NEOMYCIN AND POLYMYXIN B SULFATES AND HYDROCORTISONE - neomycin sulfate, polymyxin b sulfate and hydrocortisone suspension
STAT RX USA LLC
Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension is a sterile antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory suspension for ophthalmic use.
Each mL contains: Actives: neomycin sulfate (equivalent to 3.5 mg neomycin base), polymyxin B sulfate equivalent to 10,000 polymyxin B units, and hydrocortisone 10 mg (1%). Preservative: thimerosal 0.001%. Inactives: cetyl alcohol, glyceryl monostearate, mineral oil, polyoxyl 40 stearate, propylene glycol, sulfuric acid (to adjust pH) and water for injection.
Neomycin sulfate is the sulfate salt of neomycin B and C, which are produced by the growth of Streptomyces fradiae Waksman (Fam. Streptomycetacae). It has a potency equivalent to not less than 600 μg of neomycin standard per mg, calculated on an anhydrous basis. Its structural formula are:
neomycin-01 IMAGE
Polymyxin B sulfate is the sulfate salt of Polymyxin, B1 and B2, which are produced by the growth of Bacillus polymyxa (Prazmowski) Migula (Fam. Bacillaceae). It has a potency of not less than 6,000 polymyxin B units per mg calculated on an anhydrous basis. Its structural formula are:
neomycin-02 IMAGE
Hydrocortisone, 11β, 17, 21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3, 20 dione, is an anti-inflammatory hormone. Its structural formula is:
neomycin-03 IMAGE
Corticosteroids suppress the inflammatory response to a variety of agents, and they probably delay or slow healing. Since corticosteroids may inhibit the body's defense mechanism against infection, concomitant antimicrobial drugs may be used when this inhibition is considered to be clinically significant in a particular case.
When a decision to administer both a corticosteroid and antimicrobials is made, the administration of such drugs in combination has the advantage of greater patient compliance and convenience, with the added assurance that the intended dosage of all drugs is administered. When each type of drug is in the same formulation, compatibility of ingredients is assured and the correct volume of drug is delivered and retained.
The relative potency of corticosteroids depends on the molecular structure, concentration, and release from the vehicle.
Microbiology: The anti-infective components in Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension are included to provide action against specific organisms susceptible to it. Neomycin sulfate and polymyxin B sulfate are active in vitro against susceptible strains of the following microorganisms: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella/Enterbacter species, Neisseria species, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The product does not provide adequate coverage against Serratia marcescens and streptococci, including Streptococcus pneumoniae (see INDICATIONS AND USAGE).
Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension is indicated for steroid-responsive inflammatory ocular conditions for which a corticosteroid is indicated and where bacterial infection or a risk of bacterial ocular infection exists.
Ocular corticosteroids are indicated in inflammatory conditions of the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva, cornea and anterior segment of the globe where the inherent risk of corticosteroid use in certain infective conjunctivitides is accepted to obtain a diminution in edema and inflammation. They are also indicated in chronic anterior uveitis and corneal injury from chemical, radiation, or thermal burns, or penetration of foreign bodies.
The use of a combination drug with an anti-infective component is indicated where the risk of infection is high or where there is an expectation that potentially dangerous numbers of bacteria will be present in the eye (See CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY: Microbiology).
The particular anti-infective drugs in this product are active against the following common bacterial eye pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella/Enterobacter species, Neisseria species, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
The product does not provide adequate coverage against Serratia marcescens and streptococci, including Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension is contraindicated in most viral diseases of the cornea and conjunctiva including: epithelial herpes simplex keratitis (dendritic keratitis), vaccinia, and varicella, and also in mycobacterial infection of the eye and fungal diseases of ocular structures.
Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension is also contraindicated in individuals who have shown hypersensitivity to any of its components. Hypersensitivity to the antibiotic component occurs at a higher rate than for other components.
NOT FOR INJECTION INTO THE EYE. Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension should never be directly introduced into the anterior chamber of the eye.
Prolonged use of corticosteroids may result in ocular hypertension and/or glaucoma, with damage to the optic nerve, defects in visual acuity and fields of vision, and posterior subcapsular cataract formation.
Prolonged use may suppress the host response and thus increase the hazard of secondary ocular infections. In those diseases causing thinning of the cornea or sclera, perforations have been known to occur with the use of topical corticosteroids. In acute purulent conditions of the eye, corticosteroids may mask infection or enhance existing infection.
If these products are used for 10 days or longer, intraocular pressure should be routinely monitored even though it may be difficult in uncooperative patients. Corticosteroids should be used with caution in the presence of glaucoma.
The use of corticosteroids after cataract surgery may delay healing and increase the incidence of filtering blebs.
Use of ocular corticosteroids may prolong the course and may exacerbate the severity of many viral infections of the eye (including herpes simplex). Employment of corticosteroid medication in the treatment of herpes simplex requires great caution.
Topical antibiotics, particularly, neomycin sulfate, may cause cutaneous sensitization. A precise incidence of hypersensitivity reactions (primarily skin rash) due to topical antibiotics is not known. The manifestations of sensitization to topical antibiotics are usually itching, reddening, and edema of the conjunctiva and eyelid. A sensitization reaction may manifest simply as a failure to heal. During long-term use of topical antibiotic products, periodic examination for such signs is advisable, and the patient should be told to discontinue the product if they are observed. Symptoms usually subside quickly on withdrawing the medication. Application of products containing these ingredients should be avoided for the patient thereafter (see PRECAUTIONS: General).
PRECAUTIONSGeneralThe initial prescription and renewal of the medication order beyond 20 mL should be made by a physician only after examination of the patient with the aid of magnification, such as slit lamp biomicroscopy and, where appropriate, fluorescein staining. If signs and symptoms fail to improve after 2 days, the patient should be re-evaluated.
The possibility of fungal infections of the cornea should be considered after prolonged corticosteroid dosing. Fungal cultures should be taken when appropriate.
If this product is used for 10 days or longer, intraocular pressure should be monitored (see WARNINGS).
There have been reports of bacterial keratitis associated with the use of topical ophthalmic products in multiple-dose containers which have been inadvertently contaminated by patients, most of whom had a concurrent corneal disease or a disruption of the ocular epithelial surface (see PRECAUTIONS: Information for Patients).
Allergic cross-reactions may occur which could prevent the use of any or all of the following antibiotics for the treatment of future infections: kanamycin, paromomycin, streptomycin, and possibly gentamicin.
Patients should be instructed to avoid allowing the tip of the dispensing container to contact the eye, eyelid, fingers, or any other surface. The use of this product by more than one person may spread infection.
Patients should also be instructed that ocular products, if handled improperly, can become contaminated by common bacteria known to cause ocular infections. Serious damage to the eye and subsequent loss of vision may result from using contaminated products (see PRECAUTIONS: General).
If the condition persists or gets worse, or if a rash or allergic reaction develops, the patient should be advised to stop use and consult a physician. Do not use this product if you are allergic to any of the listed ingredients.
Keep tightly closed when not in use. Keep out of reach of children.
Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of FertilityLong-term studies in animals to evaluate carcinogenic or mutagenic potential have not been conducted with polymyxin B sulfate. Treatment of cultured human lymphocytes in vitro with neomycin increased the frequency of chromosome aberrations at the highest concentrations (80 ug/mL) tested; however, the effects of neomycin on carcinogenesis and mutagenesis in humans are unknown.
Long-term studies in animals (rats, rabbits, mice) showed no evidence of carcinogenicity or mutagenicity attributable to oral administration of corticosteroids. Long-term animal studies have not been performed to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of topical corticosteroids. Studies to determine mutagenicity with hydrocortisone have revealed negative results. Use of corticosteroid medication in the treatment of herpes simplex requires great caution. Polymyxin B has been reported to impair the motility of equine sperm, but its effects on male or female fertility are unknown. Long-term animal studies have not been performed to evaluate the effect on fertility of topical corticosteroids.
PregnancyTeratogenic Effects: Pregnancy Category C. Corticosteroids have been found to be teratogenic in rabbits when applied topically at concentrations of 0.5% on days 6 -18 of gestation and in mice when applied topically at a concentration of 15% on days 10 -13 of gestation. There are no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension should be used during pregnancy only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.
