shorturl stringlengths 2 35 | title stringlengths 3 84 | pubinfo stringlengths 31 71 | preamble list | toc list | main_text list | bibliography list | related_entries list |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
qm-decoherence | The Role of Decoherence in Quantum Mechanics | First published Mon Nov 3, 2003; substantive revision Tue Apr 21, 2020 | [
"\nInterference phenomena are a well-known and crucial aspect of\n quantum mechanics,\n famously exemplified by the two-slit experiment. There are many\nsituations, however, in which interference effects are artificially or\nspontaneously suppressed. The theory of decoherence is\nprecisely the study of such situati... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Theory of Decoherence",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Environmental decoherence",
"1.2 Decoherent histories",
"1.3 Comparison"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Decoherence and the Measurement Problem",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Solving the measurement problem?",
"... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe two-slit experiment is a paradigm example of an\ninterference experiment. One repeatedly sends electrons or\nother particles through a screen with two narrow slits, the electrons\nimpinge upon a second screen, and we ask for the probability\ndistribution of detections over the s... | [
"Adler, S. L., 2003, ‘Why Decoherence has not Solved the\nMeasurement Problem: A Response to P. W. Anderson’, Studies\nin History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, 34 B: 135–142\n [preprint available online].",
"Albert, D., 1992, Quantum Mechanics and Experience,\nCambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.",
"... | [
{
"href": "../chaos/",
"text": "chaos"
},
{
"href": "../constructive-empiricism/",
"text": "constructive empiricism"
},
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum mechanics"
},
{
"href": "../qm-action-distance/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: action at a distance in"
},
{
... |
quantum-bayesian | Quantum-Bayesian and Pragmatist Views of Quantum Theory | First published Thu Dec 8, 2016; substantive revision Tue Feb 22, 2022 | [
"\nQuantum theory is fundamental to contemporary\n physics.[1]\n It is natural to view a fundamental physical theory as describing or\nrepresenting the physical world. But many physicists and some\nphilosophers have questioned or rejected this view of quantum theory.\nThey have viewed the theory as concerned with o... | [
{
"content_title": "1. QBism",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 History",
"1.2 Probability",
"1.3 Measurement",
"1.4 Nonlocality",
"1.5 Decoherence",
"1.6 Generalizations of QBism"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Objections and Replies",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Solipsist?",
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nBecause the term ‘Bayesianism’ may be understood in many\ndifferent ways, a variety of views of quantum theory could be\nconsidered Quantum-Bayesian. QBism is a form of Quantum Bayesianism\nthat may be traced back to a point of view on states and probabilities\nin quantum theory ado... | [
"Bacciagaluppi, Guido, 2014, “A Critic Looks at QBism”,\nin M.C. Galavotti, S. Hartmann, M. Weber, W. Gonzalez, D. Dieks, and\nT. Uebel (eds.), New Directions in the Philosophy of Science,\nSwitzerland: Springer International, pp. 403–415.",
"Bächtold, Manuel, 2008a, “Interpreting Quantum\nMechanics According to ... | [
{
"href": "../epistemology-bayesian/",
"text": "epistemology: Bayesian"
},
{
"href": "../david-lewis/",
"text": "Lewis, David"
},
{
"href": "../pragmatism/",
"text": "pragmatism"
},
{
"href": "../probability-interpret/",
"text": "probability, interpretations of"
},
{
... |
qt-consciousness | Quantum Approaches to Consciousness | First published Tue Nov 30, 2004; substantive revision Thu Apr 16, 2020 | [
"\nIt is widely accepted that consciousness or, more generally, mental\nactivity is in some way correlated to the behavior of the material\nbrain. Since quantum theory is the most fundamental theory of matter\nthat is currently available, it is a legitimate question to ask\nwhether quantum theory can help us to und... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Philosophical Background Assumptions",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Quantum Brain",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 Neurophysiological Levels of Description",
"3.2 Stapp: Quantum State Reductions a... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe problem of how mind and matter are related to each other has many\nfacets, and it can be approached from many different starting points.\nThe historically leading disciplines in this respect are philosophy\nand psychology, which were later joined by behavioral science,\ncognitiv... | [
"Aerts, D., Durt, T., Grib, A., Van Bogaert, B., and Zapatrin, A.,\n1993, “Quantum structures in macroscopical reality,”\nInternational Journal of Theoretical Physics, 32:\n489–498.",
"Aerts, D. and Aerts, S., 1994, “Applications of quantum\nstatistics in psychological studies of decision processes,”\nFoundations... | [
{
"href": "../panpsychism/",
"text": "panpsychism"
},
{
"href": "../symmetry-breaking/",
"text": "physics: symmetry and symmetry breaking"
},
{
"href": "../process-philosophy/",
"text": "process philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../qm-collapse/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: colla... |
qt-epr | The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory | First published Mon May 10, 2004; substantive revision Tue Oct 31, 2017 | [
"\nIn the May 15, 1935 issue of Physical Review Albert Einstein\nco-authored a paper with his two postdoctoral research associates at\nthe Institute for Advanced Study, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen. The\narticle was entitled “Can Quantum Mechanical Description of\nPhysical Reality Be Considered Complete?” (Einst... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Can Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Setting and prehistory",
"1.2 The argument in the text",
"1.3 Einstein’s versions of the argument"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. A popular form of the argumen... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Can Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nBy 1935 conceptual understanding of the quantum theory was dominated\nby Niels Bohr’s ideas concerning complementarity. T... | [
"Bacciagaluppi, G., 2015, “Did Bohr understand EPR?” in\nF. Aaserud and H. Kragh (eds.), One Hundred Years of the Bohr\nAtom (Scientia Danica, Series M, Mathematica et physica, Volume\n1), Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, pp.\n377–396.",
"Bacciagaluppi, G. and A. Valentini, 2009, Quantum ... | [
{
"href": "../bell-theorem/",
"text": "Bell’s Theorem"
},
{
"href": "../einstein-philscience/",
"text": "Einstein, Albert: philosophy of science"
},
{
"href": "../qm-action-distance/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: action at a distance in"
},
{
"href": "../qm-bohm/",
"text"... |
qt-idind | Identity and Individuality in Quantum Theory | First published Tue Feb 15, 2000; substantive revision Wed Oct 30, 2019 | [
"\n\nWhat are the metaphysical implications of quantum physics? One way of\napproaching this question is to consider the impact of the theory on\nour understanding of objects as individuals with well defined identity\nconditions. According to the ‘Received View’, which was\nelaborated as the quantum revolution was ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Quantum Non-Individuality",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Quantum Individuality",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Quantum Physics and the Identity of Indiscernibles",
"sub_toc"... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nIt is typically held that chairs, trees, rocks, people and many of the\nso-called ‘everyday’ objects we encounter can be regarded\nas individuals. The issue, then, is how this individuality is to be\nunderstood, or what constitutes the ‘principle’ of\nindividuality. This is an iss... | [
"Adams, R., 1979, “Primitive Thisness and Primitive Identity”,\nJournal of Philosophy, 76: 5–26.",
"Arenhart, J.R.B., 2012, “Finite Cardinals in Quasi-Set Theory”,\nStudia Logica, 100: 437–452.",
"–––, 2017a, “The Received View on Quantum Non-Individuality: Formal and Metaphysical Analysis”,\nSynthese, 194: 132... | [
{
"href": "../identity-indiscernible/",
"text": "identity: of indiscernibles"
},
{
"href": "../identity-relative/",
"text": "identity: relative"
},
{
"href": "../physics-holism/",
"text": "physics: holism and nonseparability"
},
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum mechan... |
qt-nvd | Quantum Theory and Mathematical Rigor | First published Tue Jul 27, 2004; substantive revision Mon Jul 1, 2019 | [
"\nAn ongoing debate in the foundations of quantum physics concerns the\nrole of mathematical rigor. The contrasting views of von Neumann and\nDirac provide interesting and informative insights concerning two\nsides of this debate. Von Neumann’s contributions often\nemphasize mathematical rigor and Dirac’s contribu... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Von Neumann and the Foundations of Quantum Theory",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 The Separable Hilbert Space Formulation of Quantum Mechanics",
"2.2 Rings of Operators, Quantum Logics, and Continuous Geometries"
]... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThere are two competing mathematical strategies that are used in\nconnection with physical theory; one emphasizes rigor and the other\npragmatics. The pragmatic approach often compromises mathematical\nrigor, but offers instead expediency of calculation and elegance of\nexpression. ... | [
"Antoniou, I. and Prigogine, I., 1993, “Intrinsic\nIrreversibility and Integrability of Dynamics”, Physica\nA, 192: 443–464.",
"Baker, D., 2016, “Philosophy of Quantum Field Theory”,\nOxford Handbooks Online, doi:\n10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935314.013.33",
"Birkhoff, G., and von Neumann, J., 1936, “The Logic of\n... | [
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum mechanics"
},
{
"href": "../qm-bohm/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: Bohmian mechanics"
},
{
"href": "../qm-decoherence/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: the role of decoherence in"
},
{
"href": "../quantum-field-theory/",
"text": "quantum ... |
qt-issues | Philosophical Issues in Quantum Theory | First published Mon Jul 25, 2016; substantive revision Wed Mar 23, 2022 | [
"\nThis article is an overview of the philosophical issues raised by\nquantum theory, intended as a pointer to the more in-depth treatments\nof other entries in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy."
] | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Quantum theory",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Quantum states and classical states",
"2.2 Quantum mechanics and quantum field theory",
"2.3 Quantum state evolution"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Entangl... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nDespite its status as a core part of contemporary physics, there is no\nconsensus among physicists or philosophers of physics on the question\nof what, if anything, the empirical success of quantum theory is\ntelling us about the physical world. This gives rise to the collection\nof... | [
"Albert, David Z., 1996, “Elementary quantum\nmetaphysics”, in J.T. Cushing, A. Fine, & S. Goldstein\n(eds.), Bohmian Mechanics and Quantum Mechanics: An\nappraisal, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 277–284.",
"–––, 2013, “Wave function realism”,\nin Ney and Albert (eds.) 2013: 52–57.",
"Allori, Valia, 2013, “Primitive Ontol... | [
{
"href": "../bell-theorem/",
"text": "Bell’s Theorem"
},
{
"href": "../physics-holism/",
"text": "physics: holism and nonseparability"
},
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum mechanics"
},
{
"href": "../qm-action-distance/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: action at a distan... |
qt-quantcomp | Quantum Computing | First published Sun Dec 3, 2006; substantive revision Mon Sep 30, 2019 | [
"\nCombining physics, mathematics and computer science, quantum computing\nand its sister discipline of\n quantum information\n have developed in the past few decades from visionary ideas to two of\nthe most fascinating areas of quantum theory. General interest and\nexcitement in quantum computing was initially tri... | [
{
"content_title": "1. A Brief History of the Field",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Physical Computational Complexity",
"1.2 Physical “Short-cuts” of Computation",
"1.3 Milestones"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Basics",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 The Qubit",
"2.2 Quantum Gates",
... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. A Brief History of the Field",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nThe mathematical model for a “universal” computer was\ndefined long before the invention of computers and is called the\n Turing machine\n (Turing 1936). A Turing machine ... | [
"Aaronson, S., 2013a. Quantum Computing Since Democritus.\nNew York: Cambridge University Press.",
"–––, 2013b. “Why Philosophers Should Care About\nComputational Complexity,” in Computability: Turing,\nGödel, Church, and Beyond, edited by B. J. Copeland, C. J.\nPosy, and O. Shagrir, 261–327, Cambridge, MA: MIT P... | [
{
"href": "../bell-theorem/",
"text": "Bell’s Theorem"
},
{
"href": "../church-turing/",
"text": "Church-Turing Thesis"
},
{
"href": "../computability/",
"text": "computability and complexity"
},
{
"href": "../computational-complexity/",
"text": "computational complexity ... |
quantum-gravity | Quantum Gravity | First published Mon Dec 26, 2005; substantive revision Thu May 2, 2019 | [
"\nQuantum Gravity, broadly construed, is a physical theory (still\n‘under construction’) incorporating both the principles of\ngeneral relativity and quantum theory. Such a theory is expected to be\nable to provide a satisfactory description of the microstructure of\nspacetime at the so-called\n Planck scale,\n at... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Gravity Meets Quantum Theory",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Theoretical Frameworks",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 String theory",
"3.2 Canonical and loop quantum gravity",
"3.3 Other appro... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nDutch artist M.C. Escher’s elegant pictorial paradoxes are\nprized by many, not least by philosophers, physicists, and\nmathematicians. Some of his work, for example Ascending and\nDescending, relies on optical illusion to depict what is actually\nan impossible situation. Other work... | [
"Ashtekar, A. and R. Geroch, 1974, “Quantum theory of\ngravitation,” Reports on Progress in Physics, 37:\n1211–56.",
"Audretsch, J., 1981, “Quantum gravity and the structure of\nscientific revolutions,” Journal for General Philosophy of\nScience, 12(2): 322–339. ",
"Azhar, F., 2014, “Prediction and typicality... | [
{
"href": "../popper/",
"text": "Popper, Karl"
},
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum mechanics"
},
{
"href": "../qm-everett/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: Everett’s relative-state formulation of"
},
{
"href": "../qm-manyworlds/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: many-worlds ... |
qt-quantlog | Quantum Logic and Probability Theory | First published Mon Feb 4, 2002; substantive revision Tue Aug 10, 2021 | [
"\nMathematically, quantum mechanics can be regarded as a non-classical\nprobability calculus resting upon a non-classical propositional logic.\nMore specifically, in quantum mechanics each probability-bearing\nproposition of the form “the value of physical quantity \\(A\\)\nlies in the range \\(B\\)” is represente... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Quantum Mechanics as a Probability Calculus",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Quantum Probability in a Nutshell",
"1.2 The “Logic” of Projections",
"1.3 Probability Measures and Gleason’s Theorem",
"1.4 The Reconstruction of QM"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Interp... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nIt is uncontroversial (though remarkable) that the formal apparatus of\nquantum mechanics reduces neatly to a generalization of classical\nprobability in which the role played by a Boolean algebra of events in\nthe latter is taken over by the “quantum logic” of\nprojection operators... | [
"Abramsky, Samson and Bob Coecke, 2009, “Categorical Quantum\nMechanics”, in Engesser, Gabbay, and Lehmann 2009:\n261–323. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52869-8.50010-4",
"Aerts, Diederik, 1981, The One and the Many: Towards a\nUnification of the Quantum and Classical Description of One and Many\nPhysical Entities, Ph.D... | [
{
"href": "../bell-theorem/",
"text": "Bell’s Theorem"
},
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum mechanics"
},
{
"href": "../kochen-specker/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: Kochen-Specker theorem"
},
{
"href": "../qm-modal/",
"text": "quantum mechanics: modal interpretations ... |
rationality-historicist | Historicist Theories of Scientific Rationality | First published Wed Jun 14, 2017 | [
