'in It Up
ERB allows you to embed Ruby code within templates. The YAML fixture format is pre-processed with ERB when Rails loads fixtures. This allows you to use Ruby to help you generate some sample data. For example, the following code generates a thousand users:
<% 1000.times do |n| %>
user_<%= n %>:
username: <%= "user#{n}" %>
email: <%=<EMAIL_ADDRESS>%>
<% end %>
Fixtures in Action
Rails automatically loads all fixtures from the test/fixtures
directory by
default. Loading involves three steps:
- Remove any existing data from the table corresponding to the fixture
- Load the fixture data into the table
- Dump the fixture data into a method in case you want to access it directly
TIP: In order to remove existing data from the database, Rails tries to disable referential integrity triggers (like foreign keys and check constraints). If you are getting annoying permission errors on running tests, make sure the database user has privilege to disable these triggers in testing environment. (In PostgreSQL, only superusers can disable all triggers. Read more about PostgreSQL permissions here).
Fixtures are Active Record objects
Fixtures are instances of Active Record. As mentioned in point #3 above, you can access the object directly because it is automatically available as a method whose scope is local of the test case. For example:
# this will return the User object for the fixture named david
users(:david)
# this will return the property for david called id
users(:david).id
# one can also access methods available on the User class
david = users(:david)
david.call(david.partner)
To get multiple fixtures at once, you can pass in a list of fixture names. For example:
# this will return an array containing the fixtures david and steve
users(:david, :steve)
Model Testing
Model tests are used to test the various models of your application.
Rails model tests are stored under the test/models
directory. Rails provides
a generator to create a model test skeleton for you.
$ bin/rails generate test_unit:model article title:string body:text
create test/models/article_test.rb
create test/fixtures/articles.yml
Model tests don't have their own superclass like ::ActionMailer::TestCase
instead they inherit from ActiveSupport::TestCase.
System Testing
System tests allow you to test user interactions with your application, running tests in either a real or a headless browser. System tests uses Capybara under the hood.
For creating Rails system tests, you use the test/system
directory in your
application. Rails provides a generator to create a system test skeleton for you.
$ bin/rails generate system_test users
invoke test_unit
create test/system/users_test.rb
Here's what a freshly generated system test looks like:
require "application_system_test_case"
class UsersTest < ApplicationSystemTestCase
# test "visiting the index" do
# visit users_url
#
# assert_selector "h1", text: "Users"
# end
end
By default, system tests are run with the Selenium driver, using the Chrome browser, and a screen size of 1400x1400. The next section explains how to change the default settings.
Changing the default settings
Rails makes changing the default settings for system tests very simple. All the setup is abstracted away so you can focus on writing your tests.
When you generate a new application or scaffold, an application_system_test_case.rb
file
is created in the test directory. This is where all the configuration for your
system tests should live.
If you want to change the default settings you can change what the system
tests are "driven by". Say you want to change the driver from Selenium to
Poltergeist. First add the poltergeist
gem to your Gemfile
. Then in your
application_system_test_case.rb
file do the following:
require "test_helper"
require "capybara/poltergeist"
class ApplicationSystemTestCase < ActionDispatch::SystemTestCase
driven_by :poltergeist
end
The driver name is a required argument for driven_by
. The optional arguments
that can be passed to driven_by
are :using
for the browser (this will only
be used by Selenium), :screen_size
to change the size of the screen for
screenshots, and :options
which can be used to set options supported by the
driver.
require "test_helper"
class ApplicationSystemTestCase < ActionDispatch::SystemTestCase
driven_by :selenium, using: :firefox
end
If you want to use a headless browser, you could use Headless Chrome or Headless Firefox by adding
headless_chrome
or headless_firefox
in the :using
argument.
require "test_helper"
class ApplicationSystemTestCase < ActionDispatch::SystemTestCase
driven_by :selenium, using: :headless_chrome
end
If your Capybara configuration requires more setup than provided by Rails, this
additional configuration could be added into the application_system_test_case.rb
file.
Please see Capybara's documentation for additional settings.
Screenshot Helper
The ScreenshotHelper
is a helper designed to capture screenshots of your tests.
This can be helpful for viewing the browser at the point a test failed, or
to view screenshots later for debugging.
Two methods are provided: take_screenshot
and take_failed_screenshot
.
take_failed_screenshot
is automatically included in after_teardown
inside
Rails.
The take_screenshot
helper method can be included anywhere in your tests to
take a screenshot of the browser.
Implementing a system test
Now we're going to add a system test to our blog application. We'll demonstrate writing a system test by visiting the index page and creating a new blog article.
If you used the scaffold generator, a system test skeleton was automatically created for you. If you didn't use the scaffold generator, start by creating a system test skeleton.
$ bin/rails generate system_test articles
It should have created a test file placeholder for us. With the output of the previous command you should see:
invoke test_unit
create test/system/articles_test.rb
Now let's open that file and write our first assertion:
require "application_system_test_case"
class ArticlesTest < ApplicationSystemTestCase
test "viewing the index" do
visit articles_path
assert_selector "h1", text: "Articles"
end
end
The test should see that there is an h1
on the articles index page and pass.
Run the system tests.
bin/rails test:system
NOTE: By default, running bin/rails test
won't run your system tests.
Make sure to run bin/rails test:system
to actually run them.
Creating articles system test
Now let's test the flow for creating a new article in our blog.
test "creating an article" do
visit articles_path
click_on "New Article"
fill_in "Title", with: "Creating an Article"
fill_in "Body", with: "Created this article successfully!"
click_on "Create Article"
assert_text "Creating an Article"
end
The first step is to call visit articles_path
. This will take the test to the
articles index page.
Then the click_on "New Article"
will find the "New Article" button on the
index page. This will redirect the browser to /articles/new
.
Then the test will fill in the title and body of the article with the specified text. Once the fields are filled in, "Create Article" is clicked on which will send a POST request to create the new article in the database.
We will be redirected back to the articles index page and there we assert that the text from the new article's title is on the articles index page.
Taking it further
The beauty of system testing is that it is similar to integration testing in that it tests the user's interaction with your controller, model, and view, but system testing is much more robust and actually tests your application as if a real user were using it. Going forward, you can test anything that the user themselves would do in your application such as commenting, deleting articles, publishing draft articles, etc.
Integration Testing
Integration tests are used to test how various parts of your application interact. They are generally used to test important workflows within our application.
For creating Rails integration tests, we use the test/integration
directory for our application. Rails provides a generator to create an integration test skeleton for us.
$ bin/rails generate integration_test user_flows
exists test/integration/
create test/integration/user_flows_test.rb
Here's what a freshly generated integration test looks like:
require 'test_helper'
class UserFlowsTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
# test "the truth" do
# assert true
# end
end
Here the test is inheriting from ::ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
. This makes some additional helpers available for us to use in our integration tests.
Helpers Available for Integration Tests
In addition to the standard testing helpers, inheriting from ::ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
comes with some additional helpers available when writing integration tests. Let's get briefly introduced to the three categories of helpers we get to choose from.
For dealing with the integration test runner, see ActionDispatch::Integration::Runner.
When performing requests, we will have ActionDispatch::Integration::RequestHelpers available for our use.
If we need to modify the session, or state of our integration test, take a look at ActionDispatch::Integration::Session to help.
Implementing an integration test
Let's add an integration test to our blog application. We'll start with a basic workflow of creating a new blog article, to verify that everything is working properly.
We'll start by generating our integration test skeleton:
$ bin/rails generate integration_test blog_flow
It should have created a test file placeholder for us. With the output of the previous command we should see:
invoke test_unit
create test/integration/blog_flow_test.rb
Now let's open that file and write our first assertion:
require 'test_helper'
class BlogFlowTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
test "can see the welcome page" do
get "/"
assert_select "h1", "Welcome#index"
end
end
We will take a look at assert_select
to query the resulting HTML of a request in the "Testing Views" section below. It is used for testing the response of our request by asserting the presence of key HTML elements and their content.
When we visit our root path, we should see welcome/index.html.erb
rendered for the view. So this assertion should pass.
Creating articles integration
How about testing our ability to create a new article in our blog and see the resulting article.
test "can create an article" do
get "/articles/new"
assert_response :success
post "/articles",
params: { article: { title: "can create", body: "article successfully." } }
assert_response :redirect
follow_redirect!
assert_response :success
assert_select "p", "Title:\n can create"
end
Let's break this test down so we can understand it.
We start by calling the :new
action on our Articles controller. This response should be successful.
After this we make a post request to the :create
action of our Articles controller:
post "/articles",
params: { article: { title: "can create", body: "article successfully." } }
assert_response :redirect
follow_redirect!
The two lines following the request are to handle the redirect we setup when creating a new article.
NOTE: Don't forget to call follow_redirect!
if you plan to make subsequent requests after a redirect is made.
Finally we can assert that our response was successful and our new article is readable on the page.
Taking it further