Nursing MothersIt is not known whether topical administration of corticosteroids could result in sufficient systemic absorption to produce detectable quantities in human milk. Systemically administered corticosteroids appear in human milk and could suppress growth, interfere with endogenous corticosteroid production, or cause other untoward effects. Because of the potential for serious adverse reactions in nursing infants from Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension, a decision should be made whether to discontinue nursing or to discontinue the drug, taking into account the importance of the drug to the mother.
Pediatric UseSafety and effectiveness in pediatric patients have not been established.
Geriatric UseNo overall differences in safety or effectiveness have been observed between elderly and younger patients.
Adverse reactions have occurred with corticosteroid/anti-infective combination drugs which can be attributed to the corticosteroid component, the anti-infective component, or the combination. The exact incidence is not known.
Reactions occurring most often from the presence of the anti-infective ingredient are allergic sensitization reactions including itching, swelling, and conjunctival erythema (see WARNINGS). More serious hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylaxis, have been reported rarely.
The reactions due to the corticosteroid component in decreasing order of frequency are: elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP) with possible development of glaucoma, and infrequent optic nerve damage; posterior subcapsular cataract formation; and delayed wound healing.
Secondary Infection: The development of secondary infection has occurred after use of combinations containing corticosteroids and antimicrobials. Fungal and viral infections of the cornea are particularly prone to develop coincidentally with long-term applications of corticosteroid. The possibility of fungal invasion must be considered in any persistent corneal ulceration where corticosteroid treatment has been used.
Local irritation on instillation has been reported.
One or two drops in the affected eye every 3 or 4 hours, depending on the severity of the condition. The suspension may be used more frequently if necessary.
Not more than 20 mL should be prescribed initially and the prescription should not be refilled without further evaluation as outlined in PRECAUTIONS above.
Neomycin and Polymyxin B Sulfates and Hydrocortisone Ophthalmic Suspension is available in a DROP-TAINER* bottle containing 7.5 mL. NDC 61314-641-75
SHAKE WELL BEFORE USING.
Store at 20°-25°C (68°-77°F).
Rx Only
*DROP-TAINER is a Registered trademark of Alcon Manufacturing Ltd.
9002784-0707
Mfd. For:
FALCON Pharmaceuticals, Ltd.
For t Worth, Texas 76134 USA
Mfd. By:
ALCON LABORATORIES, INC.
Fort Worth, Texas 76134 USA
Printed in USA
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NEOMYCIN AND POLYMYXIN B SULFATES AND HYDROCORTISONE
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Let’s say that you’ve just finished a long edit of a read-only config file as a regular user. You forgot to open the file with elevated privileges. What do you do? Thankfully, vi
allows users to run UNIX commands without having to exit the program:
:w !sudo tee %
Here’s a quick breakdown of the above command:
:
tells vi
that you’d like to issue a command.w
tells vi
to write the current file.!
tells vi
to expect a shell command to follow.tee
is a shell command to copy from standard input and write to standard output.%
tells vi
to use the current file name.As an aside, you may also be interested to note that you can open a shell prompt from within vi
by running :sh
. vi
will use whatever is returned by echo $SHELL
.


Presidency Breaks Silence On Election Day Bullion Van In Tinubu’s Residence
by Oladipo AbiolaPresidency Speaks On Tinubu’s Bullion Van Episode
Prof. Itse Sagay, Chairman of the Presidential Advisory Committee Against Corruption (PACAC) has reacted to calls for the investigation of Asiwaju Bola Tinubu.
It will be recalled there have been several calls for the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) to investigate the case of bullion vans that were driven into the Lagos residence of Chief Tinubu on the eve of the 2019 general election in the country.
However, Sagay in his reaction to the calls for an investigation and possible prosecution of the incident has submitted that Tinubu was already rich before he became a politician and his source of wealth is legitimate and traceable.
Sagay added that Tinubu, had on several occasions in the past, used his personal money to help some politicians and others in the society.
“Tinubu was already very rich before he became governor. He is not a man who became rich after he joined the government,” he told Daily Independent, Friday.
“He worked in the petroleum sector. I recalled that during the course of his fight with Abacha, he had to escape for his life in order to join so many other people like Anthony Enahoro, Wole Soyinka and many other pro-democracy activists.
“Tinubu was the one funding quite a lot of the organisations and those staying abroad. So, he has always been a man of means.
“It will be ridiculous that having come back to the country, won’t he invest his money into various ventures? So, no one should be surprised that he is a rich man.
“All I know is that he is rich from his own hard work, investments and therefore, he should be given the benefit of the doubt instead of being subjected to the persecution which some people want him to be subjected to.”
It will be recalled that Deji Adeyanju had written a petition to the EFCC against the bullion van incidence in Tinubu’s residence after the anti-graft agency had declared it hadn’t received any formal petition on the episode.
Adeyanju’s action came after the commission had dared Segun Awosanya, popularly known as Segalink, to write a petition against Tinubu if he felt it was wrong for the former governor of Lagos to have had two bullion vans at his Lagos residence on the eve of the presidential and National Assembly elections.


Apple's China sales are up 70% - and about to grow further, John Sudworth reports
US technology giant Apple has reported the biggest quarterly profit ever made by a public company.
Apple reported a net profit of $18bn (£11.8bn) in its fiscal first quarter, which tops the $15.9bn made by ExxonMobil in the second quarter of 2012, according to Standard and Poor's.
Record sales of iPhones were behind the surge in profits.
Apple sold 74.5 million iPhones in the three months to 27 December - well ahead of most analysts' expectations.
Apple's China sales are up 70% - and about to grow further, John Sudworth reports
US technology giant Apple has reported the biggest quarterly profit ever made by a public company.
Apple reported a net profit of $18bn (£11.8bn) in its fiscal first quarter, which tops the $15.9bn made by ExxonMobil in the second quarter of 2012, according to Standard and Poor's.
Record sales of iPhones were behind the surge in profits.
Apple sold 74.5 million iPhones in the three months to 27 December - well ahead of most analysts' expectations.
Apple's China sales are up 70% - and about to grow further, John Sudworth reports
US technology giant Apple has reported the biggest quarterly profit ever made by a public company.
Apple reported a net profit of $18bn (£11.8bn) in its fiscal first quarter, which tops the $15.9bn made by ExxonMobil in the second quarter of 2012, according to Standard and Poor's.
Record sales of iPhones were behind the surge in profits.
Apple sold 74.5 million iPhones in the three months to 27 December - well ahead of most analysts' expectations.
Apple's China sales are up 70% - and about to grow further, John Sudworth reports
US technology giant Apple has reported the biggest quarterly profit ever made by a public company.
Apple reported a net profit of $18bn (£11.8bn) in its fiscal first quarter, which tops the $15.9bn made by ExxonMobil in the second quarter of 2012, according to Standard and Poor's.
Record sales of iPhones were behind the surge in profits.
Apple sold 74.5 million iPhones in the three months to 27 December - well ahead of most analysts' expectations.


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Fed's Mester: Would re-evaluate policy if there were signs of weakness in hiring or consumer spending
by Eren SengezerCleveland Fed President Loretta Mester said that she would re-evaluate the monetary policy if there were signs of weakness in hiring or consumer spending.
"Risks to the economy are still tilted slightly to the downside," Mester added while speaking to reporters after delivering her opening remarks at a conference on financial stability hosted by the Cleveland Fed. "I expect the US economy to grow by an average of 2% this year and for inflation to be slightly below 2%."
These comments don't seem to be having a significant impact on the USD's valuation. As of writing, the US Dollar Index was up 0.08% on the day at 97.95.


API Documentation¶
It can be nice to print information on the most important classes or functions
in your package. The follow test is all automatically generated using sphinx’s
autodoc
extension.
Calculations with airfoils
It can be nice to print information on the most important classes or functions
in your package. The follow test is all automatically generated using sphinx’s
autodoc
extension.
Calculations with airfoils


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Definitions of Economic Freedom
目录
Defining Economic Freedom
GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC FREEDOM
ECONOMIC FREEDOM: AUTONOMY, NOT ANARCHY
MEASURING ECONOMIC FREEDOM
RULE OF LAW
GOVERNMENT SIZE
REGULATORY EFFICIENCY
MARKET OPENNESS
ECONOMIC FREEDOM: AN END IN ITSELF, A MEANS FOR PROGRESS
The Countries
DEFINING THE “QUICK FACTS”
Methodology
RULE OF LAW
GOVERNMENT SIZE
REGULATORY EFFICIENCY
OPEN MARKETS
General Methodological Issues
Defining Economic Freedom
Statistics, Reference & Figures
Ambassador Terry Miller and Anthony B. Kim
A major source of objection to a free economy is precisely that it … gives people what they want instead of what a particular group thinks they ought to want. Underlying most arguments against the free market is a lack of belief in freedom itself.