"\nMany scientists, philosophers, and laypersons have regarded science as\nthe one human enterprise that successfully escapes the contingencies\nof history to establish eternal truths about the universe, via a\nspecial, rational method of inquiry. Historicists oppose this view. In\nthe 1960s several historically in... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Historicist Conceptions of Rationality: The Battle of the Big Systems",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Overview",
"1.2 The Historical Turn in Philosophy of Science",
"1.3 The Methodology of Scientific Research Programs",
"1.4 Methodological Anarchism",
"1.5 The Pragma... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Historicist Conceptions of Rationality: The Battle of the Big Systems",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nWhat good is appeal to history when it comes to evaluating the\nrationality of decisions and actions? Since the past is already ov... | [
"Andersen, Hanne, Peter Barker, & Xiang Chen, [ABC] 2006,\nThe Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, New York:\nCambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498404",
"Arabatzis, Theodore, forthcoming, “What’s in it for\nthe Historian of Science?” International Studies in the\nPhilosophy of Science."... | [
{
"href": "../collingwood/",
"text": "Collingwood, Robin George"
},
{
"href": "../decision-theory/",
"text": "decision theory"
},
{
"href": "../epistemology-bayesian/",
"text": "epistemology: Bayesian"
},
{
"href": "../epistemology-evolutionary/",
"text": "epistemology: e... |
realism-sem-challenge | Challenges to Metaphysical Realism | First published Thu Jan 11, 2001; substantive revision Mon Jan 25, 2021 | [
"\nAccording to metaphysical realism, the world is as it is independent\nof how humans or other inquiring agents take it to be. The objects the\nworld contains, together with their properties and the relations they\nenter into, fix the world’s nature and these objects [together\nwith the properties they have and th... | [
{
"content_title": "1. What is Metaphysical Realism?",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Mind-Independent Existence",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. The Anti-Realist Challenges to Metaphysical Realism",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 Language Use and Understanding",
"3.... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nMetaphysical realism is the thesis that the objects, properties and\nrelations the world contains, collectively: the structure of the world\n[Sider 2011], exists independently of our thoughts about it or our\nperceptions of it. Anti-realists either doubt or deny the existence of\nth... | [
"Armstrong, David, 1983, What is a Law of Nature?\nCambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"Azzouni, Jody, 1997, “Applied Mathematics, Existential\nCommitment and the Quine-Putnam Indispensability Thesis,”\nPhilosophia Mathematica, 5: 193–209.",
"Barrett, Thomas William, and Halvorson, Hans, 2017, “From\nGeome... | [
{
"href": "../mental-representation/",
"text": "mental representation"
},
{
"href": "../realism/",
"text": "realism"
},
{
"href": "../truth/",
"text": "truth"
},
{
"href": "../truth-coherence/",
"text": "truth: coherence theory of"
},
{
"href": "../truth-deflation... |
realism-theory-change | Realism and Theory Change in Science | First published Thu May 3, 2018; substantive revision Mon Jul 11, 2022 | [
"\nScientific theories seem to have an expiry date. If we look at the\nhistory of science, a number of theories that once were dominant and\nwidely accepted are currently taught in history of science courses.\nWill this be the fate of current scientific theories? Is there a\npattern of radical theory-change as scie... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The History of the Historical Challenge",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 The Bankruptcy-of-science Debate",
"1.2 Duhem on Continuity",
"1.3 Poincaré’s Relationism",
"1.4 Boltzmann Against Historical Pessimism"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Scientific Realism and t... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. The History of the Historical Challenge",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nThe issue of theory-change in science was debated in the context of\nthe ‘bankruptcy of science’ controversy that was raging in\nParis in the last decade of the... | [
"Ainsworth, Peter M., 2009, “Newman’s Objection”,\nThe British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 60(1):\n135–171. doi:10.1093/bjps/axn051",
"Alai, Mario, 2017, “Resisting the Historical Objections to\nRealism: Is Doppelt’s a Viable Solution?”\nSynthese, 194(9): 3267–3290.\ndoi:10.1007/s11229-016-1087-z",
"... | [
{
"href": "../duhem/",
"text": "Duhem, Pierre"
},
{
"href": "../poincare/",
"text": "Poincaré, Henri"
},
{
"href": "../scientific-realism/",
"text": "scientific realism"
},
{
"href": "../structural-realism/",
"text": "structural realism"
},
{
"href": "../truthlike... |
reasons-just-vs-expl | Reasons for Action: Justification, Motivation, Explanation | First published Sun Apr 24, 2016 | [
"\nWhy are you always lying? Why did the Ancient Egyptians mummify their\ndead? Should Huck Finn have turned Jim in? Why is she selling her car?\nQuestions that ask for reasons, and in particular, reasons for action,\nare among the commonest questions humans have. Philosophers have\nsought to understand the nature ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Variety of Reasons",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Normative Reasons",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Motivating and Explanatory Reasons",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 Motivating Reasons",
"3.2 Explanatory Reasons"
]
},
{
"co... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nHumans engage in practical reasoning: they deliberate about what to do\nand how to do it. And they often act in light of reasons which can\nthen explain their actions, and may also justify them.\nThese ideas go back to Plato (Protagoras and\nRepublic, Book 4) and Aristotle (De Anima... | [
"Alvarez, M., 2007, “The Causalism / Anti-Causalism Debate\nin the Theory of Action: What it is and why it matters”, in\nAction in Context, A. Leist (ed.), Berlin/NY: De Gruyter,\n103–123.",
"–––, 2009a, “How Many Kinds of\nReasons?”, Philosophical Explorations, 12:\n181–93.",
"–––, 2009b, “Reasons and the Ambi... | [
{
"href": "../action/",
"text": "action"
},
{
"href": "../agency/",
"text": "agency"
},
{
"href": "../implicit-bias/",
"text": "bias, implicit"
},
{
"href": "../moral-cognitivism/",
"text": "cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral"
},
{
"href": "../davidson/",
... |
reid-ethics | Reid’s Ethics | First published Tue Jan 4, 2011; substantive revision Wed Oct 12, 2016 | [
"\nWe are often told that the moral theories defended by modern\nphilosophers fall into two types. On the one hand are rationalist\npositions developed by thinkers such as Samuel Clarke, William\nWollaston, and Richard Price. The rationalists, it is said, believe\nthat reason is the basis of morality, as morality i... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The System of Necessity",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Reid’s alternative",
"1.2 Reid’s moral non-naturalism"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Rational Principles of Action",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Reid’s defense of The Hierarchy Thesis"
]
},
{
"content_ti... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nReid’s moral philosophy, according to the gloss offered thus\nfar, is an agency-centered intuitionist position, which also blends\ntogether both rationalist and sentimentalist influences. Given its\nsynthetic character, it is natural to ask how best to enter into\nReid’s thought. A ... | [
"Balguy, John, 1778. The Foundation of Moral Goodness. New\nYork: Garland, 1976.",
"Clarke, Samuel, 1705. A Demonstration of the Being and\nAttributes of God and Other Writings, Ezio Vailati (ed.),\nCambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.",
"Hutcheson, Francis, 1728. On the Nature and Conduct of the\nPassi... | [
{
"href": "../moore/",
"text": "Moore, George Edward"
},
{
"href": "../moore-moral/",
"text": "Moore, George Edward: moral philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../moral-non-naturalism/",
"text": "moral non-naturalism"
},
{
"href": "../newton/",
"text": "Newton, Isaac"
},
{
"... |
reid-memory-identity | Reid on Memory and Personal Identity | First published Wed Mar 18, 2009; substantive revision Thu Nov 8, 2018 | [
"\n\nThomas Reid held a direct realist theory of memory. Like his direct\nrealism about perception, Reid developed his account as an alternative\nto the model of the mind that he called ‘the theory of\nideas.’ On such a theory, mental operations such as perception\nand memory have mental states—ideas or impressions... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Criticizing the Storehouse Model of Memory",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. A Direct Realist Theory of Memory",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Objecting to Locke on Personal Identity",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Personal I... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nReid traces the target of his criticisms back to the Ancients, whom he\ndepicts as holding that the mind is a sensorium—a repository of\npast ideas and impressions (Essays,\n 280).[1] \n On this\ntheory, perception, memory and imagination are causal processes\nbeginning with purel... | [
"Essays on the\nIntellectual Powers of Man, Brookes, Derek R. (ed.), University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania\nState University Press, 2002.",
"An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,\nBrookes, Derek R. (ed.), University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University\nPress, 1997."... | [
{
"href": "../identity/",
"text": "identity"
},
{
"href": "../locke/",
"text": "Locke, John"
},
{
"href": "../memory/",
"text": "memory"
},
{
"href": "../identity-personal/",
"text": "personal identity"
},
{
"href": "../identity-ethics/",
"text": "personal ide... |
concept-religion | The Concept of Religion | First published Mon Mar 28, 2022 | [
"\nIt is common today to take the concept religion as a taxon\nfor sets of social practices, a category-concept whose paradigmatic\nexamples are the so-called “world” religions of Judaism,\nChristianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and\n Daoism.[1]\n Perhaps equally paradigmatic, though somewhat tricki... | [
{
"content_title": "1. A History of the Concept",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Two Kinds of Analysis of the Concept",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Monothetic approaches",
"2.2 Polythetic approaches"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Reflexivity, Reference, and Skepticism",
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe concept religion did not originally refer to a social\ngenus or cultural type. It was adapted from the Latin term\nreligio, a term roughly equivalent to\n“scrupulousness”. Religio also approximates\n“conscientiousness”, “devotedness”, or\n“felt obligation”, since religio was an ... | [
"Abbasi, Rushain, 2020, “Did Premodern Muslims Distinguish\nthe Religious and the Secular? The Dīn-Dunyā Binary\nin Medieval Islamic Thought”, Journal of Islamic\nStudies, 31(2): 185–225. doi:10.1093/jis/etz048",
"–––, 2021, “Islam and the Invention of\nReligion: A Study of Medieval Muslim Discourses on\nDīn”, St... | [
{
"href": "../definitions/",
"text": "definitions"
},
{
"href": "../philosophy-religion/",
"text": "religion: philosophy of"
},
{
"href": "../skepticism/",
"text": "skepticism"
},
{
"href": "../wittgenstein/",
"text": "Wittgenstein, Ludwig"
}
] |
religion-epistemology | The Epistemology of Religion | First published Wed Apr 23, 1997; substantive revision Tue Jun 22, 2021 | [
"\n\nContemporary epistemology of religion may conveniently be treated as a\ndebate over whether evidentialism applies to religious\nbeliefs, or whether we should instead adopt a more permissive\nepistemology. Here evidentialism is the initially plausible position\nthat a belief is justified only if “it is proporti... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Simplifications",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Rejection of Enlightenment Evidentialism",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Evidentialism Defended",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Natural theology",
"sub_toc": []
},
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nEpistemology is confusing because there are several sorts of items to\nbe evaluated and several sorts of evaluation. Since the topic of this\narticle is the epistemology of religion not general epistemology it\nwill be assumed that what is being evaluated is something related to\n... | [
"Alston, William P., 1991, Perceiving God: The Epistemology of\nReligious Experience, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.",
"Barrett, Justin L., 2004, Why would anyone believe in\nGod?, Lanham: AltaMira. ",
"Braine, David, 1988, The Reality of Time and the Existence of\nGod: The Project of Proving God’s Existence... | [
{
"href": "../atheism-agnosticism/",
"text": "atheism and agnosticism"
},
{
"href": "../miracles/",
"text": "miracles"
},
{
"href": "../pascal-wager/",
"text": "Pascal’s wager"
},
{
"href": "../probability-interpret/",
"text": "probability, interpretations of"
},
{
... |
religion-morality | Religion and Morality | First published Wed Sep 27, 2006; substantive revision Thu Aug 8, 2019 | [
"\n\nFrom the beginning of the Abrahamic faiths and of Greek philosophy,\nreligion and morality have been closely intertwined. This is true\nwhether we go back within Greek philosophy or within Christianity and\nJudaism and Islam. The present entry will not try to step beyond these\nconfines, since there are other ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Ancient Greek Philosophy",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Hebrew Bible and the New Testament",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. The Middle Ages",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Modern Philosophy",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nWe can start with the Greeks, and this means starting with Homer, a\nbody of texts transmitted first orally and then written down in the\nseventh century BCE. So what does the relation between morality and\nreligion look like in Homer? The first thing to say is that the gods\nand go... | [
"Adams, R. M., 1999, Finite and Infinite Goods, Oxford:\nOxford University Press.",
"Annas, Julia, The Morality of Happiness, Oxford: Oxford\nUniversity Press, 1993.",
"Anselm, S. Anselmi Cantuariensis Archiepiscopi Opera\nOmnia, Franciscus Salesius (ed.), Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt:\nFriedrich Fromann Verlag, 196... | [
{
"href": "../aquinas-moral-political/",
"text": "Aquinas, Thomas: moral, political, and legal philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../aristotle-ethics/",
"text": "Aristotle, General Topics: ethics"
},
{
"href": "../duns-scotus/",
"text": "Duns Scotus, John"
},
{
"href": "../natural-law... |
philosophy-religion | Philosophy of Religion | First published Mon Mar 12, 2007; substantive revision Tue Jan 8, 2019 | [
"\nPhilosophy of religion is the philosophical examination of the themes\nand concepts involved in religious traditions as well as the broader\nphilosophical task of reflecting on matters of religious significance\nincluding the nature of religion itself, alternative concepts of God\nor ultimate reality, and the re... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Field and its Significance",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Meaning of Religious Beliefs",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Positivism",
"2.2 Wittgensteinian Philosophy of Religion"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Religious Epistemology",
"sub_toc... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nIdeally, a guide to the nature and history of philosophy of religion\nwould begin with an analysis or definition of religion. Unfortunately,\nthere is no current consensus on a precise identification of the\nnecessary and sufficient conditions of what counts as a religion. We\nthere... | [
"Abraham, William J., 1998, Canon and Criterion in Christian\nTheology, Oxford: Oxford University Press.\ndoi:10.1093/0199250030.001.0001",
"Abraham, William J. and Frederick D. Aquino (eds.), 2017, The\nOxford Handbook of the Epistemology of Theology, (Oxford\nHandbooks in Religion and Theology), Oxford: Oxford ... | [
{
"href": "../afterlife/",
"text": "afterlife"
},
{
"href": "../al-farabi-soc-rel/",
"text": "al-Farabi: philosophy of society and religion"
},
{
"href": "../anselm/",
"text": "Anselm, Saint [Anselm of Bec, Anselm of Canterbury]"
},
{
"href": "../aquinas/",
"text": "Aquin... |
religion-science | Religion and Science | First published Tue Jan 17, 2017; substantive revision Sat Sep 3, 2022 | [
"\nThe relationship between religion and science is the subject of\ncontinued debate in philosophy and theology. To what extent are\nreligion and science compatible? Are religious beliefs sometimes\nconducive to science, or do they inevitably pose obstacles to\nscientific inquiry? The interdisciplinary field of “sc... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Science, religion, and how they interrelate",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 A brief history",