We were able to successfully test a very small workflow for visiting our blog and creating a new article. If we wanted to take this further we could add tests for commenting, removing articles, or editing comments. Integration tests are a great place to experiment with all kinds of use-cases for our applications.
Functional Tests for Your Controllers
In Rails, testing the various actions of a controller is a form of writing functional tests. Remember your controllers handle the incoming web requests to your application and eventually respond with a rendered view. When writing functional tests, you are testing how your actions handle the requests and the expected result or response, in some cases an HTML view.
What to include in your Functional Tests
You should test for things such as:
- was the web request successful?
- was the user redirected to the right page?
- was the user successfully authenticated?
- was the correct object stored in the response template?
- was the appropriate message displayed to the user in the view?
The easiest way to see functional tests in action is to generate a controller using the scaffold generator:
$ bin/rails generate scaffold_controller article title:string body:text
...
create app/controllers/articles_controller.rb
...
invoke test_unit
create test/controllers/articles_controller_test.rb
...
This will generate the controller code and tests for an Article
resource.
You can take a look at the file articles_controller_test.rb
in the test/controllers
directory.
If you already have a controller and just want to generate the test scaffold code for each of the seven default actions, you can use the following command:
$ bin/rails generate test_unit:scaffold article
...
invoke test_unit
create test/controllers/articles_controller_test.rb
...
Let's take a look at one such test, test_should_get_index
from the file articles_controller_test.rb
.
# articles_controller_test.rb
class ArticlesControllerTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
test "should get index" do
get articles_url
assert_response :success
end
end
In the test_should_get_index
test, Rails simulates a request on the action called index
, making sure the request was successful
and also ensuring that the right response body has been generated.
The get
method kicks off the web request and populates the results into the @response
. It can accept up to 6 arguments:
- The URI of the controller action you are requesting.
This can be in the form of a string or a route helper (e.g.
articles_url
). params
: option with a hash of request parameters to pass into the action (e.g. query string parameters or article variables).headers
: for setting the headers that will be passed with the request.env
: for customizing the request environment as needed.xhr
: whether the request is Ajax request or not. Can be set to true for marking the request as Ajax.as
: for encoding the request with different content type. Supports:json
by default.
All of these keyword arguments are optional.
Example: Calling the :show
action for the first Article
, passing in an HTTP_REFERER
header:
get article_url(Article.first), headers: { "HTTP_REFERER" => "http://example.com/home" }
Another example: Calling the :update
action for the last Article
, passing in new text for the title
in params
, as an Ajax request:
patch article_url(Article.last), params: { article: { title: "updated" } }, xhr: true
NOTE: If you try running test_should_create_article
test from articles_controller_test.rb
it will fail on account of the newly added model level validation and rightly so.
Let us modify test_should_create_article
test in articles_controller_test.rb
so that all our test pass:
test "should create article" do
assert_difference('Article.count') do
post articles_url, params: { article: { body: 'Rails is awesome!', title: 'Hello Rails' } }
end
assert_redirected_to article_path(Article.last)
end
Now you can try running all the tests and they should pass.
NOTE: If you followed the steps in the Basic Authentication section, you'll need to add the following to the setup
block to get all the tests passing:
request.headers['Authorization'] = ActionController::HttpAuthentication::Basic.
encode_credentials('dhh', 'secret')
Available Request Types for Functional Tests
If you're familiar with the HTTP protocol, you'll know that get
is a type of request. There are 6 request types supported in Rails functional tests:
get
post
patch
put
head
delete
All of request types have equivalent methods that you can use. In a typical C.R.U.D. application you'll be using get
, post
, put
and delete
more often.
NOTE: Functional tests do not verify whether the specified request type is accepted by the action, we're more concerned with the result. Request tests exist for this use case to make your tests more purposeful.
Testing XHR (AJAX) requests
To test AJAX requests, you can specify the xhr: true
option to get
, post
,
patch
, put
, and delete
methods. For example:
test "ajax request" do
article = articles(:one)
get article_url(article), xhr: true
assert_equal 'hello world', @response.body
assert_equal "text/javascript", @response.content_type
end
The Three Hashes of the Apocalypse
After a request has been made and processed, you will have 3 Hash objects ready for use:
cookies
- Any cookies that are setflash
- Any objects living in the flashsession
- Any object living in session variables
As is the case with normal Hash objects, you can access the values by referencing the keys by string. You can also reference them by symbol name. For example:
flash["gordon"] flash[:gordon]
session["shmession"] session[:shmession]
cookies["are_good_for_u"] cookies[:are_good_for_u]
Instance Variables Available
You also have access to three instance variables in your functional tests, after a request is made:
@controller
- The controller processing the request@request
- The request object@response
- The response object
class ArticlesControllerTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
test "should get index" do
get articles_url
assert_equal "index", @controller.action_name
assert_equal "application/x-www-form-urlencoded", @request.media_type
assert_match "Articles", @response.body
end
end
Setting Headers and CGI variables
HTTP headers and CGI variables can be passed as headers:
# setting an HTTP Header
get articles_url, headers: { "Content-Type": "text/plain" } # simulate the request with custom header
# setting a CGI variable
get articles_url, headers: { "HTTP_REFERER": "http://example.com/home" } # simulate the request with custom env variable
Testing flash
notices
If you remember from earlier, one of the Three Hashes of the Apocalypse was flash
.
We want to add a flash
message to our blog application whenever someone
successfully creates a new Article.
Let's start by adding this assertion to our test_should_create_article
test:
test "should create article" do
assert_difference('Article.count') do
post article_url, params: { article: { title: 'Some title' } }
end
assert_redirected_to article_path(Article.last)
assert_equal 'Article was successfully created.', flash[:notice]
end
If we run our test now, we should see a failure:
$ bin/rails test test/controllers/articles_controller_test.rb -n test_should_create_article
Run options: -n test_should_create_article --seed 32266
# Running:
F
Finished in 0.114870s, 8.7055 runs/s, 34.8220 assertions/s.
1) Failure:
ArticlesControllerTest#test_should_create_article [/test/controllers/articles_controller_test.rb:16]:
--- expected
+++ actual
@@ -1 +1 @@
-"Article was successfully created."
+nil
1 runs, 4 assertions, 1 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips
Let's implement the flash message now in our controller. Our :create
action should now look like this:
def create
@article = Article.new(article_params)
if @article.save
flash[:notice] = 'Article was successfully created.'
redirect_to @article
else
render 'new'
end
end
Now if we run our tests, we should see it pass:
$ bin/rails test test/controllers/articles_controller_test.rb -n test_should_create_article
Run options: -n test_should_create_article --seed 18981
# Running:
.
Finished in 0.081972s, 12.1993 runs/s, 48.7972 assertions/s.
1 runs, 4 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0 skips
Putting it together
At this point our Articles controller tests the :index
as well as :new
and :create
actions. What about dealing with existing data?
Let's write a test for the :show
action:
test "should show article" do
article = articles(:one)
get article_url(article)
assert_response :success
end
Remember from our discussion earlier on fixtures, the articles()
method will give us access to our Articles fixtures.
How about deleting an existing Article?
test "should destroy article" do
article = articles(:one)
assert_difference('Article.count', -1) do
delete article_url(article)
end
assert_redirected_to articles_path
end
We can also add a test for updating an existing Article.
test "should update article" do
article = articles(:one)
patch article_url(article), params: { article: { title: "updated" } }
assert_redirected_to article_path(article)
# Reload association to fetch updated data and assert that title is updated.
article.reload
assert_equal "updated", article.title
end
Notice we're starting to see some duplication in these three tests, they both access the same Article fixture data. We can D.R.Y. this up by using the setup
and teardown
methods provided by ::ActiveSupport::Callbacks
.
Our test should now look something as what follows. Disregard the other tests for now, we're leaving them out for brevity.
require 'test_helper'
class ArticlesControllerTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
# called before every single test
setup do
@article = articles(:one)
end
# called after every single test
teardown do
# when controller is using cache it may be a good idea to reset it afterwards
Rails.cache.clear
end
test "should show article" do
# Reuse the @article instance variable from setup
get article_url(@article)
assert_response :success
end
test "should destroy article" do
assert_difference('Article.count', -1) do
delete article_url(@article)
end
assert_redirected_to articles_path
end
test "should update article" do
patch article_url(@article), params: { article: { title: "updated" } }
assert_redirected_to article_path(@article)
# Reload association to fetch updated data and assert that title is updated.
@article.reload
assert_equal "updated", @article.title
end
end
Similar to other callbacks in Rails, the setup
and teardown
methods can also be used by passing a block, lambda, or method name as a symbol to call.
Test helpers
To avoid code duplication, you can add your own test helpers. Sign in helper can be a good example:
# test/test_helper.rb
module SignInHelper
def sign_in_as(user)
post sign_in_url(email: user.email, password: user.password)
end
end
class ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
include SignInHelper
end
require 'test_helper'
class ProfileControllerTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
test "should show profile" do
# helper is now reusable from any controller test case
sign_in_as users(:david)
get profile_url
assert_response :success
end
end
Testing Routes
Like everything else in your Rails application, you can test your routes. Route tests reside in test/controllers/
or are part of controller tests.