—Milton Friedman1
Economic freedom is the condition in which individuals can act with maximum autonomy and minimum obstruction in the pursuit of their economic livelihood and greater prosperity. Any discussion of economic freedom has at its heart reflection on the critical relationship between individuals and the government.
As Friedrich Hayek once observed, “To be controlled in our economic pursuits means to be controlled in everything.”2 Hayek’s keen insights on economic freedom are based on the moral truth that each person is, as a matter of natural right, a free and responsible being with inalienable dignity and fundamental liberties that righteous and effective political systems should regard as unassailable.
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GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMIC FREEDOM
Economic Freedoms: World Map
Economic Freedoms: Europe Map
Economic Freedoms: Asia Map
In an economically free society, each person controls the fruits of his or her own labor and initiative. Individuals are empowered—indeed, entitled—to pursue their dreams by means of their own free choice.
In an economically free society, individuals succeed or fail based on their individual effort and ability. The institutions of a free and open market society do not discriminate either against or in favor of individuals based on their race, ethnic background, gender, class, family connections, or any other factor unrelated to individual merit. Government decision-making is characterized by openness and transparency, which illuminates the shadows where discrimination might flourish and promotes equal opportunity for all.
In an economically free society, the power of economic decision-making is widely dispersed, and the allocation of resources for production and consumption is on the basis of open competition so that every individual or firm gets a fair chance to succeed.
These three fundamental principles of economic freedom—empowerment of the individual, non-discrimination, and open competition—underpin every measurement and policy idea presented in the Index of Economic Freedom.
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ECONOMIC FREEDOM: AUTONOMY, NOT ANARCHY
Economic Freedoms: World Map
Milton Friedman (弗里德曼)
Capitalism and Freedom
美国的老右派
In general, state action or government control that interferes with individual autonomy limits economic freedom. The Index of Economic Freedom is not, however, a call for anarchy. The goal of economic freedom is not simply an absence of government coercion or constraint, but the creation and maintenance of a mutual sense of liberty for all. As individuals enjoy the blessings of economic freedom, they in turn have a responsibility to respect the economic rights and freedoms of others within the rule of law. Governments are instituted to ensure basic protections against the ravages of nature or the predations of one citizen over another. Positive economic rights such as property and contracts are given societal as well as individual defense against the destructive tendencies of others.
A comprehensive view of economic freedom encompasses all liberties and rights of production, distribution, or consumption of goods and services. The highest forms of economic freedom should provide an absolute right of property ownership; full freedom of movement for labor, capital, and goods; and an absolute absence of coercion or constraint of economic activity beyond that which is necessary for the protection and maintenance of liberty itself. An economically free society encourages handling of economic decisions in a decentralized fashion. Individuals are free to work, produce, consume, and invest in any way they choose under the even-handed application of laws, with their economic freedoms at once both protected and respected by the state.
However, some government action is necessary for the citizens of a nation to defend themselves, promote the peaceful evolution of civil society, and enjoy the fruits of their labor. For example, citizens are taxed to provide revenue for public safety, the protection of property, and the common defense. There can also be other goods—what economists call “public goods”—that may be supplied more efficiently by government than through private means. Some public goods, such as the maintenance of a police force to protect property rights, a monetary authority to maintain a sound currency, and an impartial judiciary to enforce contracts among parties, are themselves vital ingredients of an economically free society. When government action rises beyond the minimal necessary level, however, it leads inevitably and quickly to the loss of freedom—and the first freedom affected is often economic freedom.3
Throughout history, governments have imposed a wide array of constraints on economic activity. Such constraints, though sometimes imposed in the name of equality or some other noble societal purpose, are in reality imposed most often for the benefit of societal elites or special interests, and they come with a high cost to society as a whole. By substituting political judgments for those of the marketplace, government diverts entrepreneurial resources and energy from productive activities to rent-seeking, the quest for economically unearned benefits. The result is lower productivity, economic stagnation, and declining prosperity.
Government provision of goods and services beyond those that are clearly considered public goods imposes a separate constraint on economic activity as well, crowding out private-sector activity and usurping resources that might otherwise have been available for private investment or consumption. Constraining economic choice distorts and diminishes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services (including, of course, labor services). The wealth of a nation inevitably declines as a result.
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MEASURING ECONOMIC FREEDOM
美国预算图表 (US Budget)
Assessing economic freedom in countries as diverse as Hong Kong and Venezuela, Zimbabwe and Singapore, or Switzerland and Cuba is not an easy task. As the number and variety of countries included in the Index have increased, it has become ever more difficult to find consistent and reliable data covering them all. We are indebted to various governmental and non-governmental international organizations that have undertaken the arduous task of data collection in their various areas of focus and have shared their data with us.
The Index of Economic Freedom takes a broad and comprehensive view of country performance, measuring 10 separate areas of economic freedom. Some of the aspects of economic freedom that are evaluated are concerned with a country’s interactions with the rest of the world—for example, the extent of an economy’s openness to global investment or trade. Most, however, focus on policies within a country, assessing the liberty of individuals to use their labor or finances without undue restraint and government interference.
Each of the economic freedoms plays a vital role in developing and sustaining personal and national prosperity. All are complementary in their impact, however, and progress in one area is often likely to reinforce or even inspire progress in another. Similarly, repressed economic freedom in one area—respect for property rights, for example—may make it much more difficult to achieve high levels of freedom in other categories.
Each economic freedom is individually scored on a scale of 0 to 100. A country’s overall economic freedom score is a simple average of its scores on the 10 individual freedoms. Information about the methodology used to compute each component score is detailed in the appendix.
For presentational clarity, the 10 economic freedoms are grouped into four broad categories:
--Rule of law (property rights, freedom from corruption);
--Government size (fiscal freedom, government spending);
--Regulatory efficiency (business freedom, labor freedom, monetary freedom); and
--Market openness (trade freedom, investment freedom, financial freedom).
COMMONLY USED ACRONYMS
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RULE OF LAW
Property Rights. The ability to accumulate private property and wealth is understood to be a central motivating force for workers and investors in a market economy. The recognition of private property rights and an effective rule of law to protect them are vital features of a fully functioning market economy. Secure property rights give citizens the confidence to undertake entrepreneurial activity, save their income, and make long-term plans because they know that their income, savings, and property (both real and intellectual) are safe from unfair expropriation or theft.
The protection of private property requires an autonomous and accountable judicial system that is available to all equally and without discrimination. The independence, transparency, and effectiveness of the judicial system have proven to be key determinants of a country’s prospects for long-term economic growth. Such a system is also vital to the maintenance of peace and security and the protection of human rights.
A key aspect of property rights protection is the enforcement of contracts. The voluntary undertaking of contractual obligations is the foundation of the market system and the basis for economic specialization, gains from commercial exchange, and trade among nations. Even-handed government enforcement of private contracts is essential to ensuring equity and integrity in the marketplace.
Freedom from Corruption. In the context of economic freedom, corruption can best be understood as the failure of integrity in the economic system, a distortion by which individuals or special-interest groups are able to gain at the expense of the whole. Often a direct result of the government’s concentration of economic or political power, corruption manifests itself in many forms such as bribery, extortion, nepotism, cronyism, patronage, embezzlement, and graft.
Corruption can infect all parts of an economy in systematic ways. There is a direct relationship between the extent of government intervention in economic activity and the amount of corruption. In particular, excessive and redundant government regulations provide opportunities for bribery or graft. In addition, government regulations or restrictions in one area may create informal markets in another. For example, a country that imposes numerous burdensome barriers on conducting business, including regulatory red tape and high transaction costs, can incentivize bribery and encourage illegitimate market interactions.
Ensuring transparency is key to dealing effectively with corruption. Openness in regulatory procedures and processes can promote equitable treatment and greater efficiency.
Retter is Better, WE Create and Deliver Real Value!
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GOVERNMENT SIZE
Fiscal Freedom. Fiscal freedom is a direct measure of the extent to which government permits individuals and businesses to keep and manage their income and wealth for their own benefit and use. A government can impose fiscal burdens on economic activity through taxation, but it also does so when it incurs public debt that ultimately must be paid off through taxation.