"1.2 What is science, and what is religion?",
"1.3 Taxonomies of the interaction between science and religion",
"1.4 The scientific study of religion"
]
},
{
"content_... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Science, religion, and how they interrelate",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nSince the 1960s, scholars in theology, philosophy, history, and the\nsciences have studied the relationship between science and religion.\nScience and relig... | [
"Al-Ghazālī, 11th century, Tahāfut\nal-falāsifa, translated by Sabih Ahmad Kamali as The\nIncoherence of the Philosophers, Lahore: Pakistan Philosophical\nCongress, 1963.",
"Allport, Gordon W. and J. Michael Ross, 1967, “Personal\nReligious Orientation and Prejudice.”, Journal of\nPersonality and Social Psycholog... | [
{
"href": "../comte/",
"text": "Comte, Auguste"
},
{
"href": "../cosmological-argument/",
"text": "cosmological argument"
},
{
"href": "../hume-religion/",
"text": "Hume, David: on religion"
},
{
"href": "../teleological-arguments/",
"text": "teleology: teleological argum... |
collective-responsibility | Collective Responsibility | First published Mon Aug 8, 2005; substantive revision Mon Dec 19, 2022 | [
"\nThe notion of collective responsibility, like that of\npersonal responsibility and shared responsibility,\nrefers in most contexts to both the causal responsibility of\nmoral agents for harm in the world and the blameworthiness that we\nascribe to them for having caused such harm. Hence, it is, like its\ntwo mor... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Collective Responsibility: the Controversies",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Making Sense of Collective Responsibility: Actions, Intentions, and Group Solidarity",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Collective Responsibility and the Structure of Grou... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nBoth notions of collective responsibility are controversial. The\ntraditional, backward looking, notion does not sit well with those who\nare skeptical about the ability of collective entities to\nwill and to act as collective entities. The forward\nlooking notion is less controvers... | [
"Abdel-Nour, Farid, 2003, “National Responsibility,”\nPolitical Theory, 31: 694–95.",
"Appiah, Anthony, 1987, “Racism and Moral Pollution,”\nPhilosophical Forum, 18: 185–202.",
"Arendt, Hannah, 1987, “Collective Responsibility,” in\nJames Bernhauer (ed.), Amor Mundi, Dordrecht: M.\nNijhoff.",
"Baddorf, Matthe... | [
{
"href": "../action/",
"text": "action"
},
{
"href": "../blame/",
"text": "blame"
},
{
"href": "../methodological-individualism/",
"text": "individualism, methodological"
},
{
"href": "../intention/",
"text": "intention"
},
{
"href": "../collective-intentionality... |
rights-children | Children’s Rights | First published Wed Oct 16, 2002; substantive revision Tue Jan 24, 2023 | [
" ‘In present-day political and moral philosophy the idea that\nall persons are in some way moral equals has become dogma’\n(Steinhoff ed. 2015, xi). Yet in the collection of essays from whose\nIntroduction this quotation comes and that seeks to explain and\njustify this foundational ‘dogma’, ‘children’\ndoes not f... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Children and Rights",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Critics of Children’s Rights",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Liberationism",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Arbitrariness",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": ... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nIn the background of any consideration of children and rights are two\nmatters: what counts as a child, and what is to be understood as\ncapacity. The latter arises inasmuch as the question of whether\nchildren have rights and, if so, which ones normally turns on whether\nthey have ... | [
"Alston, P. (ed.), 1994, The Best Interests of the Child:\nReconciling Culture and Human Rights, Oxford: Clarendon\nPress.",
"Ang, F., et al., 2006, Participation Rights of Children,\nAntwerpen-Oxford: Intersentia.",
"Archard, D., 2002, ‘Children, Multiculturalism, and\nEducation’, in D. Archard and C. Macleod ... | [
{
"href": "../advance-directives/",
"text": "advance directives"
},
{
"href": "../autonomy-moral/",
"text": "autonomy: in moral and political philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../childhood/",
"text": "childhood, the philosophy of"
},
{
"href": "../feminism-family/",
"text": "femi... |
russell-moral | Russell’s Moral Philosophy | First published Mon Dec 17, 2007; substantive revision Tue May 4, 2021 | [
"\nRussell remains famous as a logician, a metaphysician, and as a\nphilosopher of mathematics, but in his own day he was also notorious\nfor his social and political opinions. He wrote an immense amount\nabout practical ethics—women’s rights, marriage and morals, war\nand peace, and the vexed question of whether s... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Open Question Argument and its Aftermath: Moore’s Influence on Russell",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Desire, Motivation and the Open Question Argument: Did Russell Influence Moore?",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1. The Open Question Argument versus the Barren Taut... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nRussell’s destiny as an ethical thinker was dominated by one\nbook—G.E. Moore’s Principia Ethica (1903). Before 1903,\nRussell devoted some of the energy that he could spare from German\nSocial Democracy, the foundations of mathematics and the philosophy of\nLeibniz to working out a... | [
"2000 [1896], German Social Democracy, Nottingham:\nSpokesman. Originally published 1896.",
"1992a [1900], A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of\nLeibniz, London: Routledge (first published in 1900).",
"1992b [1903], The Principles of Mathematics, London:\nRoutledge. Originally published 1903, second editi... | [
{
"href": "../analysis/",
"text": "analysis"
},
{
"href": "../ayer/",
"text": "Ayer, Alfred Jules"
},
{
"href": "../bradley/",
"text": "Bradley, Francis Herbert"
},
{
"href": "../moral-cognitivism/",
"text": "cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral"
},
{
"href": ".... |
science-theory-observation | Theory and Observation in Science | First published Tue Jan 6, 2009; substantive revision Mon Jun 14, 2021 | [
"\nScientists obtain a great deal of the evidence they use by collecting\nand producing empirical results. Much of the standard philosophical\nliterature on this subject comes from 20th century logical\nempiricists, their followers, and critics who embraced their issues\nwhile objecting to some of their aims and as... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Observation and data",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Traditional empiricism",
"2.2 The irrelevance of observation per se",
"2.3 Data and phenomena"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Theory and value ladenne... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nPhilosophers of science have traditionally recognized a special role\nfor observations in the epistemology of science. Observations are the\nconduit through which the ‘tribunal of experience’\ndelivers its verdicts on scientific hypotheses and theories. The\nevidential value of an o... | [
"Anderson, E., 2004, “Uses of Value Judgments in Science: A\nGeneral Argument, with Lessons from a Case Study of Feminist Research\non Divorce,” Hypatia, 19(1): 1–24.",
"Aristotle(a), Generation of Animals in Complete Works\nof Aristotle (Volume 1), J. Barnes (ed.), Princeton: Princeton\nUniversity Press, 1995, p... | [
{
"href": "../francis-bacon/",
"text": "Bacon, Francis"
},
{
"href": "../bayes-theorem/",
"text": "Bayes’ Theorem"
},
{
"href": "../constructive-empiricism/",
"text": "constructive empiricism"
},
{
"href": "../duhem/",
"text": "Duhem, Pierre"
},
{
"href": "../logi... |
scientific-knowledge-social | The Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge | First published Fri Apr 12, 2002; substantive revision Mon May 27, 2019 | [
"\nStudy of the social dimensions of scientific knowledge encompasses the\neffects of scientific research on human life and social relations, the\neffects of social relations and values on scientific research, and the\nsocial aspects of inquiry itself. Several factors have combined to\nmake these questions salient ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Historical Background",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Big Science, Trust, and Authority",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Science in Society",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Social, Cultural, and Feminist Studies of Science",
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nPhilosophers who study the social character of scientific knowledge\ncan trace their lineage at least as far as John Stuart Mill. Mill,\nCharles Sanders Peirce, and Karl Popper all took some type of critical\ninteraction among persons as central to the validation of knowledge\nclaim... | [
"Anderson, Elizabeth, 2004. “Uses of Value Judgments in\nScience” Hypatia, 19, 1–24.",
"–––. 2011. “Democracy, Public Policy, and\nLay Assessments of Scientific Testimony,” Episteme,\n8(2): 144–164.",
"Bala, Arun, 2008. The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth\nof Modern Science, New York, NY: Macmillan.",
... | [
{
"href": "../epistemology-evolutionary/",
"text": "epistemology: evolutionary"
},
{
"href": "../epistemology-social/",
"text": "epistemology: social"
},
{
"href": "../ethics-environmental/",
"text": "ethics: environmental"
},
{
"href": "../feminism-epistemology/",
"text"... |
structure-scientific-theories | The Structure of Scientific Theories | First published Thu Mar 5, 2015; substantive revision Tue Dec 29, 2020 | [
"\nScientific inquiry has led to immense explanatory and technological\nsuccesses, partly as a result of the pervasiveness of scientific\ntheories. Relativity theory, evolutionary theory, and plate tectonics\nwere, and continue to be, wildly successful families of theories\nwithin physics, biology, and geology. Oth... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Syntactic, Semantic, and Pragmatic Views: The Basics",
"1.2 Two Examples: Newtonian Mechanics and Population Genetics"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Syntactic View",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Theory Structure per the Syntact... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nIn philosophy, three families of perspectives on scientific theory are\noperative: the Syntactic View, the Semantic View,\nand the Pragmatic View. Savage distills these philosophical\nperspectives thus:",
"\nThe syntactic view that a theory is an axiomatized collection\nof sen... | [
"Ankeny, R. and S. Leonelli, 2020, Model Organisms,\nCambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"Apostel, L., 1960, “Towards the Formal Study of Models in\nthe Non-Formal Sciences,” Synthese, 12 (23):\n125–161.",
"–––, 1970, “The Justification of\nFormalisation,” Quality and Quantity, 4 (1):\n3–38.",
"Awodey, S... | [
{
"href": "../carnap/",
"text": "Carnap, Rudolf"
},
{
"href": "../cognitive-science/",
"text": "cognitive science"
},
{
"href": "../confirmation/",
"text": "confirmation"
},
{
"href": "../darwinism/",
"text": "Darwinism"
},
{
"href": "../logical-empiricism/",
... |
self-consciousness-phenomenological | Phenomenological Approaches to Self-Consciousness | First published Sat Feb 19, 2005; substantive revision Thu May 23, 2019 | [
"\nFor phenomenologists, the immediate and first-personal givenness of\nexperience is accounted for in terms of a pre-reflective\nself-consciousness. In the most basic sense of the term,\nself-consciousness is not something that comes about the moment one\nattentively inspects or reflectively introspects one’s\nexp... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Pre-reflective self-consciousness",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Philosophical issues and objections",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Temporality and the limits of reflective self-consciousness",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nOne can get a bearing on the notion of pre-reflective\nself-consciousness by contrasting it with reflective\nself-consciousness. If you ask me to give you a description of the\npain I feel in my right foot, or of what I was just thinking about, I\nwould reflect on it and thereby tak... | [
"Armstrong, D. M., 1968. A Materialist Theory of the Mind,\nLondon: Routledge and Kegan Paul.",
"Baker, L. R., 2000. Persons and Bodies, Cambridge:\nCambridge University Press.",
"Bermúdez, J. L. 2017. “Ownership and the space of the\nbody,” in F. de Vignemont and A. Alsmith (eds.), The\nSubject’s Matter, Cambr... | [
{
"href": "../bodily-awareness/",
"text": "bodily awareness"
},
{
"href": "../consciousness/",
"text": "consciousness"
},
{
"href": "../consciousness-higher/",
"text": "consciousness: higher-order theories"
},
{
"href": "../husserl/",
"text": "Husserl, Edmund"
},
{
... |
montague-semantics | Montague Semantics | First published Mon Nov 7, 2011; substantive revision Wed Apr 14, 2021 | [
"\nMontague semantics is a theory of natural language semantics and of\nits relation with syntax. It was originally developed by the logician\nRichard Montague (1930–1971) and subsequently modified and\nextended by linguists, philosophers, and logicians. The most important\nfeatures of the theory are its use of mod... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Background",
"1.2 Basic Aspects"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Components of Montague Semantics",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Unicorns and Meaning Postulates",
"2.2 Noun Phrases and Generalized Quantifiers",
"2.3 Logic... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Introduction",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nMontague semantics is the approach to the semantics of natural\nlanguage introduced by Richard Montague in the 1970s. He described the\naim of his enterprise as follows:",
"\nTh... | [
"Angelelli, I. (ed.), 1967, Gottlob Frege. Kleine\nSchriften, Hildesheim: Olms.",
"Bach, E., 1976, “An extension of classical transformational\ngrammar”, in J. M. Sadock, D. J. Dwyer, S. C. Song, and E. W.\nBach (eds.), Problems in Linguistic Metatheory (Proceedings\nof the 1976 conference), pp. 183–224. East Lan... | [
{
"href": "../compositionality/",
"text": "compositionality"
},
{
"href": "../discourse-representation-theory/",
"text": "discourse representation theory"
},
{
"href": "../frege/",
"text": "Frege, Gottlob"
},
{
"href": "../generalized-quantifiers/",
"text": "generalized q... |
proof-theoretic-semantics | Proof-Theoretic Semantics | First published Wed Dec 5, 2012; substantive revision Thu Feb 1, 2018 | [
"\n\nProof-theoretic semantics is an alternative to truth-condition\nsemantics. It is based on the fundamental assumption that the central\nnotion in terms of which meanings are assigned to certain expressions\nof our language, in particular to logical constants, is that of\nproof rather than truth. In this sense\n... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Background",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 General proof theory: consequence vs. proofs",
"1.2 Inferentialism, intuitionism, anti-realism",
"1.3 Gentzen-style proof theory: Reduction, normalization, cut elimination"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Some versions of proof-... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Background",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\n\nThe term “general proof theory” was coined by Prawitz.\nIn general proof theory, “proofs are studied in their own right\nin the hope of understanding their nature”, in contradistinction\n... | [
"Aczel, Peter (1977). “An Introduction to Inductive\nDefinitions”, in Handbook of Mathematical Logic,\nJohn Barwise (ed.), Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 739–782.",
"Beall, J.C. and Greg Restall (2006). Logical Pluralism,\nOxford: Oxford University Press.",
"Belnap, Nuel D. (1982). “Display Logic”, Journal\nof P... | [
{
"href": "../category-theory/",
"text": "category theory"
},
{
"href": "../connectives-logic/",
"text": "connectives: sentence connectives in formal logic"
},
{
"href": "../curry-paradox/",
"text": "Curry’s paradox"
},
{
"href": "../hilbert-program/",
"text": "Hilbert, D... |
two-dimensional-semantics | Two-Dimensional Semantics | First published Mon Dec 13, 2010; substantive revision Mon Aug 23, 2021 | [
"\nTwo-dimensional (2D) semantics is a formal framework that is used to\ncharacterize the meaning of certain linguistic expressions and the\nentailment relations among sentences containing them. Two-dimensional\nsemantics has also been applied to thought contents. In contrast with\nstandard possible worlds semantic... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Restricted 2D Semantics",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Indexicals",
"1.2. Modal operators"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Generalized 2D Semantics",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Vindicating the traditional approach to meaning",
"2.2 The empiricist project",
"2.3 T... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nTwo-dimensional semantics was introduced to model the semantics of\ncontext-sensitive expressions in natural language, like indexicals and\ndemonstratives. A similar 2D framework was developed to model\nimportant aspects of tense and modal logic."