NOTE: If your application has complex routes, Rails provides a number of useful helpers to test them.
For more information on routing assertions available in Rails, see the API documentation for ActionDispatch::Assertions::RoutingAssertions.
Testing Views
Testing the response to your request by asserting the presence of key HTML elements and their content is a common way to test the views of your application. Like route tests, view tests reside in test/controllers/
or are part of controller tests. The assert_select
method allows you to query HTML elements of the response by using a simple yet powerful syntax.
There are two forms of assert_select
:
assert_select(selector, [equality], [message])
ensures that the equality condition is met on the selected elements through the selector. The selector may be a CSS selector expression (String) or an expression with substitution values.
assert_select(element, selector, [equality], [message])
ensures that the equality condition is met on all the selected elements through the selector starting from the element (instance of Nokogiri::XML::Node
or Nokogiri::XML::NodeSet
) and its descendants.
For example, you could verify the contents on the title element in your response with:
assert_select 'title', "Welcome to Rails Testing Guide"
You can also use nested assert_select
blocks for deeper investigation.
In the following example, the inner assert_select
for li.menu_item
runs
within the collection of elements selected by the outer block:
assert_select 'ul.navigation' do
assert_select 'li.menu_item'
end
A collection of selected elements may be iterated through so that assert_select
may be called separately for each element.
For example if the response contains two ordered lists, each with four nested list elements then the following tests will both pass.
assert_select "ol" do |elements|
elements.each do |element|
assert_select element, "li", 4
end
end
assert_select "ol" do
assert_select "li", 8
end
This assertion is quite powerful. For more advanced usage, refer to its documentation.
Additional View-Based Assertions
There are more assertions that are primarily used in testing views:
| Assertion | Purpose |
|---|---|
assert_select_email |
Allows you to make assertions on the body of an e-mail. |
assert_select_encoded |
Allows you to make assertions on encoded HTML. It does this by un-encoding the contents of each element and then calling the block with all the un-encoded elements. |
css_select(selector) or css_select(element, selector) |
Returns an array of all the elements selected by the selector. In the second variant it first matches the base element and tries to match the selector expression on any of its children. If there are no matches both variants return an empty array. |
Here's an example of using assert_select_email
:
assert_select_email do
assert_select 'small', 'Please click the "Unsubscribe" link if you want to opt-out.'
end
Testing Helpers
A helper is just a simple module where you can define methods which are available into your views.
In order to test helpers, all you need to do is check that the output of the
helper method matches what you'd expect. Tests related to the helpers are
located under the test/helpers
directory.
Given we have the following helper:
module UsersHelper
def link_to_user(user)
link_to "#{user.first_name} #{user.last_name}", user
end
end
We can test the output of this method like this:
class UsersHelperTest < ActionView::TestCase
test "should return the user's full name" do
user = users(:david)
assert_dom_equal %{<a href="/user/#{user.id}">David Heinemeier Hansson</a>}, link_to_user(user)
end
end
Moreover, since the test class extends from ::ActionView::TestCase
, you have
access to Rails' helper methods such as link_to
or pluralize
.
Testing Your Mailers
Testing mailer classes requires some specific tools to do a thorough job.
Keeping the Postman in Check
Your mailer classes - like every other part of your Rails application - should be tested to ensure that they are working as expected.
The goals of testing your mailer classes are to ensure that:
- emails are being processed (created and sent)
- the email content is correct (subject, sender, body, etc)
- the right emails are being sent at the right times
From All Sides
There are two aspects of testing your mailer, the unit tests and the functional tests. In the unit tests, you run the mailer in isolation with tightly controlled inputs and compare the output to a known value (a fixture.) In the functional tests you don't so much test the minute details produced by the mailer; instead, we test that our controllers and models are using the mailer in the right way. You test to prove that the right email was sent at the right time.
Unit Testing
In order to test that your mailer is working as expected, you can use unit tests to compare the actual results of the mailer with pre-written examples of what should be produced.
Revenge of the Fixtures
For the purposes of unit testing a mailer, fixtures are used to provide an example of how the output should look. Because these are example emails, and not Active Record data like the other fixtures, they are kept in their own subdirectory apart from the other fixtures. The name of the directory within test/fixtures
directly corresponds to the name of the mailer. So, for a mailer named UserMailer
, the fixtures should reside in test/fixtures/user_mailer
directory.
If you generated your mailer, the generator does not create stub fixtures for the mailers actions. You'll have to create those files yourself as described above.
The Basic Test Case
Here's a unit test to test a mailer named UserMailer
whose action invite
is used to send an invitation to a friend. It is an adapted version of the base test created by the generator for an invite
action.
require 'test_helper'
class UserMailerTest < ActionMailer::TestCase
test "invite" do
# Create the email and store it for further assertions
email =<EMAIL_ADDRESS><EMAIL_ADDRESS>Time.now)
# Send the email, then test that it got queued
assert_emails 1 do
email.deliver_now
end
# Test the body of the sent email contains what we expect it to
assert_equal<EMAIL_ADDRESS>email.from
assert_equal<EMAIL_ADDRESS>email.to
assert_equal 'You have been invited by<EMAIL_ADDRESS>email.subject
assert_equal read_fixture('invite').join, email.body.to_s
end
end
In the test we send the email and store the returned object in the email
variable. We then ensure that it was sent (the first assert), then, in the
second batch of assertions, we ensure that the email does indeed contain what we
expect. The helper read_fixture
is used to read in the content from this file.
NOTE: email.body.to_s
is present when there's only one (HTML or text) part present.
If the mailer provides both, you can test your fixture against specific parts
with email.text_part.body.to_s
or email.html_part.body.to_s
.
Here's the content of the invite
fixture:
Hi<EMAIL_ADDRESS>You have been invited.
Cheers!
This is the right time to understand a little more about writing tests for your
mailers. The line ActionMailer::Base.delivery_method = :test
in
config/environments/test.rb
sets the delivery method to test mode so that
email will not actually be delivered (useful to avoid spamming your users while
testing) but instead it will be appended to an array
(ActionMailer::Base.deliveries
).
NOTE: The ActionMailer::Base.deliveries
array is only reset automatically in
::ActionMailer::TestCase
and ::ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
tests.
If you want to have a clean slate outside these test cases, you can reset it
manually with: ActionMailer::Base.deliveries.clear
Functional and System Testing
Unit testing allows us to test the email body, and recipients. In functional and system tests, we test whether user interactions appropriately trigger email to be delivered. For example, you can check that the invite friend operation is sending an email appropriately:
# Integration Test
require 'test_helper'
class UsersControllerTest < ActionDispatch::IntegrationTest
include ActionMailer::TestHelper
test "invite friend" do
# Asserts the difference in the ActionMailer::Base.deliveries
assert_emails 1 do
post invite_friend_url, params: { email<EMAIL_ADDRESS>}
end
end
end
# System Test
require 'test_helper'
class UsersTest < ActionDispatch::SystemTestCase
driven_by :selenium, using: :headless_chrome
include ActionMailer::TestHelper
test "inviting a friend" do
visit invite_users_url
fill_in 'Email', with<EMAIL_ADDRESS>assert_emails 1 do
click_on 'Invite'
end
end
end
NOTE: These examples take advantage of the ::ActionMailer::TestHelper
. For emails we expect to be delivered immediately with the deliver_now
method, we can use the assert_emails
method. For emails we expect to be delivered as an ActiveJob with the deliver_later
method, we can use the assert_enqueued_emails
method. More information can be found in the documentation here.
Testing Jobs
Since your custom jobs can be queued at different levels inside your application, you'll need to test both the jobs themselves (their behavior when they get enqueued) and that other entities correctly enqueue them.
A Basic Test Case
By default, when you generate a job, an associated test will be generated as well
under the test/jobs
directory. Here's an example test with a billing job:
require 'test_helper'
class BillingJobTest < ActiveJob::TestCase
test 'that account is charged' do
BillingJob.perform_now(account, product)
assert account.reload.charged_for?(product)
end
end
This test is pretty simple and only asserts that the job got the work done as expected.
By default, ::ActiveJob::TestCase
will set the queue adapter to :test
so that
your jobs are performed inline. It will also ensure that all previously performed
and enqueued jobs are cleared before any test run so you can safely assume that
no jobs have already been executed in the scope of each test.
Custom Assertions And Testing Jobs Inside Other Components
Active Job ships with a bunch of custom assertions that can be used to lessen the verbosity of tests. For a full list of available assertions, see the API documentation for ActiveJob::TestHelper.
It's a good practice to ensure that your jobs correctly get enqueued or performed wherever you invoke them (e.g. inside your controllers). This is precisely where the custom assertions provided by Active Job are pretty useful. For instance, within a model:
require 'test_helper'
class ProductTest < ActiveJob::TestCase
test 'billing job scheduling' do
assert_enqueued_with(job: BillingJob) do
product.charge(account)
end
end
end
Additional Testing Resources
Testing Time-Dependent Code
Rails provides built-in helper methods that enable you to assert that your time-sensitive code works as expected.
Here is an example using the travel_to helper:
# Lets say that a user is eligible for gifting a month after they register.
user = User.create(name: 'Gaurish', activation_date: Date.new(2004, 10, 24))
assert_not user.applicable_for_gifting?
travel_to Date.new(2004, 11, 24) do
assert_equal Date.new(2004, 10, 24), user.activation_date # inside the `travel_to` block {Date.current} is mocked
assert user.applicable_for_gifting?
end
assert_equal Date.new(2004, 10, 24), user.activation_date # The change was visible only inside the `travel_to` block.
Please see ActiveSupport::Testing::TimeHelpers` API Documentation for in-depth information about the available time helpers.