Milton Friedman (弗里德曼)
Capitalism and Freedom
美国的老右派
Protecting Internet Freedom and American Interests
The marginal tax rate confronting an individual is, in effect, the government’s cut of the profit from his or her next unit of work or engagement in a new entrepreneurial venture; whatever remains after the tax is the individual’s actual reward for the effort. Therefore, the higher the government’s cut, the lower the individual’s reward—and the lower the incentive to undertake the work at all. Higher tax rates interfere with the ability of individuals and firms to pursue their goals in the marketplace and thereby reduce overall private-sector activity.
While individual and corporate income tax rates are important to economic freedom, they are not a comprehensive measure of the tax burden. Governments impose many other indirect taxes, including payroll, sales, and excise taxes, as well as tariffs and the value-added tax (VAT). In the Index of Economic Freedom, the burden of these taxes is captured by measuring the overall tax burden from all forms of taxation as a percentage of total GDP.
Government Spending. The cost of excessive government is a central issue in economic freedom, both in terms of generating revenue (see fiscal freedom) and in terms of spending. Government spending comes in many forms. Some government spending—for example, to provide infrastructure, fund research, or improve human capital—may be considered investment. Government also spends on public goods, the benefits of which accrue broadly to society in ways that markets cannot price appropriately.
All government spending that must eventually be financed by higher taxation, however, entails an opportunity cost. This cost is the value of the private consumption or investment that would have occurred had the resources involved been left in the private sector.
Excessive government spending runs a great risk of crowding out private economic activity. Even if an economy achieves faster growth through more government spending, such economic expansion tends to be only temporary, distorting the market allocation of resources and private investment incentives. Even worse, a government’s insulation from market discipline often leads to bureaucracy, lower productivity, inefficiency, and mounting public debt that imposes an even greater burden on future generations.
As many economies have experienced in recent years, high levels of public debt accumulated through irresponsible government spending undermine economic freedom and prevent dynamic entrepreneurial growth.
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REGULATORY EFFICIENCY
Statistics, Reference & Figures
Business Freedom. Business freedom is about an individual’s right to establish and run an enterprise without undue interference from the state. Burdensome and redundant regulations are the most common barriers to the free conduct of entrepreneurial activity.
By increasing the costs of production, regulations can make it difficult for entrepreneurs to succeed in the marketplace. Although many regulations hinder business productivity and profitability, the most inhibiting to entrepreneurship are those that are associated with licensing new businesses.
In some countries, as well as many states in the United States, the procedure for obtaining a business license can be as simple as mailing in a registration form with a minimal fee. In Hong Kong, for example, obtaining a business license requires filling out a single form, and the process can be completed in a few hours. In other economies, such as India and parts of South America, the process of obtaining a business license can take much longer, involving endless trips to government offices and repeated encounters with officious and sometimes corrupt bureaucrats.
Once a business is open, government regulation may interfere with the normal decision-making or price-setting process. Interestingly, two countries with the same set of regulations can impose different regulatory burdens. If one country applies its regulations evenly and transparently, this can lower the regulatory burden by facilitating long-term business planning. If the other applies regulations inconsistently, it raises the regulatory burden by creating an unpredictable business environment. Rigid and onerous bankruptcy procedures are also distortionary, providing a disincentive for entrepreneurs to start businesses in the first place.
Labor Freedom.The ability of individuals to work as much as they want and wherever they want is a key component of economic freedom. By the same token, the ability of businesses to contract freely for labor and dismiss redundant workers when they are no longer needed is a vital mechanism for enhancing productivity and sustaining overall economic growth. The core principle of any market is free, voluntary exchange. That is as true in the labor market as it is in the market for goods.
State intervention generates the same problems in the labor market that it produces in any other market. Government regulations take a variety of forms, including wage controls, restrictions on hiring and firing, and other constraints. In many countries, unions play an important role in regulating labor freedom and, depending on the nature of their activity, may be either a force for greater freedom or an impediment to the efficient functioning of labor markets.
Onerous labor laws penalize businesses and workers alike. Rigid labor regulations prevent employers and employees from freely negotiating changes in terms and conditions of work, resulting often in a chronic mismatch of labor supply and demand. In general, the greater the degree of labor freedom, the lower the rate of unemployment in an economy.
Monetary Freedom. Monetary freedom requires a stable currency and market-determined prices. Whether acting as entrepreneurs or as consumers, free people need a steady and reliable currency as a medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value. Without monetary freedom, it is difficult to create long-term value or amass capital.
The value of a country’s currency can be influenced significantly by the monetary policy of its government. With a monetary policy that endeavors to fight inflation, maintain price stability, and preserve the nation’s wealth, people can rely on market prices for the foreseeable future. Investments, savings, and other longer-term plans can be made more confidently. An inflationary policy, by contrast, confiscates wealth like an invisible tax and also distorts prices, misallocates resources, and raises the cost of doing business.
There is no single accepted theory of the right monetary policy for a free society. At one time, the gold standard enjoyed widespread support. What characterizes almost all monetary theories today, however, is support for low inflation and an independent central bank. There is also widespread recognition that price controls corrupt market efficiency and lead to shortages or surpluses.
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MARKET OPENNESS
Trade Freedom. Trade freedom reflects an economy’s openness to the flow of goods and services from around the world and the citizen’s ability to interact freely as buyer or seller in the international marketplace. Trade restrictions can manifest themselves in the form of tariffs, export taxes, trade quotas, or outright trade bans. However, trade restrictions also appear in more subtle ways, particularly in the form of regulatory barriers.
The degree to which government hinders the free flow of foreign commerce has a direct bearing on the ability of individuals to pursue their economic goals and maximize their productivity and well-being. Tariffs, for example, directly increase the prices that local consumers pay for foreign imports, but they also distort production incentives for local producers, causing them to produce either a good for which they lack a comparative advantage or more of a protected good than is economically efficient. This impedes overall economic efficiency and growth.
In many cases, trade limitations also put advanced-technology products and services beyond the reach of local entrepreneurs, limiting their own productive development.
Capitalism and Freedom
Investment Freedom. A free and open investment environment provides maximum entrepreneurial opportunities and incentives for expanded economic activity, greater productivity, and job creation. The benefits of such an environment flow not only to the individual companies that take the entrepreneurial risk in expectation of greater return, but also to society as a whole. An effective investment framework will be characterized by transparency and equity, supporting all types of firms rather than just large or strategically important companies, and will encourage rather than discourage innovation and competition.
Restrictions on the movement of capital, both domestic and international, undermine the efficient allocation of resources and reduce productivity, distorting economic decision-making. Restrictions on cross-border investment can limit both inflows and outflows of capital, thereby shrinking markets and reducing opportunities for growth.
In an environment in which individuals and companies are free to choose where and how to invest, capital will flow to its best use: to the sectors and activities where it is most needed and the returns are greatest. State action to redirect the flow of capital and limit choice is an imposition on the freedom of both the investor and the person seeking capital. The more restrictions a country imposes on investment, the lower its level of entrepreneurial activity.
Financial Freedom. An accessible and well-functioning formal financial system ensures the availability of diversified savings, credit, payment, and investment services to individuals. By expanding financing opportunities and promoting entrepreneurship, an open banking environment encourages competition in order to provide the most efficient financial intermediation between households and firms as well as between investors and entrepreneurs.
Through a process driven by supply and demand, markets provide real-time information on prices and immediate discipline for those who have made bad decisions. This process depends on transparency in the market and the integrity of the information being made available. A prudent and effective regulatory system, through disclosure requirements and independent auditing, ensures both.
Increasingly, the central role played by banks is being complemented by other financial services that offer alternative means for raising capital or diversifying risk. As with the banking system, the useful role for government in regulating these institutions lies in ensuring transparency; promoting disclosure of assets, liabilities, and risks; and ensuring integrity.
Banking and financial regulation by the state that goes beyond the assurance of transparency and honesty in financial markets can impede efficiency, increase the costs of financing entrepreneurial activity, and limit competition. If the government intervenes in the stock market, for instance, it contravenes the choices of millions of individuals by interfering with the pricing of capital—the most critical function of a market economy. Equity markets measure, on a continual basis, the expected profits and losses in publicly held companies. This measurement is essential in allocating capital resources to their highest-valued uses and thereby satisfying consumers’ most urgent requirements.
 In addition, economic freedom is the key to achieving the broad-based economic dynamism that ensures lasting growth and increased prosperity for society as a whole.