],
"section_title": "1. Res... | [
"Åqvist, L., 1973, “Modal Logic with Subjunctive\nConditionals and Dispositional Predicates”, Journal of\nPhilosophical Logic, 1: 1–76.",
"Ball, D., 2014, “Two-Dimensionalism and the Social Character\nof Meaning”, Erkenntnis, 79: 567–595.",
"Bealer, G., 2002, “Modal Epistemology and the Rationalist\nRenaissance... | [
{
"href": "../apriori/",
"text": "a priori justification and knowledge"
},
{
"href": "../descriptions/",
"text": "descriptions"
},
{
"href": "../experimental-philosophy/",
"text": "experimental philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../content-externalism/",
"text": "externalism about... |
semiotics-medieval | Medieval Semiotics | First published Fri Dec 19, 2003; substantive revision Wed May 11, 2011 | [
"\n\nThis entry intends to give an account of the most important stages\nof the medieval history of semiotics by providing a general\nchronological survey of the main sources and theoretical developments\nof the medieval notion of sign."
] | [
{
"content_title": "1. Semiotics:its place in the framework of scholastic disciplines",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The late ancient sources of medieval semiotics",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Augustine (354–430)",
"2.2 Boethius (480–528)"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Se... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nTo speak of medieval semiotics is not to speak of a precisely\ndefined discipline besides, and distinct from, other medieval arts and\nsciences; it is rather to speak of a complex field of more or less\n— mostly more — elaborate reflections on the concept of\nsign, its nature, fun... | [
"Albert of Saxony: 1522, Perutilis logica, Venice, rpt.\nHildesheim: Olms, 1974.",
"Albert of Saxony: 1988, Quaestiones in artem veterem, ed.\nA. Muñoz García, Maracaibo: Univ. del Zulia.",
"Anselm of Canterbury: 1968, Monologion, in: S. Anselmi\nCantuariensis Archiepiscopi Opera Omnia, vol. 1, ed. F. S.\nSchmi... | [
{
"href": "../representation-medieval/",
"text": "mental representation: in medieval philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../ockham/",
"text": "Ockham [Occam], William"
},
{
"href": "../peirce/",
"text": "Peirce, Charles Sanders"
},
{
"href": "../erfurt/",
"text": "Thomas of Erfurt"... |
settheory-alternative | Alternative Axiomatic Set Theories | First published Tue May 30, 2006; substantive revision Tue Sep 21, 2021 | [
"\nBy “alternative set theories” we mean systems of set\ntheory differing significantly from the dominant ZF\n(Zermelo-Frankel set theory) and its close relatives (though we will\nreview these systems in the article). Among the systems we will review\nare typed theories of sets, Zermelo set theory and its variation... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Why Set Theory?",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 The Dedekind construction of the reals",
"1.2 The Frege-Russell definition of the natural numbers"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Naive Set Theory",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 The other paradoxes of naive set theory"
]
},... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nWhy do we do set theory in the first place? The most immediately\nfamiliar objects of mathematics which might seem to be sets are\ngeometric figures: but the view that these are best understood as sets\nof points is a modern view. Classical Greeks, while certainly aware of\nthe form... | [
"Aczel, Peter, 1978, “The Type Theoretic Interpretation of\nConstructive Set Theory”, in A. MacIntyre, L. Pacholski, J.\nParis (eds.), Logic Colloquium ‘77, (Studies in Logic\nand the Foundations of Mathematics, 96), Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp.\n55–66. doi:10.1016/S0049-237X(08)71989-X",
"–––, 1982, “The Type T... | [
{
"href": "../brouwer/",
"text": "Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan"
},
{
"href": "../axiom-choice/",
"text": "choice, axiom of"
},
{
"href": "../continuity/",
"text": "continuity and infinitesimals"
},
{
"href": "../frege/",
"text": "Frege, Gottlob"
},
{
"href": "../... |
set-theory-constructive | Set Theory: Constructive and Intuitionistic ZF | First published Fri Feb 20, 2009; substantive revision Wed Feb 13, 2019 | [
"\n\nConstructive and intuitionistic Zermelo-Fraenkel set theories\nare\n axiomatic theories of sets\n in the\nstyle of\n Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF)\n which are based on\n intuitionistic logic.\n They were introduced in the 1970’s and they represent a formal context\n within which to codify mathematics based ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Essence of Constructive and Intuitionistic Set Theory",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Axiomatic freedom",
"1.2 Constructive versus intuitionistic set theory",
"1.3 Predicativity in constructive set theory"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Origins of Constructive and I... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nConstructive and intuitionistic Zermelo-Fraenkel set theories are\nbased on intuitionistic rather than classical logic, and \nrepresent a natural environment within which to codify and study \nmathematics based on intuitionistic logic. \nFor constructive ZF, the main focus has bee... | [
"Aczel, P., 1978, “The Type Theoretic Interpretation of\nConstructive Set Theory”, in Logic Colloquium ‘77, A.\nMacIntyre, L. Pacholski, J. Paris (eds.), Amsterdam and New York:\nNorth-Holland, pp. 55–66.",
"–––, 1982, “The type theoretic\ninterpretation of constructive set theory: choice principles”, in\nThe L.E... | [
{
"href": "../brouwer/",
"text": "Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan"
},
{
"href": "../category-theory/",
"text": "category theory"
},
{
"href": "../axiom-choice/",
"text": "choice, axiom of"
},
{
"href": "../intuitionistic-logic-development/",
"text": "logic, history of: intu... |
independence-large-cardinals | Independence and Large Cardinals | First published Tue Apr 20, 2010 | [
"\n\nThe independence results in arithmetic and set theory led to\na proliferation of mathematical systems. One very general way to\ninvestigate the space of possible mathematical systems is under the\nrelation of interpretability. Under this relation the space of\npossible mathematical systems forms an intricate... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Independence",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Interpretability Hierarchy",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Large Cardinal Axioms",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Large Cardinal Axioms and the Interpretability Hierarchy",
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nLet us begin with the notion of an axiom system. To motivate\nthis notion consider the manner in which justification traditionally\nproceeds in mathematics. In reasoning about a given domain of\nmathematics (or, in fact, any domain) the question of justification is\nsuccessively... | [
"Ackermann, Wilhelm, 1937, “Die Widerspruchsfreiheit der allgemeinen Mengenlehre,”\nMathematische Annalen, 114: 305–315.",
"Barwise, Jon K., 1977, Handbook of Mathematical Logic\n(Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics: 90),\nAmsterdam: North-Holland.",
"Buss, Samuel R., 1998a, “First-Order Proof T... | [
{
"href": "../axiom-choice/",
"text": "choice, axiom of"
},
{
"href": "../goedel/",
"text": "Gödel, Kurt"
},
{
"href": "../goedel-incompleteness/",
"text": "Gödel, Kurt: incompleteness theorems"
},
{
"href": "../set-theory/",
"text": "set theory"
},
{
"href": "../... |
nonwellfounded-set-theory | Non-wellfounded Set Theory | First published Wed Apr 16, 2008; substantive revision Tue Apr 24, 2018 | [
"\n This entry is about two kinds of circularity: object\ncircularity, where an object is taken to be part of itself in\nsome sense; and definition circularity, where a collection is\ndefined in terms of itself. Instances of these two kinds of\ncircularity are sometimes problematic, and sometimes not. We are\npri... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Circular Phenomena in Set Theory",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Streams",
"1.2 Infinite trees",
"1.3 Hypersets"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Foundation and Anti-Foundation Axioms",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Background from set theory",
"2.2 The Foundation... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n It is difficult to say in a general way what makes a definition\ncircular. In this entry we are concerned exclusively with\nmathematical definitions of various sorts. Consider the equation\nx = ½x + 1. Is this a circular\ndefinition of the number 2? In a sense, it is just that:... | [
"Aczel, P., 1988, Non-Well-Founded Sets (CSLI Lecture\nNotes: Number 14), Stanford: CSLI Publications. ",
"Aczel, P. and Mendler, N., 1989, ‘A final coalgebra\ntheorem,’ in D. H. Pitt et al. (eds.), Category Theory and\nComputer Science, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag,\n357–365.",
"Adámek, J., and Reitermann, J., ... | [
{
"href": "../algebra/",
"text": "algebra"
},
{
"href": "../category-theory/",
"text": "category theory"
},
{
"href": "../set-theory/",
"text": "set theory"
},
{
"href": "../settheory-alternative/",
"text": "set theory: alternative axiomatic theories"
}
] |
zermelo-set-theory | Zermelo’s Axiomatization of Set Theory | First published Tue Jul 2, 2013 | [
"The first axiomatisation of set theory was given by Zermelo in his\n1908 paper “Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der\nMengenlehre, I” (Zermelo 1908b), which became the basis for\nthe modern theory of sets. This entry focuses on the 1908\naxiomatisation; a further entry will consider later axiomatisations of\nset... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Axioms",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Background to Zermelo's Axiomatisation",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Hilbert's Axiomatic Method",
"2.2 The Well-Ordering Problem and the Well-Ordering Theorem"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. The Major P... | [
{
"main_content": [
"The introduction to Zermelo's paper makes it clear that set theory is regarded as a fundamental theory:",
"\n Set theory is that branch of mathematics whose task is to\n investigate mathematically the fundamental notions\n “number”, “order”, and\n “function”, taking them in ... | [
"Bell, J., 2009, The Axiom of Choice, London: College Publications.",
"Benacerraf, P. and H. Putnam (eds.), 1964, Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.",
"––– (eds.), 1983, Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings, Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"... | [
{
"href": "../russell-paradox/",
"text": "Russell’s paradox"
},
{
"href": "../set-theory/",
"text": "set theory"
},
{
"href": "../settheory-alternative/",
"text": "set theory: alternative axiomatic theories"
},
{
"href": "../settheory-early/",
"text": "set theory: early d... |
situations-semantics | Situations in Natural Language Semantics | First published Mon Feb 12, 2007; substantive revision Wed Oct 13, 2021 | [
"\nSituation semantics was developed as an alternative to possible worlds\nsemantics. In situation semantics, linguistic expressions are\nevaluated with respect to partial, rather than complete, worlds. There\nis no consensus about what situations are, just as there is no\nconsensus about what possible worlds or ev... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Situations in direct perception reports",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. States of affairs, infons, and information content",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Austinian topic situations",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Situation... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nSituations entered natural language semantics with Jon Barwise’s\npaper Scenes and Other Situations (Barwise 1981), followed by\nBarwise and Perry’s Situations and Attitudes (Barwise\n& Perry 1983). Scenes and Other Situations is about the\nmeaning of direct (or epistemically neutra... | [
"Austin, J. L., 1950, Truth. Philosophical Papers (3rd ed.\n1979): 117–33. Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
"Bach, E., 1986, “The Algebra of Events,”\nLinguistics and Philosophy, 9: 5–16.",
"Barwise, J., 1981, “Scenes and Other Situations,”\nThe Journal of Philosophy, 78: 369–97.",
"–––, 1988, The Situation... | [
{
"href": "../anaphora/",
"text": "anaphora"
},
{
"href": "../austin-jl/",
"text": "Austin, John Langshaw"
},
{
"href": "../contextualism-epistemology/",
"text": "contextualism, epistemic"
},
{
"href": "../davidson/",
"text": "Davidson, Donald"
},
{
"href": "../de... |
skepticism-moral-responsibility | Skepticism About Moral Responsibility | First published Thu Jan 18, 2018 | [
"\nSkepticism about moral responsibility, or what is more commonly\nreferred to as moral responsibility skepticism, refers to a\nfamily of views that all take seriously the possibility that human\nbeings are never morally responsible for their actions in a particular\nbut pervasive sense. This sense is typically se... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Moral Responsibility Skepticism and Basic Desert",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Arguments for Moral Responsibility Skepticism",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Hard Determinism",
"2.2 Hard Incompatibilism",
"2.3 Impossibility of Ultimate Responsibility",
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nTo begin, it is important to first get clear on what type of moral\nresponsibility is being doubted or denied by skeptics. Most moral\nresponsibility skeptics maintain that our best philosophical and\nscientific theories about the world indicate that what we do and the\nway we are i... | [
"Aspinwall, Lisa G., Teneille R. Brown, and James Tabery, 2012,\n“The Double-Edged Sword: Does Biomechanism Increase or Decrease\nJudges’ Sentencing of Psychopaths?”, Science,\n337(6096): 846–49. doi:10.1126/science.1219569",
"Athanassoulis, Nafsika, 2005, Morality, Moral Luck, and\nResponsibility: Fortune’s Web,... | [
{
"href": "../compatibilism/",
"text": "compatibilism"
},
{
"href": "../determinism-causal/",
"text": "determinism: causal"
},
{
"href": "../freewill/",
"text": "free will"
},
{
"href": "../free-will-foreknowledge/",
"text": "free will: divine foreknowledge and"
},
{
... |
skepticism-medieval | Medieval Skepticism | First published Mon Jan 12, 2009; substantive revision Tue Feb 9, 2021 | [
"\nOverarching surveys of the history of philosophy often leave the\nimpression that philosophical skepticism—roughly, the position\nthat nothing can be known—had many adherents in the Ancient and\nHellenistic Periods, disappeared completely as a topic of intellectual\ninterest during the Middle Ages, and returned ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Ancient and Hellenistic Sources",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Pyrrhonian Skepticism",
"1.2 Academic Skepticism"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Skepticism in Pre-Scholastic Christian Philosophy",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Augustine",
"2.2 Other Pre-Scholastics"
]... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThere were many varieties of skepticism extant during the Ancient and\nHellenistic periods, but two were particularly important to the later\nhistory of topic: Pyrrhonian Skepticism, especially as presented by\nSextus Empiricus, and the Academic Skepticism of Cicero.",
"\nPre-... | [
"Adam Wodeham, “The Objects of Knowledge,” in The\nCambridge Translations of Medieval Philosophical Texts, Volume 3: Mind\nand Knowldege, R. Pasnau (ed. and trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge\nUniversity Press, 2002, pp. 318–351.",
"–––, Opera Theologica (10 vols.), G.\nGál, et al. (eds.), Franciscan Institute, 1967–1... | [
{
"href": "../al-ghazali/",
"text": "al-Ghazali"
},
{
"href": "../augustine/",
"text": "Augustine, Saint"
},
{
"href": "../auriol/",
"text": "Auriol [Aureol, Aureoli], Peter"
},
{
"href": "../buridan/",
"text": "Buridan, John [Jean]"
},
{
"href": "../condemnation/... |
smith-moral-political | Adam Smith’s Moral and Political Philosophy | First published Fri Feb 15, 2013; substantive revision Wed Nov 11, 2020 | [
"\nAdam Smith developed a comprehensive and unusual version of moral\nsentimentalism in his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759, TMS).\nHe did not expressly lay out a political philosophy in similar detail,\nbut a distinctive set of views on politics can be extrapolated from\nelements of both TMS and his Wealth of Nat... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Methodology",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Summary of Smith’s Moral Philosophy",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Advantages of Smith’s Moral Philosophy",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Objections to Smith’s Moral Philosophy",... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nSmith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments (TMS) tends to\narouse sharply divergent reactions among the philosophers who pick it\nup. Kant is said to have considered it his favorite among Scottish\nmoral sense theories (Fleischacker 1991), but others have dismissed it\nas devoid of systemat... | [