pdfCluster: Cluster Analysis via Nonparametric Density Estimation
Cluster analysis via nonparametric density
estimation is performed. Operationally, the kernel method is used throughout to estimate
the density. Diagnostics methods for evaluating the quality of the clustering
are available. The package includes also a routine to estimate the
probability density function obtained by the kernel method, given a set of
data with arbitrary dimensions.
| Version: |
1.0-3 |
| Imports: |
geometry, methods |
| Suggests: |
cluster |
| Published: |
2018-12-04 |
| Author: |
Adelchi Azzalini, Giovanna Menardi for the current version;
Adelchi Azzalini, Giovanna Menardi and Tiziana Rosolin up to version 0.1-13. |
| Maintainer: |
Giovanna Menardi <menardi at stat.unipd.it> |
| License: |
GPL-2 |
| NeedsCompilation: |
yes |
| Citation: |
pdfCluster citation info |
| Materials: |
ChangeLog |
| In views: |
Cluster |
| CRAN checks: |
pdfCluster results |
Downloads:
Reverse dependencies:
Linking:
Please use the canonical form
https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=pdfCluster
to link to this page.


Seattel Store
Address: Seattel,2334,port moody st., stor number 4
hours open: 7am to 10 pm,
contact information: +96200001000
Address: Seattel,2334,port moody st., stor number 4
hours open: 7am to 10 pm,
contact information: +96200001000
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hours open: 7am to 10 pm,
contact information: +96200001000
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hours open: 7am to 10 pm,
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contact information: +96200001000