In other words, economic freedom is valuable as an end itself. But just as important is that, with its 10 freedoms interacting with and complementing each other, economic freedom is also about a multidimensional process of achieving economic progress. As Hayek foresaw decades ago, “the guiding principle in any attempt to create a world of free men must be this: a policy of freedom for the individual is the only truly progressive policy.”4
The link between freedom and human progress has never been clearer. Twenty years of data in the Index of Economic Freedom have documented the clear association between higher levels of economic freedom and greater levels of overall well-being. Equally important, improvements in economic freedom, from whatever level, have been shown to enhance economic dynamism and measurable human development that entails better health, longer lives, greater education, and cleaner environments.
As indicated by the findings of the Index over the past 20 years, sustaining dynamic and inclusive economic expansion is in fact about putting into practice three fundamental principles of economic freedom: empowerment of the individual, non-discrimination, and open competition. Governments that choose policies that enhance economic freedom are placing their societies on the path to generating the broader-based economic dynamism that brings more opportunities for people to work, produce, and save.
Milton Friedman (弗里德曼)
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The Countries
This chapter reports data on economic freedom for each of the countries included in the 2014 Index of Economic Freedom, the 20th anniversary edition. This year, Brunei is graded in the Index for the first time. Of the 186 countries included in the 2014 Index, 178 are fully scored and ranked. Because of insufficient data, Afghanistan, Iraq, Kosovo, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Liechtenstein are covered without numerical grading.
For analytical understanding and presentational clarity, the 10 economic freedoms are grouped into four broad categories of economic freedom:
--Rule of law (property rights, freedom from corruption);
--Government size (fiscal freedom, government spending);
--Regulatory efficiency (business freedom, labor freedom, monetary freedom); and
--Market openness (trade freedom, investment freedom, financial freedom).
Ranked countries are given a score ranging from 0 to 100 on each of the 10 components of economic freedom, and these scores are then averaged (using equal weights) to compute the country’s final economic freedom score. In addition to the scores, the country pages include in each case a brief introduction describing the economic strengths and weaknesses and the political and economic background influencing a country’s performance, as well as a statistical profile documenting the country’s main economic indicators.
To assure objectivity and reliability within each of the 10 components on which the countries are graded, every effort has been made to use the same data source consistently for all countries; when data are unavailable from the primary source, secondary sources are used. (For details, see Appendix, “Methodology.”)
Economic Freedoms: World Map
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DEFINING THE “QUICK FACTS”
Each country page includes “Quick Facts” with nine different categories of information. Unless otherwise indicated, the data in each country’s profile are for 2012 (the year for which the most recent data are widely available) and in current 2012 U.S. dollars (also the most recent available). The few cases in which no reliable statistical data were available are indicated by “n/a.” Definitions and sources for each category of information are as follows.
Population: 2012 data from World Bank, World Development Indicators Online 2013. For some countries, another source is the country’s statistical agency and/or central bank.
GDP: Gross domestic product—total production of goods and services—adjusted to reflect purchasing power parity (PPP). The primary source for GDP data is World Bank, World Development Indicators Online 2013. The major secondary source is International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2013. Other sources include a country’s statistical agency and/or central bank.
GDP growth rate: The annual percentage growth rate of real GDP derived from constant national currency units. Annual percent changes are year-on-year. The primary source is International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2013. Secondary sources include World Bank, World Development Indicators Online 2013; Economist Intelligence Unit, Data Tool; Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Outlook 2013; and a country’s statistical agency and/or central bank.
GDP five-year compound annual growth: The compound average growth rate measured over a specified period of time. The compound annual growth rate is measured using data from 2007 to 2012, based on real GDP expressed in constant national currency units. It is calculated by taking the nth root of the total percentage growth rate, where n is the number of years in the period being considered. The primary source is International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2013. Secondary sources are World Bank, World Development Indicators Online 2013, and Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Outlook 2013.
GDP per capita: Gross domestic product (adjusted for PPP) divided by total population. The sources for these data are World Bank, World Development Indicators Online 2013; International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2013; U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook 2013; and a country’s statistical agency and/or central bank.
Unemployment rate: A measure of the portion of the workforce that is not employed but is actively seeking work. The primary sources are U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook 2013; Economist Intelligence Unit, Data Tool; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD. Stat Extracts; International Monetary Fund, Article IV Staff Reports, 2010–2013; and a country’s statistical agency.
Inflation: The annual percent change in consumer prices as measured for 2012 (or the most recent available year). The primary source for 2012 data is International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2013. Secondary sources are Economist Intelligence Unit, Data Tool; Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Outlook 2013; and a country’s statistical agency and/or central bank.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) inward flow: This indicates the total annual inward flow of FDI. Data are in current 2012 U.S. dollars, reported in millions. FDI flows are defined as investments that acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more of voting stock) in a local enterprise by an investor operating in another country. Such investment is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as shown in the balance of payments and both short-term and long-term international loans. Data are from United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, World Investment Report 2013.
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Public debt: Gross government debt as a percentage of GDP, which indicates the cumulative total of all government borrowings less repayments that are denominated in a country’s currency. Public debt is different from external debt, which reflects the foreign currency liabilities of both the private and public sectors and must be financed out of foreign exchange earnings. The primary sources for 2012 data are International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, 2013; International Monetary Fund, Article IV Staff Reports, 2010–2013; and a country’s statistical agency. The data source for U.S. public debt is United States Office of Management and Budget. Concerning the U.S. data, gross debt includes both publicly held debt (bonds and Treasury bills held by foreigners, corporations, individual citizens, investment vehicles, etc.) and intra-governmental debt such as Social Security trust funds.
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Methodology
The Index of Economic Freedom focuses on four key aspects of the economic environment over which governments typically exercise some policy control:
--Rule of law,
--Government size,
--Regulatory efficiency, and
--Market openness.
To provide as comprehensive a picture as possible of conditions in these four categories, the Index measures 10 specific components of economic freedom, each of which is graded on a scale from 0 to 100. Scores on these 10 components of economic freedom, which are calculated from a number of sub-variables, are equally weighted and averaged to produce an overall economic freedom score for each economy.
The following sections provide detailed descriptions of the formulas and methodology used to compute the scores for each of the 10 components of economic freedom.
Statistics, Reference & Figures
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RULE OF LAW
Five Myths About China
A U.S. Response to Russia’s Military Modernization
The Sources of Soviet Conduct
Property Rights
The property rights component is a qualitative assessment of the extent to which a country’s legal framework allows individuals to freely accumulate private property, secured by clear laws that are enforced effectively by the government. It measures the degree to which a country’s laws protect private property rights and the extent to which those laws are respected. It also assesses the likelihood that private property will be expropriated by the state and analyzes the independence of the judiciary, the existence of corruption within the judiciary, and the ability of individuals and businesses to enforce contracts.
The more effective the legal protection of property, the higher a country’s score; similarly, the greater the chances of government expropriation of property or the less independent the judiciary, the lower a country’s score.
Each country’s property rights score is assessed according to the following criteria:
--100—Private property is guaranteed by the government. The court system enforces contracts efficiently and quickly. The justice system punishes those who unlawfully confiscate private property. There is no corruption or expropriation.
--90—Private property is guaranteed by the government. The court system enforces contracts efficiently. The justice system punishes those who unlawfully confiscate private property. Corruption is nearly nonexistent, and expropriation is highly unlikely.
--80—Private property is guaranteed by the government. The court system enforces contracts efficiently but with some delays. Corruption is minimal, and expropriation is highly unlikely.
--70—Private property is guaranteed by the government. The court system is subject to delays and is lax in enforcing contracts. Corruption is possible but rare, and expropriation is unlikely.
--60—Enforcement of property rights is lax and subject to delays. Corruption is possible but rare, and the judiciary may be influenced by other branches of government. Expropriation is unlikely.
--50—The court system is inefficient and subject to delays. Corruption may be present, and the judiciary may be influenced by other branches of government. Expropriation is possible but rare.
--40—The court system is highly inefficient, and delays are so long that they deter the use of the court system. Corruption is present, and the judiciary is influenced by other branches of government. Expropriation is possible.
--30—Property ownership is weakly protected. The court system is highly inefficient. Corruption is extensive, and the judiciary is strongly influenced by other branches of government. Expropriation is possible.
--20—Private property is weakly protected. The court system is so inefficient and corrupt that outside settlement and arbitration is the norm. Property rights are difficult to enforce. Judicial corruption is extensive. Expropriation is common.