"Clarke, Samuel, 1703, A Discourse of Natural Religion,\nexcerpted in D.D. Raphael, British Moralists 1650–1800,\nIndianapolis: Hackett, 1991, vol. I.",
"Hume, David, 1739–40, A Treatise of Human Nature,\nP. Nidditch and L. Selby-Bigge (eds.), cited from the Clarendon Press\nedition, 1978.",
"Hume, David, 1777 ... | [
{
"href": "../scottish-18th/",
"text": "Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century"
}
] |
social-construction-naturalistic | Naturalistic Approaches to Social Construction | First published Mon Nov 10, 2008; substantive revision Fri Jan 11, 2019 | [
"\nSocial “construction,” “constructionism” and\n“constructivism” are terms in wide use in the humanities\nand social sciences, and are applied to a diverse range of objects\nincluding the emotions, gender, race, sex, homo- and hetero-sexuality,\nmental illness, technology, quarks, facts, reality, and truth. This\n... | [
{
"content_title": "1. What is Social Construction?",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 What Constructs?",
"1.2 What is Constructed?",
"1.3 What is it to Construct?"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Naturalism and Social Construction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Naturalizin... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nWhile constructionist claims often take the passive form of a\ndeclaration that “Y is socially constructed,” it\nis more useful to think of social constructionist claims as having the\nform of a two-part relation:",
"\nX socially constructs Y.\n",
"\nWe can then think of... | [
"Andreasen, R. O., 1998. “A New Perspective on the Race\nDebate,” British Journal of the Philosophy of Science,\n49: 199–225.",
"Appiah, K. A., 1996. “Race, Culture, Identity: Misunderstood\nConnections,” in Color Conscious: The Political Morality of\nRace, K. A. Appiah and A. Guttmann (eds.), Princeton, NJ:\nPri... | [
{
"href": "../epistemology-social/",
"text": "epistemology: social"
},
{
"href": "../evolution-cultural/",
"text": "evolution: cultural"
},
{
"href": "../feminism-gender/",
"text": "feminist philosophy, topics: perspectives on sex and gender"
},
{
"href": "../innateness-langu... |
contractarianism-contemporary | Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract | First published Sun Mar 3, 1996; substantive revision Mon Sep 27, 2021 | [
"\nThe idea of the social contract goes back at least to Protagoras and\nEpicurus. In its recognizably modern form, however, the idea is\nrevived by Thomas Hobbes and was later developed, in different ways,\nby John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant. After Kant,\nthe idea fell out of favor with politi... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Role of the Social Contract",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 The Distinctiveness of the Social Contract Approach",
"1.2 The Social Contract as a Model"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Modeling the Parties",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Reductionist vs. Non-Reductionist ",
... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. The Role of the Social Contract",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nThe aim of a social contract theory is to show that members of some\nsociety have reason to endorse and comply with the fundamental social\nrules, laws, institutions, a... | [
"Ackerman, Bruce, 1980. Social Justice in the Liberal\nState. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (especially\n§66).",
"Alexander, Jason and Brian Skyrms, 1999. “Bargaining with\nNeighbors: Is Justice Contagious?” The Journal of\nPhilosophy, 96(11): 588–598.",
"Alexander, Jason, 2007. The Structural Evolution ... | [
{
"href": "../contractarianism/",
"text": "contractarianism"
},
{
"href": "../contractualism/",
"text": "contractualism"
},
{
"href": "../ethics-deontological/",
"text": "ethics: deontological"
},
{
"href": "../game-evolutionary/",
"text": "game theory: evolutionary"
},... |
spacetime-theories-classical | Absolute and Relational Space and Motion: Classical Theories | First published Mon Jul 19, 2021 | [
"\nSince antiquity, natural philosophers have struggled to comprehend the\nnature of three tightly interconnected concepts: space, time, and\nmotion. A proper understanding of motion, in particular, has been seen\nto be crucial for deciding questions about the natures of space and\ntime, and their interconnections.... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Aristotle",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Descartes",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 The Nature of Motion",
"3.2 Motion and Dynamics"
]
},
{
"content_title": "4. Newton",
"sub_toc":... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThings change. This is a platitude but still a crucial feature of the\nworld, and one which causes many philosophical perplexities –\nsee for instance the entry on\n Zeno’s paradoxes.\n For Aristotle, motion (he would have called it\n‘locomotion’) was just one kind of change, like\n... | [
"Aristotle, 1984, The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised\nOxford Translation, J. Barnes (ed.), Princeton: Princeton\nUniversity Press.",
"Arthur, R.T., 2013, “Leibniz’s theory of space,”\nFoundations of Science, 18(3), pp.499–528.",
"Biener, Z., 2017, “De Gravitatione Reconsidered: The\nChanging Significa... | [
{
"href": "../descartes-physics/",
"text": "Descartes, René: physics"
},
{
"href": "../genrel-early/",
"text": "general relativity: early philosophical interpretations of"
},
{
"href": "../newton-stm/",
"text": "Newton, Isaac: views on space, time, and motion"
},
{
"href": ".... |
spacetime-theories | Absolute and Relational Space and Motion: Post-Newtonian Theories | First published Fri Aug 11, 2006; substantive revision Mon Jul 19, 2021 | [
"\nWhat is the nature of motion in physical theories and theorising, and\nis there any significance to the distinction between\n‘absolute’ and ‘relative’ motion? In the\ncompanion article, on\n absolute and relational space and motion: classical theories,\n we discussed how such questions were addressed in the hist... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Mach",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Two Interpretations of Mach on Inertia",
"1.2 Implementing Mach-heavy",
"1.3 Mach-lite versus Mach-heavy"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Einstein",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Relations Determine State of Motion?",
"2.2 The Rel... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nBetween the time of Newton and Leibniz and the 20th century,\nNewton’s mechanics and gravitation theory reigned essentially\nunchallenged, and with that long period of dominance, Newton’s\nabsolute space came to be widely accepted. At least, no natural\nphilosopher or physicist offe... | [
"Acuña, P. 2016, “Minkowski space-time and Lorentz\nInvariance: The Cart and the Horse or Two Sides of a Single\nCoin?”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern\nPhysics, 55: 1–12.",
"Barbour, J., 2012, Shape Dynamics. An Introduction, in F.\nFinster, et al., Quantum Field Theory and Gravity:\nConceptual and ... | [
{
"href": "../genrel-early/",
"text": "general relativity: early philosophical interpretations of"
},
{
"href": "../ernst-mach/",
"text": "Mach, Ernst"
},
{
"href": "../newton-stm/",
"text": "Newton, Isaac: views on space, time, and motion"
},
{
"href": "../spacetime-theories... |
spacetime-convensimul | Conventionality of Simultaneity | First published Mon Aug 31, 1998; substantive revision Sat Jul 21, 2018 | [
"\n\nIn his first paper on the special theory of relativity, Einstein\nindicated that the question of whether or not two spatially separated\nevents were simultaneous did not necessarily have a definite answer,\nbut instead depended on the adoption of a convention for its\nresolution. Some later writers have argued... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Conventionality Thesis",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Phenomenological Counterarguments",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Malament’s Theorem",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Other Considerations",
"sub_toc": []
},
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nThe debate about the conventionality of simultaneity is usually\ncarried on within the framework of the special theory of relativity.\nEven prior to the advent of that theory, however, questions had been\nraised (see, e.g., Poincaré 1898) as to whether simultaneity\nwas absolute; ... | [
"Anderson, R., I. Vetharaniam, and G. Stedman, 1998.\n“Conventionality of Synchronisation, Gauge Dependence and Test\nTheories of Relativity,” Physics Reports, 295: 93–180.",
"Augustine, St., Confessions, translated by E.J. Sheed,\nIndianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 2nd edition, 2006.",
"Ben-Yami, H., 2006. ... | [
{
"href": "../einstein-philscience/",
"text": "Einstein, Albert: philosophy of science"
},
{
"href": "../reichenbach/",
"text": "Reichenbach, Hans"
},
{
"href": "../wesley-salmon/",
"text": "Salmon, Wesley"
}
] |
spacetime-singularities | Singularities and Black Holes | First published Mon Jun 29, 2009; substantive revision Wed Feb 27, 2019 | [
"\nA spacetime singularity is a breakdown in spacetime, either in its\ngeometry or in some other basic physical structure. It is a topic of\nongoing physical and philosophical research to clarify both the nature\nand significance of such pathologies. When it is the fundamental\ngeometry that breaks down, spacetime ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Spacetime Singularities",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1. Path Incompleteness",
"1.2. Boundary Constructions",
"1.3. Curvature Pathology",
"1.4. Non-Standard Singularities"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Significance of Singularities",
"sub_toc": [
"2... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nGeneral relativity, Einstein's theory of space, time, and gravity,\nallows for the existence of singularities. Everyone agrees on this.\nWhen it comes to the question of how, precisely, singularities are to\nbe defined, however, there is widespread disagreement. Singularities\nin so... | [
"Albert, David Z., 2000, Time and Chance, Cambridge, MA:\nHarvard University Press ",
"Belot, Gordon, John Earman, and Laura Ruetsche, 1999, “The\nHawking Information Loss Paradox: The Anatomy of Controversy”,\nBritish Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 50(2):\n189–229. doi:10.1093/bjps/50.2.189 ",
"Bokulic... | [
{
"href": "../reasoning-analogy/",
"text": "analogy and analogical reasoning"
},
{
"href": "../determinism-causal/",
"text": "determinism: causal"
},
{
"href": "../physics-interrelate/",
"text": "physics: intertheory relations in"
},
{
"href": "../qm/",
"text": "quantum m... |
spacetime-supertasks | Supertasks | First published Tue Apr 5, 2016; substantive revision Tue May 31, 2022 | [
"\nA supertask is a task that consists in infinitely many component\nsteps, but which in some sense is completed in a finite amount of\ntime. Supertasks were studied by the pre-Socratics and continue to be\nobjects of interest to modern philosophers, logicians and physicists.\nThe term “super-task” itself was coine... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Mechanical properties",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Missing final and initial steps: The Zeno walk",
"1.2 Missing limits: Thomson’s Lamp",
"1.3 Discontinuous quantities: The Littlewood-Ross Paradox",
"1.4 Classical mechanical supertasks",
"1.5 Quantum mechanical su... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nStrange things can happen when one carries out an infinite task.",
"\nFor example, consider a hotel with a countably infinite number of\nrooms. One night when the hotel is completely occupied, a traveler\nshows up and asks for a room. “No problem,” the\nreceptionist replies, “... | [
"Andréka, H., Madarász, J., Németi, I., Németi, P. and G. Székely, 2018, “Relativistic Computation”, in M. Cuffaro and S. Fletcher\n(eds.), Physical Perspectives on Computation, Computational Perspectives on Physics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 195–215.",
"Atkinson, D., 2007, “Losing energy in classica... | [
{
"href": "../church-turing/",
"text": "Church-Turing Thesis"
},
{
"href": "../computability/",
"text": "computability and complexity"
},
{
"href": "../computation-physicalsystems/",
"text": "computation: in physical systems"
},
{
"href": "../determinism-causal/",
"text":... |
spinoza-epistemology-mind | Spinoza’s Epistemology and Philosophy of Mind | First published Mon Jan 10, 2022 | [
"\nSpinoza’s epistemology and philosophy of mind are governed by\nsome rather unintuitive commitments: first, a commitment to universal\nintelligibility, often described as Spinoza’s version of what,\nwith Leibniz, came to be known as the Principle of Sufficient Reason\n(PSR); second, a commitment to the explanator... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Guiding commitments",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Universal intelligibility",
"1.2 Attribute barrier",
"1.3 The priority of an infinite thinker",
"1.4 Philosophy as a way of life"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Philosophy of mind",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Mi... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Guiding commitments",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nOne of Spinoza’s most fundamental epistemological and\nmethodological commitments is a commitment to universal\nintelligibility. In his most influential treatise, the\nEthics, Spin... | [
"Spinoza Opera [G], edited by Carl\nGebhardt, 5 volumes, Heidelberg: Carl Winters, 1925, 1972, 1987.",
"Spinoza, Benedictus, The Collected Writings of Spinoza, 2\nvols., Edwin Curley, translator, Princeton: Princeton University\nPress, vol. 1: 1985; vol. 2: 2016.",
"Alanen, Lilli, 2011. “Spinoza on the Human Mi... | [
{
"href": "../emotions-17th18th/",
"text": "emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of"
},
{
"href": "../panpsychism/",
"text": "panpsychism"
},
{
"href": "../sufficient-reason/",
"text": "principle of sufficient reason"
},
{
"href": "../spinoza/",
"text": "Spinoza, Baruc... |
spinoza-physics | Spinoza’s Physical Theory | First published Fri Sep 22, 2006; substantive revision Sat Apr 24, 2021 | [
"\nSpinoza's thought stands at an uneasy and volatile period in the\ndevelopment of physical theory. His physical science is largely\nCartesian, both in content and rationalistic method. It is harshly\ndismissive of the “occult qualities, intentional species,\nsubstantial forms, and a thousand other trifles” (lette... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Sources and context",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Overview of the ",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Physical cartesianism and the consequences of metaphysical divergence",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 Areas of agreement and divergence",
"3... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nWhile the other two great rationalists, Descartes and Leibniz, were\nphysical theorists and mathematicians of the first rank, who made\nsubstantial contributions to the development of physical science, the\nsame cannot be said of Spinoza. Nor was Spinoza a systematic\nexperimentalis... | [
"Spinoza, B. d. and E. M. Curley, 1985. The collected works of\nSpinoza, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.",
"Spinoza, B. d., S. Shirley, et al., 1995. The letters,\nIndianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Pub. Co.",
"Spinoza, B. d. and E. M. Curley, 1994. A Spinoza reader: the\nEthics and other works, Princeton... | [
{
"href": "../descartes/",
"text": "Descartes, René"
},
{
"href": "../descartes-modal/",
"text": "Descartes, René: modal metaphysics"
},
{
"href": "../determinism-causal/",
"text": "determinism: causal"
},
{
"href": "../identity/",
"text": "identity"
},
{
"href": ... |
spinoza-political | Spinoza’s Political Philosophy | First published Mon Apr 21, 2008; substantive revision Mon Apr 15, 2019 | [
"\n\nAt least in anglophone countries, Spinoza’s reputation as a\npolitical thinker is eclipsed by his reputation as a rationalist\nmetaphysician. Nevertheless, Spinoza was a penetrating political\ntheorist whose writings have enduring significance. In his two\npolitical treatises, Spinoza advances a number of forc... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Historical Background",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Theological and Political Background",
"1.2 Intellectual Background"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Basic Features of Spinoza’s Political Philosophy",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Hobbes and Spinoza on the Right of Nature",... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nIn order to situate Spinoza’s political writings, I will\nprovide a brief overview of the theologico-political context of the\nUnited Provinces, followed by a sketch of intellectual background to\nthese works."