Using a custom class decorator we can preload the ProductDetails page module once this page component gets initialized.
ProductDetails
Product Details


wabbit
`Prev `__
W
`Next `__
--------------
**wabbit**: /wab´it/, n.
[almost certainly from Elmer Fudd's immortal line “You wascawwy
wabbit!”]
1. A legendary early hack reported on a System/360 at RPI and elsewhere
around 1978; this may have descended (if only by inspiration) from a
hack called RABBITS reported from 1969 on a Burroughs 5500 at the
University of Washington Computer Center. The program would make two
copies of itself every time it was run, eventually crashing the system.
2. By extension, any hack that includes infinite self-replication but is
not a `*virus* <../V/virus.html>`__ or `*worm* `__. See
`*fork bomb* <../F/fork-bomb.html>`__ and `*rabbit
job* <../R/rabbit-job.html>`__, see also `*cookie
monster* <../C/cookie-monster.html>`__.
--------------
+-------------------------+----------------------------+--------------------------+
| `Prev `__ | `Up <../W.html>`__ | `Next `__ |
+-------------------------+----------------------------+--------------------------+
| w00t | `Home <../index.html>`__ | WAITS |
+-------------------------+----------------------------+--------------------------+


sensory input
Contents
7.5. sensory input#
notes from Neuroscience, 5th edition + Intro to neurobiology course at UVA
7.5.1. 9- somatosensory#
<IP_ADDRESS>. cheat sheet#
vocab
nerve - bundle of axons
tract - bundle of axons in CNS
nucleus - bundle of neurons related to some function
midline - center of nervous system
brain tends to be lateralized - one side is given control
ex. speak almost exclusively from left side of brain
information processing
feedback (gain)
almost always with glutamatergic / GABA
feedforward - anticipation
estimate things before they happen
adjust your behavior in advance of the world (ex. lean before you hit a table)
center-surround inhibition (spatial gain)
if you touch yourself, brain enhances sensitivity of one point by suppressing information from around it
<IP_ADDRESS>. sensory system overview#
we have dorsal root ganglia (DRG) on spinal cord
axon goes to CNS
dendrites go everywhere
pseudounipolar - born polar but become uni-polar
dendrite goes straight into axon with cell body off to the side
do very little processing
dorsal horn - top layer that controls sensory information
in the brain stem, these are called cranial ganglia
special one is trigeminal ganglia (sensory receptors for face)
oxytocin important clinically
Trp channels - connected mechanically into membrane
dermatomes
map of sensory parts to brain
segments of spinal cord correspond to stripes across your body
brain to feet: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
shingles - virus where you get stripes of sores - single DRG
pops out the skin on the dendrite of one DRG
peripheral damage won’t give you stripes of pain
feeling resolution - depends on density of neurons innervating skin
more neurons - small receptive fields
two-point discrimination test - poke you at different points and see if you can tell if the points are different
higher discrimination is better
discrimination is different that sensitivity (like how it hurts when wounded)
<IP_ADDRESS>. 4 neuron classes#
they have certain structures that tune them into certain kinds of vibrations
Proprioception
muscle spindles - on every neuron - fastest
measures stretch on every muscles
lets you know where your arm is
Golgi tendon organ
measures tension on tendon
safety switches - numb your body if you’re over-stressing something (make you let go of hanging on cliff)
Ia II - touch neurons
superficial - most sensitive
Merkel: hi-res, slow adapt
Meissner: hi-res, fast adapt
deeper - sense vibrations, pressure
Ruffini: low-res, slow adapt
Pacinian: low-res, fast adapt
these are in order of depth
diabetes - tissue loss and pain / numbness are lost
Adelta - fast pain
C fibers - pain, temperature, itch
very slow, stay on
no myelination
Pruritus - newly discovered set of sensory neurons
between pain/touch - itch neurons
new in mice: massage neurons
can only fire by stimulating in certain pattern
goes to emotion center not knowledge - pleasure
speed proportional to diameter, myelination
adaptation
some adapt slowly (you keep feeling something)
some adapt quickly (stop feeling)
if you move finger slightly, start firing again when changed
better if you feel cockroach that starts moving
<IP_ADDRESS>. pathways#
upper-body
S1 cortex - primary somatic sensory cortex - this is the knowledge of where was touched
VPL - everything accumulates here in the thalamus then goes to
Cuneate nucleus - everything goes into this
lower-body (trunk down)
everything in the lower body goes to Gracile nucleus - in brain stem
special case - sensory for face
trigeminal ganglion connects into vpm (thalamus) then goes into S1 cortex
proprioceptive pathways
starts in lower body
axons split - half go up to Clark’s nucleus
half go back into muscles
Clark’s nucleus goes straight into cerebellum
starts in upper body - goes straight into cerebellum
thus cerebellum have map of where / how tense muscles are
<IP_ADDRESS>. representation#
cortex - this is where understanding is
dedicates area based on how many neurons coming in
lips / hands have more area
S1 - primary somatosensory cortex
most body parts
neurons from functionally distinct columns
cortex assigns space based on how much info comes in
after amputation and time, map grows into lost space
map is different when different stimuli are given to fingers
S2 - secondary somatosensory cortex
processes and codes information from S1
throat, tongue, teeth, jaw, gum
<IP_ADDRESS>. pathway#
mechanosensory
DRG
Cuneate, Gracile
VPL
S1
face mechanosensory
trigeminal ganglion
principal nucleus of trigeminal complex
vpm
S1
proprioception
lower body
muscle spindles split
half go to motor neurons
other half go to Clark’s nucleus
clark’s nucleus -> cerebellum
upper body - straight to the cerebellum
7.5.2. 10 - nociception#
<IP_ADDRESS>. review#
chronic pain is very import clinically
cortex - lets you know if you are sensing something
loss-of-function lesion - piece of cortex is lost - lose awareness
can come from stroke, migraine-aura
gain-of-function lesion = excitatory lesion - like epilepsy
cortex comes on when it shouldn’t
increased awareness
can come from stroke / migraine
“sixth sense” - measuring stretch of all your muscles in cerebellum
nociception = pain
has nociceptors - neurons that do nociception
thermoceptors - neurons that sense temperature
two classes of linking receptors
Adelta fibers - fast pain
C fibers - slow and chronic
Trp channels - mechanically or thermally gated
let Na+ in
trpV heat - binds capsaicin
in the class of vanilloids
birds not capsaicin sensitive
trpM cold - binds menthol
adapts in minutes - stop feeling cold after a while
synapses of nociceptors go to dorsal horn of drg
nociceptor goes contralateral (must cross midline) - if you cut left side of spinal chord, lose - mechanoception (ipsilateral) from left and nociception (contralateral) from right
mechanoreceptors, by contrast, send axon up the spinal cord
dorsal horn has laminal structure (has layers)
know where pain is
somatosensory cortex
care about pain
insular cortex - emotional part of brain
whether or not you care about pain
pairs up with other senses
can have both loss-of-function and gain-of-function lesions in both places
referred pain map - map that refers to a specific problem (ex. esophagus)
visceral pain - don’t know where the pain is
hyperalgesia - increased pain sensitivity
pain sensing neurons are hyperactive because of inflammation
pain sensing neuron releases substance P into Mast cell or neutrophil which releases histamine which strengthens receptor
prostaglandins activate nococeptors
allodynia - when mechanosensation hurts - not understood
turning off pain - add serotonin
exercise
lack of serotonin ~ mood disorders
central sensitization: allodynia
these mechanisms work through introception
senses chemical imbalances
phantom limbs and phantom pain - if you lose a limb and still feel pain
mechanoreceptors inhibit nociceptors
<IP_ADDRESS>. pathway#
nociception
same as mechanosensory except goes all the way to thalamus
doesn’t stop in brainstem
crosses the midline after first synapse
visceral pain
axons mainline straight up, go through vpl, go straight to insular cortex
7.5.3. 11 - vision (eye)#
most of visual system is to read faces
eye
aqueous humor
posterior chamber
lens
ciliary muscles
retina
fovea
optic disk
optic nerve and retinal vessels
to see far, stretch lens = accomodation
retina - rods and cones are at back
cones - color
retinal ganglion cells sends down signal
12 days to turnover whole photoreceptor disks into PE (pigment epithelium)
PE is what the rods / cones are in
PE contains optic disks containing rhodopsin protein that is sensitive to light that break off of rods / cones
light leads to inhibition
melanopsin - receptor for blue light
<IP_ADDRESS>. circuits#
accomodation - stretching lens uncrosses lines
function photoreceptor
usually cGMP is letting in Na/Ca
Ca provides negative feedback here
when light hits, retinal inside rohodopsin activates phosphodiesterase - breaks down cGMP so channel closes and they aren’t let in
light on middle
depolarizes cone
excites oncenter
inhibits offcenter
these adjust quickly
horizontal cells - takes positive input from photoreceptor and inhibits it back
inhibits horizontal cells else around it - creates contrast
have these for each color
<IP_ADDRESS>. pathway#
rods / cones (2). horizontal cells - regulate gain control, how fast adapts, contrast adaptation
bipolar cells (4). amacrine cells - processing of movements
retinal ganglion cells
go into thalamus then to cortex (6). small amount go into brain stem and control mood / circadian rhythms
7.5.4. 12 - central visual system#
cortex is a pizza box
has columns
autophagy - process by which cells eat parts of themselves
nobel 2016
cones - color
12 day cycle for processing optic disks
photoreceptors have cyclic G-activated channel
light shuts down photoreceptors
cell decreases in activity
very roughly - each cone connects to cone bipolar cell
this gets represented by one column in the cortex
15-30 rods connect to 1 rod bipolar cells
cortex has 6 layers
each has tons of neurons, mostly pyramidal neurons
column is a section through the 6 layers - all does about the same thing
orientation columns responds to specific x,y
has subregions that respond to specific orientations
ocular dominance column - both eyes for same coordinate go to same spot
dominated by one eye
distance
far cells
tuned cells
near cells
V4 in temporal lobe - object recognition
<IP_ADDRESS>. pathways#
overall
V1
V2
V4 or MT
central projections
retinal ganglions
all go through optic stuff
7.5.5. 13 - auditory system#
ear parts
outer
middle
tympanic membrane
inner
cochlea - senses the sound
oval window
round window - not understood
conductive hearing loss - in the outer/middle ear
sensorineural hearing loss - in the cochlea
can’t be fixed with hearing aids
humans
2-5kHz ~= human speech (can sometimes hear more)
30-100x boost for tympanic membrane
this differs between people
200x focus onto oval window
cochlea
4 layers
inner hair cells - what you hear with
outer hair cells - generate sound
generates noise at every frequency except one you want to hear
otoacoustical emmision - low buzz that is produced
tenitis - ringing in the ears
can be internal
can be peripheral - generated by otoacoustical emmision
high frequencies right next to cochlea
low frequencies on distal tip
human high frequency cells die with age
hair cells
bundle of cilia
have an orientation
kinocilium is the tallest
tall ones are in the back
dying hair cells - can’t be replaced
loud sounds
certain antibiotics
auditory pathwayz
MSO - medial superior olive - decides where the sounds is coming from
takes input from right / left ear, decides which came in first
medial geniculate complex of the thalamus
brain shape
folds are pretty random
phrenology - shape of skull was based on brain
thought it could determine personality
false
Hsechl’s Gyrus folding pattern is not random
argument that if you have one, you are more musical
any sounds is made up of a bunch of frequencies
<IP_ADDRESS>. circuits#
K depolarizes hair cells, lets in Ca, releases vesicles
7.5.6. 14 - vestibular system#
very related to cochlea
same hair cells
differences
vestibular system doesn’t use cortex (you don’t think about it)
goes right into spinal chord
controls eye movements
one of the fastest circuits in the brain
clinically important
you have to be able to have your balance
each column is computational unit of the cortex
ocular dominance column
one for each eye
labyrinth and its innervation
semicircular canals
can only measure one axis of rotation
remember horizontal canal - measures turning head left to right
this measures acceleration
like a hoola hoop filled with glitter
has ampulla at one place in the hoop
cupula - sits over the ampulla’s hair cells
if the “glitter” hits the cupula, it will bend the hair cells
if you keep spinning, fluid starts moving and you stop detecting movement
this means the canals adapt mechanically
if you stop spinning, fluid keeps moving and system thinks you’re spinning the other way
right horizontal canal activated by turn to the right
same for left
scarpa’s ganglion - has hair cells inside
sends axons into vestibular nuclei
lots of fluid (high in K+)
macula - place where all the hair cells are
Ampullae - at base of canals
hair cells all in the same direction
utricle and saccule - measure head tilt
hair cells in multiple orientations
these contain otoconia
these are little crystals that move with gravity
measure acceleration and tilt
tilts do not adapt - they keep firing while you’re leaned back
they basically report tilt / position at all times
tiplink - connect cilia together for hair cells
when they move, tiplink move, pull on ion channels
motor on connected hair cell moves up and down to generate correct amount of tension
motor uses myosin and actin
harming these proteins can cause deafness
both eyes must always be looking in the same direction
also must be sitting over image for a while
ipsilateral - same side
contralateral - different side
vestibular ocular reflex VOR - turn your head to the right, eyes move left
doesn’t require cortex
only have to learn excitatory
7.5.7. 15 - chemical senses#
cAMP is used by GPCR