--10—Private property is rarely protected, and almost all property belongs to the state. The country is in such chaos (for example, because of ongoing war) that protection of property is almost impossible to enforce. The judiciary is so corrupt that property is not protected effectively. Expropriation is common.
--0—Private property is outlawed, and all property belongs to the state. People do not have the right to sue others and do not have access to the courts. Corruption is endemic.
An intermediate score such as 75 or 45 may be assigned to countries whose property rights fall between two adjacent categories.
Sources. Unless otherwise noted, the Index relies on the following sources for information on property rights, in order of priority: Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Commerce, 2010–2013; U.S. Department of Commerce, Country Commercial Guide, 2010–2013; U.S. Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2010–2012; and various news and magazine articles.
Freedom from Corruption
Corruption erodes economic freedom by introducing insecurity and uncertainty into economic relations. It also reduces economic vitality by increasing costs and shifting resources into unproductive activities.
The score for this component is derived primarily from Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), which measures the level of perceived corruption in 176 countries.
Transparency International revised its CPI methodology in 2012 and now reports CPI scores on a 0–100 scale in which a score of 100 indicates very little perceived corruption. Transparency International has indicated that country scores computed with its new methodology are not directly comparable to its scores for previous years. The Index has therefore adjusted its methodological use of CPI data in order to maintain as much comparability as possible between current freedom from corruption scores and scores from prior years. A two-step approach has been used.
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GOVERNMENT SIZE
COMMONLY USED ACRONYMS
美国预算图表 (US Budget)
Fiscal Freedom
The fiscal freedom component is a composite measure of the burden of taxes that reflects both marginal tax rates and the overall level of taxation, including direct and indirect taxes imposed by all levels of government, as a percentage of GDP. The component score is derived from three quantitative factors:
--The top marginal tax rate on individual income,
--The top marginal tax rate on corporate income, and
--The total tax burden as a percentage of GDP.
Each of these numerical variables is weighted equally as one-third of the component score. This equal weighting allows a country to achieve a score as high as 67 based on two of the factors even if it receives a score of 0 on the third.
Government Spending
The government spending component captures the burden imposed by government expenditures, which includes consumption by the state and all transfer payments related to various entitlement programs.
No attempt has been made to identify an optimal level of government spending. The ideal level will vary from country to country, depending on factors ranging from culture to geography to level of economic development. However, government spending becomes an unavoidable burden at some point as government grows in scope and size, resulting in both misallocation of resources and loss of economic efficiency. Volumes of research have shown that excessive government spending that causes chronic budget deficits and the accumulation of public debt is one of the most serious drags on economic dynamism.
The Index methodology treats zero government spending as the benchmark. Underdeveloped countries, particularly those with little government capacity, may receive artificially high scores as a result. However, such governments, which can provide few if any public goods, are likely to receive low scores on some of the other components of economic freedom (such as property rights, financial freedom, and investment freedom) that measure aspects of government effectiveness.
Government spending has a major impact on economic freedom, but it is just one of many important components. The scale for scoring government spending is non-linear, which means that government spending that is close to zero is lightly penalized, while levels of government spending that exceed 30 percent of GDP lead to much worse scores in a quadratic fashion (for example, doubling spending yields four times less freedom). Only extraordinarily large levels of government spending—for example, over 58 percent of GDP—receive a score of zero.
where GEi represents the government expenditure score in country i; Expendituresi represents the total amount of government spending at all levels as a portion of GDP (between 0 and 100); and α is a coefficient to control for variation among scores (set at 0.03). The minimum component score is zero.
In most cases, the Index uses general government expenditure data that include all levels of government such as federal, state, and local. In cases where data on general government spending are not available, data on central government expenditures are used instead.
Sources. Unless otherwise noted, the Index relies on the following sources for information on government intervention in the economy, in order of priority: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development data; Eurostat data; African Development Bank and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, African Economic Outlook 2013; International Monetary Fund, Staff Country Report, “Selected Issues and Statistical Appendix,” Staff Country Report, “Article IV Consultation,” 2010–2013, and World Economic Outlook Database 2012; Asian Development Bank, Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific, 2010–2013; African Development Bank, The ADB Statistics Pocketbook 2013; official government publications of each country; and United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2010–2013.
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REGULATORY EFFICIENCY
Economic Freedoms: World Map
Business Freedom
Business freedom is an overall indicator of the efficiency of government regulation of business. The quantitative score is derived from an array of measurements of the ease of starting, operating, and closing a business.
The business freedom score for each country is a number between 0 and 100, with 100 indicating the freest business environment. The score is based on 10 factors, all weighted equally, using data from the World Bank’s Doing Business report:
--Starting a business—procedures (number);
--Starting a business—time (days);
--Starting a business—cost (% of income per capita);
--Starting a business—minimum capital (% of income per capita);
--Obtaining a license—procedures (number);2
--Obtaining a license—time (days);
--Obtaining a license—cost (% of income per capita);
--Closing a business—time (years);
--Closing a business—cost (% of estate); and
--Closing a business—recovery rate (cents on the dollar).3
Each of these factors is converted to a scale of 0 to 100, after which the average of the converted values is computed. The result represents the country’s business freedom score in comparison to other countries. Even if a country requires the highest number of procedures for starting a business, which yields a score of zero in that factor, it could still receive a score as high as 90 based on scores in the other nine factors. Singapore, for instance, receives scores of 100 in nine of these 10 factors, but the 11 licensing procedures required by the government equate to a score of 68.2 for that factor, giving Singapore an overall business freedom score of 96.8.
Each factor is converted to a scale of 0 to 100 using the following equation:
Factor Scorei = 50 factoraverage/factori
which is based on the ratio of the country data for each factor relative to the world average, multiplied by 50. For example, on average worldwide, it takes 15 procedures to get necessary licenses. Canada’s 11 licensing procedures are a factor value better than the average, resulting in a ratio of 1.15. That ratio multiplied by 50 equals the final factor score of 68.2.
For the six countries that are not covered by the World Bank’s Doing Business report, business freedom is scored by analyzing business regulations based on qualitative information from reliable and internationally recognized sources.4
Sources. Unless otherwise noted, the Index relies on the following sources in determining business freedom scores, in order of priority: World Bank, Doing Business 2014; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Commerce, 2010–2013; U.S. Department of Commerce, Country Commercial Guide, 2010–2013; and official government publications of each country.
Labor Freedom
The labor freedom component is a quantitative measure that considers various aspects of the legal and regulatory framework of a country’s labor market, including regulations concerning minimum wages, laws inhibiting layoffs, severance requirements, and measurable regulatory restraints on hiring and hours worked.
Six quantitative factors are equally weighted, with each counted as one-sixth of the labor freedom component:5
--Ratio of minimum wage to the average value added per worker,
--Hindrance to hiring additional workers,
--Rigidity of hours,
--Difficulty of firing redundant employees,
--Legally mandated notice period, and
--Mandatory severance pay.
Based on data collected in connection with the World Bank’s Doing Business report, these factors specifically examine labor regulations that affect “the hiring and redundancy of workers and the rigidity of working hours.”6
In constructing the labor freedom score, each of the six factors is converted to a scale of 0 to 100 based on the following equation:
Factor Scorei = 50 x factoraverage/factori
where country i data are calculated relative to the world average and then multiplied by 50.
The simple average of the converted values for the six factors is computed for the country’s overall labor freedom score. Even if a country had the worst rigidity of hours in the world with a zero score for that factor, it could still get a score as high as 83.3 based on the other five factors.
For the six countries that are not covered by the World Bank’s Doing Business report, the labor freedom component is scored by looking into labor market flexibility based on qualitative information from other reliable and internationally recognized sources.7
Sources. Unless otherwise noted, the Index relies on the following sources for data on labor freedom, in order of priority: World Bank, Doing Business 2014; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Commerce, 2010–2013; U.S. Department of Commerce, Country Commercial Guide, 2010–2013; and official government publications of each country.
Monetary Freedom
Monetary freedom combines a measure of price stability with an assessment of price controls. Both inflation and price controls distort market activity. Price stability without microeconomic intervention is the ideal state for the free market.
The score for the monetary freedom component is based on two factors:
--The weighted average inflation rate for the most recent three years and
--Price controls.
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OPEN MARKETS
Five Myths About China
Trade Freedom
Trade freedom is a composite measure of the extent of tariff and non-tariff barriers that affect imports and exports of goods and services. The trade freedom score is based on two inputs:
--The trade-weighted average tariff rate and
--Non-tariff barriers (NTBs).