],
"section_title": "1. Historical Background",
"subsectio... | [
"Hobbes, Thomas, 1994, The Elements of Law, Ed. J.C.A.\nGaskin, Oxford: Oxford University Press",
"––– 1996, Leviathan, Ed. Richard\nTuck, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"––– 1998, On the Citizen, Eds. and\ntrans. Richard Tuck and Michael Silverthorne, Cambridge: Cambridge\nUniversity Press.",
"Mach... | [
{
"href": "../authority/",
"text": "authority"
},
{
"href": "../contractarianism/",
"text": "contractarianism"
},
{
"href": "../democracy/",
"text": "democracy"
},
{
"href": "../hobbes-moral/",
"text": "Hobbes, Thomas: moral and political philosophy"
},
{
"href": ... |
spinoza-psychological | Spinoza’s Psychological Theory | First published Tue Oct 23, 2001; substantive revision Tue May 26, 2020 | [
"\n\nIn Part III of his Ethics, “On the Origin and Nature of\nthe Affects,” which is the subject of this article, Spinoza\naddresses two of the most serious challenges facing his thoroughgoing\nnaturalism. First, he attempts to show that human beings follow the\norder of nature. Human beings, on Spinoza’s view, hav... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Human Being as Part of Nature",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 The Argument to the Striving Doctrine",
"1.2 The Striving Doctrine as an Account of the Natures of Particular Objects",
"1.3 The Striving Doctrine as an Account of Human Nature"
]
},
{
"content_title":... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nIn the Preface to Part III, Spinoza states his view that all things\nalike must be understood to follow from the laws of nature: ",
"The laws and rules of nature, according to which all things\nhappen, and change from one form to another, are always and everywhere\nthe same.... | [
"Spinoza Opera, Carl Gebhart (ed.), 4 volumes, Heidelberg:\nCarl Winter, 1925.",
"The Collected Works of Spinoza, 2 Vols., Edwin Curley\n(ed. and trans.), Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985, 2016.",
"Aquinas, Saint Thomas, 1964, Summa Theologiae. New York:\nMcGraw-Hill.",
"Cicero, 1933, De Natura Deo... | [
{
"href": "../descartes/",
"text": "Descartes, René"
},
{
"href": "../emotions-17th18th/",
"text": "emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of"
},
{
"href": "../hobbes/",
"text": "Hobbes, Thomas"
},
{
"href": "../spinoza/",
"text": "Spinoza, Baruch"
}
] |
spinoza-attributes | Spinoza’s Theory of Attributes | First published Tue Feb 3, 2009; substantive revision Mon Mar 19, 2018 | [
"\n\nAttributes sit at the very heart of Spinoza’s metaphysics.\nThey enable us to understand and talk about an extended world and a\nthinking world in terms of which we understand such things as bodies and minds.\nFurthermore, it is due to the relation of attributes to one another and\nto the infinite substance th... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Attributes in the ",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 What are Attributes?",
"1.2 Definition of Attribute",
"1.3 Real Distinction",
"1.4 The Identification of Attributes with Substance",
"1.5 Extension as a Divine Attribute",
"1.6 The 2P7 Doctrine",
"1.7 The... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nBefore discussing the theory of attributes in the Ethics,\nit will be helpful to keep in mind a rudimentary sketch of the general\nstructure of Spinoza’s\nontology:[2]\n",
"\n\nThere is only an infinite substance (1P14), that is, there are no\ncreated substances. The infinit... | [
"Allison, Henry E., 1987. Benedict De Spinoza: An Introduction,\nNew Haven: Yale University Press.",
"Bennett, Jonathan Francis, 1984. A Study of Spinoza’s Ethics,\nIndianapolis, IN: Hackett.",
"Curley, E. M., 1988. Behind the Geometrical Method: A Reading of\nSpinoza’s Ethics, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer... | [
{
"href": "../descartes/",
"text": "Descartes, René"
},
{
"href": "../descartes-physics/",
"text": "Descartes, René: physics"
},
{
"href": "../dualism/",
"text": "dualism"
},
{
"href": "../spinoza/",
"text": "Spinoza, Baruch"
},
{
"href": "../spinoza-modal/",
... |
statphys-Boltzmann | Boltzmann’s Work in Statistical Physics | First published Wed Nov 17, 2004; substantive revision Sun Aug 17, 2014 | [
"\n\nLudwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) is generally acknowledged as one of\nthe most important physicists of the nineteenth century. Particularly\nfamous is his statistical explanation of the second law of\nthermodynamics. The celebrated formula \\(S = k \\log W\\), expressing a\nrelation between entropy \\(S\\) and pro... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Popular perceptions of Boltzmann",
"1.2 Debates and controversies",
"1.3 Boltzmann's relevance for the foundations of statistical physics",
"1.4 A concise chronography of Boltzmann's writings"
]
},
{
"content_title":... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Introduction",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\n\nBoltzmann's work met with mixed reactions during his lifetime, and\ncontinue to do so even today. It may be worthwhile, therefore, to\ndevote a few remarks to the perception and recepti... | [
"1866, Über die Mechanische Bedeutung des Zweiten Hauptsatzes\nder Wärmetheorie, Wiener Berichte, 53:\n195–220; in WA I, paper 2.",
"1868, Studien über das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft\nzwischen bewegten materiellen Punkten, Wiener Berichte,\n58: 517–560, 1868; page reference is to WA I, paper\n5.",
"1871... | [
{
"href": "../ernst-mach/",
"text": "Mach, Ernst"
},
{
"href": "../physics-interrelate/",
"text": "physics: intertheory relations in"
},
{
"href": "../probability-interpret/",
"text": "probability, interpretations of"
},
{
"href": "../statphys-statmech/",
"text": "statist... |
statphys-statmech | Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics | First published Tue Jan 10, 2023 | [
"\n[Editor’s Note: The following new entry by Roman Frigg and Charlotte Werndl replaces the\n former entry\non this topic by the previous author.]\n",
"\nStatistical Mechanics is the third pillar of modern physics, next to\nquantum theory and relativity theory. Its aim is to account for the\nmacroscopic behaviour... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Aims of Statistical Mechanics (SM)",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Theoretical Landscape of SM",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Dynamical Systems",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Boltzmannian Statistical Mechanics (BS... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nStatistical Mechanics (SM) is the third pillar of modern physics, next\nto quantum theory and relativity theory. Its aim is to account for the\nmacroscopic behaviour of physical systems in terms of dynamical laws\ngoverning the microscopic constituents of these systems and the\nprob... | [
"Ainsworth, Peter, 2005, “The Spin-Echo Experiment and\nStatistical Mechanics”, Foundations of Physics Letters,\n18(7): 621–635. doi:10.1007/s10702-005-1316-z",
"Albert, David Z., 2000, Time and Chance, Cambridge, MA:\nHarvard University Press.",
"–––, 2015, After Physics, Cambridge,\nMA: Harvard University Pre... | [
{
"href": "../ergodic-hierarchy/",
"text": "ergodic hierarchy"
},
{
"href": "../information/",
"text": "information"
},
{
"href": "../laws-of-nature/",
"text": "laws of nature"
},
{
"href": "../physics-interrelate/",
"text": "physics: intertheory relations in"
},
{
... |
supervenience-ethics | Supervenience in Ethics | First published Wed Oct 7, 2015; substantive revision Tue Oct 22, 2019 | [
"\nWe sometimes think about the ethical significance of merely possible\ncircumstances. People sometimes wonder, for example, if it would have\nbeen wrong to break certain promises that they in fact kept. Examples\nlike this do not exhaust the significance of possibility—or\nmodality more generally—in our ethical t... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Theorizing Ethical Supervenience",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 What does the ethical supervene on?",
"1.2 The structure of ethical supervenience",
"1.3 The modal strength of ethical supervenience",
"1.4 Ontological and ascriptive supervenience"
]
},
{
"conten... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nMany philosophers hope to make significant arguments about ethics\nusing ethical supervenience as a premise. However, there are many\ndistinct ethical supervenience theses that philosophers might be\ninterested in. Understanding the differences between these theses can\nhelp to clar... | [
"Atiq, Emad, forthcoming, “Supervenience, Repeatability,\n& Expressivism”, Noûs, first online 01 April\n2019. doi:10.1111/nous.12284",
"Bader, Ralf, 2017, “The Grounding Argument against\nNon-reductive Moral Realism”, in Russ Shafer-Landau (ed.),\nOxford Studies in Metaethics (Volume 12), Oxford: Oxford\nUniversi... | [
{
"href": "../analytic-synthetic/",
"text": "analytic/synthetic distinction"
},
{
"href": "../moral-cognitivism/",
"text": "cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral"
},
{
"href": "../functionalism/",
"text": "functionalism"
},
{
"href": "../grounding/",
"text": "grounding, ... |
tarski-truth | Tarski’s Truth Definitions | First published Sat Nov 10, 2001; substantive revision Wed Sep 21, 2022 | [
"\nIn 1933 the Polish logician Alfred Tarski published a paper in which\nhe discussed the criteria that a definition of ‘true\nsentence’ should meet, and gave examples of several such\ndefinitions for particular formal languages. In 1956 he and his\ncolleague Robert Vaught published a revision of one of the 1933 tr... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The 1933 programme and the semantic conception",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Object language and metalanguage",
"1.2 Formal correctness",
"1.3 Material adequacy"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Some kinds of truth definition on the 1933 pattern",
"sub_toc": [
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nIn the late 1920s Alfred Tarski embarked on a project to give rigorous\ndefinitions for notions useful in scientific methodology. In 1933 he\npublished (in Polish) his analysis of the notion of a true sentence.\nThis long paper undertook two tasks: first to say what should count as\... | [
"Feferman, S., 2004, “Tarski’s conceptual analysis of\nsemantical notions”, in Sémantique et\nÉpistémologie, ed. Ali Benmakhlouf, Casablanca:\nEditions Le Fennec, 79–108; reprinted in Patterson 2008.",
"Henkin, L., 1961, “Some remarks on infinitely long\nformulas”, in Infinitistic methods: Proceedings of the\nsym... | [
{
"href": "../compositionality/",
"text": "compositionality"
},
{
"href": "../logic-games/",
"text": "logic: and games"
},
{
"href": "../logic-dependence/",
"text": "logic: dependence"
},
{
"href": "../logic-if/",
"text": "logic: independence friendly"
},
{
"href"... |
testimony-episprob | Epistemological Problems of Testimony | First published Thu Apr 1, 2021 | [
"\nSo much of what we know about the world, e.g., history, science,\npolitics, one another, etc., comes from the testimony of others. But\nwhile testimony is clearly an indispensable source of knowledge,\nspecifying exactly how it is that we are able to learn from a\nspeaker’s say-so has proven to be a difficult ta... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Reductionism and Non-Reductionism",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Reductionism",
"1.2 Non-Reductionism",
"1.3 Hybrid Views"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Knowledge Transmission and Generation",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 The Transmission View",
"2.2 The Generati... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nConsider this scenario: Your friend testifies to you that your\nfavorite team won last night’s game (= p). Because you\nknow that your friend is a highly reliable sports reporter, and\nbecause you have no reason to doubt what she says on this occasion,\nyou believe what you are told... | [
"Adler, Jonathan E., 1994, “Testimony, Trust,\nKnowing”:, Journal of Philosophy, 91(5): 264–275.\ndoi:10.2307/2940754",
"–––, 1996, “Transmitting Knowledge”,\nNoûs, 30(1): 99–111. doi:10.2307/2216305",
"–––, 2002, Belief’s Own Ethics,\nCambridge, MA: The MIT Press.",
"Alston, William P., 1994, “Belief-forming... | [
{
"href": "../abduction/",
"text": "abduction"
},
{
"href": "../assertion/",
"text": "assertion"
},
{
"href": "../authority/",
"text": "authority"
},
{
"href": "../bayes-theorem/",
"text": "Bayes’ Theorem"
},
{
"href": "../epistemology-social/",
"text": "epist... |
time-experience | The Experience and Perception of Time | First published Mon Aug 28, 2000; substantive revision Fri May 10, 2019 | [
"\nWe see colours, hear sounds and feel textures. Some aspects of the\nworld, it seems, are perceived through a particular sense. Others,\nlike shape, are perceived through more than one sense. But what sense\nor senses do we use when perceiving time? It is certainly not\nassociated with one particular sense. In fa... | [
{
"content_title": "1. What is ‘the perception of time’?",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Kinds of temporal experience",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Duration",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. The specious present",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe very expression ‘the perception of time’ invites\nobjection. Insofar as time is something different from events, we do\nnot perceive time as such, but changes or events in\ntime. But, arguably, we do not perceive events only, but also their\ntemporal relations. So, just as it is... | [
"Arstila, Valtteri, 2018, ‘Temporal Experience without the Specious Present’, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 92(2): 287–302.",
"Augustine, St., Confessions, R.S. Pinecoffin (ed.),\nHarmondsworth: Penguin, 1961.",
"Benovsky, Jiri, 2013, ‘The Present vs The Specious\nPresent’, Review of Philosophy and Psycho... | [
{
"href": "../augustine/",
"text": "Augustine, Saint"
},
{
"href": "../consciousness-temporal/",
"text": "consciousness: temporal"
},
{
"href": "../memory/",
"text": "memory"
},
{
"href": "../perception-problem/",
"text": "perception: the problem of"
},
{
"href": ... |
time-thermo | Thermodynamic Asymmetry in Time | First published Thu Nov 15, 2001; substantive revision Tue Jun 8, 2021 | [