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jQuery makes it simple to start and stop listening to events using the on()
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You just need to supply the name of the event you want to listen to and a function to handle it
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2600 Cookbook:
Smarter Variable Labels
Problem:
You'd like to label a bunch of RAM variables without worrying about
what memory location they're at.
Solution:
Put the variables in an unitialized segment and specify the number of bytes
each label refers to using the "ds" ("define space") pseudo-op in DASM.
Discussion:
Historically, it wasn't uncommon to see code like the following
for labeling RAM:
SomeVariableName = $80
TwoByteVariableName = $81
YetAnotherVariable = $83
This gets the job done, but it's clearly not very flexible.
It isn't easy to add or delete variables except at the "end of the list",
and you don't know how many bytes a variable is meant to be (the list could
be out of order, or a previously used label could be deleted, etc etc.)
Andrew Davie would suggest this equivalent code:
SEG.U VARS
ORG $80
SomeVariableName ds 1
TwoByteVariableName ds 2
YetAnotherVariable ds 1
SEG CODE
"SEG.U" is an instruction to DASM telling it to create an "unitialized segment",
so it can make labels and what not, but won't try to create the same space when
you build your ROM. ("VARS" and "CODE" are just labels.) The number following "ds"
is how many bytes to reserve.
There's only one possible drawback...you could be running out of RAM and not
realize it! An easy solution to that was explained to me by Dennis Debro. Simply
add this line before the "SEG CODE"
echo "----",($100 - *) , "bytes of RAM left"
This will make DASM print how many bytes of RAM you have left (in hex).
The only drawback is that it will print that once per DASM pass, so you'll
probably see it twice during the assembly, but that's a minor issue.
References:
-
Section 16 of Andrew Davie's Programming for Newbies forum,
Letting the Assembler do the Work,
covers this in great detail, along with a similar concept called "overlays" for
using different variables names for the same memory location.
Example:
See pretty much any of the longer code examples in the 2600 Cookbook.
Back to 2600 Cookbook


Money Play. How should Red play 54?
pips Red=165 White=135
(CorrectAnswer= 0/0, ErrorScore= 0)
It looks tidy to play 13/9, 7/2 (as Red did over the board) but tidiness doesn’t win at backgammon, you need to play to the demands of the position.
White has one rear checker so that means you should be thinking of attacking it. 7/3* is the correct play of the 4.
Red could play 13/8 with the 5 but that strips the last spare off the mid-point and does nothing about the checkers in White’s home board. Red should take the opportunity, while White is on the bar, to release a rear checker with 21/16.
The key to this play is flexibility. If things go well (White fans) Red can attempt to win by going forwards. If he gets a lot of blots hit, hopefully he can retrench and play a back game.
Keep your options open.
White has one rear checker so that means you should be thinking of attacking it. 7/3* is the correct play of the 4.
Red could play 13/8 with the 5 but that strips the last spare off the mid-point and does nothing about the checkers in White’s home board. Red should take the opportunity, while White is on the bar, to release a rear checker with 21/16.
The key to this play is flexibility. If things go well (White fans) Red can attempt to win by going forwards. If he gets a lot of blots hit, hopefully he can retrench and play a back game.
Keep your options open.
1. Cubeful 2-ply 21/16 7/3* Eq.: -0.348 0.436 0.123 0.005 - 0.564 0.231 0.014 2. Cubeful 2-ply 13/8 7/3* Eq.: -0.406 (-0.058) 0.424 0.128 0.005 - 0.576 0.243 0.014 3. Cubeful 2-ply 13/9 7/2 Eq.: -0.433 (-0.086) 0.389 0.111 0.003 - 0.611 0.177 0.007 4. Cubeful 0-ply 13/4 Eq.: -0.557 (-0.209) 0.353 0.090 0.003 - 0.647 0.190 0.008 5. Cubeful 0-ply 21/16 13/9 Eq.: -0.602 (-0.254) 0.373 0.095 0.004 - 0.627 0.257 0.015


Where should you store the name of which database to connect to? Why, in the database of course!
6/24/2010, 2:57:48 PM
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link--- layout: tweet ---
Where should you store the name of which database to connect to? Why, in the database of course!
6/24/2010, 2:57:48 PM
Favs: 0
Retweets: 0
link