Different imports entering a country can, and often do, face different tariffs. The weighted average tariff uses weights for each tariff based on the share of imports for each good. Weighted average tariffs are a purely quantitative measure and account for the calculation of the base trade freedom score using the following equation:
Trade Freedomi = (((Tariffmax–Tariffi)/(Tariffmax–Tariffmin)) * 100) – NTBi
where Trade Freedomi represents the trade freedom in country i; Tariffmax and Tariffmin represent the upper and lower bounds for tariff rates (%); and Tariffi represents the weighted average tariff rate (%) in country i. The minimum tariff is naturally zero percent, and the upper bound was set as 50 percent. An NTB penalty is then subtracted from the base score. The penalty of 5, 10, 15, or 20 points is assigned according to the following scale:
--20—NTBs are used extensively across many goods and services and/or act to impede a significant amount of international trade.
--15—NTBs are widespread across many goods and services and/or act to impede a majority of potential international trade.
--10—NTBs are used to protect certain goods and services and impede some international trade.
--5—NTBs are uncommon, protecting few goods and services, and/or have very limited impact on international trade.
--0—NTBs are not used to limit international trade.
We determine the extent of NTBs in a country’s trade policy regime using both qualitative and quantitative information. Restrictive rules that hinder trade vary widely, and their overlapping and shifting nature makes their complexity difficult to gauge. The categories of NTBs considered in our penalty include:
--Quantity restrictions—import quotas; export limitations; voluntary export restraints; import–export embargoes and bans; countertrade, etc.
--Price restrictions—antidumping duties; countervailing duties; border tax adjustments; variable levies/tariff rate quotas.
--Regulatory restrictions—licensing; domestic content and mixing requirements; sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPSs); safety and industrial standards regulations; packaging, labeling, and trademark regulations; advertising and media regulations.
--Investment restrictions—exchange and other financial controls.
--Customs restrictions—advance deposit requirements; customs valuation procedures; customs classification procedures; customs clearance procedures.
--Direct government intervention—subsidies and other aid; government industrial policy and regional development measures; government-financed research and other technology policies; national taxes and social insurance; competition policies; immigration policies; government procurement policies; state trading, government monopolies, and exclusive franchises.
As an example, Botswana received a trade freedom score of 79.7. By itself, Botswana’s weighted average tariff of 5.2 percent would have yielded a score of 89.7, but the existence of NTBs in Botswana reduced its score by 10 points.
Gathering tariff statistics to make a consistent cross-country comparison is a challenging task. Unlike data on inflation, for instance, countries do not report their weighted average tariff rate or simple average tariff rate every year; in some cases, the most recent year for which a country reported its tariff data could be as far back as 2007.
To preserve consistency in grading the trade freedom component, the Index uses the most recently reported weighted average tariff rate for a country from our primary source. If another reliable source reports more updated information on the country’s tariff rate, this fact is noted, and the grading of this component may be reviewed if there is strong evidence that the most recently reported weighted average tariff rate is outdated.
The World Bank publishes the most comprehensive and consistent information on weighted average applied tariff rates. When the weighted average applied tariff rate is not available, the Index uses the country’s average applied tariff rate; and when the country’s average applied tariff rate is not available, the weighted average or the simple average of most favored nation (MFN) tariff rates is used.8 In the very few cases where data on duties and customs revenues are not available, data on international trade taxes or an estimated effective tariff rate are used instead. In all cases, an effort is made to clarify the type of data used in the corresponding write-up for the trade freedom component.
Sources. Unless otherwise noted, the Index relies on the following sources to determine scores for trade policy, in order of priority: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2013; World Trade Organization, Trade Policy Review, 1995–2013; Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, 2013 National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers; World Bank, Doing Business 2012 and Doing Business 2013; U.S. Department of Commerce, Country Commercial Guide, 2009–2013; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Commerce, 2010–2013; World Bank, Data on Trade and Import Barriers: Trends in Average Applied Tariff Rates in Developing and Industrial Countries, 1981–2010; and official government publications of each country.
Investment Freedom
In an economically free country, there would be no constraints on the flow of investment capital. Individuals and firms would be allowed to move their resources into and out of specific activities, both internally and across the country’s borders, without restriction. Such an ideal country would receive a score of 100 on the investment freedom component of the Index.
In practice, however, most countries have a variety of restrictions on investment. Some have different rules for foreign and domestic investment; some restrict access to foreign exchange; some impose restrictions on payments, transfers, and capital transactions; in some, certain industries are closed to foreign investment.
The Index evaluates a variety of regulatory restrictions that are typically imposed on investment. Points, as indicated below, are deducted from the ideal score of 100 for each of the restrictions found in a country’s investment regime. It is not necessary for a government to impose all of the listed restrictions at the maximum level to effectively eliminate investment freedom. Those few governments that impose so many restrictions that they total more than 100 points in deductions have had their scores set at zero.
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Investment restrictions:
National treatment of foreign investment
--No national treatment, prescreening 25 points deducted
--Some national treatment, some prescreening 15 points deducted
--Some national treatment or prescreening 5 points deducted
Foreign investment code
--No transparency and burdensome bureaucracy 20 points deducted
--Inefficient policy implementation and bureaucracy 10 points deducted
--Some investment laws and practices non-transparent
or inefficiently implemented 5 points deducted
Restrictions on land ownership
--All real estate purchases restricted 15 points deducted
--No foreign purchases of real estate 10 points deducted
--Some restrictions on purchases of real estate 5 points deducted
Sectoral investment restrictions
--Multiple sectors restricted 20 points deducted
--Few sectors restricted 10 points deducted
--One or two sectors restricted 5 points deducted
Expropriation of investments without fair compensation
Common with no legal recourse 25 points deducted
Common with some legal recourse 15 points deducted
Uncommon but occurs 5 points deducted
Foreign exchange controls
--No access by foreigners or residents 25 points deducted
--Access available but heavily restricted 15 points deducted
--Access available with few restrictions 5 points deducted
Capital controls
--No repatriation of profits; all transactions require
government approval 25 points deducted
--Inward and outward capital movements require
approval and face some restrictions 15 points deducted
--Most transfers approved with some restrictions 5 points deducted
Up to an additional 20 points may be deducted for security problems, a lack of basic investment infrastructure, or other government policies that indirectly burden the investment process and limit investment freedom.
Financial Freedom
Financial freedom is an indicator of banking efficiency as well as a measure of independence from government control and interference in the financial sector. State ownership of banks and other financial institutions such as insurers and capital markets reduces competition and generally lowers the level of access to credit.
In an ideal banking and financing environment where a minimum level of government interference exists, independent central bank supervision and regulation of financial institutions are limited to enforcing contractual obligations and preventing fraud. Credit is allocated on market terms, and the government does not own financial institutions. Financial institutions provide various types of financial services to individuals and companies. Banks are free to extend credit, accept deposits, and conduct operations in foreign currencies. Foreign financial institutions operate freely and are treated the same as domestic institutions.
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The Index scores an economy’s financial freedom by looking into the following five broad areas:
--The extent of government regulation of financial services,
--The degree of state intervention in banks and other financial firms through direct and indirect ownership,
--The extent of financial and capital market development,
--Government influence on the allocation of credit, and
--Openness to foreign competition.
These five areas are considered to assess an economy’s overall level of financial freedom that ensures easy and effective access to financing opportunities for people and businesses in the economy. An overall score on a scale of 0 to 100 is given to an economy’s financial freedom through deductions from the ideal score of 100.
--100—Negligible government interference.
--90—Minimal government interference. Regulation of financial institutions is minimal but may extend beyond enforcing contractual obligations and preventing fraud.
--80—Nominal government interference. Government ownership of financial institutions is a small share of overall sector assets. Financial institutions face almost no restrictions on their ability to offer financial services.
--70—Limited government interference. Credit allocation is influenced by the government, and private allocation of credit faces almost no restrictions. Government ownership of financial institutions is sizeable. Foreign financial institutions are subject to few restrictions.
--60—Significant government interference. The central bank is not fully independent, and its supervision and regulation of financial institutions are somewhat burdensome. The government exercises active ownership and control of financial institutions with a significant share of overall sector assets. The ability of financial institutions to offer financial services is subject to some restrictions.