"\nThe thermodynamic time asymmetry is one of the most salient and\nconsequential features of the physical universe. Heat flows from hot\nto cold, never the reverse. The smell of coffee spreads throughout its\navailable volume, never the reverse. Car engines convert fuel energy\ninto work and thermal energy, never ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Thermodynamic Time Asymmetry: A Brief Guide",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Problem of the Direction of Time I",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Past Hypothesis",
"2.2 Electromagnetism",
"2.3 Cosmology",
"2.4 Quantum Cosmology",
"2.5 Time Itse... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nFirst developed in Sadi Carnot’s Reflections on the Motive\nPower of Fire 1824, the science of classical thermodynamics is\nintimately associated with the industrial revolution. Most of the\nresults responsible for the science originated from the practice of\nengineers trying to imp... | [
"Albert, David Z., 1992, Quantum Mechanics and Experience,\nCambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.",
"–––, 2000, Time and Chance, Cambridge,\nMA: Harvard University Press.",
"–––, 2015, After Physics, Cambridge,\nMA: Harvard University Press.",
"Allori, Valia, 2015, “Maxwell’s Paradox: Classical\nElectrodyn... | [
{
"href": "../causation-probabilistic/",
"text": "causation: probabilistic"
},
{
"href": "../laws-of-nature/",
"text": "laws of nature"
},
{
"href": "../physics-interrelate/",
"text": "physics: intertheory relations in"
},
{
"href": "../probability-interpret/",
"text": "p... |
time-travel-phys | Time Travel and Modern Physics | First published Thu Feb 17, 2000; substantive revision Wed Dec 23, 2009 | [
"\n\nTime travel has been a staple of science fiction. With the advent of\ngeneral relativity it has been entertained by serious physicists. But,\nespecially in the philosophy literature, there have been arguments that\ntime travel is inherently paradoxical. The most famous paradox is the\ngrandfather paradox: you ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. A Botched Suicide",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Why Do Time Travel Suicides Get Botched?",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Topology and Constraints",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. The General Possibility of Time Travel in G... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nYou are very depressed. You are suicidally depressed. You have a\ngun. But you do not quite have the courage to point the gun at yourself\nand kill yourself in this way. If only someone else would kill you,\nthat would be a good thing. But you can't really ask someone to kill\nyou... | [
"Deutsch, D. 1991. “Quantum mechanics near closed timelike\ncurves,” Physical Review D, 44: 3197-3217.",
"Deutsch, D. and Lockwood, M. 1994. “The quantum physics of\ntime travel,” Scientific American, 270 (3):\n68-74.",
"Earman, J. 1972. “Implications of causal propagation outsider\nthe null cone,” in Foundatio... | [
{
"href": "../determinism-causal/",
"text": "determinism: causal"
},
{
"href": "../time-machine/",
"text": "time machines"
},
{
"href": "../time-travel/",
"text": "time travel"
}
] |
truth-axiomatic | Axiomatic Theories of Truth | First published Mon Dec 26, 2005; substantive revision Thu Jan 18, 2018 | [
"An axiomatic theory of truth is a deductive theory of truth as a\nprimitive undefined predicate. Because of the liar and other\nparadoxes, the axioms and rules have to be chosen carefully in order\nto avoid inconsistency. Many axiom systems for the truth predicate\nhave been discussed in the literature and their r... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Motivations",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Truth, properties and sets",
"1.2 Truth and reflection",
"1.3 Truth-theoretic deflationism"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. The base theory",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 The choice of the base theory",
"2.2 Notational con... | [
{
"main_content": [
"There have been many attempts to define truth in terms of\n correspondence,\n coherence or other notions. \nHowever, it is far from clear that truth is a definable notion. In\nformal settings satisfying certain natural conditions, Tarski’s\ntheorem on the undefinability of the truth p... | [
"Aczel, Peter, 1980, “Frege structures and the notion of\nproposition, truth and set”, The Kleene Symposium, Jon\nBarwise et al. (editors), Amsterdam: North-Holland, 31–59.",
"Bealer, George, 1982, Quality and Concept, Oxford:\nClarendon Press.",
"Burgess, John P., 2014, “Friedman and the\naxiomatization of Kri... | [
{
"href": "../compositionality/",
"text": "compositionality"
},
{
"href": "../goedel/",
"text": "Gödel, Kurt"
},
{
"href": "../goedel-incompleteness/",
"text": "Gödel, Kurt: incompleteness theorems"
},
{
"href": "../liar-paradox/",
"text": "liar paradox"
},
{
"hre... |
truth-coherence | The Coherence Theory of Truth | First published Tue Sep 3, 1996; substantive revision Tue Jun 26, 2018 | [
"\n\nA coherence theory of truth states that the truth of any (true)\nproposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of\npropositions. The coherence theory differs from its principal\ncompetitor, the correspondence theory of truth, in two essential\nrespects. The competing theories give conflicting a... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Versions of the Coherence Theory of Truth",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Arguments for Coherence Theories of Truth",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Criticisms of Coherence Theories of Truth",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. N... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nThe coherence theory of truth has several versions. These versions\ndiffer on two major issues. Different versions of the theory give\ndifferent accounts of the coherence relation. Different varieties of\nthe theory also give various accounts of the set (or sets) of\npropositions ... | [
"Blanshard, B., 1939, The Nature of Thought, London:\nGeorge Allen and Unwin.",
"Bradley, F., 1914, Essays on Truth and Reality, Oxford:\nClarendon Press.",
"Cavendish, S., 2006, “Francis H. Bradley”, in \nThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2006 \nEdition, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =\nhttps://plato.... | [
{
"href": "../knowledge-analysis/",
"text": "knowledge: analysis of"
},
{
"href": "../realism-sem-challenge/",
"text": "realism: challenges to metaphysical"
},
{
"href": "../russell/",
"text": "Russell, Bertrand"
},
{
"href": "../truth-correspondence/",
"text": "truth: co... |
truth-correspondence | The Correspondence Theory of Truth | First published Fri May 10, 2002; substantive revision Thu May 28, 2015 | [
"\n\nNarrowly speaking, the correspondence theory of truth is the view that\ntruth is correspondence to, or with, a fact—a view that was\nadvocated by Russell and Moore early in the 20th century. But the\nlabel is usually applied much more broadly to any view explicitly\nembracing the idea that truth consists in a ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. History of the Correspondence Theory",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Metaphysical and Semantic Versions",
"1.2 Object-Based and Fact-Based Versions"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Truthbearers, Truthmakers, Truth",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Truthbearers",
"2.2 Truthma... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nThe correspondence theory is often traced back to Aristotle’s\nwell-known definition of truth (Metaphysics 1011b25):\n“To say of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is,\nis false, while to say of what is that it is, and of what is not that\nit is not, is true”—but vi... | [
"Adams McCord, M., 1987, William Ockham, Notre Dame: Notre\nDame University Press.",
"Alston, W. P., 1996, A Realist Conception of Truth,\nIthaca and London: Cornell University Press.",
"Armour-Garb, B. and Beall, J. C., eds., 2005, Deflationary\nTruth, Chicago: Open Court.",
"Armstrong, D. M., 1973, Belief, ... | [
{
"href": "../belief/",
"text": "belief"
},
{
"href": "../facts/",
"text": "facts"
},
{
"href": "../language-thought/",
"text": "language of thought hypothesis"
},
{
"href": "../liar-paradox/",
"text": "liar paradox"
},
{
"href": "../logical-atomism/",
"text":... |
truth-deflationary | Deflationism About Truth | First published Thu Aug 28, 1997; substantive revision Tue Dec 14, 2021 | [
"\nDeflationism about truth, what is often simply called\n“deflationism”, is really not so much a theory of\ntruth in the traditional sense, as it is a different, newer sort\nof approach to the topic. Traditional theories of truth are part of a\nphilosophical debate about the nature of a supposed property of truth.... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Central Themes in Deflationism",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 The Equivalence Schema",
"1.2 The Property of Truth",
"1.3 The Utility of the Concept of Truth"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. History of Deflationism",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Th... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Central Themes in Deflationism",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nWhile deflationism can be developed in different ways, it is possible\nto isolate some central themes emphasized by most philosophers who\nthink of themselves as deflati... | [
"Alston, William, 1996, A Realist Conception of Truth,\nIthaca: Cornell University Press.",
"Armour-Garb, Bradley, 2001, “Deflationism and the\nMeaningless Strategy,” Analysis, 61(4):\n280–9.",
"–––, 2004, “Minimalism, the Generalization\nProblem, and the Liar,” Synthese, 139(3):\n491–512.",
"–––, 2010, “Horw... | [
{
"href": "../propositions/",
"text": "propositions"
},
{
"href": "../tarski-truth/",
"text": "Tarski, Alfred: truth definitions"
},
{
"href": "../truth/",
"text": "truth"
},
{
"href": "../truth-axiomatic/",
"text": "truth: axiomatic theories of"
},
{
"href": "../... |
truth-identity | The Identity Theory of Truth | First published Fri May 1, 2015; substantive revision Tue Dec 29, 2020 | [
"\nThe identity theory of truth was influential in the formative years of\nmodern analytic philosophy, and has come to prominence again recently.\nBroadly speaking, it sees itself as a reaction against correspondence\ntheories of truth, which maintain that truth-bearers are made\ntrue by facts. The identity theory ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Definition and Preliminary Exposition",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Historical Background",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Motivation",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Identity, Sense, and Reference",
"sub_toc": []
},
... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nDeclarative sentences seem to take truth-values, for we say things\nlike",
"\nBut sentences are apparently not the only bearers of truth-values: for\nwe also seem to allow that what such sentences express, or mean, may\nbe true or false, saying such things as",
"\nand",
... | [
"Anscombe, G. E. M., 2000, “Making True”, in\nLogic, Cause, and Action: Essays in Honour of Elizabeth\nAnscombe, Roger Teichmann (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University\nPress, pp. 1–8.",
"Armstrong, D. M., 1991, “Classes Are States of\nAffairs”, Mind, 100(398): 189–200.\ndoi:10.1093/mind/C.398.189",
"–––, 1997,... | [
{
"href": "../bradley/",
"text": "Bradley, Francis Herbert"
},
{
"href": "../facts/",
"text": "facts"
},
{
"href": "../frege/",
"text": "Frege, Gottlob"
},
{
"href": "../meinong/",
"text": "Meinong, Alexius"
},
{
"href": "../moore/",
"text": "Moore, George Edw... |
truth-pluralist | Pluralist Theories of Truth | First published Mon Mar 5, 2012; substantive revision Fri Oct 19, 2018 | [
"\n\nThe plausibility of theories of truth has often been observed to\nvary, sometimes extensively, across different domains or regions of\ndiscourse. Because of this variance, the problems internal to each such\ntheory become salient as they overgeneralize. A natural suggestion is\ntherefore that not all (declarat... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Alethic pluralism about truth: a plurality of properties",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Strength",
"1.2 Related kinds of pluralism and neighboring views",
"1.3 Alethic pluralism, inflationism, and deflationism"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Motivating pluralism: the s... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Alethic pluralism about truth: a plurality of properties",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\n\nThe pluralist’s thesis that there are many ways of being true\nis typically construed as being tantamount to the claim that the number\nof tr... | [
"Acton, Harry, 1935, “The correspondence theory of\ntruth,” Proceedings of the\nAristotelian Society, 35: 177–194.",
"Alston, William, 2002, “Truth: concept and property,”\nin Richard Shantz (ed.), What is Truth?, Berlin: Walter de\nGruyter, pp. 11–26.",
"Asay, Jamin, 2018, “Putting pluralism in its place,” Phi... | [
{
"href": "../ambiguity/",
"text": "ambiguity"
},
{
"href": "../moral-cognitivism/",
"text": "cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral"
},
{
"href": "../concepts/",
"text": "concepts"
},
{
"href": "../functionalism/",
"text": "functionalism"
},
{
"href": "../monism/... |
truth-pragmatic | The Pragmatic Theory of Truth | First published Thu Mar 21, 2019 | [
"\nPragmatic theories of truth are usually associated either with C.S.\nPeirce’s proposal that true beliefs will be accepted “at\nthe end of inquiry” or with William James’ proposal that\ntruth be defined in terms of utility. More broadly, however, pragmatic\ntheories of truth focus on the connection between truth ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. History of the Pragmatic Theory of Truth",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Peirce’s Pragmatic Theory of Truth",
"1.2 James’ Pragmatic Theory of Truth",
"1.3 Dewey’s Pragmatic Theory of Truth"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Neo-Pragmatic Theories of Truth",
"sub_toc": ... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe history of the pragmatic theory of truth is tied to the history of\nclassical American pragmatism. According to the standard account, C.S.\nPeirce gets credit for first proposing a pragmatic theory of truth,\nWilliam James is responsible for popularizing the pragmatic theory,\na... | [