What's new
ridestyler.ui Changelog
All notable changes to this project will be documented in this file.
The format is based on Keep a Changelog, and this project adheres to Semantic Versioning.
[1.5.16] - 2021-11-18
Fixed:
- Changed old divide operator from '/' to math.div() to get rid of build warnings.
[1.5.15] - 2021-6-15
Updated:
- Updated accordion body max height to be much larger.
[1.5.14] - 2021-6-14
Fixed:
- Fixed Typeahead so that menu would always hide after item is selected.
[1.5.13] - 2021-6-11
Updated:
- Added support for a modal inside a modal.
[1.5.12] - 2021-6-10
Updated:
- Adjusted Typeahead so user wouldn't navigate to HREF when clicked
Fixed:
- Fixed dropdown menus that couldn't be clicked
[1.5.11] - 2021-6-8
Updated:
- Rounded off buttons.
- Added 'btn-group-spaced' class for a spaced out button group.
[1.5.10] - 2021-6-2
Updated:
- Fixed TypeaheadSelect IE error
- Added TypeaheadSelect documentation
[1.5.9] - 2021-5-28
Updated:
- Updated TypeaheadSelect component to support up/down arrows
[1.5.8] - 2021-5-26
Added:
- Added TypeaheadSelect component
[1.5.7] - 2020-9-9
Fixes:
- Fixes bug in styling on BrandedNavColumn component
[1.5.6] - 2020-7-17
Updated:
- Updated styling on BrandedNavColumn component
[1.5.5] - 2020-7-17
Fixed:
- Fixes responsive styling on the BrandedNavColumn component
[1.5.4] - 2020-7-17
Fixed:
- Fixes styling on the BrandedNavColumn component
[1.5.3] - 2020-7-17
Added:
- Adds styling to the BrandedNavColumn component
[1.5.2] - 2020-7-16
Added:
- Added BrandedNavColumn component
[1.5.1] - 2020-7-15
Fixed:
- Fixes ToggleNav bug
[1.5.0] - 2020-6-9
Fixed:
- Fixes ToggleNav bug
[1.4.9] - 2020-6-9
Updated:
- Adds ToggleNav component
[1.4.8] - 2020-4-22
Updated:
- Updated accordion style
[1.4.7] - 2020-5-19
Updated:
- Updated all inputs to use a rounded border
[1.4.6] - 2020-2-5
Updated:
- Updated all of the old static.ridestyler.net references
[1.4.5] - 2020-1-31
Added:
- Added borders to all popovers
[1.4.4] - 2020-1-27
Updated:
- The BrandedNavbarMenu component's initial check for the user's ready state
[1.4.3] - 2020-1-13
Added:
- Call to wait for ridestyler user ready on BrandedNavbarMenu
[1.4.2] - 2020-1-13
Updated:
- The BrandedNavbarMenu component to no longer take user props
[1.4.1] - 2020-1-13
Fixed:
- A bug with the branded navbar menu component
[1.4.0] - 2020-1-13
Added:
- New rsui custom components, including branded navbar menu
[1.3.0] - 2019-12-17
Fixed:
- A bug with the modal positioning on IE
- Added a build of just the icons to the framework
[1.2.0] - 2019-11-19
Fixed:
- Margin for the buttons and links in the modals have been moved from the right, to the left. Let's hope they stay there.
.btn
elements with aloading
class will now have more transparent text
Added:
- Padding for the breakpoints
md
,sm
andxs
have been set to$unit-1
,$unit-2
and$unit-3
respectively. Default padding is currently$unit-8
.
Updated:
- The default
.btn
text color now matches the body color. This makes it look less disabled.
[1.1.0] - 2019-11-18
Added:
- Pointer cursor to switches, radios and checkboxes
- Loading utilities for
form
,.container
and.column
elements .disabled
class for links.btn-success
&.btn-error
button stylesequal-height-columns
class for.columns
to make columns equal height- Mini-tables
- Sidebar menus
Fixed:
- Element spacing on navbar
- Sidebar links padding & highlighting
- Menu & dropdown menu width
- Spacing for buttons and links in card footers
- Font color on when the entire .card-action was a link
.d-*
rule priority- Styling of checkboxes, switches and radio elements
- Navbar images to be served over HTTPS
- Navbar would appear under some elements (increased z-index)
Updates:
- Button text is now smaller
- Outline for links is now less obtrusive (dotted, matching font color)
- Horizontal container padding now matches vertical
- Inputs are now prettier, with a cleaned up border style
- Text selection color now matches marketing website
html
,body
elements now have margin/padding removed by default- The badges have been updated to better match brand spacing and one-corner border-radius style
- Dropdown style (removed shadow)
- Headers are now no longer upper-case
[1.0.0] - 2019-10-30
Initial release.


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Fuel UX Marketing Cloud Theme
Bootstrap CSS
Bootstrap Components
Bootstrap Javascript
Fuel UX Controls
Typography
Iconography


CheckBoxGadget()
Syntax
Result = CheckBoxGadget(#Gadget, x, y, Width, Height, Text$ [, Flags])Description
Create a checkbox gadget in the current GadgetList.
Parameters
#Gadget A number to identify the new gadget. #PB_Any can be used to auto-generate this number. x, y, Width, Height The position and dimensions of the new gadget. Text$ The text to display next to the checkbox. Flags (optional) Flags to modify the gadget behavior. It can be a combination of the following constants: #PB_CheckBox_Right : Aligns the text to right. #PB_CheckBox_Center : Centers the text. #PB_CheckBox_ThreeState: Create a checkbox that can have a third "in between" state.The #PB_CheckBox_ThreeState flag can be used for a checkbox that represents the state of multiple items. The "in between" state can then be used to indicate that the setting is not the same for all items. By clicking on the checkbox, the user can bring it back to either the "on" or "off" state to apply this to all the items. Therefore the "in between" state can only be set by the program via SetGadgetState() and not by the user by clicking on the checkbox.
Return value
Returns nonzero on success and zero on failure. If #PB_Any was used as the #Gadget parameter then the return-value is the auto-generated gadget number on success.
Remarks
A 'mini help' can be added to this gadget using GadgetToolTip().
- GetGadgetState() can be used to get the current gadget state.
- SetGadgetState() can be used to change the gadget state.
Example
If OpenWindow(0, 0, 0, 270, 160, "CheckBoxGadget", #PB_Window_SystemMenu | #PB_Window_ScreenCentered) CheckBoxGadget(0, 10, 10, 250, 20, "CheckBox standard") CheckBoxGadget(1, 10, 40, 250, 20, "CheckBox checked"): SetGadgetState(1, #PB_Checkbox_Checked) CheckBoxGadget(2, 10, 70, 250, 20, "CheckBox three state", #PB_CheckBox_ThreeState): SetGadgetState(2, #PB_Checkbox_Inbetween) CheckBoxGadget(3, 10, 100, 250, 20, "CheckBox right", #PB_CheckBox_Right) CheckBoxGadget(4, 10, 130, 250, 20, "CheckBox center", #PB_CheckBox_Center) Repeat : Until WaitWindowEvent() = #PB_Event_CloseWindow EndIf
See Also
GetGadgetState(), SetGadgetState(), OptionGadget()
Supported OS
All


Simple Html Page
Root html page
You can use HTML, JavaScript, and CSS to complete this project. Plain CSS is recommended because that is what the lessons have covered so far and you should get some practice with plain CSS. You can use Bootstrap or SASS if you choose. Additional technologies (just for example jQuery, React, Angular, or Vue) are not recommended for this project, and using them is at your own risk. Other projects will give you a chance to work with different technology stacks like React. We will accept and try to fix all issue reports that use the suggested technology stack for this project. Happy coding!
- HTML
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- CSS
- HTML
- JavaScript
- CSS
x = 5;
p = 6;
l = x + p;
Contact Us.
- Zohaib
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We are open to discuss futher, please write us on the email below why you are the right match for this position and we will get in touch.
We are open to discuss futher, please write us on the email below why you are the right match for this position and we will get in touch.
n = 5;
s = 6;
z = s % n;
Profile.
We deal in next genertation technologies.
Microverse is a startup in stealth mode. Stay tuned for upcoming announcements.
For further inquiries please send an email to
n = 5;
s = 6;
z = s / n;
Career Prospects.
Soft Skills:
An independent and structured way of working.
A high willingness to familiarize yourself with new topics
Hard Skills:
Python | Django | Flask | OpenCV | Tensorflow | Multithreading | MySQL | MongoDB | Git | SVN
n = 5;
s = 6;
z = s * n;
SEO Tools.
Reverse Image search | Word Counter | Plagiarsim Checker | and more...
Reverse Image search | Word Counter | Plagiarsim Checker | and more...
n = 5;
s = 6;
z = s + n;