--50—Considerable government interference. Credit allocation is significantly influenced by the government, and private allocation of credit faces significant barriers. The ability of financial institutions to offer financial services is subject to significant restrictions. Foreign financial institutions are subject to some restrictions.
--40—Strong government interference. The central bank is subject to government influence, its supervision of financial institutions is heavy-handed, and its ability to enforce contracts and prevent fraud is weak. The government exercises active ownership and control of financial institutions with a large minority share of overall sector assets.
--30—Extensive government interference. Credit allocation is extensively influenced by the government. The government owns or controls a majority of financial institutions or is in a dominant position. Financial institutions are heavily restricted, and bank formation faces significant barriers. Foreign financial institutions are subject to significant restrictions.
--20—Heavy government interference. The central bank is not independent, and its supervision of financial institutions is repressive. Foreign financial institutions are discouraged or highly constrained.
--10—Near repressive. Credit allocation is controlled by the government. Bank formation is restricted. Foreign financial institutions are prohibited.
--0—Repressive. Supervision and regulation are designed to prevent private financial institutions. Private financial institutions are nonexistent.
Statistics, Reference & Figures
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General Methodological Issues
Period of Study. For the current Index of Economic Freedom, scores are generally based on data for the period covering the second half of 2012 through the first half of 2013. To the extent possible, the information considered for each variable was current as of June 30, 2013. It is important to understand, however, that some component scores are based on historical information. For example, the monetary freedom component uses a three-year weighted average rate of inflation from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2012.
Equal Weight. In the Index of Economic Freedom, the 10 components of economic freedom are equally weighted so that the overall score will not be biased toward any one component or policy direction. It is clear that the 10 economic freedoms interact, but the exact mechanisms of this interaction are not clearly definable: Is a minimum threshold for each one essential? Is it possible for one to maximize if others are minimized? Are they dependent or exclusive, complements or supplements?
These are valid questions, but they are beyond the scope of our fundamental mission. The purpose of the Index is to reflect the economic and entrepreneurial environment in every country studied in as balanced a way as possible. The Index has never been designed specifically to explain economic growth or any other dependent variable; that is ably done by researchers elsewhere. The raw data for each component are provided so that others can study, weight, and integrate as they see fit.
Using the Most Currently Available Information. Analyzing economic freedom annually enables the Index to include the most recent information as it becomes available country by country. A data cutoff date is used so that all countries are treated fairly. As described above, the period of study for the current year’s Index considers all information as of the last day of June of the previous year (in this case, June 30, 2013). Any new legislative changes or policy actions effective after that date have no positive or negative impact on scores or rankings.
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package
patterns
Type Members
-
class
AP
extends AbstractPhrase
-
-
-
trait
Adjective
extends Pattern
-
trait
Arg
extends AnyRef
-
case class
ArgImpl
(isOptional: Boolean, restriction: Option[URI], name: String) extends Arg with Product with Serializable
-
case class
ClassNoun
(lemma: NP, sense: URI, forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends AbsClassNoun with Product with Serializable
-
case class
ClassRelationalNoun
(lemma: NP, relationClass: URI, relation: URI, propSubj: Arg, propObj: Arg, forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends Noun with Product with Serializable
-
case class
ConsequenceVerb
(lemma: VP, conseqProp: URI, propSubj: OntologyFrameElement, propObj: OntologyFrameElement, eventClass: URI, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Verb with Product with Serializable
-
case class
DataPropertyNoun
(lemma: NP, prop: URI, value: String, forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends AbsClassNoun with Product with Serializable
-
trait
Direction
extends AnyRef
-
case class
EventVerb
(lemma: VP, eventClass: URI, args: Seq[OntologyFrameElement], telic: Option[Boolean], durative: Option[Boolean], forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Verb with Product with Serializable
-
case class
Form
(writtenRep: String, props: Map[URI, URI]) extends Product with Serializable
-
trait
Gender
extends AnyRef
-
case class
IntersectiveAdjective
(lemma: AP, sense: URI, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Adjective with Product with Serializable
-
case class
IntersectiveDataPropertyAdjective
(lemma: AP, property: URI, value: String, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Adjective with Product with Serializable
-
case class
IntersectiveObjectPropertyAdjective
(lemma: AP, property: URI, value: URI, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Adjective with Product with Serializable
-
case class
Lexicon
(uri: URI, lang: String, patterns: Pattern*) extends Product with Serializable
-
class
NP
extends AbstractPhrase with NounPhrase
-
case class
Name
(lemma: PNP, sense: URI, forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends Noun with Product with Serializable
-
case class
Namespace
(prefix: String) extends Product with Serializable
-
trait
Noun
extends Pattern
-
trait
NounPhrase
extends Phrase
-
case class
ObjectPropertyNoun
(lemma: NP, prop: URI, obj: URI, forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends AbsClassNoun with Product with Serializable
-
case class
OntologyFrameElement
(property: Option[URI], arg: Arg) extends Product with Serializable
-
class
PNP
extends AbstractPhrase with NounPhrase
-
trait
POS
extends AnyRef
-
trait
Pattern
extends AnyRef
-
class
PatternVisitor
extends Visitor[Seq[Lexicon], Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Option[Lexicon], Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Pattern, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Pattern, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Pattern, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Pattern, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Pattern, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Arg, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[OntologyFrameElement, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[PNP, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[NP, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[VP, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[AP, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[(Word, Boolean), Map[String, String]] with Visitor[ScalarMembership, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[(URI, URI), Map[String, String]] with Visitor[POS, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Gender, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[Register, Map[String, String]] with Visitor[URI, Map[String, String]]
-
trait
Phrase
extends AnyRef
-
case class
PostpositionalObject
(isOptional: Boolean, restriction: Option[URI], postposition: String) extends Arg with Product with Serializable
-
case class
PrepositionalObject
(isOptional: Boolean, restriction: Option[URI], preposition: String) extends Arg with Product with Serializable
-
case class
PropertyModifyingAdjective
(lemma: AP, property: URI, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Adjective with Product with Serializable
-
trait
Register
extends AnyRef
-
case class
RelationalAdjective
(lemma: AP, property: URI, relationalArg: Arg, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Adjective with Product with Serializable
-
case class
RelationalMultivalentNoun
(lemma: NP, relationClass: URI, args: Seq[OntologyFrameElement], forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends Noun with Product with Serializable
-
case class
RelationalNoun
(lemma: NP, sense: URI, propSubj: Arg, propObj: Arg, forms: Seq[Form], gender: Option[Gender], register: Option[Register]) extends Noun with Product with Serializable
-
case class
ScalarAdjective
(lemma: AP, scalarMemberships: Seq[ScalarMembership], forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Adjective with Product with Serializable
-
case class
ScalarMembership
(property: URI, forClass: URI, boundary: Double, direction: Direction, boundary2: Double) extends Product with Serializable
-
-
-
case class
StateVerb
(lemma: VP, sense: URI, propSubj: Arg, propObj: Arg, forms: Seq[Form], register: Option[Register]) extends Verb with Product with Serializable
-
trait
URINamer
extends AnyRef
-
class
VP
extends AbstractPhrase
-
trait
Verb
extends Pattern
-
case class
Word
(lemma: String, pos: POS, _form: Option[String]) extends Product with Serializable
Value Members
-
object
AP
extends AnyRef
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
object
Feminine
extends Gender
-
-
-
-
-
object
Masculine
extends Gender
-
object
NP
extends AnyRef
-
object
Neuter
extends Gender
-
-
-
object
PNP
extends AnyRef
-
-
-
-
-
-
object
Subject
extends ArgImpl
-
-
-
object
VP
extends AnyRef
-
-
object
WriteAsRDF
extends AnyRef
-
-
object
central
extends Direction
-
-
object
negative
extends Direction
-
-
implicit def
pimpStr
(uri: URI): AnyRef { ... /* 5 definitions in type refinement */ }
-
implicit def
pimpStr
(uri: String): AnyRef { ... /* 3 definitions in type refinement */ }
-
package
pos
-
object
positive
extends Direction
-
-
-
implicit def
str2AP
(lemma: String): AP
-
implicit def
str2NP
(lemma: String): NP
-
implicit def
str2PNP
(lemma: String): PNP
-
implicit def
str2URI
(uri: String): URI
-
implicit def
str2VP
(lemma: String): VP
-
implicit def
str2Word
(form: String): AnyRef { ... /* 2 definitions in type refinement */ }
-
implicit def
uriToStr
(uri: URI): String


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