"Allen Hermanson, Sean, 2001, “The Pragmatist’s Troubles\nwith Bivalence and Counterfactuals”, Dialogue, 40(4):\n669–690. doi:10.1017/S0012217300004935",
"Atkin, Albert, 2015, “Intellectual Hope as Convenient\nFriction”, Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce\nSociety, 51(4): 444–462.\ndoi:10.2979/trancharpeirsoc.... | [
{
"href": "../moral-cognitivism/",
"text": "cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral"
},
{
"href": "../peirce/",
"text": "Peirce, Charles Sanders"
},
{
"href": "../pragmatism/",
"text": "pragmatism"
},
{
"href": "../realism-sem-challenge/",
"text": "realism: challenges to m... |
truth-revision | The Revision Theory of Truth | First published Fri Dec 15, 1995; substantive revision Tue Jun 2, 2015 | [
"\n\nConsider the following sentence:",
"\n\nIt has long been known that the sentence, (1), produces a paradox, the\nso-called liar's paradox: it seems impossible consistently to\nmaintain that (1) is true, and impossible consistently to maintain\nthat (1) is not true: if (1) is true, then (1) says, truly, that (... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Semiformal introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. Framing the problem",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Truth languages",
"2.2 Ground models ",
"2.3 Three ground models"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Basic notions of the RTT",
"sub_toc": [... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nLet's take a closer look at the sentence (1), given above:",
"\n\n\n(1) is not true.\n(1)\n\n\n",
"\n\nIt will be useful to make the paradoxical reasoning explicit. First,\nsuppose that ",
"\n\n\n(1) is not true.\n(2)\n\n\n",
"\n\nIt seems an intuitive prin... | [
"Antonelli, G.A., 1994a, “The complexity of\nrevision”, Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, 35:\n204–218. ",
"–––, 1994b, “Non-well-founded sets via revision\nrules”,\nJournal of Philosophical Logic, 23: 633–679. ",
"–––, 2002, “The complexity of revision,\nrevised”, Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic, 43:\n75–... | [
{
"href": "../curry-paradox/",
"text": "Curry’s paradox"
},
{
"href": "../definitions/",
"text": "definitions"
},
{
"href": "../liar-paradox/",
"text": "liar paradox"
},
{
"href": "../tarski-truth/",
"text": "Tarski, Alfred: truth definitions"
},
{
"href": "../tru... |
type-theory-church | Church’s Type Theory | First published Fri Aug 25, 2006; substantive revision Tue May 21, 2019 | [
"\nChurch’s type theory, aka simple type theory, is a formal\nlogical language which includes classical first-order and\npropositional logic, but is more expressive in a practical sense. It\nis used, with some modifications and enhancements, in most modern\napplications of type theory. It is particularly well suite... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Syntax",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Fundamental Ideas",
"1.2 Formulas",
"1.3 Axioms and Rules of Inference",
"1.4 A Formulation Based on Equality"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Semantics",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Metatheory",
"s... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Syntax",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\nWe start with an informal description of the fundamental ideas\nunderlying the syntax of Church’s formulation of type\ntheory.",
"\nAll entities have types, and if α and β are types, ... | [
"Andrews, Peter B., 1963, “A Reduction of the Axioms for the\nTheory of Prepositional Types”, Fundamenta\nMathematicae, 52(3): 345–350. doi:10.4064/fm-52-3-345-350",
"–––, 1971, “Resolution in Type\nTheory”, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, 36(3):\n414–432. Reprinted in Siekmann & Wrightson 1983 and in\nBenzmüller ... | [
{
"href": "../logic-ai/",
"text": "artificial intelligence: logic and"
},
{
"href": "../category-theory/",
"text": "category theory"
},
{
"href": "../axiom-choice/",
"text": "choice, axiom of"
},
{
"href": "../descriptions/",
"text": "descriptions"
},
{
"href": ".... |
universals-medieval | The Medieval Problem of Universals | First published Sun Sep 10, 2000; substantive revision Sun Feb 27, 2022 | [
"\n“The problem of universals” in general is a historically\nvariable bundle of several closely related, yet in different\nconceptual frameworks rather differently articulated metaphysical,\nlogical, and epistemological questions, ultimately all connected to\nthe issue of how universal cognition of singular things ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Introduction",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Emergence of the Problem",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. The Origin of the Specifically Medieval Problem of Universals",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. Boethius’ Aristotelian ... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe inherent problems with Plato’s original theory were\nrecognized already by Plato himself. In his Parmenides Plato\nfamously raised several difficulties, for which he apparently did not\nprovide satisfactory answers. Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.), with all\ndue reverence to his teac... | [
"Aquinas, Opera Omnia, R. Busa (ed.), Stuttgart-Bad\nCanstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1980.",
"Aristotle, The Complete Works of Aristotle, J. Barnes\n(ed.), Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.",
"Augustine, On the Free Choice of the Will, tr. T.\nWilliams, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1993",
"Augustine, De div... | [
{
"href": "../language-thought/",
"text": "language of thought hypothesis"
},
{
"href": "../mental-representation/",
"text": "mental representation"
},
{
"href": "../representation-medieval/",
"text": "mental representation: in medieval philosophy"
},
{
"href": "../properties... |
utilitarianism-history | The History of Utilitarianism | First published Fri Mar 27, 2009; substantive revision Mon Sep 22, 2014 | [
"\n\nUtilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches\nto normative ethics in the history of philosophy. Though not\nfully articulated until the 19th century, proto-utilitarian\npositions can be discerned throughout the history of ethical\ntheory.",
"\n\nThough there are many varieties of the ... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Precursors to the Classical Approach",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Classical Approach",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Jeremy Bentham",
"2.2 John Stuart Mill"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Henry Sidgwick",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_ti... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nThough the first systematic account of utilitarianism was developed\nby Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the core insight motivating the theory\noccurred much earlier. That insight is that morally appropriate\nbehavior will not harm others, but instead increase happiness or\n‘utility.’... | [
"Bentham, Jeremy, 1789 [PML]. An Introduction to the Principles of\nMorals and Legislation., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.",
"–––, 1785 [OAO]. “Offences Against\nOneself.” Louis Compton (ed.), The Journal of\nHomosexuality, 3(4) (1978): 389–406, 4(1): 91–107..",
"Cooper, Anthony Ashley (3rd Earl of\nShaftesbur... | [
{
"href": "../bentham/",
"text": "Bentham, Jeremy"
},
{
"href": "../consequentialism/",
"text": "consequentialism"
},
{
"href": "../hedonism/",
"text": "hedonism"
},
{
"href": "../hume/",
"text": "Hume, David"
},
{
"href": "../mill/",
"text": "Mill, John Stuar... |
value-intrinsic-extrinsic | Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value | First published Tue Oct 22, 2002; substantive revision Wed Jan 9, 2019 | [
"\nIntrinsic value has traditionally been thought to lie at the heart of\nethics. Philosophers use a number of terms to refer to such value. The\nintrinsic value of something is said to be the value that that thing\nhas “in itself,” or “for its own sake,” or\n“as such,” or “in its own right.” Extrinsic\nvalue is va... | [
{
"content_title": "1. What Has Intrinsic Value?",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. What Is Intrinsic Value?",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "3. Is There Such a Thing As Intrinsic Value At All?",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "4. What Sort of Thing Can Have... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nThe question “What is intrinsic value?” is more\nfundamental than the question “What has intrinsic value?,”\nbut historically these have been treated in reverse order. For a long\ntime, philosophers appear to have thought that the notion of intrinsic\nvalue is itself sufficiently cl... | [
"Almotahari, Mahrad and Hosein, Adam, 2015, “Is Anything Just\nPlain Good?”, Philosophical Studies, 172:\n1485–1508. [3]",
"Anderson, Elizabeth, 1993, Value in Ethics and Economics,\nCambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [2, 3, 4]",
"Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (several editions).\n[1]",
"Ayer, A. J.,... | [
{
"href": "../abstract-objects/",
"text": "abstract objects"
},
{
"href": "../moral-character/",
"text": "character, moral"
},
{
"href": "../moral-cognitivism/",
"text": "cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral"
},
{
"href": "../consequentialism/",
"text": "consequentialis... |
value-pluralism | Value Pluralism | First published Tue Jun 20, 2006; substantive revision Wed Feb 7, 2018 | [
"\n\nThe word ‘pluralism’ generally refers to the view that\nthere are many of the things in question (concepts, scientific world\nviews, discourses, viewpoints etc.) The issues arising from there\nbeing many differ widely from subject area to subject area. This entry\nis concerned with moral pluralism—the view tha... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Some Preliminary Clarifications",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Foundational and Non-foundational Pluralism",
"1.2 A Purely Verbal Dispute?"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. The Attraction of Pluralism",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Discontinuities",
"2.2 Value Conflicts a... | [
{
"main_content": [],
"section_title": "1. Some Preliminary Clarifications",
"subsections": [
{
"content": [
"\n\nIt is important to clarify the levels at which a moral theory might be\npluralistic. Let us distinguish between two levels of pluralism:\nfoundational and non-foundat... | [
"Anderson, E., 1993, Value in Ethics and Economics,\nCambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.",
"–––, 1997, “Practical Reason and Incommensurable\nGoods”, in Chang 1997.",
"Andreou, C., 2005, “Incommensurable Alternatives and\nRational Choice”, Ratio, 18: 249-261.",
"Bales, R. E., 1971, “Act-utilitarianism: a... | [
{
"href": "../berlin/",
"text": "Berlin, Isaiah"
},
{
"href": "../ethics-virtue/",
"text": "ethics: virtue"
},
{
"href": "../hedonism/",
"text": "hedonism"
},
{
"href": "../liberalism/",
"text": "liberalism"
},
{
"href": "../metaethics/",
"text": "metaethics"
... |
voting-methods | Voting Methods | First published Wed Aug 3, 2011; substantive revision Mon Jun 24, 2019 | [
"\nA fundamental problem faced by any group of people is how to arrive at\na good group decision when there is disagreement among its members.\nThe difficulties are most evident when there is a large number of\npeople with diverse opinions, such as, when electing leaders in a\nnational election. But it is often not... | [
{
"content_title": "1. The Problem: Who ",
"sub_toc": [
"1.1 Notation"
]
},
{
"content_title": "2. Examples of Voting Methods ",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Ranking Methods: Scoring Rules and Multi-Stage Methods",
"2.2 Voting by Grading",
"2.3 Quadratic Voting and Liquid Democr... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\nSuppose that there is a group of 21 voters who need to make a decision\nabout which of four candidates should be elected. Let the names of the\ncandidates be \\(A\\), \\(B\\), \\(C\\) and \\(D\\). Your job, as a social\nplanner, is to determine which of these 4 candidates should win... | [
"Alger, D., 2006, “Voting by proxy,” Public\nChoice, 126(1–2): 1–26.",
"Alos-Ferrer, C., 2006, “A simple characterization of\napproval voting,” Social Choice and Welfare, 27:\n621–625.",
"Anscombe, G. E. M., 1976, “On frustration of the majority by\nfulfillment of the majority’s will,” Analysis, 36(4):\n161–168... | [
{
"href": "../arrows-theorem/",
"text": "Arrow’s theorem"
},
{
"href": "../democracy/",
"text": "democracy"
},
{
"href": "../preferences/",
"text": "preferences"
},
{
"href": "../social-choice/",
"text": "social choice theory"
},
{
"href": "../voting/",
"text"... |
wyclif-political | John Wyclif’s Political Philosophy | First published Sat Jun 10, 2006; substantive revision Tue Apr 23, 2013 | [
"\n\nThe central idea of Wyclif's political philosophy is that the\ndominium defining God's primary relation to creation\njustifies all human dominium, whether it be the mastery of a\nking, a lesser civil lord, or a priest. But unlike predecessors who\nwere content to define God's mastery as foundational to human l... | [
{
"content_title": "1. Wyclif's Later Works ",
"sub_toc": []
},
{
"content_title": "2. ",
"sub_toc": [
"2.1 Augustine",
"2.2 Giles of Rome",
"2.3 The Franciscans and Their Opponents"
]
},
{
"content_title": "3. Divine ",
"sub_toc": [
"3.1 Natural Dominium"... | [
{
"main_content": [
"\n\nGovernment and the relation of divine justice to human law, both\nsecular and ecclesiastical, figure as occasional themes throughout the\ntreatises of the Summa de Ente. After receiving his doctorate\nin theology in 1373, his attention began to focus more completely on\nthese topi... | [
"De Apostasia, M. H. Dziewicki (ed.), London: Trübner\nfor the Wyclif Society, 1889.",
"De Blasfemia, M. H. Dziewicki (ed.), Johannis Wyclif\nTractatus de Blasphemia, London: Trübner for the Wyclif Society,\n1893.",
"De Dominio Divino, R. L. Poole (ed.), London: Trübner\nfor the Wyclif Society, 1890.",
"De Ma... | [
{
"href": "../aquinas/",
"text": "Aquinas, Thomas"
},
{
"href": "../augustine/",
"text": "Augustine, Saint"
},
{
"href": "../bonaventure/",
"text": "Bonaventure, Saint"
},
{
"href": "../cusanus/",
"text": "Cusanus, Nicolaus [Nicolas of Cusa]"
},
{
"href": "../gile... |
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