What a responsive site is, and why responsiveness is important.
Responsive sites are sites that can are design to best use the screen on the mobile device such as a IPhone. It’s important as It allows the user to
access the information without requiring a desktop computer. Above all it’s that accessibility is important for our users. For example family may not have access to a desktop computer but they have access to a phone.
What mobile first design is, and why it's important.
Mobile first design looks at focusing on the bare bones features and information that are needed in the website then introducing more as the website is developed in
powerful devices.
Why this is important in traditional web design has ben focused on desktops. Now with more smart phones on the market the emphasis is more on the mobile market.
What frameworks are, and their pros and cons.
Frameworks are designed to have faster implementation time for developer as it make it easier to take the design and translate it to the website. Also it allows for updates
that for the frame work to be quickly added. Essentially frameworks are like an extra tool box to make a house that make it easy to build a house.
Here are some pros and cons.
Pros
- Easy to use.
- Faster to develop.
- In built features that are pre made.
- Support for continued growth in the community.
Cons
- Can be not flexible if you want complex custom solutions.
- Other technologies such and frameworks may not be compatible.
- Has the ability to not be as usable due to oversights in features and constitution.
What a wireframe is and why we use it.
A wireframe is static draft for people to use so they can easily understand what we are developing.
This can be useful for the following reasons.
- Communicates to a team what they are building to the client.
- Saves money so a team is not constantly making sites that they won’t use.
- Quick turnaround for ideas.
The aspects of your wireframes you found difficult to implement, and why.
I found that the menu Idea that I had in the wireframe was problematic as I had limited knowledge of @media Queries. Also testing these out was
really hard as I had to be looking at my phone to check that it looked the website looked ok.
It just required a lot of research, understanding and experimentation of @media Queries.


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GLib Framework
1.0
|
Header file of the text component of GLib. More...
#include <SDL2/SDL.h>
#include <SDL2/SDL_ttf.h>
Go to the source code of this file.
Data Structures | |
| struct | TText |
| Object oriented structure representing a text. More... | |
Typedefs | |
| typedef struct TScene | TScene |
| typedef struct TText | TText |
| Object oriented structure representing a text. More... | |
Functions | |
| TText * | New_TText (TScene *scene, const char *text, TTF_Font *font, SDL_Color color, SDL_Rect pos) |
| The constructor for create a TText object. More... | |
| void | TText_Draw (TText *this, TScene *scene) |
| Method for drawing the text in the interface. More... | |
| void | TText_Change_Text (TText *this, TScene *scene, const char *text) |
| Method for changing the text. More... | |
| void | TText_New_Free (TText *this) |
| Method to free all ressources take by the text. More... | |
Header file of the text component of GLib.
The text component allows you to create a graphical text that can be manipulated by GLib.
Object oriented structure representing a text.
TText is an object that allows you to create and display a text.
| TText* New_TText | ( | TScene * | scene, |
| const char * | text, | ||
| TTF_Font * | font, | ||
| SDL_Color | color, | ||
| SDL_Rect | pos | ||
| ) |
The constructor for create a TText object.
| scene | A pointer to the window object. |
| text | The text to draw. |
| font | The font of the text. |
| color | The color of the text. |
| pos | The position of the text. |
Method for changing the text.
| this | A pointer to the text object. |
| scene | A pointer to the scene object. |
| text | The text to change. |
You do not have to call this method directly. You must use the Change_Text method of the TText structure like this: my_text->Change_Text(my_text, scene, "My text");
Method for drawing the text in the interface.
| this | A pointer to the text object to draw. |
| scene | A pointer to the scene object. |
You do not have to call this method directly. You must use the Draw method of the TText structure like this: my_text->Draw(my_text, scene);


Research Objective
Using renewable energy to convert C1 molecules (CO2, CH4, CO etc.) into liquid fuels is a game changing technique that makes transportation and industrial fuels independent of fossil energy, providing new solutions to greenhouse gas emission reduction and renewable energy utilization.
Aiming at this target, our group focuses on electrochemical research that bridges the fundamental surface electrocatalysis with practical pilot reactor design:
1) Developing highly sensitive spectroelectrochemical techniques like ATR-IR, SERS and DEMS for operando interfacial study of energy conversion reactions, including but not limited to fuel molecules oxidation, O2/CO2 electro-reduction; dimentum nibh, ut fermentum massa justo sit amet risus.
2) Developing more efficient energy conversion devices for green electrochemical synthesis.


We will be calling for speaker submissions in late May.
Tickets and hotel information will be available in June.
If you are interested in sponsoring Django, please contact us.


main settings
geofences
foreignadapters
google_cookie
google_polling_interval
check_connection
on save adapter restarts with new config immediately
add
search
Search
description
center_lat
center_long
radius
user
fenceid
places_adapter


Preparation time
less than 30 mins
Cooking time
10 to 30 mins
Serves
Serves 2
This dinner party dish looks magnificent on the plate: a neat arrangement of crab and potatoes topped with a stack of Dover sole, covered in a buttery sauce.
Preheat the oven to 180C/350F/Gas 4.
Place the fillets of sole on top of each other, with the first fillet facing one way then the other facing the other way (like building a sole wall!) so that you have an eight-fillet high wall.
Skewer the sole fillets together with six cocktail sticks and trim off the ends, then slice the stacked fillets neatly in half.
Heat a non-stick frying pan until hot, add the vegetable oil and then the sole fillets; cook until coloured on one side.
Once one side is golden-brown, flip the sole fillets over and then place on a tray in the oven for 15 minutes.
Meanwhile, place the potatoes in a saucepan of salted, boiling water and boil for about 5-10 minutes, or until cooked (the cooking time depends on the size of the potatoes).
Drain and return the potatoes to the pan and crush lightly using a fork, then add the crabmeat and a squeeze of the lemon juice and mix well.
Add salt and freshly ground black pepper to taste. Keep the mixture warm.
Return the frying pan used for the fish to the heat, then add the butter and cook until it is brown in colour; add the caperberries and gherkins and heat through.
Add the chopped chives and the juice from two of the lemons (reserve another squeeze of lemon juice for the fish).
Remove the sole from the oven and gently twist out the cocktail sticks. Squeeze over the remaining lemon juice.
Bring a pan of salted water to the boil, add the asparagus and boil for 10 seconds. Drain and keep warm.
To serve, place a spoonful of the potato into a metal ring in the centre of each of two plates and top with a stack of Dover sole.
Spoon the caperberry and gherkin butter over and around the fish, then scatter the cress and crôutons around the plate.
Top the sole with some asparagus and serve straightaway.


C++ and Node.js Integration
Handbook for creating Node.js C++ addons
© 2016 Scott Frees. All rights reserved.
Contents
Front matter
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - Understanding the V8 API
Chapter 3 - Basic Integration Patterns
Chapter 4 - Asynchronous Addons
Chapter 5 - Object Wrapping
Chapter 6 - Native Abstractions for Node (NAN)
Chapter 7 - Streaming between Node and C++
Chapter 8 - Publishing Addons
Appendix A - Alternatives to Addons
Appendix B - Buffers
Closing


Example.
Here, the keyboard handler is on the link, but it should also work well on the text input control.
Keyboard will be shown when user clicks on text input. Text will go directly into that line.
When keyboard "done" key is pressed, the core system will send "enter" key to the web page.
It should react appropriately.
The keyboard will be removed from the screen automatically, when input is done.
<-->


{% load templatetag_handlebars %} {% tplhandlebars "frame_controls-tmpl" %} Change player Foul: Undo last strike Declare as winner Undeclare winner


The script sorts the numbers in order from the largest number to the smallest number using the Bubble Sort method.


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Desassign from Station
There is not any bike assigned to the station: {{stationName}}
Bikes ready to assign:
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